UC-NRLF B 3 752 A gric -I- ores- .abrary THE ELEMENTS OF BEITISH FORESTRY THE ELEMENTS OF BRITISH FORESTRY A HANDBOOK FOR FOREST APPRENTICES AND STUDENTS OF FORESTRY BY JOHN NISBET PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY AT THE WEST OF SCOTLAND AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AUTHOR OF 'THE FORESTER,' 'BRITISH FOREST TREES,' ' OUR FORESTS AND WOODLANDS,' AND OTHER' WORKS WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MCMXI All Rights reserved -A Agric . - forestry M ain Lieraty 9 > > > ' > V J ' PREFACE. THIS contribution to the literature of Forestry, and towards technical education as outlined in the " Afforestation Policy " of the Development Commission, deals specially with British conditions. It is intended not only for Forest Apprentices, both during their practical work in the woods and when they are receiving theoretical instruction either on private estates or at a School for Forest Apprentices, but also for Students of Forestry at Agricultural Colleges and Universities. During its passage through the press the Scottish Forestry Committee has been appointed, to make recommendations re- garding (1) the acquisition of a Forest Demonstration Area in Scotland, (2) the uses to which such an area may be put (including the establishment of a Forest School, as already provisionally approved in advance by the Development Com- missioners), and (3) any further steps which it is desirable should be taken for promoting Sylviculture in Scotland. The importance of this last reference may be understood from the fact of the Koyal Commission on Afforestation having (in 1909) reported that, of a total plantable area aggregating 9,000,000 344226 VI PREFACE. acres throughout the United Kingdom, no less than two-thirds, on which 6,000,000 acres of timber-plantations can be formed, are to be found in Scotland. Our present position with regard to Forestry, and to imports of wood, timber, wood-pulp, &c., is indicated on pages 23 to 25, and need not be recapitulated in this preface. J. NISBET. July 19, 1911. CONTENTS. PAET I. SYLVICULTURE. CHAP. PAGE I. OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY AND THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDA- TIONS OF BRITISH FORESTRY ; OUR TIMBER-TREES, AND THEIR SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ; AND THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF WOODLAND CROPS . . 3 II. THE FORMATION, TENDING, AND RENEWAL OF WOODLAND CROPS ....... 47 PART II. THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. I. THE MEASUREMENT OF LOGS, STANDING TREES, AND WHOLE CROPS OF TIMBER, AND OF THEIR INCREMENT OR RATE OF GROWTH . . . . .89 II. THE THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF WOODLAND MANAGEMENT 104 III. THE MAKING OF A WORKING-PLAN . . .130 IV. THE VALUATION OF TIMBER-CROPS AND OF WOODLANDS . 139 PART III. THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. I. PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN ACTS, FARM-STOCK, GAME, RODENTS, AND BIRDS ..... 159 II. PROTECTION AGAINST INJURIOUS INSECTS . . 181 III. PROTECTION AGAINST WEEDS, EPIPHYTES, AND FUNGUS DISEASES . . . . . .233 IV. PROTECTION AGAINST DAMAGE FROM INORGANIC CAUSES 253 Vlll CONTENTS. PART IV. THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. I. TIMBER : ITS STRUCTURE, IDENTIFICATION, COMPOSITION, TECHNICAL PROPERTIES, PRACTICAL USES, AND MARKET VALUE . . . . . .263 II. THE HARVESTING OF WOODLAND PRODUCE, AND ITS PRE- PARATION AND SALE ..... 280 III. TIMBER-TRANSPORT BY LAND AND WATER . . 291 IV. THE SEASONING AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER . . 299 V. WOODLAND INDUSTRIES : ESTATE SAWMILLS, PREPARA- TION OF WOOD-PULP AND CELLULOSE, CHARCOAL- MAKING, RESIN -TAPPING, ETC. . . . .310 INDEX 331 ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 1. Mound-planting . . . . . .51 2. Pruning-shears . . . . . 55 3. Cross-section of a drill-board to make drills 7 in. apart . 57 4. Cross-section of a seed-.distributor . . . .58 5. The Sowing-horn ...... 58 6. Acorn-dibbler ...... 58 7. Notched Seedling-pricker . . . . .59 8. British method of notching . . fc 66 9. Cramping of roots after notching . . . .66 10. The iron-shod Dibble for vertical notching . .67 11. S-conical Spade ...... 68 12. Pitting with Cylindrical or Semicircular Spades, and plants with balls of earth . . . . .69 13. Method of Mound-planting . . . .70 14. Ordinary Mound-planting with naked plants . . 70 15. Combination of Pitting and Mound-planting with naked plants ....... 70 16. Combination of Pitting and Mound -planting with ball plants ....... 70 17. Combination of Notching and Mound-planting with naked plants . . . . . 70 18. Planting in lines, each planter, 2, 3, 4, taking his line from the foreman, 1 . . . . .71 19. The Scribe ....... 77 20. Good and bad methods of cutting coppice . . .81 X ILLUSTRATIONS. 21. The Measuring-Board ..... 92 22. The Mirror-Hypsometer ..... 93 23. The Telescope-Hypsometer . . . . 94 24. Best form of Calliper ..... 95 25. Pressler's Borer ...... 100 26. Actual rate of growth of Pine woods on medium land . 110 27. (a) Regular Series of Annual Falls ; (b) Part of a Regular Course of Annual Falls . . . . .111 28. 29. Subdivision of Woodlands into Compartments . 117, 118 30. A Scots Pine Conifer working- circle . . .122 31. Method of Severance . . . . .123 32. A 7-foot Straining-post at end of a six-wired fence, 4 feet high 167 33. Cheap form of Fence . . . . .169 34. Damage caused by Game and Rodents . . .170 35. Clear-felling of a Spruce-wood, mixed with Scots Pine and Beech (Saxony, 1900) . . . . .188 36. A sample-plot of Scots Pine ringed with bands of patent tar to ascertain if the Nun-moth (Liparis monacha) is present (Saxony, 1900) . . . . .189 37. Spud and smoothing-stick (about ^th real size) . . 191 38. Elm-bark Beetle, magnified five times . . .196 39. Hylesinus piniperda, magnified seven times . .197 40. Bark showing main and larval galleries and 2 air-holes natural size. The ^ keeps near the entrance-hole, while the $ bores the gallery . . . . .197 41. Shoot of Scots Pine, showing entrance-hole, and (where slice removed) boring of a beetle, f natural size . .197 42. Portion of young Ash-trunk with borings of H. fraxini, | nat. size ...... 199 43. The large Pine-weevil (Hylobius abietis] . . . 202 44. Young Spruce gnawed by the large Pine-weevil (Hylobius abietis}, natural size ..... 202 45. The small Pine- weevil (Pissodes notatus) . . . 204 46. Young Pine-stem barked to show the pupal-chambers and exit-holes of Pissodes notatus (half natural size) . . 204 47. The Common Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris] . . 206 48. Large Poplar Longicorn ..... 208 49. Wire-worms . . . . . .210 50. Winter Moth (natural size) , , , .214 ILLUSTRATIONS. XI 51. Part of Pine branch, showing damage done by caterpillars of the Pine Span-worm. Eggs can be seen here and there on the leaves . . .215 52. Oak Leaf-roller Moth natural size . . . 216 53. The Larch Mining-Moth (moth, larval covering, cater- pillar, pupa all magnified three times) . . 218 54. Goat-Moth natural size . . . . 220 55. Pine Sawfly. Caterpillars at work ; on right a cocoon (natural size). Damaged twig of Scots Pine . . 222 56. Cone-like gall of Spruce Aphis * . . . 226 57. The Larch Aphis sucking sap from the leaves, which get bent 226 58. Larch Canker ...... 240 59. Young Beech stem cankered by Nectria ditissima. Young Spruce damaged by Nectria curcubitula . . . 242 60. Damage to crowns of young Pine by Cceoma pinitorquum, the abnormal bends being caused by the fungus . 244 61. Damage caused to Scots Pine by Melampsora pinitorqua in its C93oma-form, Cceoma pinitorquum . . . . 244 62. Willow Rust on Osier ..... 245 63. Pine-shoot with sporophores of Peridermium pini . . 246 64. Twig of Spruce attacked by Chrysomyxa abietis . . 247 65. Leaves infected by Chrysomyxa abietis . . . 247 66. Rot in Pine caused by Trametes pini . . . 248 67. Sporophore of Fomes annosus on Scots Pine root . . 249 68. Young Scots Pine killed by Agaricus melleus .. . 250 69. (a) Part of a Scots Pine root killed by Agaricus melleus, and showing an external rhizomorph penetrating the root at a. (b) Flattened internal rhizomorph from between bark and dead wood . . . . .251 70. Teeth of Two-handed Saws . . . .281 71. Felling with Axe alone . . . . . 281 72. Felling with Axe and Saw . . . . . . 282 73. Universal Wedge . . . , . . 282 74. Throwing with Common Jack . . . . 283 75. The Chain-Lever or Wood-Demon . . . . 283 76. Method of mooring the Chain to posts . . . 283 77. Stump-extraction by hook-and-pole leverage . .* 284 78. Revolving Numbering-Hammer 286 79. Seed-kiln for extracting Scots Pine seeds from the cones . 290 80. Forest Tramway ...... 292 Xll ILLUSTRATIONS. 81. Turning-Point and Buffer on a Roadway Timber-Slide . 295 82. A Brake or Check on a Wooden Timber-Slide . . 296 83. A Flume or Water-Shoot . ; . . .297 84. Brake on end-section of raft, dragging on bed of floating- stream .... . . ' .298 85. Saw Bench for Staves and Pit- wood . . . 312 86. Long-saw Benches for long Logs . . . .312 87. View of small temporary Sawmill . . . .312 88. Teeth of Band-Saw . - .... . .314 89. Teeth of Circular Saws . ' . , . .314 90. Teeth of Frame-Saw . . . . .314 91. Conversion on the quarter . .. ^:> ->=- . . 316 92. Dome-shaped (Paraboloid) Charcoal-Kiln . . . 325 PAKT I. SYLVICULTURE CHAP. I. OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY AND THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF BRITISH FORESTRY ; OUR TIMBER - TREES, AND THEIR SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ; AND THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF WOODLAND CROPS. II. THE FORMATION, TENDING}, AND RENEWAL OF WOODLAND CROPS. CHAPTER I. i " '*" OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY AND THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF BRITISH FORESTRY; OUR TIMBER - TREES, AND THEIR SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ; AND THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF WOODLAND CROPS. Sylviculture is that one of the four main branches of modern Forestry which deals with the formation, tending, and renewal of woodland crops, in order to grow timber in the manner most profitable to the landowner. In this branch one has first to consider the different kinds of trees and their special peculiar- ities and general characteristics, and the different methods in which they can be treated as woodland crops, before one can give detailed consideration to the various stages in their growth and development (1) the sowing or planting of new woods, (2) the weeding and thinning needed in tending young woods and plantations and those of older age, and (3) the renewal of mature wood -crops, either by reproduction through stool-shoots and root-suckers, or by regeneration through seed shed naturally or sown artificially. Our Woodland Trees. The timber-crops which can be grown in the British Isles comprise, owing to our mild, equable, damp climate, a very large number of different kinds of trees for so comparatively small an area. The indigenous trees which can be profitably grown as timber-crops are very limited in number, and include Beech, Hornbeam, Alder, Ash, Oak, Scots Elm, Aspen, Birch, White Willow, and among conifers only the 4 SYLVICULTURE. Scots Pine, not reckoning the minor indigenous trees and shrubs found casually in highwoods or grown in coppices and underwoods, such as Cherry, Rowan, Sallow, Field Maple, Hazel, &c. Many valuable trees now thoroughly naturalised were introduced by the Romans, including English Elm, Chestnut, Lime, Black Poplar, White Poplar, and Horse- Chestnut ; while subsequent introductions have been, in fifteenth century, Crack Willow, Sycamore, and Spruce ; in sixteenth century, the Maritime Pine; in seventeenth century, Silver Fir, Norway Maple, and Robinia ; in eighteenth century, Larch, Weymouth and Corsican Pines, and American Black Poplar ; in nineteenth century, Austrian Pine, Nordmann's and Great Silver Firs, Douglas Fir, Menzies Spruce, Lawson's and Large- coned Cypresses, Red Cedar (Thuja gigantea), Japanese Larch ; and in twentieth century, the American Larch. Though the countries to which the above are indigenous exhibit marked differences in climate, yet these trees can all thrive here as wood- land crops worked purely on commercial principles for the growing of marketable timber. For poor land the conifers are on the whole the most valuable, being less exacting and more accommodative as regards soil, and also usually attaining sale- able size sooner than broad-leaved trees, and especially some of the hardwoods (e.g., Oak). This means not only earlier returns, but also less capital (land, plus growing timber-crops) being locked up in an industry that even under the most favourable circum- stances is tardy in giving any fair monetary returns. From a botanical point of view the trees commonly grown as, or found among, timber-crops may be classified as follows : A. BROAD-LEAVED TREES, all deciduous (a) Floiuers bisexual or hermaphrodite (both male and female organs in same flower). I. Fraxinece : (1) Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). II. Ulmncece : ( 1 ) English or Small-leaved Elm ( Ulmus campestris] ; (2) Scots or Wych Elm ( Ulmus montana). TIMBER-TREES. 5 III. Accracece : (I) Sycamore or Scots Plane (Acer pseudo-platanus) ; (2) Norway Maple (Acer platanoidcs). IV. Tiliacece : (1) Lime (Tilia parvifolia and T. grandifolia). V. Hippocastaneos : (1) Horse-Chestnut (^Esculus hippocastanum). VI. Pomacece : (1) Rowan or Mountain- Ash (Sorbus aucuparia) ; (2) Wild Service-tree (Sorbus torminalis) ; (3) Whitebeam (Sorbus aria}. VII. Amcntaccce (having flowers in catkins) a. Flowers unisexual, monoecious (both male and female on same tree). 1. Cupuliferce (having fruits attached to a cup-shaped in- volucre) : (1) English or Pedunculate Oak (Quercus pedunculata) ; (2) Sessile or Durmast Oak (Quercus sessiliflora) (3) Beech (Fagus sylvatica) ; (4) Horn- beam (Carpinus betulus) ; (5) Sweet- Chestnut (Casta- nea vulgaris). 2. Betulacece or Birch tribe: (1) Birch (Betula alba); (2) Common Alder (Alnus glutinosa) ; (3) White Alder (Alnus incana). b. Flowers unisexual., dioecious (male and female on different trees). 3. Salicinea or Willow tribe : (1) White Willow (Salix alba) ; (2) Crack Willow (Salix fragilis) ; (3) Bedford Willow (Salix Russelliana, a hybrid of above) ; (4) Aspen (Populus tremula) ; (5) Black Poplar (Populus nigra and P. canadensis) ; White Poplar (Populus alba). B. CONIFER TREES (Conifera), all evergreen except the Larch; and all with unisexual, monoecious flowers) I. Abietinecs, Pine and Fir tribe 1. PINES (Pinus): (1) Scots Pine (P. sylvestris) ; (2) Austrian Pine (P. austriaca) ; (3) Corsican Pine (P. laricio) ; (4) Maritime Pine (P. pinaster) ; (5) Weymouth Pine (P. strobus). 2. SPRUCES (Picca) : (1) Common or Norway Spruce (P. excelsa) ; (2) Meuzies or Sitka Spruce (P. sitchensis). 3. SILVER FIRS (Abies) : (1) Common Silver Fir (A. pectinata) ; (2) Nordmann's or Crimean Silver Fir (A. Nordmanniana) ; (3) Giant Silver Fir (A. grandis). 6 SYLVICULTURE. 4. DOUGLAS FIR (Pseudotsuga Douglasii) : (1) Pacific or Oregon variety (var. pacificensis) ; (2) Inland or Colorado variety (var. coloradcnsis). 5. LARCHES (Larix) : (1) Common or European Larch (L. europcva) ; (2) Japanese Larch (L. leptolepis). II. Cupressincce, Cypress tribe 1. CYPRESSES (Cupressus) : (1) Monterey or Large-coned Cypress (G. macrocarpa) ; (2) Lawson's Cypress (C. .Lawsoniana) ; (3) Nootka Cypress (C. nootkaensis). 2. Arborvitce (Thuja) : (1) Red Cedar or Giant Arborvitse (Th. gigantea, syn. Th. plicatd). These trees may be identified from their (1) Buds, (2) Leaves, (3) Flowers, and (4) Fruits by means of the following analytical tables, which follow no natural system, but are purely artificial and merely intended to simplify identification by those who have not yet studied Forest Botany : L IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON BROAD-LEAVED TREES FROM THEIR BUDS. A. BUDS OPPOSITE, AND END-BUD MUCH LARGER THAN SIDE-BUDS. /. Only 1 or 2 bud-scales visible ; bud scales black ; twigs smooth, greyish- green 1. ASH. //. Several bud-scales visible, arranged closely and compactly ; ttoigs thick and stiff. 1. Bud-scales brown and resinous; leaf -scar large and triangular, with vascular bundles well marked . 2. HORSE-CHESTNUT. 2. Bud-scales yellowish-green, with dark-brown tips and margins ; leaf -scar well marked . . . . .3. SYCAMORE. 3. Bud-scales pinkish or reddish-brown, sometimes greenish at base ; leaf-scar narrow . . . . .4. NORWAY MAPLE. B. BUDS ALTERNATE, IN TWO LONGITUDINAL ROWS, ON OPPOSITE SIDES OF THE TWIG. L Buds pointed, pale brown, and often about 3 or 4 times as long as broad ; tivigs slender and smooth. 1. Buds circular in transverse section, jutting out from twig, and usually over ^ an inch long . . . . 5. BEECH. 2. Buds slightly angular in transverse section, lying close to twig, and less than an inch long . . . .6. HORNBEAM. IDENTIFICATION FROM BUDS. 7 //. Suds roundish-oval, and about twice as long as broad. 1. Only 1 or 2 bud- scales visible. (1) Young twigs with longitudinal ridges or angles, straight, deep red, or reddish-green ; buds slightly on one side, and not immediately above the distinct leaf-scar 7. SWEET-CHESTNUT. (2) Young twigs cylindrical ; buds blood-red or orange-red, with 1 large and 1 small bud-scale to each bud . . 8. LIME. (a) Twigs smooth . . SMALL-LEAVED LIME. (b) Twigs slightly hairy . LARGE-LEAVED LIME. 2. Several bud-scales visible ; buds round and somewhat pointed ; bud- scales dark-brown; young twigs more or less hairy, older twigs with fine rich brown fissures in baric ... 9. ELM. (a) Twigs thin and very regular ; buds small and numerous ; leaf-scars small = ENGLISH ELM. (b) Twigs thicker and less regular ; buds and leaf - scars larger = SCOTS OR WYCH ELM. Hazel twigs are very similar to those of Elm ; but Hazel-buds are rounder and flattened on one side, and have pale brownish-green or reddish-green bud -scales. C. BUDS ARRANGED SPIRALLY ON THE TWIGS. /. Buds stcdked, and apparently only 1 bud-scale visible, of a purple or bluish colour 10. ALDER. //. Suds sessile, with apparently only 1 large bud-scale (though really 2 united) .11. WILLOW. (1) Buds hairy and very small; old twigs reddish - grey and dull = WHITE WILLOW. (2) Buds smooth and almost black; twigs brown and glossy CRACK OR REDWOOD WILLOW. (3) Buds smooth, yellowish or reddish, short and plump ^SAUGH OR GOAT WILLOW. III. Buds sessile, with several bud-scales visible. 1. Bud - scales more or less brown in colour, and smooth, or hairy only at tips and margins. (1) Buds dark reddish-brown and glossy, small, thin, and sharp- pointed, about thrice as long as broad, and often arranged almost alternately ; twigs thin, elastic, and often warty (on dry ground), or downy (on wet ground) . .12. BIRCH. 8 SYLVICULTURE. (2) Several buds clustered at tips of long shoots . 13. OAK. (a) Twigs greyish -brown, furrowed, and hairless ; buds standing out from shoot, yellow-brown or chestnut-brown, smooth, plump, and rounded at tips = PEDUNCULATE OAK. (6) Twigs slightly hairy ; buds longer and more pointed than in Pedunculate Oak, and bud-scales tipped and edged with hairs = SESSILE OR DURMAST OAK. (3) Buds oval, and dark-brown .... 14. CHERRY. (4) Buds long, narrow-pointed, chestnut-brown, and resinous at tip ; twigs furrowed . . , . . 15. POPLAR. (a) Bud-tips lying close to shoot = ASPEN. (6) Bud-tips straight or pointing outwards = BLACK POPLAR. 2. Bud-scales hairy all over, and buds plump and pointed ; young twigs covered with loose white cottony film ; older twigs smooth, yellowish -grey . 16. ABELE OR WHITE POPLAR. 3. Bud-scales dark-purple or black; buds long, pointed, and some- what downy near tip -. 17. ROWAN OR MOUNTAIN-ASH. 4. Bud-scales yellowish ; buds long, pointed, and somewhat downy near tip . . . . 18. WHITEBEAM OR BEAM- TREE. 5. Bud-scales green, with narrow brown edges, buds thick and round at top . . , . . . .19. SERVICE-TREE. IV. Buds hidden beloiv leaf -scar till near the time of opening in spring ; 2 small sharp thorns just above each leaf-scar ; shoots angular 20. ROBINIA OR LOCUST-TREE. II. IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON BROAD-LEAVED TREES FROM THEIR LEAVES. A. LEAVES OPPOSITE. 1. Leaves unequally pinnate, with 7 to 11 ovate-lanceolate, toothed and almost sessile leaflets . . . . . . 1. ASH. 2. Leaves long - stalked, palmately (digitately) divided, with 5 or 7 almost sessile leaflets (usually 7) . . 2. HORSE-CHESTNUT. 3. Leaves long-stalked, palmate, smooth, palmately veined and lobed, the 5 or 7 main veins converging to top of the long leaf-stalk (MAPLE) : (1) Leaves with 5 main veins, and 5 unequally toothed and pointed lobes . ... 3. SYCAMORE OR SCOTS PLANE. (2) Leaves with 5 or 7 main veins, and sharp-pointed lobes with a few coarse acute teeth , 4. NORWAY MAPLE. IDENTIFICATION FROM LEAVES. 9 (These are both easily distinguishable from the 5-lobed leaves of the true Plane (Platanus), which are alternate, have the main nerve of the lowest lobe on each side joining that of the larger lobe above, and whose leaf-stalk is hollowed at the lower end, like a candle- extinguisher, to enclose and protect the new bud.) B LEAVES ALTERNATE. 1. Leaves ovate, short-stalked (\ to inch long) and smooth : (1) Leaves entire or obscurely toothed and short-pointed, with parallel veins wide apart from midrib to edge, silky and ciliated when young 5. BEECH. (2) Leaves doubly serrated and long-pointed, with close parallel veins from midrib to edge, and usually downy in vein-axils on lower side 6. HORNBEAM. (Compare 8. English Elm; but Hornbeam can easily be distin- guished from the English Elm in being smooth and not oblique at base, by the teeth and serratures being smaller, and by the parallel veins being closer to each other.) 2. Leaves on stalks ^ to 1 inch long, oblong-lanceolate, smooth, very coarsely and regularly serrated, pointed tip, and parallel veins from the midrib to the teeth . . 7. SWEET- CHESTNUT. 3. Leaves broadly ovate, almost sessile, doubly serrated, rough and very unequal or oblique at base (ELM) : (1) Leaves usually small and short-pointed, doubly-toothed, but not very rough . . 8. ENGLISH OR SMALL-LEAVED ELM. (2) Leaves large and broad, long-pointed, doubly-toothed and deeply serrate, usually rough above and somewhat downy below 9. SCOTS OR WYCH ELM. (A smooth-leaved variety, U. glabra, in the East of England is also called Wych Elm, and may possibly be indigenous.) 1. Leaves with stalks f to 1 inch long, broadly heart-shaped or nearly round, but not equally divided by the midrib, and always pointed, toothed on edge, smooth above and more or less downy below, especially in the angles of the main veins, the four lowest of which usually converge on the leaf-stalk (LiME) : (1) Leaves small, smooth, dark-green on upper surface and pale-green beneath, with rusty-brown hairs in the vein angles 10. SMALL-LEAVED LIME. (2) Leaves large, pale-green on both sides, with whitish hairs in vein- angles . . . . -. .11. LAKGE-LEAVED LIME. 10 SYLVICULTURE. (The leaf of the HAZEL is often somewhat like that of the SMALL- LEAVED LIME, being alternate, broadly obovate or roundish and pointed ; but it is easily distinguishable by its velvety upper surface, its short leaf-stalk (under ^ inch), and its not having the four lowest main veins usually converging to the leaf -stalk. ) C. LEAVES ARRANGED SPIRALLY ON THE TWIGS. 1 . Leaves more or less ovate or oblong, and sometimes lobed. (1) Leaves usually obovate or oblong, irregularly sinuate or almost pinnatifid, with lobes usually obtuse (OAK) : (a) Leaves sessile , or with short stalks, and broad, heart-shaped, crinkled base, smooth . . 12. PEDUNCULATE OAK. (6) Leaves with stalk \ to 1 inch long, and wedge-shaped base, more or less downy in vein-angles beneath 13. SESSILE OR DURMAST OAK. (2) Leaves ovate or oblong, wrinkled, smooth dark - green above, greyish downy below, pointed and generally twisted at tip 14. SAUGH OR GOAT WILLOW. (3) Leaves broadly ovate or nearly round, doubly serrated, smooth or slightly downy in vein-angles beneath (ALDER) : (a) Leaves dark-green and sticky, somewhat indented at top, with leaf-stalk 1 to 1| inch long (bark blackish-brown) 15. COMMON OR BLACK ALDER. (6) Leaves long-pointed and paler in colour (bark light grey) 16. WHITE OR GREY ALDER. (4) Leaves broadly ovate or obovate, and more or less downy when young (SERVICE-TREE) : (a) Leaves loosely downy when young, but smooth when mature, broad and divided to near the middle into 5 or 7 broad and pointed lobes bordered with small teeth 17. WILD SERVICE-TREE. (b) Leaves green and smooth above, but covered with soft white cottony down below (as also the young shoots), doubly serrated, sometimes undivided, sometimes more or less primately lobed, and lobes rounded at top (not pointed) 18. WHITEBEAM OR BEAM-TREE. (5) Leaves ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, 2 to 4 inches long, toothed, smooth, with small free stipules often scarcely visible (CHERRY): (a) Leaves with a long stalk, sharply serrate, downy in vein-angles beneath, drooping, with long leaf-stalk bearing 2 prominent red glands . . . 19. GEAN OR WILD CHERRY. IDENTIFICATION FROM LEAVES. 11 (b) Leaves smaller and with short leaf -stalk, smooth below, finely serrate, slightly heart - shaped at bud, and with less prominent glands 20. WILD BLACK OR BIRD CHERRY. (6) Leaves usually broadly ovate, taper - pointed and toothed, but varying from triangular to rhomboidal or broadly heart-shaped, entire at base, doubly -(and often trebly) serrated along the upper edges, smooth and shining on older twigs, and often with small glandular warty dots (especially on young leaves) 21. BIRCH. (On dry soil the leaves and twigs are warty (COMMON BIRCH), but on wet soil they are pubescent (DOWNY BIRCH).) '2. Leaves more or less triangidar or rhomboidal, and with long stalks (see also 21. BIRCH above). . (1) Leaves usually broadly triangular or rhomboidal or nearly round, ' on slender stalks (POPLAR) : (a) Leaves very broadly ovate, mostly wavy-edged or coarsely toothed and sometimes lobed, more or less heart-shaped at base, and lower surface of leaf (as also the young shoots) covered with white cottony down (bark whitish) 22. ABELE OR WHITE POPLAR. (b) Leaves smooth and green on both sides : (aa) Leaves often pale-green on lower surface, small *and nearly round or rhomboidal (but large on stool - shoots and suckers, and shaped like those of the Abele) with bluntly notched or toothed edges, and long flattened leaf-stalk (hence leaf trembling with slightest breeze) : (bark grey) 23. ASPEN OR TREMBLING POPLAR. (bb) Leaves of same colour on both sides, with translucent edges, broadly rhomboidal or ovate-triangular, but never lobed, tapering at top, with lower angles rounded, and with small regular teeth (bark blackish) 24. BLACK POPLAR. (The CANADIAN BLACK POPLAR has usually] larger and darker green leaves than the COMMON BLACK POPLAR.) 3. Leaves very much longer than broad, and more or less lanceolate, whole and unlobed, with short leaf-stalk (WILLOW) : (1) Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, serrate, grey or white with silky hairs on both sides (but especially on lower side), and the lowest serratures glandular t ' 25. WHITE OR HUNTINGDON WILLOW. (2) Leaves lanceolate, pointed, coarsely serrate, green and smooth, leaf -stalks glandular ; twigs brittle at junction with stem . 26.. CRACK OR REDWOOD WILLOW. 12 SYLVICULTURE. 4. Leaves unequally pinnate : (1) Leaves with 11 to 19 leaflets, all narrow-oblong, toothed, and from 1 to 2 inches long, smooth or nearly so above, and more or less downy below . . 27. ROWAN OB MOUNTAIN-ASH. (2) Leaves with 11 to 21 narrow, ovate, smooth, entire-edged, long- stalked leaflets ... 28. ROBINIA OR LOCUST-TREE. III. IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON BROAD -LEAVED TREES FROM THEIR FLOWERS. A. FLOWERS BISEXUAL OR HERMAPHRODITE, i.e., CONTAINING BOTH THE MALE ORGANS (stamens) AND THE FEMALE (pistil)' * /. STAMENS FREE AND SEPARATE (a) FLOWERS INCOMPLETE, i.e., without calyx or corolla, or with a floral envelope (perianth) in place of calyx or corolla, and the flowers appearing before the leaves. 1. Flowers each with 2 stamens and 1 pistil, clustered in short lateral racemes, without calyx or corolla (or sometimes monoecious, i.e., with only male or only female organs, but both male and female flowers on same tree) . 1. ASH. 2. . Flowers reddish, in dense lateral clusters, surrounded by brownish bracts forming a bell-shaped perianth with 4 to 6 short lobes or teeth, and as many stamens, and 2 pistils or 2 stigmas (ELM) : (1) Flowers and perianth almost sessile, 4-cleft, brownish (March and April) . . 2. ENGLISH OR SMALL-LEAVED ELM. (2) Flowers and perianth on longer stalks, loosely tufted, 5- or 6-cleft, reddish (April, May) 3. SCOTS OR WYCH ELM. (b) FLOWERS COMPLETE, i.e., with calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil all present. 1. Flowers with bell-shaped 5-toothed calyx, and irregular 4- or 5 -leaved corolla with white petals spotted with red near centre, and with 7 or 8 free stamens and 1 pistil with 2 stigrnas ; flowers in stiff erect racemes 4. HORSE-CHESTNUT. 2. Flowers with 4- or 5-leaved corolla and calyx, 8 free stamens and 1 pistil with 2 stigmas (MAPLE) : (1) Flowers green, in loose, oblong, hanging racemes, and appearing along with the leaves 5. SYCAMORE OR SCOTS PLANE. (2) Flowers yellowish-green, in upright corymbs, and appearing before the leaves . 6. NORWAY MAPLE. IDENTIFICATION FROM FLOWERS. 13 3. Flowers with 5-leaved calyx and corolla, numerous free stamens, and 1 pistil (CHERRY) : (1) Flowers in umbels, long-stalked, large and white, appearing before the leaves . . 7. WILD CHERRY OR GEAN. (2) Flowers in loose and often drooping racemes, short-stalked, small and white, appearing with the leaves 8. WILD BLACK OR BIRD CHERRY. 4. Flowers in branching corymbs, white, with bell-shaped calyx, united with the ovary and 5-cleft at edge, corolla 5-leaved and attached, as also the numerous stamens, to the calyx, ovary 5-celled, with 2 pistils (SERVICE-TREES) : (1) Flowers rather small, numerous 9. ROWAN OR MOUNTAIN- ASH. (2) Flowers rather larger, but not nearly so numerous, usually 3 or 4 . . 10. WHITEBEAM OR BEAM-TREE. (3) Flowers fewer and larger than in (1), but more numerous and smaller than in (2) . . 11. WILD SERVICE-TREE. 5. Flowers pale-yellow, in simple corymbs attached to a long lanceolate bract, with a 5-leaved calyx and 4- or 5-leaved corolla, and 20 or more stamens free or very shortly adhering in several clusters, and attached to the base of the calyx, below the ovary, and 1 pistil (LiME) : (1) Corymbs with more than 3 flowers (5 to 13) 12. SMALL-LEAVED LIME. (2) Corymbs usually with 2 or 3 flowers 13. LARGE-LEAVED LIME. //. STAMENS NOT FREE, BUT UNITED INTO 2 BUNDLES ; flowers papilionaceous, white, in loose, hanging racemes . 14. ROBINIA OR LOCUST-TREE. B. FLOWERS UNISEXUAL (i.e., containing either only the male organs or only the female), ARRANGED IN CYLINDRICAL, OBLONG, OR ROUND SPIKES (called catkins), AND MONCECIOUS, i.e., having both male and female flowers on the same individual tree. I. Catkins cylindrical or short, with closely packed scales ; the male flowers with 2 stamens, and the females with naked ovules, cither inserted within the catkin scales or solitary and quite exposed (CONIFERS see V., "Identification of Common Conifer Trees"). //. Catkins usually dense with closely packed scale-like bracts, rarely loose, or with minute deciduous scales, which subsequently (in the female flower) form an involucre for the fruit (Cupuliferce). 1. Male catkins in slender and interrupted pendulous racemes, without scales, but with a 5- to 9-cleft perianth and 5 to 9 stamens ; 14 . SYLVICULTURE. female catkins single or in small, sessile, short-stalked clusters, each with 1 ovary, 1 style, and 3 stigmas, enclosed in a many- scaled involucre (OAK) : (1) Female catkins arranged in 3 or 4 on a long stalk (peduncle) 15. PEDUNCULATE OAK. (2) Female catkins solitary or clustered, and either closely sessile on the twig, or borne on a short peduncle about an inch long 16. DURMAST OR SESSILE OAK. 2. Male catkins with flowers having a 5- or 6-cleft perianth, and 10 to 15 stamens (1) Male catkins round and pendulous ; female catkins round. almost sessile, each flower having 1 ovary crowned by the six small teeth of the perianth, and 3 styles, and with a 4-valved hairy involucre enclosing two or three flowers sessile in centre of catkin . . . .--... . . .17. BEECH. (2) Male catkins vejy long and thin, with clusters of flowers arranged spirally ; female catkins round, at base of the male catkins, and enclosed by an involucre of bristly scales, with a 5- to 8-styled ovary, crowned by a 5- to 8-toothed perianth 18. SWEET-CHESTNUT. 3. Male catkins, slender, lateral, cylindrical, and pendulous, with broad sessile scales, and flowers having 6 to 12 stamens attached to the base of the bract ; female catkins terminal and loose, each flower with 1 two-celled ovary and 2 styles, and 2 flowers within each scale, each enclosed in a hairy unequally 3-lobed inner scale (involucre) 19. HORNBEAM. ///. Male catkins cylindrical, usually pendulous, with broad imbricated scales, and with anthers larger than their filaments (Betulaccce). 1. Flowers appearing before the leaves. Each scale of the male catkin with 3 distinct flowers, each with 4 stamens ; female catkins small and ovoid . . . . . . .20. ALDER. 2. Flowers appearing after the leaves. Male catkins with stalked scales, and 6 to 12 stamens within each scale, but not in distinct flowers; female catkins cylindrical . . .21. BIRCH. G. FLOWERS UNISEXUAL, ARRANGED IN ERECT OR PENDULOUS CYLINDRICAL OR OVAL SILKY -HAIRED CATKINS, BUT DIOECIOUS, i.'e., having the male flowers on one tree and the female flowers on another tree (Salicinece) : 7. Catkins mostly erect and usually silky-haired, with entire catkin- scales ; male flower with 2 (rarely 3 to 5) stamens on long fila- ments and 1 or 2 gland-like inner scales ; female flower solitary IDENTIFICATION FROM FRUITS. 15 within each scale, naked, with 1 ovary (usually long-stalked) and a forked style 22. WILLOW.* II. Catkins pendulous, with jagged catkin - scales ; flowers having a perianth of inner united scales forming a small, flat, oblique cup ; male flower with 8 to<30 stamens, with short, slender filaments and small anthers ; female flower with 1 sessile ovary and a 4- forked style 23. POPLAR.* (* The chief species of WILLOW and POPLAE can best be distinguished by their leaves. ) IV. IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON BROAD-LEAVED TREES FROM THEIR FRUITS. A. FRUIT A 1- SEEDED INDERISCENT NUT (NOT OPENING SPONTANEOUSLY, BUT FALLING OFF WITH THE RIPE SEED). /. Nuts solitary, or in clusters, or in Ibose spikes, and wholly or partially enclosed in a more or less cup-shaped involucre or husJc (Cupuliferce). 1. Each nut having its own involucre. (1) Nuts (acorns) large and elliptical, and each surrounded at base with a short, hard, cup-shaped husk (OAK) : (a) Acorns somewhat elongated and pointed, either clustered or spiked, above the middle of a flower-stalk (peduncle) 1 to 6 inches long . . . .1. PEDUNCULATE OAK. (&) Acorns somewhat short and less pointed, solitary or clustered, either closely sessile on the branch or borne on a short flower-stalk about 1 inch long 2. SESSILE OR DURMAST OAK. (2) Fruiting catkin much elongated, the inner scales being enlarged into long, leafy, unequally 3-lobed bracts, each having at- tached to its base a small flat nut . . 3. HORNBEAM. (The HAZEL has fruits usually clustered, each consisting of a large hard -shelled nut, nearly enclosed in a leafy husk un- equally lobed and jagged.) 2. Two or three nuts enclosed within one capsular involucre opening in 4 valves. (1) Nuts three-cornered and sharp - pointed, and 2 or 3 being enclosed within a hard cupule covered with coarse, short, soft prickles ....... 4. BEECH. (3) Nuts large and plano-convex, and 2 or three being enclosed within a thick cupule covered with long, thin, interwoven prickles 5. SWEET- CHESTNUT. 16 SYLVICULTURE. II. Nuts smaU and flat, in compact catkins (Betulacece). (1) Catkin-scales thin, and falling off along with the small seed having lateral wings (ripens July-September) . 6. BIRCH. (2) Catkin-scales hard, and remaining like a small oval cone after the un winged seed is shed 7. ALDER. B. FRUIT AN INDEHISCENT SAMARA OR NUT WITH A WING AT ITS UPPER END. I. Samara dry, oblong, narrow, thin and flattened, about 1| inch long, light-brown, and arranged in racemes ; each samara is two-celled, and each cell 1-seeded 8. ASH. II. Samara with 2 (sometimes 3 or 4) seeds, each with long flattened wing above and 1 or 2 seeds in each carpel (MAPLE) : (1) Wings at an acute or right angle, and seeds roundish 9. SYCAMORE OR SCOTS PLANE. (2) Wings between a right angle and horizontal, and seeds somewhat flattened 10. NORWAY MAPLE. (The small FIELD MAPLE has its wings horizontal or forming an obtuse angle, and its seeds roundish. ) III. Samara 1-seeded, with flat, thin, smooth, leaf -like membraneous wing extending laterally as well as at top, and cleft at top end, ripening in May or June (ELM) : (1) Fruit yellowish and above the middle of the seed- wing, oblong, so deeply cleft at top as almost to reach the seed-cavity, and with the hook-like tips overlapping each other considerably 11. ENGLISH OR SMALL-LEAVED ELM. (2) Fruit green and about the middle of the seed-wing, roundish, less deeply cleft at top, and hook-like tips only slightly (if at all) overlapping each other . .12. SCOTS OR WTCH ELM. C. FRUIT A SMALL, DOWNY, YELLOWISH-GREEN, CORIACEOUS, ROUND 1- OR 2 -SEEDED NUT, MORE OR LESS DISTINCTLY RIBBED, AND GROWING IN CORYMBS ATTACHED TO A MEMBRANEOUS BRACT (LlME) : 1. Corymbs with more than 3 small nuts faintly 5 -ribbed 13. SMALL-LEAVED LIME. 2. Corymbs with large bract and not more than 3 nuts of large size, and prominently 5-ribbed . . .14. LARGE-LEAVED LIME. D. FRUIT A DEHISCENT (SPONTANEOUSLY OPENING) SHORT OR THICK AND BROAD CAPSULE, SPLITTING LONGITUDINALLY INTO VALVES. 1. Capsule round and rough, with soft prickles, about 1| inch broad, and opening in 3 valves to shed 2 to 4 large, glossy brown seeds 15. HORSE-CHESTNUT. IDENTIFICATION OF CONIFERS. 1*7 F. FRUIT A CATKIN FORMED OP DEHISCENT CAPSULES IN THE FORM OF LONG, NARROW PODS, OPENING LONGITUDINALLY INTO 2 VALVES, AND CONTAINING MINUTE SEEDS, EACH WITH A TUFT OF LONG COTTONY HAIRS (Salicinece). 1. Scales of the catkin entire . 16. WILLOW.* 2. Scales of the catkin toothed, lobed, or jagged . . 17. POPLAR.* (* The chief species of WILLOW and POPLAR can best be distin- guished by their leaves.) G. FRUIT A 1 -SEEDED DRUPE, EACH SEED BEING ENCLOSED IN A HARD STONE SURROUNDED BY A FLESHY COVERING (CHERRY) : 1. Fruits in umbels, long-stalked, large, red or black, smooth, round, and sweet, with a smooth stone 18. WILD CHERRY OR GEAN. 2. Fruits in racemes, short - stalked, small, black, smooth, nearly round, and bitter-sweet, with a rough stone 19. WILD BLACK OR BIRD CHERRY. H. FRUIT A BERRY (SORB) OR SMALL POME (miniature Apple), growing in corymbs at the ends of short leafy branches (SERVICE-TREES). 1. Berries numerous, small, round, and bright red 20. ROWAN OR MOUNTAIN-ASH. 2. Berries, usually 3 or 4, small, round or ovoid, brownish, with white spots . . . . . .21. WILD SERVICE-TREE. 3. Berries large, round or ovoid, red or yellow, and covered with cottony down . . . .22. WHITEBEAM OR BEAM-TREE. 7. FRUIT A LONG, MANY-SEEDED POD : 23. ROBINIA OR LOCUST-TREE. V. IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON CONIFER TREES. The Coniferce grown in British woodlands are characterised by having linear or short and scale - like leaves ; monoecious flowers in short or cylindrical catkins with closely-packed scales ; male flowers with stamens inserted on the axis of the catkin within the scales, or the anther-cells sessile on the inside of the scales, which then form part of the stamens ; female flowers with naked ovules and seeds (without ovary, style, or pericarp), either inserted within the catkin-scales or solitary and quite exposed. The Conifers grown as timber-crops in Britain belong only to the two following tribes, Abietinece and Cupressinece : I. Flowers monoecious, male ca'tkins small and cylindrical, with 2 anther- cells to each scale ; fruit a dry woody cone, with cone-bracts arranged spirally, 2 winged seeds within each scale (ABIETINECE) : A. EVERGREEN TREES with leaves ranged spirally round the short shoots, and from second year onwards divided into 2, 3, or 5 B 18 SYLVICULTURE. needles encircled at base by a membraneous sheath ; cone-scales narrow, and thickening near tip ; seed ripening in second year after flowering (true PINES) 1. PINE. 1. Each leaf divided into two needles (1) Leaves about 1^ to 2| inches long, cone small (SCOTS PINE). (2) Leaves from 3 to 4 inches long, stiff and prickly ; cone medium- sized (AUSTRIAN PINE). (3) Leaves from 4 to 5 inches long, cone large (CoRSiCAN PINE). (4) Leaves from 5 to 6 inches long, cones large and in clusters (MARITIME PINE). 2. Each leaf divided into 5 needles (WEYMOUTH PINE). B. CONE-SCALES BROAD, AND THIN AT TIP AND EDGES (true FIRS) : 1. EVERGREEN TREES with single, sessile, 2- or 4-sided, persistent leaves ranged spirally on twigs ; cones ripening in year of flowering : (1) Defoliated twigs rough, with prominent leaf-scars ; seed-bracts short and not showing above the cone-scales ; cones pendul- ous, and scales persisting after seed is shed . 2. SPRUCE. (a) Leaves pointed but not prickly, persisting 3-4 years ; cones large and long (COMMON SPRUCE). (b) Leaves pointed, prickly and more silvery below, persisting 2 years ; cones smaller and less compact (MENZIES OR SITKA SPRUCE). (2) Leaves 2 . sided, with two white lines along lower surface ; defoliated twigs smooth, leaf -scars not prominent; seed- bracts long and pointed, and protruding above cone-scales. (a) Leaves stalked, leaf -scars oval ; cones pendulous when ripe, and scales persistent . -. . 3. DOUGLAS FIR. (o) buds glossy, and rich dark red-brown; leaves usually dark -green ; cones larger, less evenly conical, and bracts less exserted and reflexed : PACIFIC, OREGON, OR COASTAL VARIETY. (bb) buds dull, pale, light reddish-brown '; leaves usually light- green ; cones smaller, more evenly [conical, and bracts more exserted and reflexed : COLORADO OR INLAND VARIETY. (b) Leaves sessile, leaf -scar circular ; cones erect, and scales shed with seed in October .... 4. SILVER FIR. 2. DECIDUOUS TREES, with leaves clustered in tufts on short shoots, but single on long shoots ; cones ripening in year of flowering ; seed-bracts short, and not showing above cone-scales ; cone- scales persistent ...... 5, LARCH. HISTORICAL SKETCH. 19 (1) Leaves darker, and turning pale -brown in autumn; shoots yellowish and ashy-grey ; cones 1|-1^ in. long, with hard stiff scales : COMMON LARCH. (2) Leaves paler and longer, and turning pale-yellow in autumn ; shoots light brownish-red ; cones f-1 in. long, with soft scales bent outwards at tip : JAPANESE LARCH. II.- EVERGREEN TREES, with small imbricated leaves and monoecious flowers; male catkins with 4 anther -cells to each scale; fruit a small woody globular or oblong cone, with scales arranged op- positely and alternately (CUPRESSINE.S;) : A. Twigs round or 4 -seeded ; cones globular; cone- scales with broad hobnail-like tips, and edges not overlapping (Cupressus). 1. CYPRESS. 1. Cones dark -brown, ripening in second year, clustered 3 or 4 together, f to 1 inch in diameter, each with 10 scales : LARGE-CONED CYPRESS. 2. Cones round, and covered with glaucous bloom while young, ripen- ing in year of flowering, solitary, terminal, light-brown, about size of a large pea, and usually with 3 seeds under each scale. (1) Cones with short stalk, and usually 6 scales : LAWSON'S CYPRESS. (2) Cones almost sessile, and usually with 6 or 8 scales ; twigs with 4 more or less pronounced ridges : NOOTKA CYPRESS. B. Twigs flattened, and leaves broader than in the Cypresses; cones small, pale reddish-brown, oval, tapering to both ends, solitary and terminal ; cone - scales with edges slightly overlapping (Thuja) . . i' V 2 * THUJA OR KED CEDAR. Historical. The British Isles were probably at one time mainly covered with primeval woods, most of which were likely destroyed by fire ; and wherever the Scots Pine, our only indigenous conifer timber-tree, was the chief tree in mountainous tracts, such fires left the hillsides bare and barren, as Pines cannot reproduce themselves by stool-shoots or suckers, like broad-leaved trees. In the history of Forestry in Britain three main periods are easily distinguishable : (1) up to 1482, when the Statute of Enclosure was passed ; (2) from 1482 to 1866, when the import duty was taken off foreign timber ; and (3) from 1866 up to the present time, when State Afforestation on a large scale is receiving attention. 20 SYLVICULTURE. (1) In early times, throughout England, and to a less extent also in Scotland and Ireland, the chief use of the woodlands was for hunting and for the pannage or feeding of large , herds of swine. In 1066 William the Conqueror found great tracts of woodlands and agricultural lands and villages reserved as royal hunting-grounds for the Saxon kings, and he extended the boundaries of these and called them Forests, two of the largest being the New Forest in Hants and the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire, which were both formed before 1086. All lands thus set apart for the king's red deer were said to be " afforested " ; and new Forest Laws were applied to the administration of these royal forests, of a far more stringent and cruel kind than had previously obtained under Saxon and Danish rule. The cruel oppression of the people whose lands were afforested increased under William II., Henry L, and Stephen. Henry II. made extensive new afforestations, but was forced to relax the severity of the Forest Laws by the passing of a statute known as the Assize of Woodstock, 1184. This placed the Forest Law upon a definite footing and made it independent of the Common Law. Special Forest Courts were ordered to be held regularly for each forest, the Woodmote every forty days, the Swainmote thrice a- year, and the Justice Seat or Eyre of the Forest, the highest court, once every third year, though in course of time irregulari- ties and abuses crept in. In 1215 Magna Charta modified the Forest Laws, and in the time of Henry III. (1216-72) new charters were obtained, as also during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when those owning or holding land in or near a royal forest were subject to vexatious oppression. This state of affairs went on, with modifications, till 1640, when the Act of Limitation of Forests was passed, which virtually abolished the Forest Courts, although the office of Chief Justice in Eyre was only terminated by Act of Parliament in 1817, when his duties were vested in the first Commissioner of Woods and Forests. What still remains of these ancient royal forests STATUTE OF WOODS. 21 are now administered by the Commissioners under an Act of 1852. In Scotland there were also Forest Laws which seem to have been introduced at a comparatively late date, and to have been formed somewhat on the English model, though far less cruel and oppressive. (2) The Statute of Enclosure, 1482, applied only to the royal forests, chases, and purlieus or disafforested lands in England, and permitted landowners having woodlands therein to fence their coppices against deer and, cattle for 7 years after each fall. But even at that early time the fear of a serious want of timber began to be felt ; and this gradually grew to such an extent that a Statute of Woods was passed in 1543, by which it was decreed that all woods throughout England should be enclosed for 4, 6, or 7 years after eacli fall of the coppice at under 14, 14 to 24, and over 24 years' rotation, and that at least 12 standards per acre should be "stored" or left to grow into timber. These stores or standards were to be of Oak if possible, but otherwise of Elm, Ash, Aspen, or Beech, the kinds of timber then prized most highly ; and they were not to be cut until they reached a given age or a given girth. The operation of this and of similar but modifying subsequent Acts of Parliament was the enforcement of a definite national system of Arboriculture, in the shape of coppice with standards, for growing timber-trees of Oak, Ash, &c., over an underwood of Oak, Ash, Hazel, Chest- nut, Birch, Willow, Dogwood, &c., the chief object being the production of timber for the navy and the merchant fleet. This national system of Arboriculture tended to produce great branches and big crooks and curved timber suitable for ship-building. One result of this old practice has been that every one concerned in growing timber became convinced of the necessity for giving each individual tree a more or less free and isolated position ; and iii more recent times this principle was also applied to a greater or less extent to .timber-crops grown as high woods, and 22 SYLVICULTURE. therefore really needing to be kept in fairly close canopy. It thus led to habitual overthinning tending to stimulate excessive branch formation at the expense of a long and clean stem. And as the market for oak-bark and small coppice-wood is now very poor compared with what it used to be, many of the old coppices, with or without standards, have been or are in course of being converted into highwoods. But it is important to note at the outset that the tendency to overthin greatly, which is now usually admitted to be one of the great faults in British Arbori- culture, had its origin in 1543, when the Statute of Woods ordained for England the coppice-with-standards system of growing timber-trees, arid that this system was continuously developed and enforced by subsequent Acts of Parliament. During the most of this second period, from 1482 right up to about 100 years ago, there was always a dearth of timber, and especially of oak, owing to the constantly growing demands for ship-building and other constructive purposes. But when timber-importation began on a large scale early in the nineteenth century, after Britain had obtained the command of the seas, less attention than hitherto was paid to home forestry, which began to decline rapidly as improved steam communications developed by land and water. The growing neglect became greater when the import duty was taken off colonial timber in 1846 ; and when the import duty was also removed from all foreign timber in 1866, thereby cheapening the price of the fine clean-grown stems and excellent sawn wood arriving in apparently inexhaust- ible abundance, the value of home-grown wood fell so low that timber - growing, for centuries an important rural industry, became unprofitable, and many of the existing woodlands came to be practically treated mainly as game coverts and ornamental parts of the large landed estates. The removal of the foreign import duty in 1866 virtually gave the death-blow to the old national system of Arboriculture that sprang up in England from 1543 onwards, and then extended to Scotland, and which had OUR WOODLANDS. 23 also been introduced into Ireland from and after an Act of 1634. But the growing demand for timber throughout the world's greatest industrial countries, and the simultaneous rapid exhaustion of the hitherto cheap and easily obtainable supplies, have again recently revived the interest in timber-growing in Britain ; and the modern system of Forestry upon sylviculture^, rather than arboricultural lines, that has of recent years been gaining ground in the United Kingdom, is mainly the adaptation of such Continental and especially German methods as seem suited to our very different economic conditions. (3) The third period, from 1866 onwards. After the Civil War ended in 1867 the population and the commerce of the United States of America began to increase rapidly; and shortly afterwards similar developments commenced in Germany, after the formation of the German Empire in 1871. Up till then Britain was by far the greatest industrial country in the world, and could easily get all the timber it wanted from America, Norway and Sweden, Russia, &c. But now the United States and Germany need far larger quantities of wood and timber than they produce, and are our competitors for the surplus supplies of the great wood-providing countries, such as Canada and Russia. But even in these still well-wooded countries less timber is available than formerly, and the cost of extraction is greater, so that prices have risen greatly and have constantly an upward tendency. Hence it now seems very important that Britain should endeavour to adapt some well-considered national scheme of timber-planting, in order to secure the steady supply of at least a part of her annual requirements in timber and other wood in years to come. The United Kingdom only contains about 3,030,000 acres of wood- lands ; and for the most part these are ornamental or mainly for shelter and sport, and have not, of recent years at any rate, been worked upon commercial lines. Then, too, the market has changed with regard to what was habitually grown for the home 24 SYLVICULTURE. demand. Curved oak is not much needed for ship-building, nor is oak -bark much used for tanning ; small coppice-wood, formerly required for hop-poles, hurdles, &c., is now hardly saleable at all ; and birch and alder, once greatly in demand for gunpowder charcoal, is no longer used in large quantities. Several Committees have during the last 25 years been appointed to deal with Forestry ; but, so far as planting is concerned, only little practical result has come of these inquiries. In 1887 a Parliamentary Committee made recommendations which were -not acted on; and in 1902-3 a Departmental Committee of the Board of Agriculture reported on the subject. It refrained from recommending any great national scheme of planting, but advocated more and better instruction in Forestry ; and lecturers have since then been appointed at Newcastle, Bangor, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and other collegiate centres, whereas previously the only collegiate course of lectures had been given at Edinburgh University (since 1889). In 1904 a school for Forest Apprentices was opened in the Forest of Dean (Gloucestershire) by the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, and in 1905 a similar Forest School was organised at Avondale (Co. Wicklow) by the Department of Agriculture in Ireland ; but as yet no such school has been founded for Scotland, although it contains far more plantable land than England, Wales, and Ireland all taken together. In 1908 a Committee appointed by the Department of Agriculture in Ireland recommended an extensive scheme of planting 700,000 acres in Ireland; and in 1909 the Koyal Commission on Coast Erosion and Afforestation issued a report recommending a vast scheme for the planting of 9,000,000 acres by the State, of which 6,000,000 were to be in Scotland, and the remaining 3,000,000 in England, Wales, and Ireland. Of our existing 3,030,000 acres of woods and plantations, 97*7 per cent belong to private owners, and 2 '3 per cent to the Crown, being mostly remnants of the ancient royal forests ; but except as regards some recent purchases made by the Department in Ireland, the OUR WOODLANDS. 25 State owns no woodlands whatever ; there is not a single acre of State woodland in Great Britain. Experimental planting is likely to be done soon under the Development Act, 1909 ; but before any very extensive national scheme of planting can be successfully begun in Scotland, where most of the plantable land is admitted to be, a well-equipped School for Forest Apprentices is just as necessary as the large funds that will be needed for such a large permanent investment. The importance of trying to do something to provide for our future requirements in timber and wood-produce can easily be judged of from the fact that both in 1906 and in 1907 our gross imports of wood and timber, wood-pulp and manufactured wood-pulp, amounted in value for each year to over .37,378,000, while the total for wood and timber alone totalled over 29,013,000 in. each year. As comparatively little of this is re-exported, these figures show the vast field open to timber-growing whether mainly by private landowners with State encouragement and assistance, or directly by the State, or by some such combination of State and private efforts as obtains in France and Germany. Over nine- tenths of our wood imports are of coniferous timber, which is just the class of trees that can be grown most conveniently and successfully on our poor and waste lands, aggregating over 16 -J million acres. Britain is, in fact, one of the most poorly wooded countries in the world, the land statistics being as follows (in acres in round numbers) : Land Area. Woodlands. Mountain and Heath. Percentage. Woodland. Wasteland. England . Scotland. Ireland . Wales . 32,381,051 19,069,010 19,322,798 4,748,109 1,666,000 879,000 303,000 182,000 2,306,000 9,375,000 3,780,000 1,251,000 51 4'5 1-5 3-8 7-1 48-1 18-5 26-2 Total . 75,520,968 3,030,000 16,712,000 3-9 21-6 26 SYLVICULTURE. The Climatic and Physical Effects of large compact blocks of woodland consist in tending (1) to equalise the temperature both of the soil and of the atmosphere, and to diminish extreme differences in each of these during summer and winter ; (2) to increase the relative humidity of the air, and also perhaps slightly increase the total amount of dew, mist, and rainfall ; (3) to absorb and retain moisture in the soil, and especially in the upper layer of humus, thus helping to prevent floods, to maintain the perennial flow of springs and brooks, and to act as purifying filters in water- catchment areas ; (4) to protect the surface-soil from erosion during heavy rainfall; and (5) to help to purify the air from excess of carbon-dioxide. Their Economic Uses are (1) to provide work for part of the rural population, and especially during winter, when other work is scarce ; (2) to provide part of the timber now imported in vast quantities for industrial purposes, and thus increase the sum total of wages payable to workmen in our own country ; (3) to give shelter to fields and farm live-stock ; and (4) to add to the attractions of country life by increasing facilities for sport. On the average every 100 to 150 acres of woodland provide permanent work for one woodman ; but this gives no indication of the total amount of employment of various kinds that large woodlands worked on business principles would ensure to the rural population in planting, tending, and felling timber-crops, in preparing, extracting, transporting, and converting the timber, and in distributing the converted timber and other woodland produce. Under a great national scheme of afforestation many million pounds sterling would in course of time be circulated among our own rural population, in place of being paid to foreign workmen as at present. Even 3,000,000 acres of well- managed coniferous timber-crops worked with a rotation of 60 years would give an annual mature fall of 50,000 acres, besides thinnings from younger woods, and would probably yield on the average a total crop of about 100 tons weight of timber per acre, TRUE-GROWTH. 27 or about 5,000,000 tons of raw material having to be cut, dressed, transported, converted, and distributed ; and this all means wages that might be earned and circulated here, instead of the money being sent abroad in payment for foreign labour. The Growth of a Tree. A tree is a living organism, con- structed mainly of cells and vessels, whose vitality and growth are primarily maintained by the absorption of mineral food through its root-system, and by the ascension of sap to the leaves and its elaboration there, after assimilation of atmospheric carbon -dioxide through the foliage, under the action of sun- light and warmth. A tree consists of an overground bole or stem, with large and small branches, twigs, and shoots, bearing the crown of foliage, and an underground root-system consisting of a tap-root or central axis, side-roots, fibrous-roots, and suction-rootlets with one-celled root-hairs for imbibing water and soluble plant-food from the soil. Even in trees with a pronounced tap-root (Oak, Larch, Pine) there is no underground stem before the root- system begins to branch; but the development of the root- system always depends greatly on the physical condition of the soil and on the leaf-area of the crown of foliage. A young tree is produced naturally by seed from a parent tree germinating under the influence of warmth, moisture, light, and air. By absorbing moisture its tissue softens and stretches, while the water is partly decomposed and partly used in trans- forming the starch-reserves stored up in it and converting them into grape-sugar (when starch, C 6 H 10 5 , + water , H 9 0, becomes- grape-sugar, C 6 H 12 6 ), by means of which the embryo begins to grow when the weather gets warm enough. The embryo grows downwards into the earth by a young root, and upwards into the air by the seed-leaves. The young root lengthens, and through its root -hairs absorbs mineral food, dissolved in the soil-moisture, which is conveyed upwards by the cellular tissue and exposed in the seed-leaves to the action 28 SYLVICULTURE. of light and air. Here water is transpired and nourishment prepared for further growth by the assimilation of atmospheric carbon and the formation of carbo-hydrates. As the current of sap keeps rising from the roots to the growing-point, a small shoot forms, which aerates the sap and sends it downwards ; and as the elaborated sap descends, woody matter is formed in the centre of the radicle, thus enabling it to ramify, while woody matter is also gradually formed within the vessels of the young plant by the deposition of elaborated matter. The growing- point then acquires the rudimentary form of a leaf, and develops until the first leaves are completely formed to carry on more easily the functions previously performed by the seed-leaves. Assimilation then becomes more vigorous, and the sap is elaborated in larger quantity, conveyed downwards through the cambium, and deposited as cellulose, part being incorporated with the bark, and part forming sapwood. And as the cellular tissue of the stem is also expanding to make room for the matter passing into it, perpendicular and horizontal development go. on simultaneously. Young roots are also formed, which increase and branch by constant gradual increment ; and thus a natural balance is maintained between the root-system and the leaf-area for which water and mineral food have to be provided, and on whose assimilative power increment depends. Other leaves appear, all formed like the first, and performing similar functions ; and at last the growing-point or axis ceases to lengthen for the season, and the old leaves wither and fall off. Meanwhile a new set of leaves, instead of expanding after their formation, remain in their rudimentary state, harden, and fold over one another to protect a new growing-point and become the scales of a leaf-bud. With the return of warm weather in the second spring the flow of the sap takes place and active vegetation recommences. The buds gradually unfold when the water containing mineral food ascends, and the sap utilised is instantly replaced by TREE-GROWTH. 29 continuous supplies from below ; the root -system extends by new suction-roots being formed ; fresh food-supplies are absorbed and sent upwards through the soft sapwood; and active vegeta- tion continues till autumn, the food-supplies transmitted to the leaves being there subjected to the chemical action of light and transformed under the processes of assimilation of atmospheric carbon and preparation of carbo-hydrates, and the elaborated food returned down through the cambium to form a new layer of sapwood on the woody fibrous tissue and of bark on the outer protective cuticle. By the end of the year the phenomena of the previous season have been repeated ; ligneous matter has been gradually produced during the period of active vegetation ; and, as the zone deposited in summer is denser than that formed in spring, this gives rise to the appearance of annual rings or concentric zones of woody tissue ; new shoots and leaf-buds are formed before the winter period of rest from active vegetation; and the stem has grown in diameter. During the third year similar processes are repeated on a more extensive scale. More roots and rootlets are formed ; food- supplies are absorbed and elaborated in larger quantities ; new cambial layers are formed on the wood and the bark, and the horizontal and the perpendicular developments of tissue are continued; and another annual ring is added to those of the two previous years. And thus year after year the tree continues to grow till it is felled, or till its active functions cease through old age and death, or disease, or accident. The Nutrition and the Growth of Trees depend partly on physical and climatic, and partly on chemical conditions. The essential physical factors are Warmth and Light, and the chemical factors Oxygen, Carbon-dioxide, Nitrogen, and Water, together with mineral substances absorbed from the soil in the form of soluble nutrient salts. Where all these factors are combined favourably for the requirements of any individual kind of plant, it can thrive well; but where any one factor 30 SYLVICULTURE. is unfavourable, it will either show poor growth or be unable to grow at all. Hence timber-crops, like field-crops, are subject to what is known as the Law of tlw Minimum, according to which " the total extent of production depends upon whatever essential factor is present in the lowest degree " no matter how favourable may be the combination of any or all of the other factors. The mineral food of trees includes potash, lime, magnesia, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, and nitrogen ; while silica, soda, chlorine, manganese, and occasionally alumina, are also found in the ash of timber, after carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen have been eliminated by burning. But the dif- ferent physiological uses of these mineral substances are not yet clearly understood. Experience shows that timber-crops of one kind or another can be profitably grown on any kind of land that is neither too dry nor too wet. Most kinds of soil contain sufficient mineral food to enable tree-crops of any kind to grow ; but there is not always sufficient soil-moisture to hold it in solution so as to make it available for absorption by the root-system, and when the land is too wet there is a deficiency in oxygen. Thus depth and porosity are of more importance than chemical composition. On the other hand, a rich soil furnishing copious food-supplies will produce large crops of timber, but it will be soft, spongy, and not so durable as timber with denser and more compact annual rings, , t .,r Soil cannot always be classified according to its geological origin ; because the same kind of rock does not always decom- pose into similar soils, and its productivity depends on the extent of its decomposition, while some of the lighter particles of clay are more easily washed away than the heavier sand, For .practical purposes the best classification is into Sandy Soil, containing 75 per cent or more of disintegrated sand (silica). This includes sand-drifts, sand, and loamy sand. Loamy Soil, containing 60 to 70 per cent of fine sand, the rest being SOIL. 31 chiefly clay and less than 5 per cent of lime, with about 5 per cent of ferric oxide as colouring matter. This includes loam and sandy loam. Clayey Soil, containing 50 per cent or more of clay. This includes clay and loamy clay. Limy Soil, with 10 per cent or more of carbonate of lime. This in- cludes lime, clayey lime, loamy lime, and marl. Sandy soil feels gritty when slightly moistened, is easily heated or cooled, does not well retain moisture and soluble plant - food, and is therefore an inferior soil, on which trees need a large growing-space, do not maintain close canopy, soon fall off in rate of growth, and produce little seed. Easily warmed by day, it encourages early germination of seed, early movement of sap, and early flushing of foliage in spring ; but as it cools rapidly at night, the young tissues are exposed to damage by late frost. Clayey soil sticks to the tongue, smells of ammonia if breathed upon, feels fatty if rubbed between thumb and forefinger, and takes a polish if rubbed with the thumb-nail. It is usually, tinged with iron, and of a grey, yellow, or brownish-red colour. It is cold, stiff, impermeable to moisture, and apt to get water-logged and marshy. Admixture of sand tends to modify these characteristics. As soluble salts are not easily washed out, clay soil contains large food-supplies, and tree-crops have a better leaf-canopy than on sandy soil. Owing to low conductivity of heat the active vegetation is late of beginning in spring. Limy soil effervesces if nitric acid be dropped on it, and is apt to be shallow ; but woods in close canopy often show fine growth. When limy soil has deteriorated through insufficient leaf -canopy or clear-felling, the soil-moisture soon evaporates, the finer earthy particles are washed away, and the soil becomes shallow, dry, hot, and unproductive. Loamy soil resembles clay more than sand, but neither feels fatty when rubbed between finger and thumb, nor takes any definite polish when burnished with the finger-nail. It is a mild soil, in which the absorption and retention of soil-moisture depend greatly on the nature of the subsoil ; and it is suited for growing almost every kind of tree. Any of the above soils may also be gravelly or stony. The Physical Properties of Soil, which are far more im- portant than its chemical or mineral composition, and all of which, with their innumerable variations, act and react on each other in determining the quality of any given land, include (1) Depth, (2) Stiffness, (3) Soil-moisture, and (4) Soil- temperature. 32 SYLVICULTURE. (1) Depth is the extent to which soil is decomposed before a practically unaffected subsoil is reached, which may, or may not, be of a different kind from the soil above it. As regards depth, a soil may be classed as deep, medium, and shallow. Depth of soil is very important for trees like Oak, Sweet -Chestnut, Larch, and Pines, which form a deep-going tap-root, because the growth in height soon falls off if the root-system cannot develop normally. Trees with fairly deep root-systems, like Beech, Ash, Elm, Maple, and Sycamore, Silver Fir and Douglas Fir, and even shallow-rooting kinds like Birch, Aspen, and Spruce, all thrive better on deep than on shallow soil. The disadvantages of a shallow soil are all the greater when the subsoil is a stiff clay or impermeable, and tending to make the soil-water stagnate. Deep soil produces a long, clean bole, shallow soil a short stem with a big, branching crown. (2) Stiffness, the resistance offered to separation or disintegration of the soil particles, is important in relation to air, moisture, and warmth, and on it also depends the resistance to be overcome by roots in penetrat- ing and ramifying throughout the soil. Clay soil is the stiffest, sand the loosest or lightest ; lime is more like clay, and loam more like sand. An admixture of humus or leaf -mould makes clay and lime less tenacious, and stiffens loam and sand, besides yielding ammonia-compounds and assisting in the beneficial processes of nitrification and deuitrification. The liability of soil to expand after rainfall and to shrink during drought is practically proportional to its stiffness. Soil may be distinguished as heavy or stiff (clay and clayey loam, lime, and marl) ; mild (loam, sandy loam, and loamy lime) ; light (loamy sand and sandy marl) ; loose (the poorer sandy soil) ; shifting (sand-drifts and dunes). A light and fairly moist soil produces most rootlets and foliage, and consequently most timber. (3) Soil -moisture is essential for tree -growth, because only soluble salts can be imbibed by the suction-roots, and neither transpiration nor assimilation could possibly take place without it. It helps to regulate soil- temperature, and to prevent sandy soils heating or cooling too rapidly. But too much soil-moisture leads to the formation of injurious acids and of marshes, interferes with aeration of the soil, and both retards vegeta- tion and increases danger from frost. A soil may be wet, moist, fresh, dry, .or arid. Most trees thrive best on a fresh soil, though Willow, Poplar, Ash, Elm, and Hornbeam prefer a moist, and the Alder even a wet, soil ; but stag- nating moisture is never favourable to tree-growth. A dry soil is not demanded by any of our trees ; but Birch, Rowan, Aspen, Black Pines, Scots Pine in general, and Beech and White Alder on limy soil, can there best accommodate themselves. CLIMATE. 33 (4) Soil- temperature depends greatly on the quantity of moisture and the colour of the soil. Clay soil is cold and inactive ; but once heated, it cools gradually. Sand or gravel is easily warmed, but cools rapidly, and in damp localities this increases the danger from frost. Climate or the Influence of Situation affects tree -growth in a very marked degree, though the several factors (1) temperature and humidity in atmosphere and in soil, (2) amount and intensity of sunlight, (3) aspect or exposure towards N., E., S., or W., (4) slope or gradient of hillsides, and (5) shelter from strong winds, due to the local configuration of the land and the surrounding country all act and react on each other, and also in conjunction with the physical properties of the soil, in such a way as often to obscure the causes why any particular kind of tree may perhaps not thrive in any given situation. The Sylvicultural Characteristics of Trees are (I.) their special peculiarities regarding climate, soil, and situation ; light and shade ; shape of root- system, stem, and crown ; rate of growth ; reproductive and regenerative power ; and maturity and longevity ; and (II.) their general characteristics as wood- land crops, in consequence of these special peculiarities. (1) As regards climate or temperature and rainfall, each kind of tree has a northern and a southern limit determined by winter cold and summer heat or drought, and also a limit of altitude in mountain-tracts determined by cold. But owing to geographical conditions and local configuration, there are no hard-and-fast lines of demarcation throughout Western Europe in either of these respects. Our mild equable climate is well suited for all the Central European trees, and many North American trees also thrive well here. Nor are there any well- marked zones of elevation, as shelter from strong winds is a very important factor in this respect. But of our common woodland trees, experience shows that Birch, Scots Elm, and Scots Pine grow better in Scotland than in the South of England ; that Beech, English Elm. Pedunculate Oak, Chestnut, c 34 SYLVICULTURE. Willows, Poplars, and Weymouth and Maritime Pines do best in the warmer parts of England ; that Alder, Ash, Pedunculate Oak, English Elm, Maple, Willows, and Poplars thrive best on low-lying land; and that Scots Elm, Sessile Oak, Sycamore, Scots Pine, Spruces, Silver and Douglas Firs, and Larch do best in the north of Britain and on hilly land. A damp climate suits Spruce, Red Cedar, Pacific Douglas Eir, Beech, Wych Elm, and Sycamore ; while Larch, Scots and Black Pines, Colorado Douglas Fir, Oak, and Common Elm prefer a dry climate. Beech, Ash, Chestnut, Robinia, Menzies Spruce, and Silver and Pacific Douglas Firs are most liable to damage by frost ; while Aspen, Birch, Elm, Hornbeam, Lime, Sallow, Larch, Spruce, Colorado Douglas Fir, and Red Cedar are the hardiest against winter cold and late frosts ; though all kinds are more likely to be nipped by late frost when growing on land exposed to the early morning sunshine. Common Spruce and Common Larch are hardier than Menzies Spruce and Japanese Larch. (2) As regards soil and situation, with increasing altitude the temperature falls and the air becomes moister, but this is not very marked in our generally damp climate. Conifers generally are less exacting and have a greater accommodative power than broad-leaved trees as to moisture and mineral food, the most accommodative being Aspen, Birch, Sallow, and Scots Pine, and the least accommodative Ash and English Elm. Depth, permeability, and a moderate amount of moisture are of more importance than any particular kind of soil ; for it is of greater physiological advantage that the root-system of any tree should develop freely and normally, and that the situation should (as regards climate, natural drainage, aspect, &c.) be suitable, than that the soil itself should be sandy, loamy, clayey, or limy. With favourable physical properties any soil will furnish sufficient plant-food for good tree -growth; but Oak, Ash, Elm, Chestnut, Maple, Sycamore, Larch, Douglas RELATION TO LIGHT. 35 Fir, Silver Fir, and Scots Pine have the deepest roots, and therefore need a deep soil for healthy growth ; while Aspen, Birch, Willow, Poplar, and Spruce have only a shallow root- system, but also grow better in a deep than in a shallow soil. Beech, Ash, Elm, Maple, Sycamore, Hornbeam, White Alder, Oak, Austrian Pine, and Larch thrive on limy soil ; but much lime acts injuriously on Sweet- Chestnut, Douglas Fir, and Maritime Pine. Humus or leaf-mould improves all kinds of soil; hence replantation on true "woodland soil" is usually more successful than the first planting of waste lands and poor pastures, in which there is probably a deficiency of nitrogen in an easily available form. (3) As regards light and shade, trees are classifiable as light- demanding and shade-enduring, according to the amount and the intensity of sunlight needed for the assimilation of carbon and the elaboration of the sap the demand being apparent from the amount of foliage borne by the tree-crown (which, of course, varies with the situation and the quality of the soil). The light-demanding trees most intolerant of shade are Larch, Birch, and Robinia ; Pines, Poplars, and Willows ; Oak, Ash, Elm, and Chestnut; less intolerant of shade are Alder, Lime, Horse-Chestnut, Maple, and Sycamore ; while Beech and Hornbeam, and most evergreen Firs and Cypresses (especially Spruce, Douglas and Silver Firs, and Red Cedar) are shade- enduring, as also the stool-shoots of the kinds of trees usually grown as underwood in copses. All our woodland trees thrive best with their crown of foliage freely exposed to sunlight ; but Beech and Silver Fir seedlings need protection against scorching and frost for the first two or three to four or five years, and are therefore usually naturally regenerated under parent standard trees. But the poorer the soil, the greater is the demand for liirht, and the less the tolerance of shade. Young Sycamore and Ash springing up self-sown can tolerate heavy shade at first. In trees the capacity for tolerating shade is shown by 36 SYLVICULTURE. the thickness of their foliage and by the length of time over- shadowed twigs of evergreen Conifers retain their leaves. (4) As regards root-system, stem, and crown, trees grown as woodland crops have always a smaller growing-space than when growing freely in the open ; but while the roots and the crown are kept smaller, the growth in height (due to the struggle for existence) is greater, and there is less tendency to spread side- wards into branches. And, of course, it is only when deep- rooting and light-demanding kinds of trees have their natural requirements satisfied that good growth can be maintained, and more especially as the trees approach maturity. (5) As regards rate of growth as timber-crops, few of those which grow rapidly in height at first furnish very large mature crops, though the Pacific Douglas Fir and Menzics Spruce are exceptions in this respect. Among European trees the largest crops per acre are yielded by Silver Fir and Spruce, though both are slow in establishing themselves and beginning to shoot ahead. Increment or growth in cubic contents is the combina- tion of growth in height and growth in girth. As the number of stems per acre has to be sooner lessened (by thinning) to pro- vide the necessary growing-space, light-demanding trees culminate in increment and become less energetic sooner than shade-bearing trees, though, of course, much depends on the soil and situation. Hence shade-enduring trees (Douglas Fir, Spruces, Silver Fir, and Red Cedar ; Beech) produce larger crops per acre than light- demanding trees (Larch and Pines, most hardwoods and soft woods), and larger crops are usually obtainable on a fresh than on a dry soil, in which food-supplies are scarce. (6) Reproductive power in throwing up stool-shoots and root- suckers and Regenerative power in producing seed are different forms of utilising reserve nutrients, in the one case for main- taining individual life, and in the other for propagation of the species. Reproduction is strongest in the younger stages of SEED-PRODUCTION. 37 growth, and falls off when the seed-producing stage is entered. Oak, Beech, Elm, Ash, Maple, Sycamore, Chestnut, Hornbeam, Lime, Alder, and Birch mainly produce stool-shoots ; while Aspen, Robinia, Rowan, non- indigenous Willows and Poplars, and White Alder mainly produce root-suckers. But Chestnut, English Elm, and Lime also throw up a good many suckers, which can be severed and transplanted like seedlings ; and they can easily be propagated by layering, while Willows and Poplars can easily be raised from slips or cuttings. In seed-production, trees bearing small fruits with small seeds are much more prolific than those bearing large fruits with heavy seeds. They seed more frequently, and the seeds are carried farther by wind ; hence, even though the germinative power of their seed be less, the average regenerative power of Willows, Poplars, Alder, Birch, Scots Elm, Maple, Sycamore, Pines, Spruces, Douglas Fir, and Cypresses is greater than in Silver Fir, Beech, Oak, and Chestnut. Seed-production is most prolific when trees have completed their main growth in height and begun to expand their crown, as their vital energy is then greatest. Good soil, warm situation, and a free growing-space favour seed-production. Birch, Alder, Larch, and Scots Pine begin to bear seed at about twenty years of age, but Oak and Beech not until about the sixtieth year. The best quality of seed is produced by middle-aged trees, which is preferable to that gathered from trees just beginning to bear or from very old trees. The seed of most trees germinates in the spring after it has been shed ; but Birch, Elm, Aspen, and Willow seeds sprout soon after they fall, while Ash, Hornbeam, Maple, and Sycamore seeds may germinate freely only in the second spring. Some idea of average regenerative power may be formed from the following table, but both the size and the weight of the seed, and also its germinative capacity, depend greatly upon the quality of the soil and situation, and upon favourable climatic conditions : SYLVICULTURE. Ordinary lib. Ordinary No. of Time 2 cleaned Germin- seedlings usually Kind of Tree. seed ative from lib. needed for contains capacity of clean germin- about about seed, ation. about ! Seeds. per cent. Weeks. Birch . . . 700,000 10 70,000 3-5 Alder ..... 300,000 15 45,000 3-5 Elm 60,000 15 9,000 2-3 Hornbeam . . ' . 13,000 50 6,500 3-5 3 Ash . . ..... 7 000 50 3,500 4-6 3 Maple and Sycamore . . . 6,000 50 3,000 4-6 3 Beech . . 2,000 60 1,200' 3-4 Oak, Sessile . . ... 150 60 90 4-6 Oak, Pedunculate 125 60 75 4-6 Chestnut ..... 100 60 60 3-6 Red Cedar (Thuja gig antea) 300,000 20 60,000 2-4 Menzies Spruce . . . 180,000 20 36,000 3-5 Larch, Japanese . ... 100,000 15 15,000 3-5 Scots Pine . . 75,000 50 37,500 3-5 Larch ..... 70,000 30 21,000 3-5 Spruce . . -.. 64,000 50 32,000 4-6 Douglas Fir .... 40,000 30 12,000 3-4 3 Austrian and Corsican Pine 25,000 30 7,500 2-4 Silver Fir . , , . . 10,000 30 3,000 3-6 (7) Maturity and longevity vary greatly in our woodland trees (up to more than 500 years for Oak and Chestnut) ; but timber-crops reach their marketable or financial maturity at a comparatively early age, and earlier on poor than on good soil, varying from 35 to 50 years for softwoods, 40 to 70 for Conifers, 60 to 100 for most hardwoods, and 100 to 150 for Oak. Thus two or three conifer crops may be taken for one of Oak ; and 1 Many of these die off, and only a much smaller number is fit to line out as transplants. 2 Germination is hastened by soaking the seed in water-, but this makes sowing more difficult and less even and regular. 3 Also partly not till second year, especially if sown deep. HABITS OF GROWTH. 39 this is not the least of the advantages promised by growing conifer crops suitable for any given soil and situation. The following may serve as rough averages as to the rotation in which timber-crops can usually be most profitably worked in Britain : On good soil, On poor soil, Kind of Timber-crop. and in a and in an un- favourable favourable situation. situation. Years. Years. Birch, Willow, Poplar .... 40-50 35-45 Larch, Pines, Spruce and Red Cedar \ Ash, Elm, Maple, and Sycamore / 60-70 45-60 Douglas and Silver Firs . \ ' i 70-80 50-60 Beech . . ..... 100-120 90-100 Oak . . . . 120-150 90-120 But a wood that has been heavily thinned will mature (financially) sooner than one kept in close cover ; and if not then cleared, both the crop and the soil will deteriorate. General Characteristics or Habits of Growth as Woodlands Crops arise from the combined influence of the above special characteristics when large masses of trees are collected together, for each kind of tree then assumes a definite relation towards itself and towards other trees, and becomes either gregarious or sporadic in habit. Gregarious trees tend to predominate throughout the whole woodlands, and to form pure woods un- mixed with other trees ; while sporadic trees are more or less scattered and subordinate in number, and thrive best when scattered throughout mixed woods, either as single stems or in small patches (e.g., the Larch, in the Alps), and are de- pendent on the gregarious trees for maintaining the productivity of the soil. Other things being equal, shade-enduring trees would gradually, in course of time, oust light-demanding trees, and become ruling species over large areas, as where the Silver Fir, the Beech, and the Spruce form large and more or less 40 SYLVICULTURE. pure forests in Central Europe. But other things are never equal in nature; and trees having light and winged seeds, especially hardy kinds that grow quickly at first (e.g., Birch and Aspen), often establish themselves securely before the kinds previously on the ground have been able to regenerate themselves, so that a mixture of trees varying according to soil, climate, and situation is characteristic of all natural wood- lands, and is the safest method to adopt in forestry. Pure Woods can be formed by all kinds of shade-enduring trees, because their dense overshadowing and large fall of dead leaves both preserve and usually increase the soil-productivity. This is also the case with Pines, under which thick moss springs up when the trees begin to thin themselves ; but this mossy protection disappears as the crop ages and the leaf- canopy becomes more and more broken. But much less soil- protection is afforded in the case of light-demanding deciduous trees, which should therefore (theoretically) only be grown in pure woods (1) when they are either to be felled at a com- paratwely early age, or underplanted ; (2) when ihe soil- productivity is not likely to be much impaired by imperfect cover (e.g., mixed Oak, Ash, and Elm on deep, good, fresh alluvial land; Alder, Birch, Willow, and Poplar on low moist tracts, where sun and wind help to evaporate the excess of moisture) ; or (3) where either the soil, the situation, or the local market point to one species as being far more suitable than any other (e.g., Pine on poor, dry sand; Austrian Pine on deteriorated lime ; Ash-groves and Alder-beds on wet land). Practically, however, it often happens that only one sort of wood is saleable at a fair profit, and then, if he plant at all, the landowner may prefer to plant that (e.g., pure Larch, despite the risk there always is of canker). The most suitable trees for pure woods are Beech and the shade-enduring ever- green Conifers (Spruces, Silver and Douglas Firs, and Cypresses). Mixed Highwoods are on the whole preferable to pure woods, MIXED WOODS. 41 and usually produce timber of the largest size and best quality, except where the soil and the situation distinctly indicate one kind of tree as preferable to any other and most likely to thrive in large masses. Nature's method in great virgin forests is that the different kinds of trees usually occur either scattered more or less sporadically, or else in large or small family groups, except where some chance circumstance connected with the production and distribution of seed, reproductive power, endur- ance of shade, hardiness, or peculiarity in soil (especially as regards moisture) and situation has enabled one kind to become more or less dominant over large areas, to the suppression of other kinds of trees less able to assert their position and main- tain themselves under the given conditions. Where Beech is dominant, nearly all other kinds of trees grow better when mixed with it than they do in pure crops or mixed among each other only. The British custom of mixing Larch and Scots Pine along with Spruce and Douglas Fir in alternate rows is not advisable ; for although the former usually shoot ahead at first, they are generally caught up at about 15 to 20 years of age, and then suppressed. Mixture of Larch and Spruce also tends to increase the aphis (Chermes, see p. 226). The Different Forms of Woodland Crops. In the Statutes relating to land valuation, rating, and succession duty, and in the Hoard of Agriculture returns, woodlands are classed either as "Coppices" or "Woods and Plantations" This is merely a continuation of ancient law and custom, for both under the old English forest law and under the common law applying to lands not included within any forest boundary, the woodlands were either coppices (sylva ccedua), whether simple or stored with standard trees, or woods (saltus) ; and important legal differences have always existed, and still exist, in England between these two classes of woodland crops on settled estates. Woods or timber come under the ancient English common law, that "whatever is planted on the land, goes 42 SYLVICULTURE. with the Lind," and forms part of the estate ; and when timber is sold on any settled estate the proceeds from the sale of such timber are treated as capital moneys arising under the Settled Lands Act, 1882 (sect. 35), the heir-in-possession only receiving one-fourth thereof; while in Scotland an heir-in-possession of an entailed estate can cut the timber without restriction. But from a sylvicultural point of view, woodlands may be treated according to one or other of the following different methods : I. COPPICE or COPSE, reproduced chiefly from stool -shoots, and which may be either 1. SIMPLE COPPICE, pure or mixed ; or 2. STORED COPPICE or COPPICE with STANDARDS, preferably raised from seed or from suckers. II. HIGHWOODS, which may be renewed either by 1. CLEAR - FELLING, with artificial regeneration by sowing or plant- ing ; or 2. SUCCESSIVE FALLS or PARTIAL CLEARANCES, which may be either (1) OCCASIONAL OR MORE OR LESS REGULAR FALLS THROUGHOUT THE WHOLE WOOD, with natural or artificial regenera- tion ; or (2) NATURAL REGENERATION IN GROUPS, by felling in patches ; or (3) UNIFORM NATURAL REGENERATION, by means of regular partial clearances made to stimulate seed-production, utilise good seed-years, and gradually remove the mature parent trees when the young crop has established itself, is no longer in need of protection against frost or scorching, and needs more light and air. 1. Simple Coppices can be formed of any kind of broad- leaved tree, but no Conifer has sufficient reproductive power to be grown in this way. Sweet-Chestnut, Oak, Lime, Maple, Sycamore, Hornbeam, Ash, Mountain-Ash, Alder, and shrubs like Hazel, Holly, Buckthorn, and Dogwood reproduce them- selves better than Beech, Birch, Sallow, and Aspen, though softwoods often become dominant on moist land. The best coppice crop to grow on any given land and the best period of rotation depend mainly on the market available. OSIER-HOLTS. 43 Grown chiefly for Oak-bark and charcoal (Birch and Alder) in Scotland and Ireland, they used to be largely cultivated in parts of England where fuel was scarce and hop-poles always in good demand ; but since about 1870 the value of coppices has in most cases shrunk so much that they are now unprofitable. Osier-holts of the smaller Willows, the most valuable and profitable coppices, are largely grown in the fen districts (Lincoln and Cambridge). The chief kinds cultivated are the True Osier (S. vimi?iaUs), with thin, tough, flexible withes growing in thick clusters ; the Laurel Osier ($. triandra), with long flexible twigs ; and the Purple Osier (S. purpurea, from the colour of its male flowers), with very thin and tough withes. Periodical inundations stimulate the growth of Osiers. Floods in winter do no harm, even if lasting for weeks, but lengthened submersion during summer is injurious. Mounds must be thrown up on soil that is too low - lying and wet, whilst stagnant water must be brought into circulation by digging trenches or ditches. The cost of preparing and planting Osier-holts is from ,14 to 23 an acre, and the crop maturing in four or five years yields about 15 an acre, taking 150 bunches of green rods as the average crop (although heavy crops yield 250 bunches, worth 25 per acre). But from the amount of attention it requires, Osier-growing is far more of the nature of Gardening than of Forestry. Coppices of Oak, Ash, Alder, and Osier should be kept pure, and care should be taken to prevent the intrusion of softwood seedlings, which should be weeded out ; but in all other coppices a mixture of different kinds is of advantage, enabling variations in the local market demand and in the quality of the soil to be better utilised. Osier-holts are generally coppiced annually, but otherwise the rotation usually varies from seven to twelve years for mixed coppice, from twelve to sixteen for Oak-bark, and from twenty to twenty-five or thirty years for Alder, the form of coppice 44 SYLVICULTURE. most closely resembling a highwood in appearance. The Pollarding or Lopping of Willows and Poplars growing near streams is mainly an agricultural measure. 2. Stored Coppice or Coppice with Standards grows best when the overwood consists of light-demanding trees, and the underwood of shade-enduring kinds. The Statute of Woods commanded that "12 standils or storers of Oak " were to be left per acre, or, failing Oak, of " Elm, Ash, Asp, or Beech," which were then the most valuable kinds of timber-trees. On good, fresh loam Oak and Ash are still the most valuable standards, while, as in simple coppice, Hazel, Ash, Chestnut, and Sycamore usually form the most profitable part of the underwood. The number of standards that can be left per acre depends on the quality of the soil, but absolute regularity in the different age- classes is never attainable in practice. (See also pages 80, 112). 3. Highwoods, usually raised from seed either by natural regeneration or by artificial sowing or planting, are not cleared as a crop until they have either reached their full maturity or are old enough to yield a crop of marketable timber ; and it is the only crop-form in which Conifers can be grown. It is also the only form in which long straight clean stems can be produced. Highwoods may be worked with a rotation of from about 40 years (for pitwood) up to 120 years or more (for Oak). Until highwoods are mature the only fellings made in them are thinnings to remove dead, badly-grown, suppressed or diseased trees interfering with the growth of others more likely to prove profitable. Highwoods are usually the most profitable timber-crop, then Copse or Coppice with Standards, and simple Coppice the least profitable nowadays. But Osier-holts or Alder- coppices for clog- wood prove, under favourable conditions, much more profit- able than copse or most kinds of highwood. And copses are attractive to small landowners, both because they lock up far less capital, and also because they form good game-coverts and MIXED WOODS. 45 fox-preserves. When once simple or stored coppice has been formed, each rotation of 10 or 12 to 20 or 25 years involves only a small outlay in filling blanks, whereas the capital sunk in highwood crops grows at compound interest and increases rapidly, unless there be good thinnings. Throughout the forests of Continental Europe during the last hundred years or more the artificial growth of pure woods of several kinds of trees (especially Conifers, the most profitable timber-crops) has been greatly encouraged. But in place of this leading to the profit expected, it has only too often led to greatly increased damage and loss of money through insect attacks, fungus diseases, windfall, snowbreak, &c. This has especially been the case with Spruce in Germany, where pure Spruce woods grown at sixty years' rotation on a fresh soil and in a damp climate were reckoned to be the most profitable form of timber -crop. So now the formation of mixed woods is far more in favour than thirty or forty years ago, and endeavours are being made to provide for good mixed woods in the future. But the production of Oak, Ash, Elm, Maple, and Sycamore, and also Larch, has always been most satisfactory in mixed woods of broad-leaved trees, and especially when the chief species is Beech, whose thick fall of dead foliage rich in potash forms the best leaf-mould. The advantages of mixed woods are (1) a thick crop protecting the soil; (2) the production of larger and finer timber; (3) diminished danger of windfall, snowbreak, insects, and diseases ; (4) easier natural regeneration ; (5) easier introduction of changes affected by market demand, and (6) greater picturesqueness and diversity in foliage tints ; while the only objection is that they need more careful tending. The main points to be observed in forming mixed woods are that the soil and situation should (1) be such as will suit the kinds of trees intended to be mixed ; (2) that the mixed crops should be such as can adequately protect the productivity by guarding the soil against loss of moisture through sunshine and 46 SYLVICULTURE. exhausting winds, and against becoming overgrown with weeds through too open a leaf - canopy overhead ; (3) that light- demanding trees should be of quicker growth in height than any shade - enduring kinds surrounding them, or should be specially favoured during thinnings ; and (4) that during all stages of growth each of the different trees intermixed should have sufficient individual growing- space to provide for the proper expansion of its crown of foliage and its root- system, and more especially when the several trees are approaching their maturity. The old British system of forming mixed woods geometrically according to a stencil-like " planter's diagram," or in alternate rows, &c., is not a sound system to go on, as it gives no consideration to changes occurring in the soil and the situation. These can only be properly taken into account when variations in the composition, depth, moisture, and other physical properties of the soil are noticed and provided for by judicious admixture of the various kinds of trees individually, or in small patches or groups of varying size, according to the circumstances of each case and the local market for timber of different kinds. A regular survey of the land to be planted should be made three or four years before planting begins, so as to estimate the number of plants of each kind wanted and provide them from the nursery. Such groups may vary from a small size up to many acres in extent. 47 CHAPTEE II. THE FORMATION, TENDING, AND RENEWAL OF WOODLAND CROPS. In forming Woodlands on waste lands, turf -bogs, poor hill- pastures, or arable land thrown out of cultivation, one must either sow seed or plant young live plants ; and owing to the strong growth of weeds that takes place in our damp climate whenever such land is enclosed and the sheep and cattle are removed, planting is the rule, though acorns used to be dibbled in England long before planting began in the seventeenth century. Plantations intended for timber -crops to be worked on business principles should be formed and managed upon some regular plan laying down the objects desired by the proprietor and the general scheme he has in view with regard to formation, tending, management, and ultimate harvesting ; because timber- growing on any large scale can only, like other commercial enterprises, be conducted properly if prudent business methods be adopted. This does not mean that forecasts in any working- plan for forty or sixty years hence should, or could, be carried out just as intended by the present landowner; but later on it will always be useful to know the original intentions in forming and the measures taken in tending the plantations. With regard to the choice of trees for planting, the timber-crops most likely to prove profitable on land of poor quality are Conifers 48 SYLVICULTURE. (Scots Pine on dry sandy places, Austrian Pine on lime, Larch on fresh soil with good natural drainage, Silver and Douglas Firs on fresher land, and Spruces, Cypresses, and Eed Cedar on moist soil). Broad -leaved trees require land of better quality (Oak on clay ; Beech on lime or chalk ; Oak, Ash, Elm, and other hardwoods on loams and mild fresh or moist soil ; and Poplars, Willows, Alders, and Birch where the land is wet, but not water-logged). The local market and demand for one or another kind of wood must influence the choice to a great extent ; but as a rule it is wisest to try to grow the kind of timber for the production of which the given soil and situation seem most suitable. And this, of course, means that wherever the soil and situation show marked differences, different kinds of trees should be planted, with the result that the plantations will become mixed woods formed of larger or smaller groups of trees suited to the given local conditions. These same considera- tions also mainly determine the amount of draining, clearing of surface-growth, soil-preparation, the best method of planting, and the number of plants per acre, and thereby practically fix the total cost of planting per acre. But woodland planting of any sort can only be successful when there is a favourable combination of the following factors : (1) a suitable soil and situation, with such drainage and other soil - preparation as may be necessary ; (2) suitable kinds of trees for the given local conditions, and of a suitable size and quality ; (3) a suitable method of planting, and a sufficient number of plants per acre; (4) adequate protection against human acts, live-stock, game, and vermin for some years, till the young plants have thoroughly established themselves ; and (5) immunity from serious damage by late frosts, drought, fire, insects, fungus disease, &c. Drainage and Soil-preparation are in most cases necessary to a greater or less extent, both when planting new lands and when old woods are being regenerated either naturally or artificially ; DRAINAGE. 49 and this preparatory work may, according to circumstances, extend to the soil, the subsoil, and the surf ace -growth of weeds. Sour, wet, marshy, or water-logged lands, peats or clays, must first of all be drained to carry off the injurious excess of soil- moisture, and to allow of a freer circulation of oxygen within the soil ; for wet, undrained land remains cold and inert. Bog- myrtle patches are always sour and acid, and need very thorough drainage and aeration before becoming plantable with profit ; and where plenty of more suitable land is available, such patches should be excluded in the meantime. In a wet climate like the West of Scotland a considerable amount of surface - draining will usually have to be done, merely to carry off the heavy rain-water falling during about nine months in every year. Throughout most of the extensive waste-lands in Scotland and Ireland there are large tracts with deep peaty and mossy soil resting on stiff clay or hard gravelly pan, preventing water percolating downwards ; and to be effective drains should pierce through this, though the width, depth, and distance apart of the drains will depend on the wetness of the soil and the stiffness and depth of the impervious layer or sub- soil. Another effect of drainage is practically to increase the depth to which tree -roots can descend for their food -supply. The deeper the drainage, the greater will be the permeability of the soil, and its capacity for being warmed by the sun and thus stimulated to provide plant-food. When any extensive drainage system is necessary, as in preparing big peat-mosses for planting, a system of main drains, side-drains, and feeders should be dug, beginning at the lowest point. The main drains are usually about 3 to 4 ft. wide and 2 J to 3 ft. deep, though often much wider and deeper on peat-bogs, and the small feeders are usually about a foot broad or more, and 10 to 12 inches deep, and the sides of all drains should be cut with sloping edges to prevent the sides falling in from top-pressure or scouring. The bottom of the drain should D 5 SYLVICULTURE. even in the smallest feeders be at least 8 or 9 inches broad, so as to allow of their being easily cleaned out with a spade. According to the nature of the soil and the degree of wetness, drains may have to be dug from about 10 yards apart in stiff clay to 20 in light soil. They should, if possible, be dug a year or more in advance of planting, as peat-bogs and mossy lands subside considerably ; and they should be frequently inspected to see that they are not getting choked in any way. On deep moors it is better to drain them first of all to a depth of about 3 ft. to let the moor settle gradually and gain in density, than to sink trenches to their full depth at once. But even then it is necessary to open them for about one-third deeper than finally intended to be, in order to allow for subsidence. To drain at any time after planting is always risky, as even old woods may die through the subsequent diminution of soil-moisture and lowering of the water-level. The cost of digging drains varies greatly with their size and the kind of soil ; but small drains usually come to about d. to Jd. a running yard, large side-drains f d. to 1 Jd., and main drains 1 Jd. to 2d. a yard for ditches 36 by 30 by 9 in., and more, according to size. Where there are wet patches on hill-sides, the drains should run more or less horizontally along the foot of the slope down which the water comes, so as to intercept it at about a right angle and lead it off from the more or less level stretch ; and the more nearly horizontal each such catchment drain is, the greater is its effect as regards the land between it and the next drain lower down. On flat bogs or marshy land a rectangular network of drains is best. Where the land is practically flat and it is difficult to carry off the drainage water, or where moorpan or any stiff layer has to be broken through, and also when more or less parallel drains are being cut, the spoil earth should be thrown up in mounds well back from the trench or drain, and these can be used for mound-planting (say at 5 ft. by 3 ft. or 5 ft. by 4 ft, = 2904 SOIL-PREPARATION. 5 1 or 2178 per acre) especially favourable when the land is wet (Fig. 1). The Superficial Soil-preparation required will vary accord- ing to the soil-covering and the stiffness of the soil. So far as the soil-covering of weeds is concerned, the amount of clearing and preparation desirable before planting varies greatly, accord- ing to the amount of protection needed against late frosts and drought. Where these dangers do not exist a soil- covering like furze, broom, or bracken (all indicating a naturally well- drained soil) can be cut and burned ; but otherwise it is best only to clear them sufficiently to give the young plants room to grow. Where the growth of bracken is very strong, it should Fig. A 5' 5' 5' Drains io//. apart ; planting mound- lines $ft. apart. be cut over twice or sometimes even thrice in the year before planting, the first switching being in June just as the fronds are uncurling. This exhausts the vigour of growth, and during the year of planting it may only be necessary to beat back the fronds in late summer, to prevent them overlying the young plants. Heather, whortleberry, and the like, which do not spread, whip, or choke the plants, are in most cases beneficial by sheltering the young plants against late frost, drying spring winds, early summer drought and scorching, and even against rabbits (if not numerous) and black-cock. Sporadic Birch or Aspen, too, ought then to be left standing for pro- tection against frost and drought till the young plants have established themselves, when they can be cut and removed without doing much damage, and when the seedlings and stool- 52 SYLVICULTURE. shoots then springing up can be more easily kept in check than would be possible if they were cleared before planting. If the land be stiff, the soil itself also needs preparation by being loosened to improve its physical condition and promote aeration. On the score of expense, this special soil- preparation is usually confined to opening up pits, either with C- or S-conical spades (as is cheapest), or with pick, pick-shaped hoe, or mattock (see page 68). When sand-dunes and shifting sands have to be planted, the preliminary preparation consists in fixing the sand by means of hurdles, turf, or tree-branches, before sowing or planting sand - grasses, everlasting pea (Lafhyrus), Pines, &c. Number of Plants needed, and their Supply. It is best to examine the planting - ground about 3 or 4 years before planting to forecast the number of different kinds of plants that may be needed, and the amount of drainage and soil- preparation that may seem necessary. As it is best to form mixed plantations by planting in groups according to soil and situation, -the land should be examined with a soil-testing boring-stick to ascertain its nature and depth ; and with the information thus obtained one can forecast the number of plants actually needed when the planting-time arrives. Say that 20 acres are to be planted, and that three acres seem most suitable for Larch, 3 for Douglas Fir, 4 for Red Cedar, 7 for Spruce, and 3 for Scots Pine, that planting is to be at 4 by 4 ft. (2722 per acre), and that 10 per cent extra may be needed for filling blanks, or 3000 per acre in all ; then one knows that the supply of plants that must be raised in the home nursery, or else purchased, will be : Larch ... . . 3000x3= 9,000 Douglas Fir ... 3000 x 3 '= 9,000 Red Cedar. . . .3000x4 = 12,000 Spruce 3000x7 = 21,000 Scots Pine .... 3000 x 3 = 9,000 Total plants for 20 acres = 60,000 NURSERY WORK. 53 Nurseries. If large numbers of plants are annually needed for regular planting, a permanent home nursery is profitable, besides providing thoroughly acclimatised plants. Otherwise plants have to be purchased from nurserymen, in which case it is best to buy them as 2-year seedlings and acclimatise them in a temporary nursery on part of or near the planting-ground. Set here at 1 foot apart (43,560 per acre), only T V of the land needs at first to be enclosed and planted ; and when they are of the size desired, i|- of them can be lifed and planted out, leaving the remainder at 4 by 4 ft., the pitting being done very cheaply with a C- or S-conical spade. This method acclimatises the plants ; means the least possible cost in transport ; enables planting to take place with fresh plants supplied every half- hour or hour, and to be interrupted whenever necessary (weather) or convenient (if men otherwise employed) without entailing loss of plants; and is cheapest, as even fencing is reduced to a minimum. Nursery Work is of great importance, because the success of planting depends, as much on well-developed and healthy plants as upon a rational method of planting and a proper choice of the kinds of trees suitable for the soil and situation. The following are the main points to be kept in view in making and working a nursery : 1. A nursery should be on an open and airy but not exposed situation, avoiding hollows and damp frosty spots, where insects and fungi are also apt to abound. A northerly aspect is preferable to a hot southern ex- posure, or to the east, where damage from late and early frosts and drying spring winds is greatest for least damage is done, after a frosty night, when the air is gradually warmed before direct sunshine falls on the plants. It should be well fenced against rabbits, &c., and should have a good water-supply in case of drought. 2. A well-drained, good sandy loam is the best soil ; and it should not be in rich cultivation, else the plants grow lanky and not bushy and robust for planting on rough hillsides with poor soil. 3. A square or rectangular nursery can be most conveniently divided into rectangular plots and beds, and its size depends on the number, age, 54 SYLVICULTURE. and kinds of plants to be grown for annual output. One acre of nursery will provide seed-beds and transplant lines for an annual output of about 66,000 2-year-2 plants, or enough to plant 22 acres at 4 x 4 feet (2722 per acre) and give 10 per cent for filling blanks. If 2 -year Conifer seedlings only are required, then from \ to 1 per cent of the area to be planted annually will suffice ; while if 2-year-l and 2-year-2 transplants are needed, then from 4 to 5 per cent of the annual area may be wanted for the nursery (to allow of fallowing and green -manuring about one-fourth annually). 4. For a new nursery, after any draining and levelling needed, the ground should be trenched for 18 inches or more in depth, and the soil well broken up and pulverised ; and by putting the surface-soil at the bottom of the trench, expensive weeding is reduced to a minimum. Where the soil is only 6 or 8 inches deep, it should be ploughed as deep as possible, with a skim-coulter on the plough to skim off the surface layer about two inches deep and turn it over into the bottom of the pre- vious furrow. This makes the turf easier dealt with when the plants are being laid, though it neither obviates trouble when digging with spades nor prevents growth of weeds. 5. Towards the end of April or early in May is soon enough to sow most kinds of seed upon seed-beds whose soil has been thoroughly pul- verised at least down to one spade's depth by repeated digging and raking ; and the seed should be sown when the soil is quite friable and neither wet nor dry. But seed of low germinative power should be sown as soon as it ripens (Elm in June, and Birch in July or August). 6. It is important to get good seed from healthy, middle-aged trees, and its germinating power should be tested (with wet flannel or other test) experimentally in advance, to know whether to sow thickly or thinly on the seed-beds. 7. The seed-beds should be about 3 ft. 9 in., or not over 4 ft. broad though 3 ft. 9 in. is preferable, to permit of easy weeding without tramping and injuring the plants. Seeds are sown in drills or broadcast if very small (Birch, Alder, Elm, &c. ), while large seeds like acorns and chestnuts are dibbled or sown singly. In sowing broadcast, after the seed-beds have been lined off to a suitable length (25 ft.) and breadth, part of the surf ace- soil is drawn with a fine iron rake to each side of the bed, and a light roller is used to smooth the surface ; then the seed, pre- viously moistened and rolled in red-lead powder to protect it against birds, mice, and insects, is broadcast evenly over the bed, lightly covered with the drawn soil by quickly raking over the bed, and pressed in by the roller being again lightly passed over the surface. The soil-covering need only be from ^ to ^ inch deep, a light, dry soil needing the thicker covering to prevent the seedlings getting scorched during hot, dry weather or being lifted by frost. NURSERY WORK. 55 Fig. 2. 8. The quantity of seed required may vary (according to the ascer- tained gertmnative percentage) from f to 1 Ib. for Scots Pine and Spruce, about or over 1| Ib. for Larch, and about 2 Ib. for Silver Fir per 100 sq. ft. of seed-bed for broadcast sowing ; but this will of course vary accord- ing to the quality of the seed. This usually gives per 100 sq. ft. of seed-bed from 5-6000 2-year seedlings of Larch and 8-10,000 of Scots Pine fit to line out. Drill-sowing by hand takes longer than broadcast sowing, but weeding is easier and cheaper, less seed is needed per 100 sq. ft. of seed-bed, and the seedlings are less likely to be lifted by frost. 9. If drill-sown thickly, Conifer 1-year seedlings have to be transplanted, but if thinly drilled or sown broadcast, they can stand 2 years before being put in the nursery lines at distances suited to the plants and the time they have to stand there (lines usually 12 in. apart). But Douglas Fir and Menzies Spruce often do best when planted out after the 1- or 2-year-old seedlings have stood for only one year in the lines. Transplanting for 1 or 2 years develops strong, sturdy, well-rooted plants, suitable for establishing themselves on rough ground with poor soil. In transplanting, it is best to range seedlings in beds according to their size, so that all on one bed may develop about equally and be ready for planting out at the same time. And when trans- planting, long straggling roots should be pruned back (fig. 2), as likely to get doubled and deformed in the trench. Thus the bigger class of seedlings may perhaps be ready for putting out as 2-year-l transplants, while the smaller may only be ready as 2-year-2 (or else 2-year-2 and 2-year-3 in Scotland). These weaklings are very useful for filling blanks in young plantations. 10. Where extra strong plants are specially wanted, they can best be obtained by transplanting annually for 2 or 3 times, to stimulate growth of rootlets near the stem (this being a natural effort to speedily overcome the physiological disturbance caused by loss of rootlets and root-hairs at the extremities when transplanting). 11. The work of transplanting seedlings into nursery lines costs from 3d. to 5d. per 1000, but weeding costs a good deal from time to time, and so transplants usually cost from 6s. to 8s. per 1000, according to the^price of the seed and its quality, and the amount of weeding needed. 12. In every permanent nursery a spare plot should be kept in hand for a year to rest and improve it. This can either be manured and put under a crop of potatoes, turnips, vegetables (or mustard, if there is an^ danger from wire- worms), or else lucerne may be grown and dug in during autumn to decompose into a mild green-manure. On a sandy soil lupin Pruning shears^ 56 , SYLVICULTURE. is specially useful (owing to the fixed nitrogen in the root-nodules). About i to of the nursery area should be treated thus each year ; and if direct manuring be applied at all, it is best given in the shape of good leaf-mould (beech best, if available) or well-rotted turf, &c. These mild natural manures are generally preferable to stronger artificial manures, which usually tend to produce lanky plants unsuitable for planting out on rough, poor land. 13. Drill-sown beds need less seed, are easier and cheaper to weed, and less liable to have the young plants lifted by frost (a danger greatest on stiff soil) ; and weeding is facilitated if the drills are made across the bed, and not longways. Acorns can be dibbled 2 in. apart in drills about 9 in. apart and covered with about 1| in. of soil ; but beech-nuts and similar seeds can be put much closer in 6-in. drills ; and small seeds like those of many Conifers are sown in 6-in. drills more thickly, and are far more lightly covered with earth. Sowing should take place in dry weather, if possible ; and after the earthing-over of the drills, the beds should be lightly rolled. Scots Pine, Spruce, and Larch seed sown broadcast should be raked over and rolled ; but very small seeds (Alder, Birch, Red Cedar, Cypresses, &c.) need only be firmed in with very little soil-covering. For dibbled seed the quantity required for each bed can easily be calculated ; but for drill-sowing of smaller seeds the following are rough general averages of the quantity needed per 100 sq. ft. of seed-bed : Scots Pine, Spruce, Elm, and Hornbeam, about 4 oz. ; Austrian Pine, Ash, Maple, and Sycamore, about 6 oz. ; Larch, Douglas Fir, Birch, and Alder, about 8 oz. ; Silver Fir, about 1 Ib. ; and for broadcast sowing from 2 to 3 times these quantities are needed. The period of germination varies from 2-3 up to 4-6 weeks for the different kinds of tree-seeds. (See also page 38.) The following are data for 1909-10 from an Argyllshire nursery on a stiff soil apt to lift with frost, the seed-beds being made 25 ft. x 4 f t. = 100 sq. ft., and 10 drills sown thickly 4 in. apart : Seed used per 100 sq. ft. Ib. Kind of Tree. 1-year Seedlings. 1-year Seedlings per 1 Ib. of Seed. H Scots Pine (Strathspey) 55,000 37,000 2| Corsican Pine 19,000 8,400 H Spruce 130,000 29,000 2| Douglas Fir 22,500 10,000 NURSERY WORK. 5*7 The 2| Ib. of Douglas Fir cost 30s., and past experience shows that the 22,500 1-year seedlings will give fully 15,000 (and probably 18,000) plants fit for planting out, at the following actual cost : s. d. 1st year: preparing, sowing, and 3 hand -weed ings for 22,500 plants . . . . . . .28 2nd year: transplanting, 15s. ; and 4 weedings, 6s. 8d. . 21 8 3rd year : 3 weedings . . . . . 50 Total cost for 22,500, less 30 per cent for casualties = 15,000 l-year-2 transplants . . . " 29 4 or say . 30 Add cost of seed . . . . . . 30 Total cost of the 15, 000 plants .... 60 This, excluding rent, &c., of ground and general share of supervision, is equal to 4s. per 1000, although the cost of seed was high. On the Continent two or more short cross-drills are usually made at once with a drttlmaker, consisting of a thick board as long as the bed is broad (3| or 4 ft.), with projecting battens (of the size and depth the drill is to be) screwed on to it at one- fourth the width of the board Fl - 3- from each side. Say the breadth ^ /" .> of the beds is 4 ft., and the drills are to be 7 in. apart, the board would be 14 in. broad (fig. 3), and ........>* >< -vi the projecting pieces of wood r n . . ,, Cross-section of a drill-board to make (say \ in. deep and f in. broad) drills would be fixed at 3| in. from each edge, leaving a space of 7 in. between. Each time the board is moved forward on the bed, the 3^ in. left at one side where the board has already been pressed down, and the 3^ in. on the other side when it is placed in the next position, make up the 7 in. from drill to drill. As the drill formed has the shape "L^xJ*? ^he see ^ poured in falls to right and left, and thus gets better distributed. Or three or four drill-battens can be ranged in parallel lines at the desired distance, and held in position by being screwed firmly on to three to five crossbars on the top. This makes the frame lighter and easier to handle than if the whole top-piece were -a f or 1 in. board. Various mechanical contrivances .are used to ensure a more equal distribution of seed in the drills than by hand-sowing. 58 SYLVICULTURE. One of the simplest is a seed- distributor (fig. 4), made the same length as the drillmaker, and used along with it. This consists of a piece of wood (a) as long as the seed-bed is wide (3f or 4 feet), with a longitudinal groove (c) wide and deep enough to hold the quantity of seed to sow. The seed is kept in place by a sliding top- piece (&), and the whole is turned round and placed exactly over the drill ; and on the top-piece (now resting on the ground) being withdrawn, the seed falls into the drill. Another simple contrivance is the souring - horn, made of tin (fig. 5), Fig. 4. I Fig. 5- Cross - section of a seed-distributor. a. The grooved piece of wood ; b. The sliding top-piece ; c. The groove for holding the seed. The Sowing-horn. chiefly used for small Conifer seeds. On its spout are four movable nozzles to regulate the issue of seed. An acorn dibbler can also be used for dibbling large seeds (fig. 6). In Britain, seedlings are usually set in the transplant lines by being placed in position against the perpendicular side of the trench cut to receive them ; and after the loose earth is replaced, it is trodden in. This tends to deform the roots. A better method is to use a seedling- pricker (fig. 7), notched so that the seedlings can be put at the re- quired distance. When charged with plants, it is laid along the edge of .NURSERY WORK. 59 the trench, and the earth filled in and gently firmed before removing b and withdrawing backwards the main piece a, c, d. Plants can also be raised by layering a branch of a tree and partially burying it in the soil till it roots itself and can be severed (as is some- times done with Lime and English Elm), or by planting cuts or slips ^'g- 7- taken from a branch (as is often done with Willows and Poplars). But these methods are mostly em- ployed to propagate varieties for ornamental purposes. Nursery Pests. The best general protection against birds, insects, and mice, is to moisten the seed and roll it in red-lead powder before sowing. But if numerous, mice can only be got rid of by laying poisoned wheat in drain-tiles. Squirrels have to be shot. Rabbits have to be kept out by 1-inch mesh wire-netting 4 ft. wide bent outwards for 6 in. below the ground, and for 6 in. at top, to prevent burrowing and climb- ing over. For roe-deer an extra strand of wire is needed, to raise the fence to about 5 ft. high. Notched Seedling-pricker. a. The main piece of wood notched to contain the seedlings. I. The movable piece of wood to bold the seedlings in position. c e d is placed on the ground-level, the point e being at the lip of the perpen- die " iicular side of the trench. Insects are best kept down by hanging up cheap wooden nesting-boxes for starlings and other insectivorous birds ; but emit chafer-grubs and mole-criclcets have to be dug up. If wire-Worms are bad, sowing mustard on infested parts is the best means of exterminating them. For slugs, grease traps should be laid down and visited every 60 SYLVICULTURE. morning. Fungus diseases can usually be checked by spraying with paraffin emulsion or Bordeaux mixture ; but if this seems ineffective, the diseased plants should be pulled up and burned. Both frost and scorching can best be prevented by placing light movable screens over the beds needing protection. Such screens may be of coarse canvas or sacking running with rings along wires raised on wooden pegs, or wooden lattice-work frames, or tree-branches; but if Conifer tree-branches be used over Conifer-beds fungus disease is likely to break out, through saprophytic fungi on the dead foliage becoming parasitic on the seed-beds or in the transplant lines. Package, Transport, and Storage of Plants. Seedlings can easily be moved to the nursery-lines in hand-baskets ; but when either seedlings or transplants have to be -sent to some distance, they should be properly protected against heat and wind, to prevent the drying-up of their rootlets. On being carefully lifted from the beds, they should be tied in bunches of fifty, and packed with damp moss in bundles of convenient size. To prevent heating, evergreen Conifers should be packed with the leaves of one bunch touching the roots of another, and in dry weather the moss should be moistened from time to time. If the plants have to be taken by cart, a covered cart best protects the plants from sun and wind. From a home-nursery only so many plants will be sent daily as can be planted. But if received in bulk from a distance they should at once be un- packed, moistened if necessary, and sheuglied or heeled in by being bedded in shallow trenches in some cool, shady, sheltered place till wanted for planting. Best Season for Planting. Whether spring or autumn planting is best, often mainly depends on the extent to be planted annually and on the amount of labour obtainable locally, although, other things being equal, it is usually best 'to plant broad-leaved trees in autumn and Conifers in spring. Under any circumstances the moving of plants from one place PLANTING. 61 to another creates a physiological disturbance, the power of overcoming which varies in different kinds of trees. Healthy plants may with care be transplanted at any time of the year ; but physiological disturbance in the organism is reduced to its minimum if the removal take place either just after active vegetation has ceased in autumn, or just before it recommences in spring. But as root-growth goes on to a slight extent in broad-leaved plants during the winter period of rest, autumn planting is (other things being equal) best for broad-leaved kinds, and spring planting for the evergreen Conifers to save them from being shaken by wind in winter. Wherever the supply of suitable labour is limited, however, planting work over any extensive area practically goes on right through from autumn till spring whenever the weather is open and favourable. In spring -planting it is best to plant the warmer exposures before the colder hollows and northern aspects, and to plant first of all the kinds which flush their foliage earliest (Birch, Elm, Chestnut, Larch), then to set out the other deciduous trees, and to plant the evergreen Conifers last of all, as they mostly stand transplanting well even after their new foliage begins to flush (not Austrian Pine, however, which generally transplants badly, though sometimes best in July if that be a wet month). Douglas Fir seems to do best when planted late in April. If possible, planting should be done in mild open weather, and not during heavy rain or frost ; and great atten- tion should be paid to keeping the plants well protected, in a planter's tray filled with wet moss and having two flannel flaps covering the top, to prevent drying up of the rootlets and root-hairs. The Best Distance in Planting. The poorer the land,, the closer should the plants be set; and the better the land, the sooner the plantations will establish themselves and grow up to form a thicket from which thinnings may be profitable. But the best distance for planting, or the number of plants needed 62 SYLVICULTURE. per acre, depends both on the soil and the kind of tree, and also on the prospect there is of being able to dispose profitably of young thinnings. Wide planting usually means expensive cleaning and weeding in young plantations ; but there is no use in incurring the heavier expense of close planting if a somewhat wider distance will practically answer equally well, unless a good local market for early thinnings promises a fair return. The best distance, therefore, depends to a great extent upon the size of the plants used ; and this again depends on the nature of the soil and the situation. As a rule, it is best to use 2-year-2 plants and to set them about 4x4 ft. apart (2722 per acre). This may be taken as the average distance for "pitting" or "holing," as it allows the plantations to grow up to from fifteen to twenty years without a first thinning being needed. But where two-year seedlings can be dibbled or notched on light soil, the cheapest form of planting, they can be put in at about 3J x 3J ft. (3556 per acre), or on a very poor soil and an exposed situation at 3 x 3 ft. (4840). Unnecessarily close planting, besides being dearer, also tends to draw up the young stems in a too crowded condition and makes early thinning imperative, perhaps before there is any market for small mate- rial ; while wide planting tends to make the young poles branching and rough until they form close canopy. Hence the probability of successful growth, the cost of planting, and the probable profit from early thinnings are all important points to be considered in fixing the planting distance. Shade-enduring trees can be planted closest ; but among these the Douglas Fir, owing to its rapid growth at first, need not be planted closer than 4J x 4J ft. (2151 per acre) or even 5x5 ft. (1742 per acre), unless there is a good market for young thinnings. For a very light or sandy soil, dibbling and notching at 3 or 3J ft. are certainly the quickest and cheapest methods of planting ; but on stiffish land, " hole-and-plug " planting with a C-conical spade, or pit-planting at about 4 ft., either with ball-plants PLANTING. 63 raised from the nursery with C-conical spades or with naked plants, is more likely to prove successful, though costing more. The Number of Plants needed per Acre can easily be calculated for planting at equal distances in lines (in squares or rectangles), by multiplying the distances into each, other to give the average growing-space and dividing the 43,560 sq. ft. in an acre by this. But if planting be done in equilateral triangles as sometimes happens (especially in windy places and shelter-belts), then the number of plants needed for squares or rectangular lines has to be multiplied by 1'155 i.e., about one-sixth more has to be added. Distance from Plant to Plant. Feet. Number of Plants needed per Acre for Planting. In Squares. In Equilateral Triangles. 3 34 ? 4840 3556 2722 2151 1742 5590 4107 3143 2484 2012 But in practice mathematical regularity is neither possible nor desirable, and on broken or stony ground the plants have just to be put in where there are suitable pockets of soil. Planting in squares or lines (e.g., at 4 x 4 ft., or 5 x 4 ft.) is easier, though triangular planting best utilises the growing-spaces. The Different Methods of Planting. One of the great advantages of planting over sowing is that wherever any special soil- preparation has to take place, as is always the case except in dibbling or notching, it confines this to the lowest limit. Thus if large pits of 12 in. square have to be opened 4 ft. apart from centre to centre, this only means specially preparing 2722 sq. ft., or one-sixteenth of each acre, whereas strips prepared for sowing, even if made wide apart, represent a much larger 64 SYLVICULTURE. proportion. Planting may take place either with naked seed- lings, usually taken from the seed-beds at two years of age, or with older transplants, usually 2-year-2, taken from the nursery lines either naked or with balls of earth attached to their roots. In planting with two-year seedlings the plants are generally notched or slit-planted, while plants with balls of earth are usually pitted or mound-planted. The rougher the ground and the greater the danger from weeds, the stronger and more robust should be the plants used ; but good 2-year- 2 transplants are on the whole the best to use. It is best to plant the young plants singly, as wisps of three or four seedlings or young transplants seldom grow well. When planted, neither seedlings nor transplants should stand deeper in the soil than they have stood in the nursery, unless taken from a nursery with stimsh soil and planted on very light friable soil, when slightly deeper planting diminishes danger from drought. Deep planting is bad for all kinds of plants, but especially for Conifers, and among Conifers especially for the shallow-rooting Spruce, which then endeavours to throw out a new lateral root-system nearer the surface. If planted too deep on a friable sandy soil, the plants may in a short time be able to adjust themselves to their new environment ; but if the soil be so stiff as to prevent free aeration, then the root-system gradually gets suffocated from want of oxygen. And if in lifting the plants from the nursery lines many of the rootlets get damaged, then it is desirable to trim the foliage slightly with the pruning -shears, to* try and restore something like the previously existing normal balance between imbibition and transpiration. Such trimming should, however, be avoided so far as possible ; hence the use of small plants and simple planting methods is preferable to larger plants and costlier methods of planting, if the latter are not rendered necessary owing to strong growth of weeds or other reason. Wherever obtainable, the shelter of woods and plantations should be taken advantage of when drawing up a scheme of PLANTING. 65 planting extensively, as young plantations always thrive best when screened from strong winds. On old arable land the planting of Scots Pine is apt to induce root-disease ; and on poor soil, especially if limy, an admixture of White Alder is often beneficial through the supplies of humus obtained from its cast foliage, and through its power of throwing up root- suckers plentifully. Quick-growing or hardy kinds of trees, like Larch, Pine, Rowan, and Birch, are sometimes planted as nurses to protect less hardy but more valuable kinds from frost; but the nurses should be cut out as soon as they have served their purpose, otherwise they suppress the trees they were intended to assist, and grow up into a poor, thin, unprofitable wood, perhaps not bearing half the crop it might have yielded. The usual methods of planting are 1. NOTCHING OR SLIT-PLANTING, usually at 3 or 3 ft. apart (4840 or 3556 per acre) (1) CUSTOM AEY BRITISH NOTCHING, with the ditching-spade or similar tool. (2) VERTICAL NOTCHING, with a flat -faced, iron-shod dibble, ditching - spade, or similar tool (e.g., Mansfield spade, a ditching-spade with horizontal treads at top). 2. PITTING, usually at 4 ft. apart (2722 per acre) (1) CUSTOMARY BRITISH PITTING, with pick, pick - hoe, or mattock. (2) PITTING WITH A C- OR S - CONICAL OB A CYLINDRICAL SPADE. 3. MOUND-PLANTING, in rows upon mounds thrown up from ditches or heaps of earth on wet soil. Naked plants are generally used in Britain, but plants with conical or cylindrical balls of earth round their roots can be lifted from any not too light soil by using the C-conical or the cylindrical spade, and transplanted into pits made on the plant- ing ground by similar tools of the same size (Fig. 12, p. 69). 1. Notching or slit-planting of any description is only suit- able for a very light sandy or friable soil, in which the roots E 66 SYLVICULTURE. can spread easily after being jammed in ; and even then vertical notching with a broad -faced dibble is by far the preferable method, for though the roots are pancaked, they can hang down in their natural position and are less likely to be bent and become badly malformed than in the customary method of notching. For a stiff clayey or peaty soil, notching of any sort is a most unreasonable way j 2 of. trying to raise really good and / 2 32 \S healthy plantations. | z IT 7 3 The customary British method . Place wl.e.e plant is inserted. of notching (Fig. 8) 13 to make 'SS^X^Wn?5ltift 1 cS0*ix e ^ er two deep rectangular cuts into the soil (L or T) or else three cuts (double-notching, H- or X) ; and as the last cut is made, the handle of the ditching-spade, or similar tool used, is bent down to near the ground while a plant is slipped in where the opening is largest ; then the handle is raised again, the spade withdrawn, and the sod firmed by tramping. Its only attraction is its cheapness; and any other method (e.g. dibbling) suitable for a light soil with sufficient depth seems to be preferable even if it may perhaps cost slightly more. Such a method can only succeed on a very light sandy soil, and even then the roots are cramped into an unnatural position, differing greatly (Fig. 9) from the more vertical position they should occupy in nursery-lines producing good plants. Even in light, sandy soil the roots show distinct traces of deformity for many years, and on stiff loams and clays it is hardly rational to expect healthy and profitable plantations, because the roots often look as if they had been dipped into a glue-pot before being planted. From a scientific point of view, notching is a bad system of planting on any except a very light soil ; yet DIBBLING. ;67 it is only fair to say that many of the old Larch plantations on hillsides grew well and were profitable. But root-deformity is very prevalent among notched plantations; and this must lead to physiological disturbance, making the young plants less hardy against frost, and increasing danger from insects .and fungi. That fungus disease is often seen in young notched Conifer plantations is probably partly due to bark-wounds made by the planter when treading the sods to firm the young plant. If sods be turned and notched through, this checks the growth of weeds for the next two years (practised at Inverary about fifty years ago). Vertical notching, whether done with a flat-faced dibble, or with a ditching-spade or any other similar tool, is carried out upon similar lines. The flat-faced dibble (Fig. 10) is simply a bit of wood with a short curved handle and an iron-shod tip, about .3 to 4 in. broad at the top, arid taper- ing to a point. The first insertion (a) into the soil is vertical, into which the plant is inserted deeply, shaken lightly, and then pulled up to its proper position, to pre- Thc vent the roots getting bent; the next, about 2 in. away from the .first, is slanting, (b\ and pressed forward from b to a to fix the plant already brought into place. A small third insertion (c) is made and pressed for- ward to close up the slit at b. The whole work can be easily done by one man, woman, or child. An extremely cheap method, it has the great advantage over notching of ensuring the roots having a natural and more or less vertical position. But even in light soil the roots are pancaked, arid have to overcome a good deal of physiological disturbance before the plant establishes itself .and regains a normal root-system. SYLVICULTURE* Another cheap method, which may possibly answer well on a somewhat stiffer or a peaty soil, is the hole-and-plug planting with a C-conical spade, a man making the holes and lifting the conical plug entire, and a boy inserting the plant at its proper level with his left hand and replacing the plug with his right, then carefully treading the plug down. But this will also pancake the root-system, though to a somewhat less extent than in dibbling. 2. Pitting consists in opening out square or round holes at 4 ft. apart, or other planting distance, the pit being opened either with a pick and spade, or hoe-pick, or mattock in very stiff, stony, or gravelly ground, or with a C- or S-conical or a cylindrical spade on any kind of land (loam, peat, &c.) permitting of its use. The pits are generally dug about 9 to 12 in. broad and deep, their cost, of course, increasing with the size. But on suitable soil the use of conical or cylindrical spades is much quicker and cheaper, though not making the soil so friable. And especial advantage is gained by using a strong, heavy (10 to 11 Ib.) steel S-conical spade . 11), which breaks up the soil instead as the C-conical and cylindrical spades do, though these can be used both for opening pits and lifting ball plants (Fig. 12), as might often be done from temporary nurseries near the planting- ground. The best size for conical spades is 6 in. in diameter and 10 in. long, and they should be heavy (10 to 11 Ib.) for a stiffish soil. In a dry climate it is best to open the pits in autumn and plant in spring, as the soil gets improved S-conical Spade. ab. Long wooden handle. c. Iron shaft. d. S-shaped conical blade. e. The hole prepared on spade being forced into froma n to t 6 Urned """^ f liftin S a solid P lu PLANTING. 69 by the action of frost ; but where the winter rainfall is heavy and more or less continuous, it is better to open them at time of planting. And when wet hillsides have to be planted, a shallow surface-drainage can be obtained by lifting in autumn thick sods of turf of about 18 in. square in continuous lines from below upwards, inverting the sods at the planting spots (clearing away heather at these spots) to let the grassy surfaces Fig. 12. Pitting with Cylindrical or Semicircular Spades, and plants with balls of earth. a, Plant as lifted from nursery-bed ; Z>, Pit made for it on planting ground. bite into each other, and tramping them well down ; then in spring pits can be opened through these upturned sods with a heavy 6 in. diameter S-conical spade and the plants put in. This combination of pitting and mound-planting both helps to drain the land and raises the plant above the water-level, with a double depth of the top layer of soil (see footnote, p. 73). On stiff or peaty soil an addition of sand or small gravel is very useful in the pit. In planting in such pits it is best to take a good handful of soil, squeeze it well and stick it on the lip of the pit, then put the plant against this in proper position, when both hands will be free to fill the soil into the pit and firm it properly about the roots. Or a small mound of soil is formed by hand at the bottom of the pit, so as to bring the plant into proper position, SYLVICULTURE. Fig. 13- and the roots are spread carefully over this mound and the rest of the soil filled in and firmed (Fig. 13). For the heavy spade-work men are of course needed ; but the actual planting is both cheaper and also far better done by women, boys, and girls, than by men, On very rocky ground planting in the pockets of soil with a strong hand- trowel might often be a good way of pit-planting. 3. Mound-planting in wet places con- sists in raising small mounds of earth and planting on the top of these, in whatever way (dibbling, pitting, &c.) seems advisable (Figs. 14 to 17). Fig. 14. Ordinary Mound-planting with naked plants. Combination of Pitting and Monnd-planting with naked plants. Fig. 17- Combination of Pitting and Mound-planting Combination of Notching and Monnd-planting with ball-plants. with naked plants. PLANTING. 71 On wet land that has to be drained before planting, it is best to throw the spoil-earth well back from the ditches and use it for mound-planting. Thus, if the ditches '. are 10 ft. apart, and /^^ the spoil -earth be \( *f thrown out to 2 J ft. on each side of the ditch, this will give . m . . , ^ 9 9 [. mounds 5 ft. apart, upon which the plants can be set at 3, or 3J, or 4 ft. @ apart (2904, 2489, ^ f ^ or 2178 per acre). ^ Eegularity in /y\ . '., . t sg\ ; /: .. planting is not pos- sible on very stony (%\ . . Q . ( V'. r < ' ground, or wherever pockets of earth @ ?.-/* * ;: *-. : '* have to be used ; but it is best to have ** a gang of planters headed by an ex- perienced foreman, ^ . ,1'i^ ;..; > t ;^ i (1), who either plants along a line & o ....-.;' marked out with a tagged rope or has a 4 ft. Stick t() Planting in lines, each planter, 2, 3, 4, taking his line from the foreman, i. measure off the dis- tance with, and who starts first, while the others, (2) to (4), take their respective lines from him, at 4 ft. apart, or whatever the planting-distance may be (Fig. 18). The Rate and the Cost of Planting vary greatly according to 72 SYLVICULTUHE. local conditions as to soil, situation, labour, the size of the plants used, the planting-distance, and the method of planting. And, of course, draining and other soil-preparation may greatly in- crease the first cost, while the filling of blanks in the first two or three years after planting may add considerably to the total cost before any plantation thoroughly establishes itself. But notching and dibbling are certainly the cheapest methods, though only suitable for a very light soil, while pitting with pick or hoe is the most expensive, and especially on stiff and stony ground. Pitting with conical spades stands midway between these two extremes, though extensive data are not yet available, as this method is only now coming into use- in Britain. In the mild, open, wet climate of western Argyllshire a good planter can usually notch from 80 to 130 plants an hour, accord- ing to the nature of the soil, or on the average about 100 plants an hour, and gets 4d. an hour (3s. 4d. per day of 10 hours, or and ^V Maritime Pine; and' these plantations have succeeded well. On the Continent large plantations on sand-dunes have, been made, 'after fixing the outer sand by means of hurdles, by planting or sowing Banks' and Scots Pines. The success of the plantations is greatly assisted by sowing perennial lupin (Lupinus polypliijlluz) or Everlasting Pea (Latliyrus.sylvestris), owing to their nitrogen- fixing root-nodules and the good humus they yield. The Tending of Woodlands consists in (1) the weeding of young plantations, and of thickets naturally regenerated, in order to enable them to establish themselves in the form desired ; (2) the thinning of pole- woods and middle- aged crops ; and (3) the' partial deafance of maturinfj woods, in order to stimulate increment on the stems. Plantations seldom succeed in establishing themselves without needing a certain amount of beating up to fill blanks caused by late frosts, &c. ; and when old rough pasture land on hillsides has been enclosed and planted after the sheep are taken off, TENDING. 75 there is usually (and especially in the damp climate of the western Scottish Highlands) a very strong and rank growth of coarse grasses and other weeds, which necessitate several weedings during the first two or three years, till the young plants get their leading-shoot up well above the danger of being smothered and overlaid by the grass ; and besides freeing the tops of the plants from strong growth of grasses and other weeds threatening to overlay and suffocate them, softwoods like Aspen, Birch, or Willow, or any other kind of tree not desired in the crop, should be cut out. When once these dangers are over, careful inspection of all young plantations should be made to see that fungus disease has not obtained a foothold from which it may spread, and that insects are not attacking the young plants. Osier-holts should be weeded and cleaned by frequent holing and forking between the lines in spring and early summer, or only a light crop of rods will be harvested. For the first two years this costs about 30s. an acre, but after that much less; as the osiers, if kept clean in spring, grow quickly, and soon suppress weeds. When the young woods or plantations grow up and form thickets, thinnings become necessary, usually between 15 and 20 years of age, according to the kind and quality of crop, the number of stems per acre, &c. And long before this time any nurses that were interplanted should have been cut out. The given local conditions as to crop, soil, situation, and the inten- tions of the proprietor determine, in fact, when and to what ex- tent the first and all the subsequent thinnings have to be carried out ; and to attempt to lay down general average figures as to the amount to be cut outfits net local value, and the number of stems that can best be left standing per acre, would only be misleading, as they vary so greatly for different localities and for each kind of tree crop, pure or mixed. After tho struggle for existence has commenced in earnest, 76 SYLVICULTURE. poles or young trees may be roughly classified as (1) dominant, (2) dominated, and (3) suppressed. Suppressed stems that are dead or dying should always be thinned out as soon as con- venient, and the thinning must go further than this to be of any use in stimulating the rate of growth of the crop. As the object of thinning is to try and produce the best ultimate crop, the thinnings should from time to time (about once every five years, if practicable) eliminate one or more of the following : (1) All dead, dying, and badly diseased or insect-infested poles. (2) Badly-grown poles (e.g., of crooked or forked growth), and poles of inferior kinds of trees interfering with the growth of more valuable kinds. (3) Poles of the better kinds of trees interfering with the growth of more valuable poles, whether of their own species or of other valuable kinds. Even the lightest thinning should remove all poles of class (1) ; but how far, if at all, those of classes (2) and (3) can with advantage be cut out, depends upon the existing condition of the plantation or wood as to density and demand for light and growing-space e.g., Larch, Scots Pine, and other light-demand- ing Conifers need somewhat freer and heavier thinning than Douglas Fir, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Eed Cedar ; and Oak and Ash more than Beech or Sycamore. The best general rule is, thin early, lightly, and often ; but what this may mean in any given case depends greatly on the kind of crop and its condition. The time when thinning should be heaviest and repeated most often is when pole-woods are getting past their most active rate of growth in height, for their crown-expansion sidewards becomes more necessary than before ; and, of course, this need for expansion of crown- and root-system is greatest in light- demanding trees. Thinning out of standards in copse only takes place at each fall of the underwood, and is then part of the regular clearance THINNING. Fig. 19. of a proportionate number of the stores and trees in the different age-classes corresponding with the rotation of the underwood. If broad-leaved trees cannot be thinned out at once (e.g., Beech interfering with Oak, Ash, &c.) they can be ringed or girdled by cutting through the sapwood into the heartwood and left to season on the stump till the next convenient time for removing them. But this cannot be risked with Conifers, on account of the danger from insects. Poles and trees to be thinned can best be marked with the scribe (Fig. 19) while in full leaf. It is best to fell and extract the thinnings during winter ; but it can be done in summer, if more con- venient. Under our old national system of arboriculture, young plantations, as well as middle-aged and maturing woods, were habitually overthinned, and the trees therefore grew up much rougher and more branching than is now de- sirable; but if a rational amount of thinning be not done, the crops get too thick, and the crowns of foliage too small for healthy growth. The per- centage of the crop that may advantageously be removed at each thinning will vary greatly according to the kind of tree and the age of the crop, the quality of the soil, and the eleva- tion, exposure, and slope of the land ; and it may vary from about 5 to 10 per cent of the standing crop at different ages. Thinnings generally begin when the price obtained for what is cut out more than pays the cost of cutting and extraction ; and, of course, the larger this income or partial return from the capital sunk in the plantation is, the less the net cost of a young crop just after a thinning. This tends to induce somewhat heavy thinning ; but, if the woods are to be managed on purely busi- 78 SYLVICULTURE. ness principles, it is in the end more profitable to thin moder- ately, and at regular intervals of about 5 years, according to the given conditions, than to make heavy thinnings before the crop is nearing its maturity when heavy thinnings removing about 15 per cent of the crop amount to partial clearances, which generally give good increment on the stems, hasten maturity, and promote seed-production, though increasing the risk of windfall. In Conifer woods intended to be worked solely for providing pit- wood timber, heavy thinnings by cutting out the largest poles may, however, prove the most profitable treatment. Both in the early and in all later thinnings or partial clear- ances with or without underplanting, the principle should be carefully observed, that thinnings in young woods should not be heavy enough to induce an unnecessary amount of branch- formation interfering with the growth in height and depreciat- ing the quality and value of the bole as timber, and that thinnings in older woods should not break up the leaf-canopy so far as to risk any soil - deterioration through unnecessary exposure to sunlight. Where heavy thinnings and partial clearances are made among light-demanding tree-crops, soil- deterioration can only be prevented by underplanting (e. '. f !j }:. |K:I*J ;; .... Most dangerous wind, W. ; next dangerous wind) N.W.; > . ; Periods I., II., III., &c. Compartments or annual falls, 1, 2,. 3, &c.. . A, B, C,, D are the drives, or broad green lanes, or else roadways. a, b, c, d are the narrow rides. b c d ^ III. IV. II. r v.. 1914 9 4 Vlil .: A . II. V. m. 1712 7 2 IV. T> W. 201510 5 IV. ii. V. I- III. B Felling I Direct I on. c V. III. IV. II. C 1813 8 :-> ,{ f \ IV. II. V. III. 16 11 6 1 i '" : ; : :..!;,. Severances are protective falls made when it can be seen long beforehand that a felling-series may have to begin at some place where the first clearance will leave the growing crop on the- leeward side unduly exposed to danger from wind. To Strengthen this windward edge that will then be exposed, a severance is made; by clearing a strip of about 22 yards broad j(l chain) along fehe, edge of the crop that will come to the fall, and replanting this strip, so that, when clearance and exposure SEVERANCES. 123 take place 20 to 30 or more years hence, the then exposed windward edge of the compartment to be protected will be better able to resist the wind, and will also have the additional protection of the younger strip planted along the severance.' j.; For example, a crop of 40 years old (Fig. 31) lies in the lee of a crop 60 years old, which will probably have to be felled about 20 years hence, before the former is mature. For the protection of the 40 -year-old crop, when the annual fall cuts into the mature crop (then 80 years old) 20 years hence, the former should immediately be strengthened by a severance (a b) being made to a breadth of about a chain in the latter ; and this cleared strip should be at once planted up. ' ' J v . Most dangerous wind, W. Fig. 31. b 1, Crop Crop 60 years old. 40 years old. Direction of annual falls, <- E: to W. Severances should be made early enough to allow of the tryes along the windward edge of the compartment needing protection to strengthen themselves against wind by extending their root- system outwards. If the trees are already so old that they cannot do this to any extent, then making the severance is of little or no use. Hence the. success of this measure depends upon the kind and age of the crop, the soil and situation, &c. But it is far more necessary for Conifer crops (and especially Spruce) than for broad-leaved woods. Different methods of Fixing the Annual Fall. Where only simple coppice or coppice with standards is concerned, worked with a rotation of, say, 15 or 20 years, then the equal, i.e., equally productive, areas forming the 15 or 20 annual falls naturally range themselves into a simple felling-series from 1 to 15 or 20. And the same applies to the periodic block method of regenerating beechwoods on the chalk -hills of Southern 124 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. England, though practically here a number of annual falls is grouped together to form a periodic fall according to the interval occurring between any two successive good mast years. But with regard to Conifers and other high woods formed without any definite scheme of management having been kept in view, as,, has often been customary in Britain, one must fix the rotation, estimate the growing-stock required, and then de- termine the area to be felled annually in order to maintain a continuous and regular income from the woods. The annual fall can be determined by one or other of the methods based upon (1) the woodland area alone; (2) the yield or cubic contents of the crops; and (3) by a combination of the area and the yield. For easy supervision in each of these three methods, the annual falls can be conveniently grouped into periods or periodic falls, each comprising the annual falls of 20 years ; and more particular attention is devoted to falls in the first half of the oldest or I. period than to those in the second half, or in the II. or subsequent periods. With a rotation of 100 years there will be 5 periods, I. including the oldest woods, 81 to 100 years, II. those of 61 to 80, III. 41 to 60, IV. 21 to 40, and V. those up to 20 years old. And the I. period would be divided into the two sub-periods, I 1 , and I 2 ., respectively denoting woods of 91 to 100 years and 81 to 90 years ; while the remaining periods need not be so subdivided. (1) Fixing the Annual Fall from the Woodland area alone is the oldest 'and simplest method, the whole area being divided equally into the number of annual falls needed for the rotation, and the area in each case being therefore equal to the total woodland area divided by the number of years in the rotation. The great drawback .to this very simple method is that it does not allow for differences in soil-productivity or as to .the distribution of the growing-stock in the properly proportionate : age- classes ; hence, in order to ultimately equalise the areas felled in each period it might be necessary to cut some crops THE ANNUAL FALL. 125 before and some after maturity, with the result that a normal series of age-classes would be produced in the course of one rotation during which the annual falls might vary greatly in extent. Differences in soil-productivity can be counterbalanced by making the annual falls inversely proportionate to the quality of the land, as a smaller area of fall on productive land will give as large a yield as a proportionately larger area of less productive land. Hence, to get a sustained annual yield of about equal quantity and value, one must make larger falls on poorer land, and smaller falls on better land, so as to equalise the income year by year. This improved method of fixing the annual fall by equally productive area only is the most practical for simple and for stored coppice ; but it is unsuitable for high woods, unless worked with a low rotation, e.g., for pit- wood. For all ordinary highwoods the periodic arrangement is pre- ferable. (2) Fixing the Annual Fall from the Yield or Cubic Contents of the Crops. Under this method, after the rotation has been fixed and the whole working-circle divided into 20-year periodic blocks, a tabular working -plan is drawn up in such a way as to "give about an equal yield for each period, and the annual fall for each whole periodic section equals the total periodic yield divided by 20 years. This tends to equalise the fall, but does not necessarily lead to a normal distribution of age- classes, a normal growing-stock, and a normal increment. It is therefore not a good method. Although it may look all right on paper, it has no real practical value, because it is quite impossible to forecast exactly what the annual fall will be. (3) Fixing the Annual Fall by a combination of Area and Yield is by far the best and most practical method. It was introduced on the Continent about 100 years ago, and is now everywhere in force there, though the precise method of its application differs in details, not only in different countries, but also in different districts, throughout each country, *v ; /. : 126 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. As the woodland area is the only factor that remains fixed and unalterable, this serves as the main basis for any good .scheme of management. But as the condition and the dis- tribution of the various timber-crops (as to age-classes, density, rate of growth, &c.) may vary considerably from a normal condition, the subdivision of the woodlands into approximately equal annual or periodic falls cannot of itself secure a more or less equal annual yield ; and so the condition of the growing timber- crops must also be considered, and especially the con- dition of those coming to the fall within the next 20 years (I. Period). The total woodland area having been divided into compart- ments and working-circles, and the method of treatment of the latter having been determined, the area needed for each working- circle is divided into as many periodic sections (usually of 20 years each) as are contained in the rotation ; and such proportionate area of the working-circle is allotted to each of these periods as seems to consist of the most suitable crops, and to lead towards attaining a normal succession of annual falls in the direction against wind. This periodic division by area enables one to estimate, as nearly as is practicable, the yield of the falls during the first two periods, and to equalise the fall annually throughout each of these two periods, while considering the actual con- ditions of the crops coming to the fall within each. As the proportion of different age-classes is important, a register of crops has to be drawn up showing the distribution of the different age-classes in each working-circle. These details having been registered in a tabular form which shows also the full crop-description, area, quality of land, age of crop, and present? cubic contents and annual increment per acre, a felling- plan is made, allotting the various areas to the age-classes or periods to which they properly belong ; but special consideration is given to the maturing crops in the first period, and for this purpose the first period, I., of 20 years is divided into two THE ANNUAL FALL. 127 decennial sub-periods, I 1 , and I 2 ., and particular attention is given to the distribution of the falls during sub-period 7 1 ., towards the end of which a revision should take place for fixing the falls of the next 10 years; and so on continuously thereafter. The average fall for the I. period having been fixed, and the period subdivided into the two decennial sub-periods, a detailed examination of the cubic contents and the present rate of growth of the crops in each of these sub-periods is made, and the yield is then calculated (including the accruing increment) to the middle of each sub-period, and entered into the Felling-plan. The total fall for each of these decennial sub-periods being then divided by 10, gives the average annual fall in cubic feet per annum for each of the first 10 years, and also from the llth to [the 20th year. On the Continent, the exact locality in which each separate year's fall is to be made is not prescribed, it being left to the discretion of the head forester to fell where he may consider most expedient. The falls for the II. period, 20 to 40 years hence, are also entered in the plan as regards acreage and yield, the yield being only roughly estimated, while for the subsequent periods only the area is entered, as it is still too early to estimate what the future yield will be of woods only maturing 60 to 100 years hence ; nor would there be any practical use in doing so. Under this method, Beech and other broad-leaved woods in general are worked usually with a rotation of 1 20 years, divided into 6 periods, and Conifers with a rotation of 100 years divided into 5 periods; and every 10 years a revision takes place to fix the details for the fellings during the next 10 years. So far as fixing the falls for the subsequent 4 or 5 periods is concerned, the method is purely by area, but giving due con- sideration to soil-productivity. The form in which such a felling-plan could be drawn up for Conifer high woods worked with an 80-years rotation might be somewhat as follows : -6 Age Classes, in years. ,s 1 ifi aj-w J3 3 o II Si Ifl o Q 1 11 "3 01 Over 60. 41-60 , 21-40 Up to reas Fel Replan ank's an fi>, for O o- j>Hfa 4 PQ . t d d d d ^ d . d 6 43 CJ >3 o rt 6 L " cS t .^ . 6 1. Briarwood 16 II. Pine, Larch, and Spruce. ^ 8,200 +85 ^ 131,200 +1,360 2. Boreland . 12 in. Do. "I 1 6,800 +80 {' 81,600 +960 3. Greenwood (4nd so onfoi 15 em I. A cm Pine. npciTtment.) 5 4,000 +125 s 60,000 + 1875 As should be noted, particular attention is paid to the falls in Period I., less to those in Period 1 1., and little at all to Periods III. and IV., at present. The aim is to try and attain a normal condition i.e., equal areas for felling in each period (age-class), and equal annual or at least periodic falls. In Period L, the sub-period I 1 , includes all crops which should normally be felled in this period as being 80 years old or more, together with any which may be brought in from sub-pefiod I 2 , in order to equalise the two sub-periodic falls ; and it might even be the case that less than the total acreage mature would be felled. The cubic contents and the current increment per acre in 1910 are noted, and in estimating- .tlieiyteld per acre throughout the 10. years of sub-period I 1 , there must be added to the original growing-stock ascertained in ,19 10, 5 times the current annual increment, so as to give the mean for the ten years in the sub-period ; and the total yield is of course found by multiplying this result by the number .of acres in the crop. And the same method is applied to sub-period I 2 ., the object being to estimate the normal FELLING-PLAN. 129 I. Period (1911-1930). II. Period (1931-50). III. Period. IV. Period. Remarks as to Treatment. 11. Sub-period (1911-20) P. Sub-period (1921-30). 5 R c. 6 Yield. 1 Yield. 1 Yield. Per ac. Total. Per ac. Total. Per ac. Total. c. ft. 8,625 c. ft. 138,000 ac. c. ft. c. ft. ac. c. ft. c. ft. ac. ac. 12 8,000 96,000 15 7,750 116,250 increment for this period also as nearly as possible. As the end of sub-period I 1 , approaches, a revision is made of the estimates of yield in the various remaining compartments, so as to be then able to determine more accurately what should be felled in sub- period I 2 . And of course adjustments have often to be made between Periods I. and II., and between sub-periods I 1 , and I 2 , of Period I., in order to try and equalise the Annual Falls. 130 CHAPTEK III. THE MAKING OF A WORKING-PLAN. LARGE woodland estates cannot be worked economically unless under some definite Working-plan or Scheme of Management showing the present condition of the woodlands and forecasting as simply as possible the annual operations during the next ten or twenty years (felling, thinning, planting, &c.). The data required for such a working-plan are, in the first place, accurate estimates of area, growing-stock, and increment or rate of growth ; for it is only when these are known that the best method of treatment and the most suitable rotation can be fixed. The 6-inch Ordnance Survey Maps are well suited to form the basis for a working-plan ; but if there be no proper network of roads and paths, and no sub-division into compartments, all of these ought to be arranged for, in order to form the permanent frame- work upon which the scheme of management must rest. The most convenient size for compartments must vary according to circumstances, but is usually about 20 to 30 acres in large woodlands. A register has to be made out of all the crops, arranged according to method of treatment, and giving age and area (Age-Classes), and allotting them to working- circles accord- ing to the method of treatment required, each working- circle comprising one complete series of age- classes of all the woods or crops subject to similar treatment e.g., Ornamental Woods, Coppices, Highwoods ; and, of course, for highwoods worked by WORKING-PLAN. 131 different methods and rotations, there may have to be separate working-circles (broad-leaved and coniferous woods). It is also useful to note in the column for remarks how a felling-series should run (E. to W., &c.) so as to give the best protection against wind, &c. The Quality of land should also be noted for each crop, and the most useful way is to class it as I., II., or III., good, medium, or poor, noting also its slope (gentle, moderate, steep), its aspect or exposure, its elevation, and its configuration. A Field-book has to be opened in which to note these details, and also record the more particular descrip- tion of each crop forming part of the growing-stock the kind of wood, method of treatment, age, density and canopy, general condition, cubic contents and rate of growth, being all duly noted. The nearer the woods are to their maturity the more important does it become to know their cubic contents and their increment ; because it is preferable to make a fall in a mature wood now growing slowly, than to cut down one that is still in good growth. Where a really scientific working-plan is desired, the estimate of the cubic contents and the current increment of all maturing crops (as indicated on page 128) is of particular importance, and more so than similar estimates regarding younger and immature crops. Notes should also be made concerning the best time of felling, and best method of regenerating the mature crop and of tending the younger crops. Where available, statistics should also be jotted down referring to past yield, income from and price of timber, cost of planting, &c. When this field - book has been completed for all the crops, the working -plan or scheme of management can be prepared. Having ascertained that the whole woodland area is con- veniently subdivided into compartments, and having made the necessary investigations into the various crops forming the growing- stock, and into their rate of growth, the next thing to be done is to ascertain the distribution of the relative Age- 132 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. Classes in the various working-circles, and to prepare a sketch Felling-plan according to area (see pp. 129, 135), then to fix the extent and allocate the position of the Annual Falls, and finally, to elaborate the Working-plan and prepare the Explan- atory Note and the Stock Map which should accompany it. To find the distribution of the different age-classes the crops in each working-circle are registered according to age in 20-year periods, when it can easily be seen how far each age-class varies from the normal proportionate area it should have ; and it will be found useful to prepare at this same time a Stock Map showing the woodland area, its division into compartments, and the different kinds of crops and their respective periodic age-classes in each working - circle, giving to the youngest period (under 20 years) a light wash of any chosen colour, to the 21- to 40-year-old class a darker wash of the same colour, and so on for the older periodic age-classes. And if there are different working-circles (e.g., for broad-leaved trees and for Conifers), different colours must be used for each working-circle. Woods under natural regeneration (e.g., Beech, Silver Fir, Scots Pine) can be indicated by being given the palest wash and then having lines of darkest wash drawn across the ground colouring, thus indicating a combination of the youngest and the oldest age-classes until the mature seed-bearing trees are removed. The Felling-plan according to area is first of all roughly sketched by allotting areas to the various periods according to their age, as shown in the register, so as to see how a convenient felling-series can be made, and also, with the assistance of the Stock Map, to note where severances may require to be made now, if necessary at all, in order to protect woods that may have to be exposed to winds later on. An important matter is to try and arrange the felling-series (of which there may be one or more, according to circumstances) in the direction likely to afford the greatest protection from wind ; and it is also desirable to make intermittent felling-series in place of any WORKING-PLAN. 133 continuous series occurring on adjacent areas year after year, because it is only thus that attacks of pine weevils in Conifer woods can be prevented. In broad - leaved woods, however, there is no necessity for this, and the main object here is to try and arrange the falls against the most dangerous wind. In drawing up the rough sketch for the felling-plan, areas are transferred from period to period, and particularly during the I. and II. Periods, comprising the mature and the maturing woods, so as to get about an equal fall of mature timber from year to year, and gradually in course of time to attain a nor- mally proportionate distribution of the various age - classes throughout each working -circle. A fair idea of the way of doing the above may perhaps be got from the example on pp. 134, 135. In elaborating the felling-plan so as to estimate scientifically the annual fall to be made during the first 10 years and the second 10 of the first period (I 1 , and I 2 .), the total yield and increment must be worked out, the increment being calculated up to the middle of each sub-period i.e., for the next 5 years in I 1 ., and for 15 years in I 2 ., in the manner indicated on pages 128, 129. But this necessarily means much more time and expense in preparing the Working - plan, so that the tabular statement on pp. 134, 135 will usually suit the conditions at present pre- vailing in British woodlands. Or something even simpler may perhaps sometimes be considered quite sufficient, on some such lines as the Working-Plan on pp. 136, 137. The Explanatory Note gives first of all a brief description of the woodlands, and their soil, situation, condition, rate of growth, &c., then describes the object aimed at in the Working- plan, and states the reasons for the recommendations made as to kinds of crops, methods of treatment, rotation, and fixing the felling-series and the annual falls, and concludes by making any recommendations that may seem desirable regarding felling, 134 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. CROP-STATISTICS AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF AGE-CLASSES. Working-Circle for Conifers, on the Woodland Area. Growing-stock in 1900 : Age-Classes, in Acres. Compartment. Area. Acres. Qual- ity of land. Age. Years. I. (over fcO years). II. (41-60) III. (21-40) IV. (1-20) Falls for re- plant- ing. Blanks and land for new planta- tions. 1. Briar Hill =37 acres. a b e 16 12 9 II. III. II. 85 74 62 16 12 9 2. Greenwood =36 acres. a b 21 15 II. I. 59 55 21 15 3. Bound Hill =47 acres. a b c d 18 16 5 8 III. III. II. II. 33 30 20 17 18 16 5 8 4. Gorse Cover = 24 acres. 24 I. 78 24 5. Oakwood = 33 acres. a b e 10 16 7 111. III. III. 54 45 31 10 16 7 6. Rushton Brake =31 acres. a b 13 18 II. II. 19 18 13 18 7. Frampton Hill =32 acres. a b 27 5 II. II. 12 just felled. 27 5 Total . . j 240 11. 61 63 41 71 ^ 7 6 5 v ' B Actual distribution of periodic age-classes Normal do. do. 61 60 62 60 41 60 Variation from the normal dis- ) tribution J excess deficit +1 + 2 -19 + 16 FELLING-PLAN. 135 PRELIMINARY SKETCH FOR THE FELLING-PLAN, ACCORDING TO AREA. Frampton Estate (Rotation, 80 years). Felling-Plan: Fall, in Acres. I. Period (1901-1920). 1. Sub-period (1901-1910) 16 Thin do. Thin do. do. do. 2. Sub-period (1911-1920). 12 Thin do. Thin do. do. do. Thin do. do. do. T3 < v 3 18 16 Thin do. Remarks as to Treatment. 1st Felling - Series ; compart- ments la, b, c ; 2a, b ; 3a, 5, c, d. The falls in this series should precede those in the 2nd series. The annual falls being only 1^ acres, there will be little danger from weevils if re- planted after one year's fallow, and burning before planting. 15 Thin do. do. Thin do. do. 10 11 Thin Thin do.i Thin do. Thin do. 13 Thin 18 Thin (5) Thin do. Thin do. Thin do. 2nd Felling - Series ; compart- ments 4 ; 5a, b, c ; 6a, b ; 7a, b. 1 The sporadic softwoods should be cut out where interfering with the Conifers. 2 Areas to be planted during the next 10 years are underlined (16, 15, 5, 31). 30 57 59 63 Normal 6pacre$ The distribution of the age-classes may also be shown graphically, thus : 1-20, ZI-40, 41-60, over 60y ea 136 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. 1 1 OJ ^ If 1 1 111 1 ^ rt fl ,0 O -fj . i "" S 1 ^ii"fl ^ cs g 6 i o" M sl^S i 58 fl o ^1 13 fl "o fl oT 3 o^ : fl ^ g'g -^ * c& rS "Xl 1 PJJ Orfl s_. . V^rQ ,H a 05 ^ 5 , C o3 1 1 1 Remarks as 0-2 S.5H- ylll ll iS 0> fl rQ 03 Sf| do. ig out of old dr! fore replanting. do. rling-pond shou! ycamore and As ; but E. portio be planted chief ; and exposed ] J ^ ft ^ OT O eS ^ a flCQ rn2 o | 1 ^ilil O . ^ ^ *? ! * 60 o ^5 dO $ g 03 ill oT ^L iL^ ^L ' P g <5 C3 s. _ < Oi itl 1- 1 a< II i fill 0> 03 81 lit 1 i 52 oT'S PH ll : Clear-Felling and Ri 43 1 80-90-year mixed Coi hardwoods, chiefly Oak. 80 - 90 - year mixed mostly Scots Pine. Mostly old Beech (140- and other hardwood part, with Pine (100- and mixed Conifers i 70 years). Chiefly Scots Pine (80- mixed with Spruce ! Larch. Mixture of old Beech 90-year-old hardw< Conifers, mostly in ] Much the same as comi ' 3 and 6. || i! J-l 1 i 1 ' y ' ^~\-~' , ^ v v v ' ^-^v - ' | S g^^; 1 ||I| " CM CO CO CO CO I 1 "* u " r t t>-00 i? 1 t 4 i i -~ 8 1= fl w ,fl bo 1 3 fl .26 " & o ex w o CU pq 1 j 9 1 1 8 1 s H 1 1 rH 1 I r-H 1 1 WORKING-PLAN. 137 1:11 1| d 3 ^ H -H ^ ^ -*^ S ^ ^ - -g ^ -Q. ^ H " ^ His ^ J -2 " o "> *"^ ^ S "S ^ r~ ' . ^ S ^ | ~^ ^ rt """* ^" 5 J* S bc> S r ^20)rt r cSO a ''2o'S. O ^3 O fl /-I rt & S Pn55 rf ^ p | "*"* -4^ rH ? 5 7^ ^ ^ be c3 SgS^-S A Mr d.S ^-- ^ ID'^^ S 0^0) . > < ^ o H H ' ' I ^^__^ ^_^__^ (N 1-4 O (N 1 T-H U"i GO CO cT-^C<) T i i (N CO CO g C,rHrH | 1 i ,-fc-A^ -^ , -* -^ f A N ^ v -^ B* ^ 2 o ', ^ ^ O 0) rrt i O H 1 |'c| S E | E g li'g | 1 1 !fll ||P1 |*|l ^ | O 08 > g ^_o o ^ O fl ^ s j 5^ ^S __f^ ^- 'O fef ' o cj ! :%* "^'o >> G ^Z. T3 , > T3 oa T3 O ^ x"^ ^ ^ *^ S _^"^ 2 2 O '^S rH 'O *"* ^Lj^^cS '"' ^ c8 fe'o 1 fill ^^-0^^ H O Q,- > -^ ^ 03 03 M S OS ^ r-^ ^^^ a ' I>.OO rH I ( OS T-l I-H g^ IO OOO5 O !l|| 1 ffl ^H ft rt S ^ O * fl "^ il f i 1 I ill p3 ^^1," 3D O rH O rH O rH i i OS CD OS rH rH rH 138 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. planting, tending, &c., including the keeping of a control book to show the results of the working year by year, and thus facilitate the revision which is necessary every ten years or so, and which is much easier than drawing up a Working-plan for the first time on any woodland estate. Book-keeping is necessary for the proper management of woodlands, but it is desirable to limit the number to as few books as possible. Several are needed, however, in addition to the Control Book showing the results of working under any scheme of management viz., (1) Cash Book, (2) Monthly Abstract of Daily Labour and Piece Work, (3) Sales Book of Timber, $c., (4) Ledger, (5) Stock-Book of Timber, and (6) A Nursery Stock Book; and if there is a saw-mill, regular mill accounts are also necessary (Cash-book, Ledger, Register of Receipts and Issues of Timber, Sales Book, and Stock-Register). In all of these books entries should be made as concisely as possible. And an annual estimate of the anticipated income and expenditure should be made before the end of each year for the following twelve months, and showing the details upon which it is based. 139 CHAPTER IV. THE VALUATION OF TIMBER- CROPS AND OF WOODLANDS. Valuation of woodlands, whether as separate crops of timber or as a whole, is made by means of formulae based upon the general formula for summarising a geometrical progression 1 r n S = a- 1 r There are various specific formulae which may be applied in problems affecting the valuation of woodlands, but in practice all calculations are made by means of compound interest tables, as shown on page 151 (Appendix II.). Some of these summarise or calculate the future value of a capital, while others discount or calculate its present value ; and others again permute or convert a periodic return into an annual rental. In forestry valuations, the summarising, discounting, and permutation must all be done by compound interest ; and it is best to take 3 per cent as the usual rate of interest. Calcula- tions on this basis usually prove forestry under good manage- ment to be profitable ; and the larger the area, the greater is generally the profit. By arbitrarily raising or lowering the rate of interest used in calculations very divergent results are obtained (e.g., a plantation costing 5 an acre would at 20 years of age have cost 9 -03 at 3 per cent, and 10-95 at 5 per cent), and the difference is, of course, all the greater when long periods of years are being dealt with. 140 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. The capital in forestry, consisting of the land + the growing- stock^ which combined form the woodlands, may be valued by one or other of four methods : 1. Actual cost of production, so far as concerns the timber- crops ; 2. Market value, if sold or compared with similar ad- joining properties ; 3. Its prospective value as to future net income ; and 4. Its capitalised value estimated on the average annual net income (where C = 100 x net annual income -=- rate %). When it is desired to compare the present and the prospective net yield of any two mature or maturing timber-crops, the indi- cating percentage (see p. 102) is a simple formula for practical use. In all calculations net income has to be taken i.e., gross income less all charges for felling, logging, extracting, &c. ; and it is only by thus applying strictly actuarial methods of calculation that approximately correct estimates can be made. And to be quite correct, all marketable minor produce, shooting, fishing, &c., should be taken into account as well as timber, and due allowance made for the annual outlay on management, planting, upkeep of roads, rates and taxes, &c. In the Valuation of the Land for Rating, &c., the land, and not the timber-crop, is assessed. In Scotland the estimated annual rental value of high woods or coppices is taken as the rent the land in its natural unimproved condition might reason- ably be expected to fetch if let for pasture or grazing. Under English law, the standard prescribed is practically much the same, being based on the agricultural value of land in its " natural and unimproved " state ; and in the Rating of Planta- tions, Woods, &c., it is the land, and not the timber, under- wood, or other produce of the land, which is made the subject of assessment ; and if the land used as a plantation or a wood, or for the growth of saleable underwood, is subject to common rights, it is exempt from the poor rate and other local rates. VALUATION. 141 The method of estimating the gross estimated rental and rate- able value of such woodlands is prescribed as follows : "(a) If the land is used only for a plantation or a wood, the value shall be estimated as if the land instead of being a plantation or a wood were let and occupied in its natural and unimproved state ; (b) if the land is used for the growth of saleable underwood, the value shall be estimated as if the land were let for that purpose ; (c) if the land is used both for a plantation or a wood and for the growth of saleable underwood, the value shall be estimated either as if the land were used only for a plantation or a wood, or as if the land were used only for the growth of the saleable underwood growing thereon as the assessment committee may determine." In Valuing Woodlands for Succession Duty the custom has generally been to value all the timber and other wood, and to take 3 per cent of this as a fair annual return from their capital value under good management. This income is then treated as an annuity, and succession duty has to be paid upon it on a scale laid down in tables annexed to the Act. Thus, if the life-tenant were 40 years of age on entering into succession, and the annual income from the woods were estimated at 500 a-year, this annuity would be considered as having a capital value of 7437 J assessable to duty (and not as 500^003 = 16,666). The Valuation of a Growing Timber-Crop. If of market- able size, the present market value of single trees and of the whole crop in any compartment may easily be determined by measurement or in the case of ornamental trees or groups of trees, by making a fair allowance for their special ornamental value. If only comparatively young immature crops of wood,, it will usually be best to estimate their value for sale or transfer according to their total cost up to the present. But deductions must be made for the rental value of the land and general annual charges, in order to arrive at the true value of the timber-crop alone. The Valuation of the Normal Capital in Wood throughout a Working-Circle. If the woods forming a working-circle are 142 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS. in a normal condition, capable of yielding a regular annual fall of equal amount, then there will be a regular gradation of age- classes normally distributed throughout the woodlands and varying from 1 to n years (just before the annual fall) or from to n 1 years of age (just after the fall), n being the rotation with which the woods are worked. It is therefore of advantage to estimate the money value of the normal capital in wood so as to know the rate of interest actually yielded by the working- circle. For example, say the normal annual returns from a working-circle of 800 acres in normal condition, worked with a rotation of 80 years, consist of 2400 for the mature fall of timber, and 300 from thinnings in woods of different ages, that each year the cost of planting the area cleared is 40, and that the gross general charges amount annually to 160 ; what is the present value of the Normal Capital in Wood, if the annual rental value of the land is 10s. an acre, and the rate of interest be 3 per cent ? Here the net receipts are 2700 -200 = 2500, and their capitalised value is ^jj|j = 83,333 . The rental value of the land being 400 a-year, its capital value is ^-^ = 13,333^. Hence the capital value of the Normal Capital in Wood is 83,333J- 13,333 = 70,000. The " normal condition " being always a mere ideal, when a valuation of woodlands is made it must necessarily be that of the actual growing-stock or capital in wood. It is only by making such a valuation that the actual rate of interest obtained on the capital invested in the woodlands can be ascertained. The Net Income obtained from Woodlands may be calculated . . . . . . Tq-(c+fv) by the formula - - - - -, where F=the value of the yield of timber obtained at the final clearance. T(a, &,...t a trustworthy calculation, though as fair as can be made with the data available. APPENDIX I. CUBIC CONTENTS OF ROUND LOGS = Length x ( Mean Glrth \ Z , in Cubic Feet and Decimals of 1 Cubic Foot. ngth feet. MEAN GIRTH IN FEET AND INCHES. 3' 3'.l" 3'. 2" 3'. 3" 3'.4" 3'. 5" 3'. 6" 3'. 7" 3'. 8" 3'. 9" 3'. 10" 3'. 11" 10 11 12 13 14 15 5-6 6-2 6-8 7'3 7-9 8-4 5'9 6-5 7-1 7-7 8-3 8-9 6-3 6-9 7-5 8-1 8-8 9-4 6-6 7'3 7-9 8-6 9-2 9-9 6-9 7-6 8-3 9-0 9-7 10-4 7-3 8-0 8-8 9-5 10-2 10-9 77 8-4 9-2 10-0 10-7 11-5 8-0 8-8 9-6 10-4 11-2 12-0 8-4 9-2 10-1 10-9 11-8 12-6 8-8 97 10-5 11-4 12-3 13-2 9-2 10-1 11-0 11-9 12-9 13-8 9-6 10-5 11-5 12-5 13-4 14-4 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 9-0 9-6 10-1 10-7 11-3 9-5 10-1 10-7 11-3 11-9 10-0 107 11-3 11-9 12-5 10-6 11-2 11-9 12-5 13-2 111 11-8 12-5 13-2 13-9 117 12-4 13-1 13-9 14-6 12-2 13-0 13-8 14-5 15-3 12-8 13-6 14-4 15-2 16-1 13-4 14-3 15-1 16-0 16-8 14-1 14-9 15-8 16-7 17-6 14-7 15-6 16-5 17-4 18-4 15-3 16-3 17-3 18-2 19-2 11-8 12-4 12-9 13-5 14-1 12-5 13-1 13-7 14-3 14-9 13-2 13-8 14-4 15-0 15-7 13-8 14-5 15-2 15-8 16-5 14-6 15-3 16-0 167 17-4 15-3 16-1 16-8 17-5 18-2 161 16-8 17-6 18-4 19-1 16-9 177 18-5 19-3 20-1 17-6 18-5 19-3 20-2 21-0 18-5 19-3 20-2 21-1 22-0 19-3 20-2 21-1 22-0 23-0 20-1 21-1 22-1 23-0 24-0 26 27 28 29 30 14-6 15-2 15-8 16-3 16-9 15-4 16-0 16-6 17-2 17-8 16-3 16-9 17-5 18-2 18-8 17-2 17-8 18-5 19-1 19-8 18-1 187 19-4 20.1 20-8 19-1 19-7 20-4 21-2 21-9 19-9 20-7 21-4 22-2 23-0 20-9 21-7 22-5 23-3 24-1 21-8 22-7 23-5 24-4 25-2 22-9 23-7 24-6 25-5 26-4 23-9 24-8 25-7 26-6 27-6 24-9 25-9 26-8 27-8 28-8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 4' 4'. 1" 4'. 2" 4'. 3" 11-3 12-4 13-5 14-7 15-8 16-9 4'. 4" 4'. 5" 4'. 6" 4'. 1" 4'.8" 4'.9" 4'. 10" 4'. 11" 10-0 11-0 12-0 13 '0 14-0 15-0 10-4 11-5 12-5 13-5 14-6 15-6 10-9 11-9 13-0 14-1 15-2 16-3 11-7 12-9 14-1 15-3 16-4 17-6 122 13-4 14-6 15-8 17'1 18-3 12-7 13-9 15-2 16-5 177 19-0 131 14-4 15-8 171 18-4 19-7 13-6 15-0 16-3 17-7 19-1 20-4 21-8 23-1 24-5 25-9 27-2 14-1 15-5 16-9 183 19-7 10-2 14-6 16-1 17-5 19-0 20-4 21-9 15-1 16-6 18-1 19-6 21-2 22-7 16-0 17-0 18-0 19-0 20-0 16-7 17-7 18-8 19-8 20-8 17-4 18-4 19-5 20-6 21-7 18-1 19-2 20-3 21-4 22-6 18-8 20-0 21-1 22-3 23-5 19-5 20-7 21-9 23-2 24-4 20-2 21-5 22-8 24-0 25-3 21-0 22-3 23-6 24-9 26-3 22-6 24-0 25-4 26-8 28-2 23-4 24-8 26-3 27-7 29-2 24-2 25-7 27-2 28-7 30-2 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 21-0 22-0 23-0 24-0 25-9 22-9 22-9 24-0 25-0 26-1 22-8 23-9 25-0 26-0 27-1 23-7 24-8 26-0 27-1 28-2 24-6 25-8 27-0 28-2 29-3 25-6 26-8 28-0 29-3 30-5 26-6 27-8 29-1 30-4 31-6 27-6 28-9 30-2 31-5 32-8 28-6 29-9 31-3 32-7 34-0 29-6 31-0 32-4 33-8 35-3 30-7 32-1 33-6 35-0 36-5 31-7 33-2 34-7 36-3 37-8 26-0 27-0 28-0 29-0 30-0 27-1 281 29-2 30-2 31-3 28-2 29-3 30-4 31-5 326 29-4 30-5 31-6 32-7 33-9 30-5 31-7 32-9 34-0 35-2 31-7 32-9 34-1 35-4 36-6 32-9 34-2 35-4 36-7 38-0 34-1 35-4 368 38-1 39-4 35-4 36-7 38-1 39-5 40-8 36-7 38-1 39-5 40-9 42-3 38-0 39-4 40-9 42-3 43-8 39-3 40-8 42-3 43-8 45-3 147 APPENDIX I. (continued) CUBIC CONTENTS OF ROUND LOGS = Length x in Cubic Feet and Decimals of 1 Cubic Foot. Mean Girth> Length in ieet MEAN GIRTH IN FEET AND INCHES. 5' 5'.1" 5'. 2" 5'. 3" 5'.4" 5'. 5" 5'. 6" 5'. 7" 5'. 8" 5'.9" 5'. 10" 5.11,. 10 11 12 13 14 15 15-6 17-2 18-8 20-3 21-9 23-4 16-2 17-8 19-4 21-0 22-6 24-2 167 18-4 20-0 217 23-4 25-0 17-2 18-9 207 22-4 24-1 25-8 17-8 19-6 21-3 23-1 24-9 267 18-3 20-2 22-0 23-8 257 27-5 18-9 20-8 227 24-6 26-5 28-4 19-5 21-4 23-4 25-3 27-3 29-2 20-1 22-1 24-1 26-1 28-1 30-1 207 227 24-8 26-9 28-9 31-0 21-3 23-4 25-5 27-6 29-8 31-9 11] 26- 28- 30j 32- 16 17 18 19 20 25-0 26-6 28-1 297 31-3 23-8 27-5 29-1 307 32-3 267 28-4 30-0 317 33-4 27-6 29-3 31-0 327 34-5 28-4 30-2 32-0 33-8 35-6 29-3 31-2 33-0 34-8 367 30-2 32-1 34-0 35-9 37-8 31-2 33-1 35-1 37-0 39-0 32-1 34-1 36-1 38-1 401 33-1 35-1 37-2 39-3 41-3 34 '0 36-2 38-3 40-4 42-5 351 37- 39- 41 i 43 21 22 23 24 25 32-8 34-4 35-9 37-5 39-1 33-9 35-5 371 38-8 40-4 35-0 367 38-4 40-0 417 36-2 37-9 39-6 41-3 43-1 37-3 39-1 40-9 427 44-4 38-5 40-3 42-2 44-0 45-8 397 41-6 43-5 45-4 47-3 40-9 42-9 44-8 46-8 487 42-1 44-2 46-2 48-2 50-2 43-4 45-5 47-5 49-6 517 447 46-8 48-9 51-0 532 5 48 50 52 54 26 27 28 29 30 40-6 42-2 43-8 45-3 46-9 42-0 43-6 45-2 46-8 48-5 43-4 45-0 467 48-4 501 44-8 46-5 48-2 50-0 517 46-2 48-9 49-8 51-6 53-3 477 49-5 51-3 53-2 55-0 49-2 51-0 52-9 54-8 567 507 52-6 54-6 56-5 58-5 52-2 54-2 56-2 58-2 60-2 537 55-8 57-9 59-9 62-0 55-3 57-4 59-5 617 63-8 56 59 61 II & 6'.l" 6'. 2" 6'. 3" 6'A" 6'. 5" 6'. 6" 6'. 1" C'.S" 6'. 9" 6'. 10" G'.l 10 11 12 13 14 15 22-5 24-8 27-0 29-3 31-5 33-8 23-1 25-4 27-8 30-1 32-4 347 37-0 39-3 41-6 43-9 46-3 23-8 26-1 28-5 30-9 33-3 357 24-4 26-9 29-3 317 342 36-6 25-1 27-6 30-1 32-6 35-1 37-6 257 28-3 30-9 33-5 36-0 38-6 264 29-0 317 34-3 37-0 39-6 27-1 29-8 32-5 35-2 37-9 40-6 27-8 30-6 33-3 36-1 38-9 417 28-5 31-3 34-2 37-0 39-9 427 29-2 32-1 350 37-9 40-9 43-8 2 , I! 38 41 44 16 17 18 19 20 36-0 38-3 40-5 42-8 45-0 38-0 40-4 42-8 45-2 47-5 39-1 41-5 43-9 46-4 48-8 40-1 42-6 45-1 47-6 50-1 41-2 437 46-3 48-9 51-5 42-2 44-9 47-5 50 -1 52-8 43-3 46-0 48-8 51-5 54-2 44-4 47'2 50-0 52-8 55-6 45-6 48-4 51-3 54-1 57-0 467 49-6 52-5 55-4 58-4 47 of, 58 56 1 S 21 22 23 24 25 47-3 49-5 51-8 54-0 56-3 48-6 50-9 53-2 55-5 57-8 49-9 52-3 547 57-0 59-4 51-3 537 56-2 58-6 61-0 52-6 55-2 577 60-2 627 54-0 56-6 59-2 61-8 64-3 555 58-1 607 63-4 660 56-9 59-6 62-3 650 677 58-3 61 rl 63-9 667 69-4 59-8 62-6 65-5 68-3 71-2 61-3 64-2 67-1 70-0 73-0 65 Gf 68 71 74 26 27 28 29 30 58-5 60-8 63-0 65-3 67-5 601 62-4 64-8 67-1 69-4 61-8 64-2 66-5 68-9 71-3 63-5 65-9 68-4 70-8 73-2 65-2 677 70-2 727 75-2 66-9 69-5 72-1 74-6 77-2 687 71-3 73-9 76-6 79-2 70-4 73-1 75-8 78-6 81-3 722 75-0 77-8 80-6 83-3 74-0 76-9 797 82-6 85-4 75-9 78-8 817 84-6 87-6 77 8( 8? 148 JPPENDIX I. (cont 3 CONTENTS OF ROUND LOGS t and Decimals of 1 Cubic thx( ] Vfeau Girth \ 2 in Cubic Fee Foot. 4 ;' jength Q feet. MEAN GIRTH IN FKET AND INCHES. V T.I" 7'.2" 7'.3" r. 4" 7'. 5" 7'. 6" 7'.7" 7'. 8" 7'. 9" 7'. 10" 7'. 11" 10 11 12 13 14 15 30-6 33-7 36-8 39-8 42-9 45-9 31-4 34-5 37-6 40-8 43-9 47-0 32-1 35-3 38-5 41-7 44-9 48-2 32-9 36-1 39-4 42-7 46-0 49-3 33-6 37-0 40-3 43-7 47-1 50-4 34-4 37-8 41-3 44-7 48-1 51-6 35-2 38-7 42-2 45-7 49-2 52-7. 35-9 39-5 43-1 46-7 50-3 53-9 36-7 40-4 44-1 47-8 51-4 55-1 37-5 41-3 45-0 48-8 62-6 56-3 38-4 42-2 46-0 49-9 53-7 57-5 39:2 43-1 47-0 50-9 54-8 58-8 16 17 18 19 20 49-0 52-1 55-1 58-2 61-3 50-2 53-3 56-4 59-6 62-7 51-4 54-6 57'8 61-0 64-2 52-6 55-8 59-1 62-4 65-7 53-8 57-1 60-5 63-9 67-2 55-0 58-4 61-9 65-3 68-8 56-2 59-8 63-3 66-8 70-3 57-5 61-1 647 68-3 71-9 58-8 62-5 66-1 69-8 73-5 60-1 63-8 67-6 71-3 75-1 61-4 65-2 69-0 72-9 76-7 62-7 66-6 70-5 74-4 78-3 21 22 23 24 25 64-3 67-4 70-4 73-5 76-6 65-9 69-0 72-1 75-3 78-4 67-4 70-6 73-8 77-0 80-3 69-0 72-3 75-6 78-8 82-1 70-6 73-9 77-3 80-7 83-0 72-2 75-6 79-1 82-5 85-9 73-8 77-3 80-9 84-4 87-9 75-5 79-1 82-7 86-3 89-9 77-1 80-8 84-5 88-2 91-8 78-8 82-6 86-3 90-1 93-8 80-5 84-4 88-2 92-0 95-9 82-3 86-2 90-1 94-0 97-9 101-8 105-8 109-7 1136 117-5 26 27 28 29 30 79-6 82-7 85-8 88-8 91-9 81-5 84-7 87-8 90-9 94-1 83-5 867 89.9 93-1 96-3 85-5 88-7 92-0 95-3 98-6 87-4 90-7 94-1 97-5 100-8 89-4 92-8 96-3 99-7 103-1 91-4 94-9 98-4 102-0 105-5 93-4 97-0 100-6 104-2 107-8 95-5 99-2 102-9 106-5 110-2 97-6 101-4 105-1 108-9 112-6 997 103-5 107-4 111-2 115-1 8' 8M" 8'. 2" &'.3" 8'. 4" 8'.5" 8'.6" 8'. 7" 8'.8" 8'. 9" 8'. 10" 8'. 11" 10 11 12 13 14 15 40-0 44-0 48-0 52-0 56-0 60-0 40-8 44-9 49-0 53-1 57-2 60-3 417 45-9 50-0 54-2 58-4 62-5 42-5 46-8 51-0 55-3 59-6 63-8 43-4 477 52-1 56-4 608 65-1 44-3 48-7 53-1 57-6 62-0 66-4 45-2 49-7 54-2 58-7 63-2 677 46-0 50-7 55-3 59-9 64-5 69-1 46-9 51-6 56 C 60-0 65-7 70-4 47-9 52-6 57-4 62-2 67-0 71-8 48-8 53-6 58-5 63-4 68-3 73-2 49-7 54-7 59-6 64-6 69-6 74-5 : 16 i IT 5 20 V~ 22 23 24 25 26 |27 J'28 29 ! 64-0 68-0 72-0 76-0 80-0 65-3 69-4 73-5 77-6 81-7 66-7 70-9 75-0 79-2 83-4 68-1 72-3 76-6 80-8 85-1 69-4 73-8 78-1 82-5 86-8 70-8 75-3 797 84-1 88-6 72-2 76-8 81-3 85-8 90-3 73-7 78-3 82-9 87-5 92-1 75-1 79-8 84-5 89-2 93-9 76 -6J 81-3 861 90-9 95-7 78-0 82-9 87-8 92-6 97-5 79-5 84-5 89-4 94-4 99-4 84-0 88-0 92-0 96-0 100-0 85-8 89-8 93-9 98-0 1021 87-5 91-7 95-9 100-0 104-2 89-3 93-6 97-8 102-1 106-3 91-1 95-5 99-8 104-2 108-5 93-0 97-4 101-8 106-3 110-7 94-8 99-3 103-9 108-4 112-9 967 101-3 1059 110-5 115-1 98-6 103-3 108-0 112-7 117-4 100-5 105-3 110-1 114-8 119-6 102-4 107-3 112-2 117-0 121-9 104-4 109-3 114-3 119-3 124-2 104-0 108-0 112-0 116-0 120-0 106-2 110-3 114-3 117-4 122-5 108-4 1125 1167 120-9 125-1 110-6 114-9 119-1 123-4 127-6 1128 117-2 121-5 125-9 130-2 115-1 119-5 124-0 128-4 132-8 117-4 121-9 126-4 131-0 135-5 119-7 124-3 128-9 133-5 138-1 122-1 126-7 131-4 136-1 140-8 124-4 129-2 134-0 138-8 143-6 126-8 131-7 136-5 141-4 146-3 129-2 134-2 139-1 144-1 149-1 149 /Mean Girth\ 2 APPENDIX I. (continued) CUBIC CONTENTS OF ROUND LOGS = Length x ^ ~ in Cubic Feet and Decimals of 1 Cubic Foot. Length in feet. MEAN GIRTH IN FEET AND INCHES. 9' 9M" 9'. 2" 9'. 3" 9'. 4" 9'. 5" 9'. 6" 9'. 7" 9'. 8" 9'. 9" 9'. 10" &'.ii" 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 50-6 55-7 60-8 65-8 70-9 75-9 51-6 56-7 61-9 67-0 72-2 77-4 52-5 57-8 63-0 68-3 73-5 78-8 53-5 58-8 64-2 69-5 74-9 80-2 54-4 59-9 65-3 70-8 76-2 81-7 55-4 61-0 66-5 72-0 77-6 83-1 56-4 62-0 67-7 73-3 79-0 84-6 57-4 63-1 68-9 74-6 80-4 86-1 58-4 64-2 70-1 75-9 81-8 87-6 59-4 65-4 71-3 77-2 83-2 89-1 60-4 66-5 72-5 78-6 84-6 90-7 615 67-6 73-8 79-9 86-0 92-2 81-0 86-1 91-1 96-2 101-3 82-5 877 92-8 98-0 103-1 84-0 89-3 94-5 99-8 105-0 85-6 90-9 96-3 101-6 107-0 871 92-6 98-0 103-4 108-9 88-7 94-2 99-8 105-3 110-8 90-2 95-9 1015 107-2 112-8 91-8 97-6 103-3 109-1 114-8 93-4 99-3 105-1 111-0 116-8 95-1 101-0 106-9 112-9 118-8 96-7 1027 108-8 114-8 120-9 98-3 104-5 110-6 116-8 122-9 21 22 23 24 25 106-3 111-4 116-4 121-5 126-6 108-3 113-4 118-6 123-8 128-9 110-3 115-5 120-8 126-0 131-3 1123 117-6 123-0 128-3 133-7 114-3 119-8 125-2 130-7 136-1 116-4 121-9 127-5 133-0 138-6 118-5 124-1 129-7 135-4 141-0 120-5 126-3 132-0 137-8 143-5 122-6 128-5 134-3 140-2 146-0 124-8 130-7 136-7 142-6 148-5 126-9 133-0 139-0 145-0 1511 129-1 135-2 141-4 147-5 153-7 26 27 28 29 30 131-6 136-7 141-8 146-8 151-9 134-1 139-2 144-4 149-5 154-7 136-5 141-8 147-0 152-3 157-6 139-0 144-4 149-7 155-1 160-4 141-6 147-0 152-4 157-9 163-3 144-1 149-6 155-2 160-7 166-3 146-7 152-3 157-9 163-6 169-2 149-2 155-0 160-7 166-5 172-2 151-8 157-7 163-5 169-4 175-2 154-5 160-4 166-4 172-3 178-2 157-1 163-2 169-2 175-3 181-3 159-8 165-9 172-1 178-2 184-4 10' IV. I" 10'. 2" 10'. 3" 10'.4" 10'. 5" 10'.6" 10'. 1" 10'. 8" 10'. 9" 10'. 10" 10'. 11" 10 11 12 13 14 15 62-5 68-8 75-0 81-3 87-5 93-8 63-5 69-9 76-3 82-6 89-0 95-3 64-6 71-1 77-5 84-0 90-4 96-9 65-7 72-2 78-8 85-4 91-9 98-5 667 734 80-1 86-8 93-4 100-1 67-8 74-6 81-4 88-2 94-9 101-7 68-9 75-8 82-7 89-6 96-5 103-4 70-0 77-0 84-0 91-0 98-0 105-0 71-1 78-2 85-3 92-4 99-6 106-7 72-2 79-4 86-7 93-9 101-1 108-3 73-4 80-7 88-0 95-4 102-7 110-0 74-6 81-9 89-4 96-8 104-3 111-7 16 17 18 19 20 100-0 106-3 112-5 118-8 125-0 101-7 108-0 113-4 120-7 127-1 103-4 109-8 116-3 122-7 129-2 105-1 111-6 118-2 124-8 131-3 106-8 113.5 120-1 126-8 133-5 108-5 115-3 122-1 128-9 135-6 110-2 1171 124-0 130-9 137-8 112-0 119-0 126-0 133-0 140-0 113-8 120-9 128-0 135-1 142-2 115-6 122-8 130-0 137-2 144-5 117-4 124-7 132-0 139-4 146-7 119-2 126-6 134-1 141-5 149-0 21 22 23 24 25 131-3 137-5 143-8 150-0 156-3 133-4 139-8 146-2 152-5 158-9 135-7 142-1 148-6 155-0 161-5 137-9 144-5 151-0 157-6 164-2 140-1 146-8 153-5 160-2 166-8 142-4 149-2 156-0 162-8 169-5 144-7 151-6 158-5 165-4 172-3 147-0 154-0 161-0 168-0 175-0 149-3 156-4 163-6 170-7 177-8 151-7 158-9 166-1 173-3 180-6 154-0 161-4 168-7 176-0 183-4 156-4 163-9 171-3 178-8 186-2 26 27 28 29 30 162-5 168-8 175-0 181-3 187-5 165-2 171-6 177-9 184-3 190-6 168-8 174-4 180-9 187-3 193-8 170-7 177-3 183-9 190-4 197-0 173-5 180-2 186-9 193-5 200-2 176-3 183-1 189-9 196-7 203-5 179-2 186-0 192-9 199-8 206-7 182-0 189-0 196-0 203-0 210-0 184-9 192-0 199-1 206-2 213-3 187-8 195-0 202-2 209-5 216-7 190-7 198-0 205-4 212-7 220-1 1937 201-1 208-6 216-0 223-5 150 APPENDIX II. TABLES OF COMPOUND INTEREST AND DISCOUNT. Examples of the Use of the Tables : Table I. A capital of 1 at 3 per cent in twenty years becomes 1*8061 ; therefore 100 would become 100 x 1'8061 = 180'61 = 180, 12s. 2d. ,, II. A capital of 1 obtainable in 40 years has, at 3 per cent, a present value of only 0'3066 ; therefore 100 would only have a present value of 100 x '3066 = 30 '66 = 30, 13s. 2d. III. A return of 1 due 10 years hence, and every 10 years after that, has at 4 per cent a present value of 2 '0823 ; therefore a similar return of 20 (as, for example, the net income from a piece of coppice cut every 10 years) would have a present value of 20x2-0823 = 41 -646 = 41, 12s. lid. ,, IV. A return of 1 obtainable for the next 20 years represents, at 3 per cent interest, 26'8704 at the end of that time ; therefore a hunt leasing a piece of woodland as a fox -co vert for 20 years at a rental of 20 a-year, will by the end of that time have paid a sum equal -to 20 x 26'8704 = 537'408 = 537. 8s. 2cl. And conversel} 7 , this table can be used to ascertain the annual payment necessary to establish a Fund which will amount to a certain sum in n years, through dividing the capital by the final value For example, if 5000 are payable 20 years hence, what sum must be invested annually at 3 per cent to form a fund that will clear the debt then? Here r = 5000 -J- 26 "8704 = 186 -07 = 186, is. 5d. V. An annual return of 1 obtainable for the next 20 years has, at 3 per cent interest, a present value of 14 '8775 ; therefore a rental of 20 a-year payable by a hunt leasing a wood for 20 years as a fox-covert would, at 3 per cent, be equal to a present total payment of 20 x 14 '8775 = 297 '55 = 297, 11s. And conversely, the annual sum required to liquidate within the course of n years a debt now incurred, is ascer- tained through dividing this sum by the present value as shown in this table l-0jpx0-0i\ "1-0^-1 ) For example, if a debt of 5000 be now incurred, it can, reckoning 3 per cent interest, be gradually liquidated (along with the interest due on it) in. 20 years by an annual' payment of r=5000-M4'8775 = 336-077 = 336, Is. 6d. 151 TABLE I. THE SUMMARISED FUTURE VALUE OF A CAPITAL ((7) of 1, accumulating at Compound Interest for n years, the rate of Interest being p. [C n = Cxl'0 p n ]. Years. n. Rate of interest (p) per cent. 24 3 3i 4 4i 1 2 3 4 5 1-0250 1-0506 1-0769 1-1038 1-1314 1-0300 1-0609 1-0927 1-1255 1-1593 1-0350 1-0712 1-1087 1-1475 1-1877 1-0400 1-0816 1-1249 1-1699 1-2167 1-0450 1-0920 1-1412 1-1925 1-2462 6 7 8 9 10 1-1597 1-1887 1-2184 1-2489 1-2801 1-1941 1-2299 1-2668 1-3048 1-3439 1-2293 1-2723 1-3168 1-3629 1-4106 1-2653 1-3159 1-3686 1-4233 1-4802 1-3023 1-3609 1-4221 1-4861 1-5530 11 12 13 14 15 1-3121 1-3449 1-3785 1-4130 1-4483 1-3842 1-4258 1-4685 1-5126 1-5580 1-4600 1-5111 1-5640 1-6187 1-6753 1-5395 1-6010 1-6651 1-7317 1-8009 1-6229 1-6959 1-7722 1-8519 1-9353 16 17 18 19 20 1-4845 1-5216 1-5597 1-5986 1-6386 1-6047 1-6528 1-7024 1-7535 1-8061 1-7340 1-7947 1-8575 1-9225 1-9898 1-8730 1-9479 2-0258 2-1068 2-1911 2-0224 2-1134 2-2085 2-3079 2-4117 21 22 23 24 25 1-6796 1-7216 1-7646 1*8087 1-8539 1-8603 1-9161 1-9736 2-0328 2-0938 2-0594 2-1315 2-2061 2-2833 2-3632 2-2788 2-3699 2-4647 2-5633 2-6658 2-5202 2-6337 27522 2-8760 3-0054 26 27 28 29 30 1-9003 1-9478 1-9965 2-0464 2-0976 2-1566 2-2213 2-2879 2-3566 2-4273 2-4460 2-5316 2-6202 27119 2-8068 2-7725 2-8834 2-9987 3-1187 3-2434 3-1407 3-2820 3-4297 3-5840 3-7453 35 40 45 50 55 60 2-3732 2-6851 3-0379 3-4371 3-8888 4-3998 2-8139 3-2620 3-7816 4-3839 5-0821 5-8916 3-3336 3-9593 4-7024 5-5849 6-6331 7-8781 3-9461 4-8010 5-8412 7-1067 8-6464 10-5196 4-6673 5-8164 7-2482 9-0326 11-2563 14-0274 65 70 75 80 90 100 4-9780 5-6321 6-3722 7-2096 9-2289 11-8137 6-8300 7-9178 9-1789 10-6409 14-3005 19-2186 9-3567 11-1128 13-1986 15-6757 22-1122 31-1914 12-7987 15-5716 18-9453 23-0498 34-1193 50-5049 17-4807 21-7841 26-1470 33-8301 52-5371 81-5885 152 TABLE II. THE DISCOUNTED PEESENT VALUE OF A CAPITAL (Cn) of 1, C ~~i realisable n years hence, the rate of Interest being p. [(7= n n I. Years. n. Rate of interest (p) per cent. a* 3 *i 4 4 1 2 3 4 5 0-9756 0-9518 0-9286 0-9060 0-8839 0-9709 0-9426 0-9151 0-8885 0-8626 0-9662 0-9335 0-9019 0-8714 0-8420 0-9615 0-9246 0-8890 0-8548 0-8219 0-9569 0-9157 0-8763 0-8386 0-8025 6 7 8 9 10 0-8623 0-8413 0-8207 0-8007 07812 0-8375 0-8131 0-7894 0-7664 0-7441 0-8135 0-7860 0-7594 0-7337 0-7089 0-7903 0-7599 0-7307 0-7026 0-6756 0-7679 0-7348 0-7032 0-6729 0-6439 11 12 13 14 15 0-7621 0-7436 0-7254 0-7077 0-6905 0-7224 0-7014 0-6810 0-6611 0-6419 0-6849 0-6618 0-6394 0-6178 0-5969 0-6496 0-6246 0-6006 0-5775 0-5553 0-6162 0-5897 0-5643 0-5400 0-5167 16 17 18 19 20 0-6736 0-6572 0-6412 0-6255 0-6103 0-6232 0-6050 0-5874 0-5703 0-5537 0-5767 0-5572 0-5384 0-5202 0-5026 0-5339 0-5134 0-4936 0-4746 0-4564 0-4945 0-4732 0-4528 0-4333 0-4146 21 22 23 24 25 0-5954 0-5809 0-5667 0-5529 0-5394 0-5375 0-5219 0-5067 0-4919 0-4776 0-4856 0-4692 0-4533 0-4380 0-4231 0-4388 0-4220 0-4057 0-3901 0-3751 0-3968 0-3797 0-3633 0-3477 0-3327 26 27 28 29 30 0-5262 0-5134 0-5009 0-4887 0-4767 0-4637 0-4502 0-4371 0-4243 0-4120 0-4088 0-3950 0-3817 0-3687 0-3563 0-3607 0-3468 0-3335 0-3207 0-3083 0-3184 0-3047 0-2916 0-2790 0-2670 35 40 45 50 55 60 0-4214 0-3724 0-3292 0-2909 0-2572 0-2273 0-3554 0-3066 0-2644 0-2281 0-1968 0-1697 0-3000 0-2526 0-2127 0-1791 0-1508 0-1269 0-2534 0-2083 0-1712 0-1407 0-1157 0-0951 0-2143 0-1719 0-1380 0-1107 0-0888 0-0713 65 70 75 80 90 100 0-2009 0-1776 0-1569 0-1387 0-1084 0-0847 0-1464 0-1263 0-1089 0-0940 0-0699 0-0520 0-1069 0-0900 0-0758 0-0638 0-0452 0-0321 0-0781 0-0642 0-0528 0-0434 0-0293 0-0198 0-0572 0-0459 0-0368 0-0296 0-0190 0-0123 153 TABLE III. THE DISCOUNTED PRESENT VALUE OF A PERPETUAL PERI- ODIC RENTAL OR RETURN (E) of 1, obtainable every n years, the D rate of Interest being p. [(7= - Years. n. Rate of interest (p) per cent H 3 I 4 4* I 2 3 4 5 40-0000 197531 13-0055 9-6327 7-6099 33-3333 16-4204 10-7843 7-9676 6-2785 28-5714 14-0400 9-1981 6-7786 5-3280 25-0000 12-2549 8-0087 5-8873 4-6157 22-2222 10-8666 7-0839 5-1943 4-0620 6 7 8 9 10 6-2620 5-2998 4-5787 4-0183 3-5703 5-1533 4-3502 3-7485 3-2811 2-9077 4-3620 3-6727 3-1565 2-7556 2-4355 3-7690 3-1652 2-7132 2-3623 2-0823 3-3084 2-7711 2-3691 2-0572 1-8084 11 12 13 14 15 3-2042 2-8995 2-6419 2-4215 2-2307 2-6026 2-3487 2-1343 1-9509 1-7922 2-1741 1-9567 1-7732 1-6163 1 -4807 1-8537 1-6638 1-5036 1 -3667 1-2485 1 -6055 1-4370 1-2950 1-1738 1-0692 16 17 18 19 20 2-0640 1-9171 1-7868 1-6704 1-5659 1-6537 1-5317 1-4236 1-3271 1-2405 1-3624 1 -2584 1-1662 1-0840 1-0103 1-1455 1-0550 0-9748 0-9035 0-8395 0-9781 0-8982 0-8275 0-7646 0-7084 21 22 23 24 25 1-4715 1-3859 1-3079 1-2365 1-1710 1-1624 1-0916 1-0271 0-9682 0-9143 0-9439 0-8838 0-8291 0-7792 0-7335 0-7820 0-7300 0-6827 0-6397 0-6003 0-6578 0-6121 0-5707 0-5330 0-4986 26 27 28 29 30 1-1107 1-0551 1-0035 0-9556 0-9111 0-8646 0-8188 07764 0-7372 0-7006 0-6916 0-6529 0-6172 0-5842 0-5535 0-5642 0-5310 0-5003 0-4720 0-4458 0-4671 0-4382 0-4116 0-3870 0-3643 35 40 45 50 55 60 0-7282 0-5934 0-4907 0-4103 0-3462 0-2941 0-5513 0-4421 0-3595 0-2955 0-2450 0-2044 0-4285 0-3379 0-2701 0-2181 0-1775 0-1454 0-3394 0-2631 0-2066 0-1638 0-1308 0-1050 0-2727 0-2076 0-1600 0-1245 0-0975 0-0768 65 70 75 80 90 100 0-2514 0-2159 0-1861 0-1610 0-1215 0-0925 0-1715 0-1446 0-1223 0-1037 0-0752 0-0549 0-1197 0-0989 0-0820 0-0681 0-0474 0-0331 0-0848 0-0686 0-0557 0-0454 0-0302 0-0202 0-0607 0-0481 0-0382 0-0305 0-0194 0-0124 154 TABLE IV. THE SUMMARISED FUTURE VALUE OP AN ANNUAL RENTAL OR KETURN (r) of 1, obtainable for n years in all, the rate of In- r(l-0 j?"-in _r terest being p. [O n - Years. n. Bate of interest (p) per cent. 2* 3 3* 4 4* 1 2 3 4 5 1-0000 2-0250 3-0756 4-1525 5-2563 1-0000 2-0300 3-0909 4-1836 5-3091 1-0000 2-0350 3-1062 4-2149 5-3625 1-0000 2-0400 3-1216 4-2465 5-4163 1-0000 2-0450 3:1370 4-2782 5-4707 6 7 8 9 10 6-3877 7-5474 8-7361 8-9545 11-2034 6-4684 7-6625 8-8923 10-1591 11-4639 6-5502 77794 9-0517 10-3685 11-7314 6-6330 7-8983 9-2142 10-5828 12-0061 6-7169 8-0192 9-3800 10-8021 12-2882 11 12 13 14 15 12-4835 12-7956 151404 16-5190 17-9319 12-8078 14-1920 15-6178 17-0863 18-5989 13-1420 14-6020 16-1130 17-6770 19-2957 13-4864 15-0258 16-6268 18-2919 20-0236 13-8412 15-4640 17-1599 18-9321 20-7841 16 17 18 19 20 19-3802 20-8647 22-3863 23-9460 25-5447 20-1569 21-7616 23-4144 25-1169 26-8704 20-9710 22-7050 24-4997 26-3572 28-2797 21-8245 23-6975 25-6454 27-6712 29-7781 22-7193 24-7417 26-8551 29-0636 31-3714 21 22 23 24 25 27-1833 28-8629 30-5844 32-3490 34-1578 23-6765 30-5368 32-4529 34-4265 36-4593 30-2695 32-3289 34-4604 36-6665 38-9499 31-9692 34-2480 36-6179 39-0826 41-6459 33-7831 36-3034 38-9370 41-6892 44-5652 26 27 28 29 30 3o-0117 37-9120 39-8598 41-8563 43-9027 38-5530 40-7096 42-9309 45-2189 47-5754 41-3131 437591 46-2906 48-9108 51-6-.'27 44-3117 47-0842 49-9676 52-9663 56-0849 47-5706 50-7113 53-9933 57-4230 61-0071 35 40 45 50 55 60 54-9282 67-4026 81-5161 97-4843 115.551 135-992 60-4621 75-4013 92-7199 112-797 136-072 163-053 66-6740 84-5503 105-782 130-998 160-947 196-517 73-6522 95-0255 121-029 152-667 191-159 237-991 81-4966 107.030 138-850 178-503 227-918 289-498 65 70 75 80 90 100 159-118 185-284 214-888 248-383 329-154 432-549 194-333 230-594 272-631 321 -363 443349 607-288 238-763 288-938 348-530 419-307 603-205 862-612 294-968 364-290 448-631 551-245 827-903 1237-62 366-238 461 -870 581-044 729-558 1145-27 1790-86 155 TABLE V. THE DISCOUNTED PRESENT VALUE OF AN ANNUAL RENTAL OR RETURN (r) of 1. obtainable for n years in all, the rate of Interest being ,. lO=~ Years. n. Rate of interest (p) per cent. 24 3 H 4 44 I 2 3 4 5 0-9756 1-9274 2-8560 3-7620 4-6458 0-9709 1-9135 2-8286 3-7171 4-5797 0-9662 1-8997 2-8016 3-6731 4-5151 0-9615 1-8861 2-7751 3-6299 4-4518 0-9569 1-8727 2-7490 3-5875 4-3900 6 7 8 9 10 5-5081 6-3494 7-1701 7-9709 8-7521 5-4172 6-2303 7-0197 7-7861 8-5302 5-3286 6-1145 6-8740 7-6077 8-3166 5-2421 6-0021 6-7327 7-4353 8-1109 5-1579 5-8927 6-5959 7-2688 7-9127 11 12 13 14 15 9-5142 10-2578 10-9832 11-6909 12'3814 9-2526 9-9540 10-6350 11-2961 11-9379 9-0016 9-6633 10-3027 10-9205 11-5174 8-7605 9-3851 9-9857 10-5631 11-1184 8-5289 9-1186 9-6829 10-2228 10-7395 16 17 18 19 20 13-0550 13-7122 14-3534 14-9789 15-5892 12-5611 13-1661 13-7535 14-3238 14-8775 12-0941 12-6513 13-1897 13-7098 14-2124 11-6523 12-1657 12-6593 13-1339 13-5903 11-2340 11-7072 12-1600 12-5933 13-0079 21 22 23 24 25 16-1845 16-7654 17-3321 17-8850 18-4244 15-4150 15-9369 16-4436 16-9355 17-4131 14-6980 15-1671 15-6204 16-0584 16-4815 14-0292 14-4511 14-8568 15-2470 15-6221 13-4047 137844 14-1478 14-4955 14-8282 26 27 28 29 30 18-9506 19-4640 19-9649 20-4535 20-9303 17-8768 18-3270 18-7641 19-1885 19-6004 16-8904 17-2854 17-6670 18-0358 18-3920 15-9828 16-3296 16-6631 16-9837 17-2920 15-1466 15-4513 15-7429 16-0219 16-2889 35 40 45 50 55 60 23-1452 25-1028 26-8330 28-3623 29-7140 30-9087 21-4872 23-1148 24-5187 25-7298 26-7744 27-6756 20-0007 21-3551 22-4955 23-4556 24-2641 24-9447 18-6646 19-7928 20-7200 21-4822 22-1086 22-6235 17-4610 18-4016 19-1563 19-7620 20-2480 20-6380 65 70 75 80 90 100 31 -9646 32-8979 33-7227 34-4518 35-6658 36 6141 28-4529 291234 29-7018 30-2008 31-0024 31-5989 25-5178 26-0004 26-4067 26-7488 27-2793 27-6554 23-0467 23-3945 23-6804 23-9154 24-2673 24 5050 20-9510 21-2021 21-4036 21-5653 21 -7992 21-9499 156 PART III. THE PKOTECTION OF WOODLANDS CHAP. I. PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN ACTS, FARM-STOCK, GAME, RODENTS, AND BIRDS. II. PROTECTION AGAINST INJURIOUS INSECTS. III. PROTECTION AGAINST WEEDS, EPIPHYTES, AND FUNGUS DIS- EASES. IV. PROTECTION AGAINST DAMAGE FROM INORGANIC CAUSES. CHAPTER I. PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN ACTS, FARM-STOCK, GAME, RODENTS, AND BIRDS. Legislative Protection is afforded by Forest Ads, and Rules made thereunder, in all countries having large forest areas under more or less systematic management. But in Britain there is, as yet, no need for these, and the only legal pro- tection given is that, in 1861, the statutes dealing with damage to woodlands, trees, and shrubs were consolidated in the Larceny and other similar Offences Act (sect. 16, referring to "any Forest, Chase, or Purlieu," and sects. 31 to 33, and 35, referring to " trees and woods "), protection being at the same time also given to ornamental trees and shrubs under the Malicious Injuries to Property Act (sects. 20 to 22, and 53). Under these it is felony to steal any tree, shrub, or under- wood, or to destroy or maliciously injure the same with intent to steal, if the value be A-pupa into the perfect insect taking plac by the already formed wings being liberated at the last moult or change of skin ; while some wingless primitive insects (Aptera) undergo no 'meta- morphosis at all. The Ova or eggs vary greatly in size, shape, and colour. Eggs are laid singly or in clusters on different parts of trees, and some- times lie naked and unprotected, or are protected within the bark or by some special covering. The Larva usually hatches out in the course of a few weeks, but often hibernates within the shell, and only emerges in the following spring. The larva} of most beetles are called grubs ; the 1 6-footed larvic of butterflies and moths (those of spanners have only 10, and a few mining-moths have none) are called caterpillars ; the 18 - to 22 - footed larvte of sawflies have tail-like extremities and are called tailed-cater- pillars ; while the larvie of flies, which have neither feet nor any complex structure of the head, are called maggots. The larva) of many beetles have 3 pairs of legs on the first three (thoracic) segments after the head ; the caterpillars of moths and butterflies have these also, and in additiou 182 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. from 2 to 5 pairs of prolcgs or clasping feet attached to the abdominal segments, the last pair of which (claspers or anal prolcgs) are on the terminal segment. As it gradually grows in size, the larva moults its skin several times before pupation. The pupa sometimes lies unprotected on the ground under moss and dead foliage, or in fissures or under bark- scales, and at other times it is enclosed within a woven cocoon (often of large size for some spinning-moths), while with flies the last larval skin forms a protective covering. The longest stage of development is that in which the insect hibernates ; and this is very often the larval stage, although many beetles hibernate as adults. The egg and the pupal stages usually last only from two to four weeks, except with insects which hibernate thus. As soon as the adults appear, they usually pair at once and reproduce themselves, the male generally dying soon after pairing, except in the case of beetles, which often hibernate, and of bees which live for four or five years. The Generation of any insect, or the complete cycle from egg to egg, varies greatly, being multiple in plant-lice and ichneumon-flies, which produce several generations in a year ; double in some bark-beetles and sawflies, which produce two generations in each year ; single, simple, or annual with most butterflies and moths, which yearly produce one generation ; biennial or two - yearly in wood-wasps, the Pine resin-gall tortrix, and many longicorn beetles ; and plurennial in the cockchafer, which takes at least three and usually four years to complete its generation. Occasionally there are two generations in three years (as in Bostriclms bidens), but this is unusual. Insects with complete metamorphosis feed only as larvoo and adults, though only in exceptional cases (e.g., Pine-weevil) doing damage as adults ; but among insects with incomplete metamorphosis the nymph also feeds. In both groups the larva) are often very destructive. Any attempt to group injurious insects either with regard to the trees they attack or to the age of the crops generally attacked (seedlings and young plants, thickets, pole- woods, and high woods) is unsatisfactory, as many insects are dangerous at all stages of tree-growth, and feed more or less indiscriminately on different kinds of trees when once they increase in unusual numbers. But it may be remarked that most weevils, some leaf-rollers, and cockchafer-grubs usually attack seedling growth and young thickets, and that pole-woods and older crops are mostly attacked by moths, and then by bark- and cambial-beetles when the trees grow sickly. The caterpillars of the Pine owlet-moth and the Pine span- worm always attack pole-woods before migrating to older crops on their numbers increasing largely. With regard) to the parts of the tree chiefly INSECTS. 183 attacked, one can distinguish between Root-destroyers, such as the mole- cricket and the cockchafer grub ; Wood-borers, comprising the larvae of wood-wasps, cervicorn beetles, some bark-beetles, and goat-moth cater- pillars ; Bark-beetles, and some weevils, which often, both as beetle and larva, either destroy the cambium and the sapwood, or else hollow out the pith in young shoots (e.g., some Hylesinini and Tortricidce) ; Bud- and Leaf-destroyers, including other weevils, most moth- and sawfly- caterpillars, leaf-beetles, cockchafers, and some plant-lice (e.g., Larch aptera) ; Producers of Deformities and Malformations on foliage, shoots, and fruits, as gall-wasps, gall-midges, and plant-lice (e.g., Spruce aphis). But the now generally accepted scientific classification into orders is as follows : A. With complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, adult). I. Coleoptera ("shield- wings") or Beetles, having 2 pairs of wings, the front pair being hard and horny (elytra], and forming shields for protecting the soft membraneous hind-pair used in flying ; mouth for biting. II. Lepidoptera ("scale- wings") or Butterflies and Moths, 1 having 2 pairs of flat membraneous wings more or less completely covered with flat scales ; mouth biting for larva, and sucking for adult. III. Hymenoptera (" skin-wings ") or Sawflies, Wasps, Bees, and Ants, having 2 pairs of wings, all membraneous, with few wing-cells, and a distinct dark area along the upper border ; mouth for biting, or for both sucking and biting. IV. Diptera ("two- wings") or Flies, having only 1 pair of mem- braneous wings attached to mesothorax, the hind pair being only rudimentary and aborted into two small stalked knobs (haltcres) used as poisers or balancers ; mouth biting for larva, and sucking or piercing for adult. 1 Butterflies have feelers always ending in a club-like knob, are mostly diurnal in habit, and are of little or no importance to the forester ; whereas moths with feelers variable in form, but never ending in a knob, are usually more or less nocturnal in habit, and are often very destructive. 184 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. B. Witk incomplete metamorphosis. V. Hemiptera ("half-wings") or Bugs, Plant-lice, and Scale- insects, &c., having 2 pairs of wings, either all membraneous (sub-order Homoptera, with fore and hind wings similar, or Plant-lice and Scale-insects, &c.) or else the front pair leathery at base and opaque (sub-order Heteroptera, with fore and hind wings different, or Bugs) ; mouth formed into a snout (proboscis) for sucking and piercing. VI. Orthoptera (" straight -wings") or Grasshoppers and Crickets, having 2 pairs of wings, the front pair narrow, leathery, and with straight veins, the hind pair fan-shaped ; mouth for biting. VII. Neuroptera ("nerve-wings") or Dragon - Flies and Lace-wing Flies, having 2 pairs of wings with a network of veins ; mouth for biting. VIII. Thysanoptera ("fringe- wings") or Thrips, small insects having 2 pairs of very narrow wings fringed all round with fine hairs ; mouth for biting, but weak. C. Without metamorphosis. IX. Aptera ("without wings") or Springtails, &c., small insects having no wings, but either a locomotive apparatus like a spring beneath, or a process like a tail ; mouth for biting, but weak. In our woodlands beetles and moths are by far the most destructive insects, then sawflies and plant-lice. In beetles the structure and the different segments of the adult are distinguishable in the pupa, but in moths they are still indistinguishable. No insects of the orders Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Thysanoptera, or Aptera damage trees, while many of the Neuroptera are useful by preying on the injurious kinds of insects. Damage by Insects. Conifers, and especially Pine, Larch, and Spruce, are usually much more attacked than broad -leaved trees ; and the attacks are generally far more destructive, owing to their much smaller reserves of starchy and nitrogenous substances as compared with broad - leaved trees. Oak, Beech, Poplar, and Willow are more attacked than INSECTS. 185 Ash, Elm, Maple, Sycamore, Birch, or Alder. When Oaks have been defoliated in spring by leaf-roller caterpillars, they can utilise their nutrient reserves and flush into leaf again in July ; but when caterpillars have devoured most of the foliage of Scots Pine and Spruce, the recovery of the Pine is doubtful, and the Spruce dies. In Britain, the Larch often suffers severely from mining-moths and leaf-lice. Damage to young crops is more serious than to older poles and trees ; and attacks in spring are worse than those in summer or autumn, after buds are formed for next year's growth. And if foliage alone be attacked, the damage may only be temporary; but when roots and cambium are badly injured, the sapling, pole, or tree usually dies. Injurious insects are, fortunately, not the most prolific kinds. Hard winters are not fatal to most insects, and may favour the increase of beetles (protected by their horny casing) by causing the death of many insectivorous birds. Naked larvse without any protective covering are sensitive to damp cold weather, and are killed in large numbers when moulting their skins. Warm and dry weather, stumps remaining after heavy timber falls, sickly crops of all ages, and dominated or unhealthy trees, all form breeding -places for injurious insects, which then increase with rapidity. Bark- and cambial-beetles lay eggs in stems thrown or broken by wind, or in winter-felled trees left till late spring or summer, or in those already sickly from attacks of other insects on the foliage. Pine-weevils breed in the stumps of recently felled trees, and feed on neighbouring young plantations. Moths usually lay their eggs on backward crops growing on inferior soil, and unable to recover from the injuries of the caterpillars ; and such favourable breeding- and feeding-places form centres from which noxious insects spread to other woodlands. Hence the need for careful tending ; neglect of any one part of a wood is a danger to all of the timber-crops. Natural Checks upon Injurious Insects. Wet, cold weather while caterpillars are moulting their skins, and when beetles and moths are pairing, keeps down injurious injects. Before any appear in unusual numbers, the balance of nature must somehow have been disturbed ; and when left to nature the balance is usually restored in 3 to 4 years, by predatory and parasitic insects increasing greatly, and bacterial and fungous diseases breaking out epidemically and almost exterminating the insect. But to await this natural readjustment may mean entire loss of the timber-crops. In mixed woods there are more insectivorous birds than in pure woods (of Conifers especially), and this tends to check excessive increase of noxious insects. So far as considerations of sport permit, all natural enemies of injurious insects should be preserved, the chief among which are the following : 1. Mammals. Bats devour cockchafers and moths ; moles destroy 186 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. grubs and mole - crickets ; shrew, hedgehog, weasel, pole - cat, stoat, badger, and fox devour beetles and pupa?. 2. Birds. The most generally useful are the cuckoo (the only bird devouring hairy caterpillars), the starling, flycatchers, titmice, tree- creepers, swallows, owls, and most song-birds ; then thrushes, blackbirds, rooks, gulls, plovers, the kestrel, buzzards, woodpeckers, sparrows and finches, crows, ravens, jackdaws and larks, which are of less use. 3. Insects. Predaceous and parasitic insects on the whole do far more than either mammals or birds to keep injurious kinds in check. The predaceous kinds prey, often both as larva and imago, on the eggs, larvse, pupae, and adults of noxious insects ; while the parasitic kinds generally lay their eggs on the eggs and in larvse (less frequently in the pupa) or adults) of the injurious kinds, on which the maggots feed when they hatch out. The useful insects generally exist in woodlands in large numbers ; and when noxious kinds increase abnormally, so also do the useful kinds that feed on them. The useful insects belong chiefly to the orders Coleoptera and Hymenoptera ; then to the Diptera, Ncuroptera. Hemiptera, and Orthoptera; while the Lepidoptera contains no useful genus, just as the Neuroptera contains no injurious genus, so far as concerns the forester. (1) Predaceous Insects. Among Coleoptera, predaceous kinds include tiger- or sand-beetles (Cicindclidce), predaceous ground-beetles (Carabidcv), dung-beetles (Staphylinidce], carrion -beetles (Silphidce), nitid or shining- beetles (Nitidulidce), thread-beetles (Colydiidce), soft-beetles (Malacoder- mata, including gold-beetles, Cleridce), and lady -birds (Coccinellidw). Clerus formicarius and Rhizophagns dcpressus are two very useful beetles in Conifer woods, as they prey on the Pine-beetle. Clerus formicarius is easily recognisable by its large black head, black antenna) with red-brown tips, red-and-black thorax, and abdomen red at base and black behind, with two well-marked transverse white bands across the wing-cases. The dark-headed larva is rose-red, and consists of twelve segments, the first three of which have legs. The first segment has a horny plate above, and the second and third have each two small horny spots ; the last joint is covered with a horny shield, and ends in two small knobs. Both beetle and larva feed on larvae, pupse, and adults of destructive tree-beetles ; and the larva) bore into the bark to hunt for prey. The beetle always seizes its prey behind the head. It is also the most useful of insects in keeping down bark-beetles (Scolytidce). Rhizophayus depressus is only about | of an inch long, bright rusty red, with finely-punctured lines on the wing-cases. The larva is about | of an inch long ; the head and prothorax are reddish, and all the other segments whitish above and reddish below. The last segment of the body is red-brown, with two knobs above and a small motor-appendage below. Both beetle and larva INSECTS. 187 live below the bark of Pine and Spruce, crawling along the tunnels bored by injurious insects, and feeding on their larvae and pupa). The beetle also preys on the larvae of longicorn beetles. Among the Hymenoptera, the digging or fossorial wasps (Sphegidce) are both predatory and parasitic. They kill or deaden caterpillars, beetles, plant-lice, &c., with their stings, drag them to their holes, and lay eggs inside them. Wasps in general (Vespidce), and especially the hornet ( Vespa crabro, itself injurious to Ash), prey on moths and flies ; while ants (Formicidce), which live in large colonies within their breeding- mounds, devour all sorts of injurious larvae. Among the Diptera, the predatory flies (Asilidce) breed mostly in sandy localities, and attack and suck many other kinds of insects ; while the leech-shaped larvae of the humming- or hover-flies (Syrphidce) kill plant-lice by sucking. Among the Neuroptera the scorpion - fly (Panorpa), the camel - necked flies (Rhaphidia), the gold -eyed fly (Hemerobia perla], and the ant-lion (Myrmdeoii) all prey on noxious insects (though the last also on useful ants) ; and several dragon-flies (Libellulidce) as larvae, nymphae, and especially as adults, kill many noxious insects, including moths. Among the Hemiptera, scaly and other bugs (Pentastomidce, Reduviidce) prey on plant-lice. But the predatory kinds in these last two orders are not so numerous or useful as those in the first-named three orders. (2) Parasitic Insects are the chief enemies of noxious kinds ; and the most important are the ichneumon-, braconid-, and chalcid-flies of the Hymenoptera, and the parasitic-flies (Tachinincv) belonging to the Diptera. The Jchneumonidce vary in size, but are usually long and thin. The abdomen is often stalked, and the female has a long egg-layer consisting of a thin borer enclosed within two lateral sheaths. The wing- veins are few in number, and only form distinctly-closed cells when there is a submarginal vein. The antennas are many- jointed, and usually thin, seldom clubbed. The feet have usually five joints. Larvce footless, smooth, generally white, soft, and tapering towards both ends. Pupa soft and white, with free limbs. Adults usually fly from May till August, and generally lay their eggs in the larger species of larvae of noxious insects. Egg-laying sometimes also takes place in pupae, and occasionally in adults ; while minute species even lay eggs within eggs of injurious insects. Generation partly single, but often double, and sometimes manifold ; and they increase enormously when hosts are numerous. The Tachininaj, distinguishable from other flies by rough brush -like hairs on the abdomen, are chiefly parasitic as larvae on the larvae and pupae of moths and saw-flies. The principal species is Tachina /era, which destroys large numbers of insects, and generally pupates outside the host, in or on the ground, the pupa being round or oval, and brown or black. 188 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. Preventive Measures against Insect Attacks consist in 1. Only growing tree-crops suited for the given soil, situation, and climate. 2. Forming mixed woods in groups suited to soil, &c., rather than large pure woods. 3. Careful weeding of young plantations and thinning of all older woods. 4. Speedy removal of all thinnings and timber felled, and clearance or burning of the branches and brushwood left on felled areas. Clear- f elling of a Spruce-wood, mixed with Scots Fine and Beech (Sc 1900), Conifers barked for protection against beetles, the bark being stacked and the brush - wo "1 piled in heaps for sale. Nairow rings of bark are left at ends and middle of . each log, to prevent excessive cracking during seasoning. 5. Barking of all Conifer logs left lying in the woods after the end of April (Fig. 35). 6. Grubbing up Conifer stumps, if saleable for fuel ; otherwise barking and burning them along with the brushwood, to make them un- suitable as breeding-places for Pine-weevils. 7. Encouraging the increase of insectivorous birds by hanging up nesting- boxes, and preserving, so far as practicable, all the different kinds of the natural enemies of injurious insects. 8. Rectifying as soon as possible any damage done in the woodlands (by wind, snow, fire, &c.). INSECTS. 189 9. Careful examination of the woods to see if injurious insects are present (Fig. 36), and instructing the woodmen how to examine decoy-stems left as traps for bark-beetles. Fig. 36. A sample-plot of Scots Pine ringed witli bands oj patent tar to ascertain if the Nun -moth (Liparis monacha) is present (Saxony, 1900). Exterminative measures are needed when noxious insects are found to be increasing, by such indications as bore-holes in the bark, bore-dust or drops of resin, gnawed leaves, excrement, gradual thinning of the foliage in tree-crowns, or the presence of insectivorous birds in larger numbers than usual ; but these measures differ for beetles and for moths. (a) Extermination of Beetles. Many bark-beetles and weevils can be destroyed by felling and barking Conifer trees attacked, and burning the 190 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. bark containing the eggs, larva?, pupsc, and often the adults also. Decoy - stems should be felled and placed before bark-beetles pair, because they go to sickly and recently felled trees before attacking healthy stems whose strong resinous outflow might kill their brood. Stems laid down in winter or early spring should be barked and removed in May and June, and fresh decoy-sterns placed to catch any second brood in August. Dominated or suppressed, but still healthy poles or trees should be used in preference to half -dry moribund stems, not so likely to attract the egg-laying females. It is best to raise the decoy-stems off the ground on rests, so as to let the beetles breed on the lower side, which remains sappy when the upper half is dry. The branches should be lopped to check evaporation through the foliage, but can also be set as traps. Timber from any winter fall is always more or less infested with beetles, and should be removed and larked by May. Removal alone is not enough, because in the sawyard or elsewhere the broods hatch out and increase the number of beetles. Decoy-stems should be examined occasionally to see if they are acting well as traps for eggs. Small drops of resin or heaps of bore-dust near the punctures and bore-holes may show this, while pieces of bark cut off and inspected will show how far the young brood has developed. When the biggest larva) are about half-grown the bark should be stripped and burned, because egg-laying is then completed. Cockchafer-grubs can be collected in nurseries, and the adult beetles of large kinds like cockchafers and longicorns can be shaken or tapped down from the crowns of young trees and hand-collected. The large Pine-weevil can be caught in sappy bark-traps put soft side downwards, and killed by treading on them or pouring boiling water over them ; and smaller beetles may be trapped in bundles of brushwood or bark, which should then be burned. (6) Extermination of Moths. When caterpillars attack on any large scale, decoy-trees are of no use ; nor is spraying with preparations of lime- water, sulphur, tobacco- juice, quassia, paraffin, carbolic acid, Paris green, London purple, &c., practicable in extensive woodlands, although easy and efficacious in nurseries by means of knapsack - sprayers. Hence it is mainly during the caterpillar stage that exterminative efforts are successful. Hand-picking can be adopted for some hairy caterpillars (by workmen wearing old gloves to protect their hands), and for such as hibernate on the ground under moss, &c. , or can be brought down by shaking the poles or tapping on tree-branches with padded mallets or axe-heads, or are found in any trenches dug. By shaking and tapping the Pine Span-worm caterpillars may be brought to the ground and collected especially early in the morning and during cool weather, when they have a looser foothold on the foliage than during warm sunshine. The clusters of Lackey-moth caterpillars are also easily crushed or burned. Swine will devour pupa? on INSECTS. 191 the ground, e.g., Pine Beauty and Pine Span-worm, but not hairy cater- pillars, which only cuckoos eat. When severe attacks are confined to small areas, the migration of caterpillars may be prevented by digging narrow trenches (about 1 foot deep and with perpendicular walls) round the infested portions, and interrupting the leaf-canopy overhead. In these trenches holes, also with clean-cut upright sides, should be made here and there along the sole to catch the caterpillars and lessen their chance of escape ; and similar ditches should be cut within the area isolated. But grease-banding with patent viscous tar is most efficacious for moth-caterpillars that spin down to the ground to moult, or that hibernate under moss, &c. , as the tarry rings prevent them from reascending the stems to feed. Patent tar is only effective while soft and sticky, although its efficacy is dependent on the fact that at least one of the ingredients has a smell so repulsive to caterpillars that they will not cross the ring till it becomes hard and dry. It is therefore essential that the grease-bands should remain sticky throughout the whole of the caterpillar stage of the life of the moth i.e., for at least six to eight weeks without the surface hardening. Before grease-banding the stem needs to be cleared of loose bark, to economise grease and make it adhere closely, a girdle of about 4 inches being cleared on the stems with iron scrapers at about breast-height, and care being taken not to damage the soft inner bark. This should be done in winter and early spring throughout areas known to be infested by moth -caterpillars hibernating under the moss or eggs laid on the stems. About the end of March or early in April the rings of patent tar should be applied before mild weather makes the eggs hatch out or the caterpillars resume feeding. The tar can best be laid on with wooden spuds about 1 to 1 inch broad, and smoothed off with other spuds of equal breadth hollowed to a depth of about ith of an inch (Fig. 37), the crop being first thinned to remove superfluous poles or stems likely to attract the breeding moths, and to reduce the cost of grease-banding. Eggs can only be collected and destroyed when laid near the ground, and even then many get overlooked. But a daub of patent tar kills egg- clusters of the Gipsy and the Pale Tussock moths. The insects chiefly injurious in British woods and nurseries are the following, those that are sometimes very destructive Spud and smooth- ing-stick (about \th real size). 192 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. being marked thus *, and afterwards described in detail (pp. 195 to 232) : Classification, and Common and Scientific Names. I. Beetles (Coleoptera). A. BARK-BEETLES, Scolytidce. a. Scolytini group. 1.* Large Elm-bark beetle, Scolytus} destructor ( 2. Small . Parts undamaged. by ventral contraction, and are about to in. long. When full grown, in autumn they hollow out their pupal-chamber in the sapwood, seal it up with bore - dust and wood - chips, and hibernate as larvae till the following June, when they pupate and emerge as beetles about three weeks later, the development from egg to beetle thus occupying about 15 months. Beetles emerging in July and only partially reproducing themselves are very destructive in the following spring. They begin to hibernate from about the end of August till autumn, in thick grass or SMALL PINE-WEEVIL. 203 weeds, stumps, logs, or dead branches. Early in autumn, females laying eggs often gather in large numbers in such places, and reappear in spring to pair again. Prevention and Extermination. Extensive clear- fell ing of mature Conifer-crops and heavy windfalls, especially near young planta- tions, always increases this destructive weevil. Though seldom practic- able, the best way of preventing attacks is to grub up all the stumps and roots as fuel ; and where this can be done, there is little danger. Felling the timber by cutting through the main roots with an axe and pulling over the tree is not sufficient, as many thick roots remain in the ground. When weevils are numerous the stumps can be used to trap the eggs, and then grubbed in late summer, after the eggs have been laid, or in the early spring. Where young plantations are to be made, it is best to peel the bark from stumps and roots so far as practicable, burn the area, heaping all the rubbish over the stools to dry them as much as possible, and let the land lie fallow for one or two years after a clear fall of timber. If the fall be at once replanted without thorough burning or removing the stumps and big roots, then breeding-places and feeding-grounds are both provided for the beetle. In plantations where the weevils appear, bark-traps should be laid with pieces of fresh Spruce or Pine bark, put with the soft inner side next the ground, and weighed down with stones ; or freshly cut Pine or Spruce poles may be cut into faggots about 3 ft. long, and a strip of bark about 2 in. broad peeled off lengthways, before laying them down with the barked part on the ground. The beetles, attracted by the fresh resinous odour, attack the cambial layer of these decoys, and can be collected daily. They will also feed on bundles of fresh Pine branches, and can be collected by being shaken out on sheets spread on the ground to catch them as they fall. Handpicking by boys and girls is also useful. When collected, they can be killed by pouring boiling water over them. * The small banded Pine-weevil, Pissodes notatus (Fig. 45), J to | in. long, and with feelers springing from near the middle of the snout, is often found along with the large Pine-weevil, and is very destructive to Pines, Spruce, and Larch. It attacks both as larva and beetle, the larva being very destructive, in boring in the bark, and between bark and sapwood, and gnawing away parts where the bark is thin. The weevil does not gnaw, but pushes its snout through the bark into the sapwood near the foot of young plants 3 to 6 years old, and sucks the sap, a badly attacked stem looking as if it had been there pricked all over with a needle and beads of resin had oozed out. Beetle { to in. long, dark red-brown, irregularly covered with small scale-like greyish-white hairs ; on thorax 6 to 8 plainly marked small white or yellowish dots ; elytra with two broad rusty - red transverse bands 204 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. bearing white and yellow scales, the upper band being interrupted at the junction of the wings ; snout long and thin, with feelers springing from near the middle. Beetles swarm in April and May, and from April to September lay eggs (often in small clusters), mostly under the whorls of 3- to 8-year-old Pines, and in Pine-cones and the bark of sickly poles. The yellowish-white brown-headed larva) on hatching out tunnel down- Fig. 46. Fig- 45- The small Pine-weevil (Pissodcs notatus). a. Beetle (magnified four times). b. Beetle (natural size). c. Larva (magnified twice). iL Pupa (magnified twice). Young Pine-stem barked to show the pupal- chambers and exit-holes of Pissodes notatus (half natural size}. wards, eating sinuous star -shaped galleries in the cambium, which terminate in a pupal-chamber formed in the sapwood. On entering this to pupate, the vacant space is filled up with bore-dust and wood-chips (Fig. 46), and several pupsc may often be found embedded just below a branch-whorl. The beetle emerges by a circular hole in August or later, pairs and reproduces itself, then hibernates from November under moss or in bark-fissures, and reappears for pairing again in April and May. BEECH-WEEVIL. 205 The generation is usually annual, though there may be three in two years. Extermination. When young shoots of plants infested by the larvae droop and look sickly about July, they should be pulled up and burned ; and if persevered in for several years in succession, this almost completely exterminates the beetle. Poles attacked should also be felled and barked ; but it is much easier to recognise attacks on young plants than on poles. * The Beech leaf-mining weevil, Orchestes fagi, often swarms in Beech- woods, sometimes does great damage to the leaves and flower-buds, and is very destructive in defoliating Beech-trees. Weevil only T ^ to ^ in. long, black, and covered with fine grey hairs ; elytra with rows of coarse punctures ; antenna} and legs are light-brown ; snout, when not in use, bent back under the thorax ; thighs of hind-legs thick, for springing. The ? bites small holes on the lower surface of young leaves in spring, and lays one egg in each hole near the midrib. The larva) hatch out in 2 to 3 weeks, and mine in the leaf-substance, forming whitish galleries (which soon turn brown), increasing in breadth as the grub grows in size, and damaged leaves turn brown, as if nipped by frost. The pupal stage is passed in the leaf. The beetles emerge in June, feed on the leaves and nut-cupules till autumn, then descend and hibernate under dead leaves on the ground. Prevention is hardly possible in woodlands ; but the attacks are least in mixed woods, where insectivorous birds are always most plentiful. Ornamental trees may be sprayed with arsenic solution formed by stirring ^ Ib. Paris - green paste in 100 gallons water, and adding 1 Ib. lime. If this is not successful, infested leaves should be picked in May and burned, and beetles shaken down and killed in June. The Oak leaf -mining weevil (Orchestes querci) does somewhat similar damage to Oak foliage. 5. The Willow, Poplar, and Alder - weevil, Cryptorhynchus lapathi, about g in. long, and strongly marked by having its elytra dark-brown for their first two-thirds, and white-scaled for the last third, gnaws the bark of young shoots of old Willow and Poplars and young Alder-trees ; but its larva} do far more damage by burrowing into the wood and forming galleries from which the bore-dust is cast out at the entrance. Beetles can be shaken down from trees in May, and badly infested branches or trees cut in July and burned. * The Crawling Hazel - weevil, Strophosomus coryli. The larva is chiefly found on Hazel, Oak, Beech, and Birch, but also attacks other broad-leaved trees and Conifers, and hollows out the buds before gnawing the young shoots. The crawling weevil also feeds in spring on the edges of needles and the bark of young Pine and Spruce, especially 2-year-old seedlings, and does much damage when occurring in large numbers. Beetles to in. long, almost spherical, brownish-grey with greyish metallic sheen ; basal junction of elytra black, without hairs or scales ; 206 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. antenna) and legs rusty-red ; rostrum with fine groove along middle. It has no flying wings, but crawls up stems, pairing and egg-laying about June. Prevention and Extermination. In nurseries beetles may be shaken down and collected. They drop to the ground with slight shak- ing, and crawl quickly away ; but grease-banding stems with patent tar prevents their reascending. C. LAMELLICORN BEETLES (Scarabceidce). * The Cockchafer, May -Beetle, or White -grub, Mdolontha vulgaris (Fig. 47), as a beetle feeds on the leaves and flowers of Oak chiefly, and Fig. 47. The Common Cockchafer (Melolomha vulgaris). . Beetle (male natural size). 6. Feeler of male (7 lamellae magnified four times). c. Feeler of female (6 lamellae magnified four times). d. Grub (natural size). e. Pupa (seen from below natural size). other broad - leaved trees, sometimes almost defoliating them, while among Conifers it mainly eats soft tufts of Larch-needles and male flowers of Pine. But it is most destructive as a voracious grub in loose soil, from the second year onwards gnawing the roots of young plants, and especially of perennial grasses, weeds, and Conifer seedlings, so that the last soon die off, while older plants sicken when attacked. In seed-beds the well-prepared soil attracts the ? when laying eggs, and on falls of Scots Pine on sandy soil grubs are often very destructive. Beetle, 1 to 1 in. long; thorax black or reddish-brown; elytra and legs ruddy -brown ; the elytra with 5 longitudinal ridges, the 4 hollows between which are covered with fine hairs ; abdomen black, with 5 COCKCHAFER. 207 triangular white spots on each side, and gradually terminating in a broad, elongated, pointed tail ; antennas with 10 joints, the laminae 7 -jointed and feathery on <$ , but 6-jointed, smaller, and narrower on ? . The full- grown larva or grub is 1| to 2 in. long, thick, fleshy, dirty-white, the tail - end swollen, darker in colour, and generally bluish from the excrement showing through. It has a thick, yellow-brown head, strong biting jaws, and 6 long feet attached to the thorax. The pupa is brownish-yellow, with two horny processes on the last abdominal segment. The bettle flies in May and June. After pairing the 9 seeks open spaces with loose soil, and lays in some 70 creamy- white eggs about the size of hemp-seed, in clusters of 10 to 30 at a depth of 2 in. or more below the surface, then reascends and soon dies. The grubs hatch out nearly 4 weeks later, and during the first year feed on grass-roots, decomposing foliage, &c. In autumn they burrow deeper, but reascend nearer the surface in spring and feed on the roots of plants until autumn, when they again hibernate, and reascend in the third spring to once more feed as grubs on the roots of young plants ; and the nearly full-grown grubs then do most damage. Again (for the third time) they hibernate as grubs after burrowing deep into the soil, and in spring reascend and feed for a short time. In June, three years after hatching out, they burrow deep into the soil and pupate in an oval hole with smooth hard walls, and after 4 to 8 weeks of pupal rest the beetle comes out soft and white, but gradually hardens and deepens in colour. Without coming to the surface it hibernates below ground, and only emerges in the following May from a hole such as is made with the point of a walking-stick. In Britain four years are needed for normal generation (though in warm countries generation takes three years only), and swarms therefore reappear every four years, only stragglers being seen in the intervening years. Ex- termination. So far as practicable, the 9 should be given no favour- able opportunity of laying eggs on blank spaces with loose soil when chafer-years are expected ; and dibbling is then preferable to pit-planting on sandy soil. Where chafers abound, nurseries should not be formed near pastures from which beetles may fly to lay eggs. But the best pro- tection is to hang up nesting-boxes for starlings all round the nursery. Natural remedies fail, however, to check the periodic chafer-years, when the beetles should in the early morning be shaken down from young poles and collected and killed by pouring boiling water over them, or by dipping the sacks full of them into hot water, such collections being made before the beetles begin egg-laying, and simultaneously over the whole area infested. Grubs can only be exterminated in nurseries where noticed by the withering of seedlings attacked, when each grub can be dug up. They can also be trapped with turf-sods about 10 in. broad and 6 or 8 in. thick being laid, grassy side downwards, on the ground ; or 208 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. Fig. 48. heaps of turf-humus, dung, &c., may also be employed; and grubs collecting under these can be gathered and destroyed. Or potatoes may be placed below ground and examined daily. Equally destructive are the two smaller species, the * Summer- Chafer, Rhizotrogus solstitialis, and the * Garden-Chafer or Bracken-clock, Phyllopertha horticola, and all three have increased during the last ten years. They are easily distinguished from the Cockchafer, as the Summer-Chafer is about f in. long, reddish-brown, and slightly hairy, and the Garden-Chafer about to in. long, the front part of the body greenish with metallic sheen, and the elytra reddish-brown ; and they both appear in June and July, about a month later than the Cockchafer ; but the grubs are very similar when young, and difficult to identify, though they are smaller when full-grown. The habits of the grubs are very similar to those of the Cockchafer. D. LONGHORN BEETLES (Cerambycidai). * The Musk- scented Willow Longhorn, Aromia moschata, is a thin beetle about 1 in. long, with glossy metallic sheen varying from rich blue and green to coppery red, with a strong spine on each side of thorax, the feelers of 9 shorter, and those of <5 much longer than the body. The larva is very destructive by boring into old pollarded Willows, and also into Lime-trees. The large Poplar Longhorn, Sapcrda carcharias (Fig. 48), the larva) of which chiefly infest Poplars and Willows up to about 20 years old, is about 1 to 1 in. long (with antenna) of about same length), clay-grey to yellowish-brown, and with thorax and wing-cases covered with shining black spots. The small Poplar Longhorn, Saperda populnea, about 3 in. long, and black, with yellow or yellowish-grey hairs, often infests the branches of young Poplars without doing them much harm. E. SAWHORN BEETLES, JBuprestidce. The Green Saw -horn beetle, Agrilus viridis, about in. long, and usually blackish with a lustrous metallic blue, green, or olive sheen, appears in June and July, when the 9 lays eggs singly or in clusters of 2 or 3 on the bark near the base of young Beech or Oak. The larva) hatch out 4 to 6 weeks later, feed on the cambium and kill saplings or make them sickly and cankered-like, hibernate inside the stems for two winters, then pupate in the cambium or the sapwood in the follow- Large Poplar Longicorn. a. Beetle (natural size). b. Larva (natural size). c. Head of larva (magnified). LEAF-BEETLES. 209 ing April or May, and emerge from a half - moon hole (^ ) with flat side above during June and July (generation biennial). Plants attacked should be pulled up and burned before the beetles emerge in June. F. LEAF- BEETLES (Chrysomelidce). The Red Poplar-leaf beetle, Lina populi, feeds both as beetle and larva on Poplar, Aspen, and Willow foliage, and sometimes seriously retards the growth of Osier-beds. The beetle is J in. long, with blackish- blue body, and brick-red elytra tipped with black at upper end ; antennae short, compressed, and thickening towards ends; larvae, 6-footed, dirty- white, with numerous black spots, and two white lateral processes on the second and third segments ; pupa, yellowish-brown, with regular black spots and bands, and is somewhat pear-shaped, hangs head-downwards, and attached to leaves by a sharp-pointed tail-end. The beetles fly in May and June, and the ? lays 100 to 150 eggs in clusters of 10 to 12 on the foliage of young saplings, stool-shoots, and suckers. The larvae hatch out in 4 weeks, feed for 4 weeks, then pupate on leaves, and emerge as beetles about the end of August. In October they libernate under moss or dead leaves, and reappear and pair in the following May (generation simple, annual). Beetles may be shaken down from trees while pairing in May or June, or else from August till October before hibernating. Spraying Osier-shoots and the soil beneath them with insecticides is often effective. The Aspen-leaf beetle, Lina tremulce, is very similar but only ^ in. long, and has no black tips to the elytra. It is somewhat more destructive, as it attacks the shoots while still young and soft. The Willow and Osier beetle, Phratora vitellince, % to i of an in. long, bronze green or coppery, oblongly - oval, and having elytra with rows of fine punctures, appears from late April to June, and lays large oblong eggs in clusters of about 10 or 12 on the lower side of Osier, Willow, and Poplar leaves. The larvae hatch out in 4 weeks, and skeletonise both the spring and the summer flush of leaves before pupating in the ground. The beetles emerge in August, feed for some time, then hibernate in the ground, bark- fissures, or any other hiding-place. The generation is usually single, though sometimes early-comers in August pair and produce a second brood before hibernating. G. CLICK-BEETLES or SKIP-JACKS (Elateridce). *The Striped Click-beetle, Agriotes lineatus, is the commonest and the most destructive species (Fig. 49). Beetle f in. long, with a wing-expanse of fully | in. ; thorax tawny ; elytra brown, with yellowish-brown lines ; antenna) reddish-yellow ; legs brown. The " wire- worm," or larva, is f in. long, very shiny, and yellow (chestnut when dead), with a few hairs on its body, 3 pairs of 4-jointed legs on the first three segments, and a swelling on the lower surface of the terminal segment. It has strong jaws for biting through roots. Beetles, 210 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. found under stones, in grass - roots, on grasses, flowers, and trees, in hedges, &c., fly in July and August, and (like the cockchafer) lay eggs in nurseries and wherever the soil has been loosened. Some beetles hibernate in sheltered places, and pair in the following May and June ; and the wire-worms hatching out live in the earth, near the plant-roots on which they feed. After feeding for 3 to 4 years, according to circum- stances, the larva goes deep down and pupates in July in a small oval earthy cocoon, from which the beetle emerges in 2 or 3 weeks. Preven- tion and Extermination. Plovers, rooks, starlings, and jackdaws help to keep them in check, and nitrate of soda, dressings will prevent egg-laying on nursery-beds ; but once part of a nursery is infested, it is best to sow mustard, which wire-worms loathe, and therefore they starve to death. In nurseries the beetles may be trapped in small heaps of lucerne, clover, or sainfoin laid on the ground and covered with tiles or pieces of board during May and June, as long as beetles are notice- able. They fly to these heaps, shelter beneath the green material (particularly if the ground is clean), an< ^ ^ av e s there. These traps must be examined as often as pos- >sible ' to collecfc the beetles > while the green stuff should be destroyed every ten days, aud the ground be- 3. Wire-worm, larva of Agriotes lineatus ne ath well beaten down to squash 4. Pupf (nTturaTsize). any eggs left there. Boards or tiles placed beneath the bait prevent eggs from reaching the ground. The larvae can also be trapped in beetroot or potatoes. Leaf-mould and manure-heaps should be dressed with gas- lime to prevent egg-laying. II. MOTHS (Lcpidoptera). A. SPINNERS (Bombycidce). *The Puss moth, Cerura vinula, is often very destructive to young softwoods, especially Poplars. Moth about 1 in. long, greyish, soft, and fluffy (hence "puss"), fore-wings grey-white, with black markings, and partly transparent near edges ; flies from April to June, and lays brownish eggs singly or in 2 or 3 on leaves of young Poplar aud Willow chiefly. Caterpillar over 2 in. long, smooth, brownish above, with white strip along each side, and greenish-yellow at sides, has a black head, a hump PALE TUSSOCK MOTH. 211 on the fourth segment, and a long forked tail. Pupa enclosed in a hard shell-like cocoon spun along the stem or on twigs, &c. * The Hop-Dog or Pale Tussock moth, DasycJiira pudibunda, is found on most broad-leaved trees, but mainly attacks old Beech-woods on poor soil (also destructive in hop-gardens, hence " hop-dog "), and usually only migrates to younger woods after the old woods have been defoliated. The caterpillars feed mostly in late summer, after the young buds for next year's foliage are formed ; and though generation is simple and annual, attacks seldom extend beyond two consecutive years. The wing-span of the ? 2 to 2^ in. , the 6 somewhat smaller and dis- tinguished by yellowish -brown feathery antenna) ; fore-wings and front part of body reddish- or greyish- white, with two or three dark, waved, transverse stripes ; hind-wings and lower part lighter, with a faint, broad, greyish, transverse band. Caterpillar 16-legged, about 1^ in. long when full grown ; at first greenish -yellow, then brown-red, and easily known by 4 thick, yellow- or brown-grey tufts of bristles on segments 4, 5, 6, and 7, with velvety black bands between, and by a long rose-red or ruddy-brown hair- tuft on the second last segment. Pupa hairy, dark-brown to greyish -yellow, in a cocoon spun with the larval hairs. Moths fly late in May and early in June, and the $ lays about 100 eggs (at first grey-green, brown- or blue-grey) on the smooth bark of poles or trees, usually from 3 to 10 feet above ground. About three weeks later, in June or July, the young caterpillars hatch out, eat their egg-shells, and cluster in colonies for a few days before scattering and ascending to feed on the foliage. They only gnaw leaves slightly at first, but with growing strength often gnaw them completely through near the petiole, so that the ground is frequently strewn with bits of foliage. At end of September or early in October they descend and hibernate as pupse in cocoons spun in moss or under dead leaves, herbage, &c. Pre- vention and Extermination. Insectivorous birds and predatory and par- asitic insects (Carabidce and Ichneumonidw chiefly) prey on the caterpillars ; but the sudden cessation of attacks is mainly due to a fungus disease (Isaria farinosa) infecting the caterpillars, which are also very sensitive to sudden cold wet weather, although hardy as regards winter cold. It is not of much practical use to try and collect the pupae or kill the cater- pillars when descending to pupate on the ground, though egg-clusters laid on Beech-stems near the ground can easily be crushed or destroyed with a daub of tar. Grease-banding stems about 12 feet up with narrow rings of patent tar will prevent most of the caterpillars from getting up to the crown to eat the foliage, and will also hinder those hatched out of eggs laid above that from being able to descend to pupate on the ground. The Brown-tail moth, Porthesia chrysorrhcea, is a shining white moth with a wing-span of 1 in. In the ? the abdomen is mostly brown, with 212 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. a thick red-brown woolly tuft near the end, while the cJ is blackish -brown with a red-brown woolly tuft at the end. The 16-footed caterpillar is 1J in. long, dark grey-brown above, with two irregular red stripes along the sides, and covered with tufts of yellowish-brown hairs, and grey beneath, with yellow marbling. The hairy pupa is dark-brown, and has a pointed tail. The moths fly late in June and early in July, the 9 laying 200 to 300 brownish-yellow eggs, on the lower surface of the leaves of Oak chiefly, but also other broad-leaved trees, and covering them with spongy wool from her thick tail. The caterpillars hatch out in August, and form "tents" or colony -nests round the young shoots and leaves, and in autumn they strengthen these and form tough nests about fist -size, where they hibernate. In spring they again feed on the foliage, returning to their "tents" at night and during bad weather ; but about the middle of May they abandon these and wander about freely to feed. Early in June they pupate for 3 to 4 weeks in a greyish-brown transparent nest made between the leaves. (Generation simple, annual). The Lackey moth, Cfastropacha neustria, has a wing-span of 1 in.; body and fore- wings yellow- or reddish - brown, with a broad, light -edged transverse band ; hind-wings are somewhat lighter, and crossed in the middle by a faint darker band. Caterpillar is slightly haired, If in. when full-grown, and marked with alternate stripes of light blue, reddish-brown, and white (hence "lackey"), head pale-blue with two black spots. The moths fly in July and August, towards evening, and lay 300 to 400 brownish-grey eggs in a close spiral band round twigs and small branches, chiefly on Oak, also Elm, Hornbeam, Poplars, and Willows. The caterpillars hatch out late in April or early in May, at once feed on buds and leaves, and live in communities inside " tents " or nests until full-grown. About end of June they break up their colonies, and pupate singly between leaves or in bark- fissures, by attaching themselves to these with a few loosely spun threads. The Black Arches or Nun moth, Liparis monacha, one of the most destructive pests in Continental Spruce and Pine woods, has never yet done much damage in Britain, though often found on broad-leaved trees (especially Oak) in the south of England. The ? has a wing-span of about 2 in. ; the smaller <$ is distinguishable by double-combed antennae. In both the outer wings and the upper part of the body the ground-colour is white, marked with numerous deeply- arched, zigzag, brownish-black or black stripes (hence Nun) ; the lower wings are brown-grey, edged with black spots. The abdomen, though sometimes blackish, is mostly rose-colour, with black transverse bands. Caterpillar about 1^ in. when full-grown, whitish- to reddish-grey above and dirty-green below, with broad grey dorsal stripe, commencing from a black heart-shaped patch on the second segment. The densely-haired pupa, at first greenish, then bronzy-brown, lies in a flimsy cocoon, formed PINE OWLET-MOTH. 213 of a few dirty yellow threads spun between bark-fissures on the lower part of the stem, among foliage on branches and twigs, or on underwood and brushwood. The moths fly late in July or early in August, and the 9 lays about 150 bronzy mother-of-pearl eggs in one or more clusters under bark-scales, lichen, &c. Though fully formed in 4 weeks, the larva hiber- nates within the shell, and hatches out in April or May, the young cater- pillars remaining for several days in clusters, then scattering and ascend- ing to feed on the foliage. Spruce foliage they devour entirely, but on Pine they bite through the needle about half-way up, and eat only the remain- ing lower part. The caterpillars moult 4 times, and until half -grown spin gossamer threads to let themselves down to the ground. They feed till late June or early July, when they descend in masses from the stems to pupate under bark - scales, or on the undergrowth, &c. The most efficient exterminative measure is therefore grease - banding stems with patent tar (Fig. 36, p. 189). The Satin moth, Liparis salicis, has a wing-span of 2 in., white lustrous wings, and legs ringed black and white. Caterpillar If in., grey, with yellow- white dorsal spots, small red warts, and light-brown hairs. The 9 lays about 150 eggs in June and July on bark or leaves of Poplar and Willow, and covers them with a white skin. Some caterpillars hatch out in autumn, others in spring ; and they pupate in May or June loosely at- tached to twigs or leaves. Vapourer moth, Orgyia antiqua, wing-span 1 to 1| in.; g- 53. The Larch Mining-Moth (all magnified three times). a. Moth. 5. Larval covering formed of leaf- case. c. Caterpillar. d. Pupa. a. Larvie in leaf-cases. &. Naked larva?-. c. Needles hollowed out. to 15 years old, but seldom occurs in large numbers, and as not often all the side-buds forming the whorl are injured, one of these generally becomes a leading - shoot. It is smaller than Tortrix buoliana ; as also is the Pine Resin-gall Tortrix, Retinia resinella, common in Scotland, which bores into shoots below the whorl of buds, and lives inside a gall formed by resin outflow. Branches become twisted, and break off easily. LARCH MINING-MOTH. 219 E. LEAP-MINING MOTHS (Tineidce). * The Larch Mining-moth, Coleophora lariccUa (Fig. 53), besides doing great damage by defoliating young Larch woods, opens entrance-holes for the canker-fungus. Moth wing-span under J in., wings ashy -grey or grey- black, with long silky fringes on lower edges. Caterpillar with 16 feet (10 prolegs), dark ruddy-brown, i in. long. Pupa ^ in. long, dark-brown, narrow, covered with fine bristly hairs. Moths fly in May and June, and lay round yellow eggs (soon turning grey) singly on Larch .leaves in plantations 10 to 40 years old, and mostly on lower branches of 10- to 15- year-old poles. The caterpillars hatch out in 3 to 4 weeks, bore into the leaf, eat its contents, and use the empty leaf -case as a protective covering. When full-grown in September it hibernates in this empty leaf-case (now a little yellow-brown sack) attached to twigs, bark-fissures, &c. Next spring it feeds on the new leaves, carrying its sack, and finally pupates in it. Leaves attacked at once wither as if frost-bitten, whole plantations some- times looking as if badly nipped by late frost. Extermination. Small birds, ichneumonidgo, &c., prey on caterpillars, and late frosts and heavy rainfall kill many moths ; but the only practicable measures are to thin Larch-woods in winter or early spring, and remove the thinnings before moths appear in May. * Larch Shoot-boring moth, Argyresthia lavigatetta, has recently done serious damage to young Larch plantations up to 20 years old. Wing- span under J in. ; fore-wings glossy silvery grey, with grey or brown- grey fringes, hind - wings dark - grey, not so glossy, abdomen dark - grey. Caterpillar pale-yellow at first, then pale-grey with reddish tinge, and dark-striped near end of back, about | in. long, head and 3 front leg-pairs black. Pupa dark-brown, head black, pointed towards end. Moths appear in May and June, lay eggs on lower part of new shoot, that hatch out and bore into the shoot, where they feed till hibernating in autumn. Early in spring they resume feeding till about end of April, then pupate in the now half -dead shoot, and emerge as moths about four weeks later. Extermination by cutting off and burning damaged shoots containing the caterpillar or pupa. F. WOOD-BORING MOTHS (Cossidce). * The Goat-moth or "Augur- worm." Cossus ligniperda (Fig. 54), does great damage to broad-leaved trees by the caterpillars boring through the bark into the timber, and often killing old Oak, Elm, Willow, and Poplar. Badly-bored trees are often thrown during storms ; and unless exter- minative measures are adopted, trees attacked become breeding-places. Wing-span 2^ to 3 in. for ? and 3 to 3J for <$ ; fore- wings grey-brown, mottled with ashy-grey, and with numerous irregular dark-brown streaks and marks ; hind-wings ashy-grey to grey-brown ; thorax densely haired, with blackish band across it behind, and brown and grey in front. Ab- 220 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. domen large and blunt, with dusky-brown and grey bands. Caterpillar 16- footed, 3 to 3| in. when full grown, at first reddish -yellow, then brownish- Fig. 54- . The female moth. Goat-Moth natural size, b. Caterpillar, c. Pupa. d. Cocoon, after moth has emerged. red^with |;brown head and shield, darker above than below, naked, and having goat-like smell (hence " goat-moth "). Pupa thick, ruddy-brown with rings of prickles on the abdominal segments. Moths appear in June and July, when the 9 lays about 25 eggs, in bark- WOOD LEOPARD-MOTH. 221 crevices of tree-stems. Caterpillars hatch out in July, and at first feed under the bark, but soon bore into the wood, forming long tunnels in which they live for from 2 to 4 years, sometimes leaving the trees and crawling about on the ground. When mature they usually pupate just inside the entrance to their borings (or sometimes in the ground), the large reddish-brown pupa lying in a cocoon of rough wood-chips. Previous to the moth emerging in June or July, the pupa pushes its way partly out of the tree (life-cycle 2 to 4 years). Little can be done to prevent attacks, but pouring in carbon bisulphide and then plugging up the holes should kill the caterpillars. Badly infested trees should be felled, and the caterpillars destroyed ; and the lower parts of tree-trunks attacked may be smeared early in June with a thick dressing of niud and paraffin to prevent egg-laying. * The Wood Leopard-moth, Zeuzera cesculi, does damage like the Goat- moth, and attacks young Maple, Sycamore, Ash, and Lime far more than Horse-chestnut (though named after it). Only about f of the size of the Goat-moth ; wings white, with numerous irregular round black or steel-blue spots and six similar spots in two rows on upper part of body ; abdomen dull white or grey, striped alternately with blue-black and white bands ; caterpillar yellowish, with little black warts, nearly 2 in. long when full-grown ; pupa bright brown, about 1 in., with rows of sharp spikes along its back. Moths fly in June and July, and lay oval orange eggs on stems and branches of trees ; and in a few- days caterpillars hatch out, bore into the bark, feed in the sapwood till winter, then bore deeper, tunnelling upwards, and feed continuously till May or June of the second year, when they return to near the bark, pupate in the sapwood, and emerge as moths in June or July, the empty cocoon being left sticking out from the exit hole (generation biennial). Extermination as for Goat-moth. Cf. CLEARWING-MOTHS (Sesiidce). The Hornet Gleaming-moth, Scsia apiformis, damages the butts of young Poplar up to about 20 years old in much the same way as the Poplar Longhorn and the Goat-moth. Wing-span 1^ to If in., wings transparent, with rust-red edges and veins. Caterpillar with 16 feet (3 pairs true legs, and 5 pairs suckers or prolegs), rather flat, dirty yellow- white, with large ruddy-brown head, and dark dorsal line ; its head and legs distinguish it from the Poplar Long- horn larva, along with which it often attacks. Pupa brown, with prickly dorsal spines on abdomen and at tail-end. Moths fly in June and July, and lay brown eggs in bark-fissures near foot of Poplar stems. Caterpillars hatch out in July and August, bore into stem, live there for two winters, then come out and pupate near the mouth of the bore-hole or on or near the ground in cocoons formed of bore-dust (generation two years). Ex- termination by killing the moths on the Poplar stems (June, July) ; cutting 222 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. and removing infested poles ; smearing butts of young Poplars with patent tar or cart-grease where the pest is known to be. Fig. 55- Pine Sawfly. a. Mcile (twice magnified). 6. Female (twice magnified). Caterpillars at work ; on right a cocoon (natural size). Damaged twig of Scots Pine. III. MEMBRANE-WINGED INSECTS (Hymcnoptera). A. SAWFLIES (Tcnthredinidce). * The Pine Sawfly, Lophyrus pini (Fig. 55), chiefly attacks Scots and Austrian Pine, the caterpillars devouring the leaves till the tree is de- PINE SAWFLY. 223 foliated, and attacks lasting from May to September (second brood). Their power of reproduction is wonderful ; and but for useful insects and fungus diseases checking them, they would soon destroy extensive woods. They mostly attack young plantations, and often confine them- selves to one spot at a time. Wing-span of ? about in., antennae short and bristly, with 18 to 30 joints, head black, body yellowish with black spots on thorax and abdomen, and three black rings on abdomen ; wing-span of (J in., body black, legs yellowish, antennae combed or double-feathered. The light yellowish- green tailed caterpillars, 1 in. long, have 22 legs, a light-brown head, and 2 black dots at every proleg, and when touched, raise their heads. Pupa is enclosed in a tough, oval, brown cocoon in bark fissures, on twigs and needles, or under moss and dead foliage on the ground. Cocoon opens by a circular lid, unless attacked by ichneumon-flies, when its top is marked thus 0. In dry warm seasons there may be two broods. The sawflies appear mostly in May, and lay about 120 eggs on the edges of Pine-needles, after scratching them with a saw-like egg-layer (hence "sawfly"), about 15 being laid in one needle and each wound sealed up with frothy slime. Caterpillars hatch out in about a fortnight, collect in clusters on the whorls of young Pine in sunny places or on suppressed stems, and at first usually feed in pairs on each needle, eating the edges and leaving the midrib standing ; but when nearly full-grown they eat all the needle. For- tunately they only feed on old, and not on new leaves. They moult several times, leaving the cast skins sticking to twigs. In July they pupate in their peculiar leathery cocoons, and in 2 to 3 weeks the sawflies emerge, pair, and lay eggs for a second brood. This second brood hatches out in August, and feeds till autumn, then descends to hibernate (as larvae) under moss or dead leaves, and only pupates in the following spring, about three weeks before emerging as sawflies. But even single broods may pupate for a year or longer before emerging as sawflies. Extermination Insectivorous birds should be provided with nesting- boxes. The caterpillars, when collected in. clusters, maybe crushed by pulling the gloved hand firmly along the twigs from below upwards, or using a C-spring double brush ; or they may be shaken down if poles large enough ; or if noticed early, spraying with insecticide is effective (such as hellebore- wash, 2 Ibs. to 10 gallons water, or arsenate of lead or Paris- green, 1 Ib. to 150 gallons water) ; but these poisons require careful handling. * The Red Sawfly, Lophyrus rufus, often attacks along with L. pini, and mostly Scots Pine 2 to 6 ft. high. Flies in August and September : 9 ruddy brown or yellow, with black spots on thorax ; i g S ?- 9 1 s 4 g s a 8 o 's * i " I d ^ 0,1 13 "03 1 g^w. >S II a rg B 1 a 0^ a S o H ' M ~ 02 > " 03 % r2 p2 * ^ g -2 * ^ "S " "S Q 03 HH S JJ 1 1 J fc ^ O 01 03 % ^ ^- 1 ^ I 1 1 r2 r5 Pwr^ > A bb IS. | 1 ^ E-^ < 1 | C8 -, s 1 ! I'ts'Sot P 8 r-5 PHr^ Q> ^2^ 3 a^ A^ of ^ Bj ; 03 IM 5 03 "I

i III ||| JS.J ^3 II I i % j H > S3 r3 o3 g .s' 3 r2 ^5 o5 be 03 03 bjD ^ " S>C ^ u bo > H ^ ' Q> bD 03 03 bJD M Cj rH J> be 1 w rQ 0> ,0,0 03 rt ^ '-C^ r^ OJ ^-, r-2 O/ pj Q C5 IM w cc pa t aa fill 53 g 03 hn , 51 S3 ^ ^ && J |P3 03 1 PQ <1 H 0} GENERATION INSECT. I. BEETLES. ",olytus destructor, j Elm bark-beetle I ?1 iT. minor, small Pine-beetle ^T. palliatus, crutch Pine-beetl H. fraxini, 5 Ash bark-beetle 'ostrichtis bidens, e 2-toothed Pine bark-beetle *i ^ 5 i i i ^3 GENERATION TABLE. 229 ^ g g a fl fl E "^ (N i 05 1. b b i > ^ s 1 .2 % II CO -s 1: i d -(J ^ a '3 * ^ e8 ^ i! IS^ 1 11 1 'eS fl ii g. o 4 P3 "^ fl a fl c3 Q) Q> s~ l~ 5 1 e l e -3T |. a | ^ C5 J" 0) ,0 II 1 JhO $ 8 1 1 fl ^3 "5 "bo 8 "S a p^ g PnJ3 ^ eS ^ J3 a? 1 ,0 8 ^ O CO Q 02 03 h Qj"^ *"* wll -4-^ ce , 2 pin ^ajg, J 3 J^ be rO CV> i-H Pi ^ 5) 1 1 || OP 1-1 o '2* fl 5- 0a ^ ^ ^ 3 * 55 J2 CS * * Jill i"li Ill 111 1 fl H 1 n -d"! a ^ T t>cE J'" bog? 2^ iui |j C3 cS fl S 09 oJ ^^ ^5 >> 2 $2 3 P. j ^ 1 3 I s ^ s . 0) OJ iD OH Q^ _> O I a > -g > p^^ ^ J"*"" bo E* > a"S J" 4 ^ bo "S bo > tH a "S bo^" ,. 5 % g.^ s yJS , PH^ 9 J ^-,2 a SPJ5 QJ 05 S 2 o 0) ^ OS 0? Q> "o bJD ^* "S "S ^ "*^ CU bO **" Kr ^ Q "^ bo ^ O "CD bo "^ ^3.2 ^^ J ?J5 ^^Pn 1 be 1 j^ ,S c o * 05 J> bo ^ 11 i fa ,0 iP ll 8 1 1 1 .B. acuminatus, the acuminate Pine bark-beetle Hylobius abietis, the large Pine-weevil Pissodes notatus, the small banded Pine- weevil Orchestes fagi, the Beech leaf-mining weevil Slrophosomus coryli, the Hazel-weevil Melolontha vulgaris, the Cockchafer Rhizotrogus solstitialis, the Summer-chafer Phyllopertha horticola, the Garden-chafer Bj ii 230 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. ST* a ^ a> S5 0) if 3 03 03 5 S s ?lb 9 s p,> o ""oS ^ p f 11 3 *3 o ? 1 1 a o 03 O) d c^ |1 EH"~ X a P , o | Si fH *> :t o +2 0, f a *J| II g p. ^ cl s . | CO 0) s o 1 1 :^ g g^ d E3 r* G- Pi 0) f, QJ lal j S "o W) g 02 j gj If 3 S 42 a 03 OS 03 9 oi ^ cS i 3 1 III 11 ' 1 lH ci 3 1 8(3 M "+* : a > a <; II | PH 1 PH 1 S. carcharias, the large Poplar- longhorn /Iromm moschata, the musk-scented willow-longhorn Phratora vitellince, the Willow beetle Agriotes lineatus, the wire-worm beetle II. MOTHS. Dasychira pudibunda, the Beech or Pale Tussock moth Orgyia antiqua, the Vapourer moth Cerura vinula, the Puss moth GENERATION TABLE. 231 "o o be rt ci o& brumat 'inter moth defoli, btled Umber moth l r 111 <. &.a .a ana, roller k lea moth bo i s o5 rO O O .s-aa .3 PnS af-m th .2 a Scg | 2 42 i shoot- moth ^^3 11* 11 S~ a cesculi, pard moth 232 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. P. , a | 1 fb &J tr M l& f|| 4n 0) fl boa CO S ' 3 fc E 02 Lophyrus p the Pine sa |l gPi ^3 W chizo Elm fa ch- fe 233 CHAPTER III. PROTECTION AGAINST WEEDS, EPIPHYTES, AND FUNGUS DISEASES. WEEDS include not only grasses, bracken, brambles, and many other plants that spring up in large numbers wherever there is sufficient light and moisture and the more luxuriantly the better the soil is, but also Birch, Aspen, Willows, and other trees not desired among, or interfering with, the growth of the young timber-crops. The thicker the growth of weeds, the more they are likely to harbour mice and voles ; and the stronger their growth, the more they are likely to outgrow and overshadow young plants, and to overlie and smother them in autumn. Hence the necessity for weeding in young planta- tions for the first two and often three years (see page 75), and for afterwards cutting out quick-growing softwoods or Conifers that have been planted as temporary nurses to protect more valuable but less hardy kinds of young trees against frost and drought. So long as the leading-shoots of the young trees forming the crop are above the weeds, no damage can result, and a soil-covering of heather, &c., may then be beneficial by giving protection against frost, scorching, wind, blackcock, and even rabbits if not numerous ; and this is gradually killed as the young crop closes laterally and forms canopy. If the weeds can be beaten back so as to clear the lines of plants, this is best, especially in the case of brambles, which throw out strong 234 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. shoots and suckers when cut. But if young pole-woods are thinned to any unnecessary extent, the soil gets overrun with weeds, while the valuable humus and part of the plant-food in the soil are to a great extent wasted in the unprofitable production of weeds giving back only an inferior, and sometimes an in- jurious, kind of humus to the soil. And the same is the case when older woods are heavy thinned, or partially cleared and underplanted, or naturally regenerated for both the under- planting and the natural regeneration are artificially arranged for in order to utilise the soil profitably and prevent it deterio- rating through useless growth of the weeds that would other- wise at once spring up. Sometimes it happens that old branching Oak, &c., should be cut out to allow of proper growth of young poles, and if a thinning cannot take place for some years, such trees can be girdled, and seasoned on the stump meanwhile, by cutting a deep ring round them into the heartwood. For softwoods having no true heartwood, the girdle must be cut much broader; but girdling is unsuitable for Conifers (on account of insects). Epiphytes like beard-mosses and lichens, which clog the air- holes (lenticels) of the bark, should be scraped off, if practicable (which is not the case in woodlands in damp, misty localities) ; or ornamental trees can be washed with 1 Ib. sulphate of iron dissolved in a gallon of water, or a mixture of 1 Ib. caustic soda and 1 Ib. pearl ashes each dissolved in 5 gallons water, and | Ib. soft soap added. Ivy should be cut near the ground and as high up as one can reach ; while honeysuckle, wild clematis, convolvulus^ and wild hops should be dug out by the roots. Parasitic Plants such as mistletoe on Poplar and other soft- woods chiefly, seldom on Oak, and never on Beech, Alder, Larch, or Spruce, can be exterminated by pruning off infected branches; and osier-rods attacked by dodder can be cut and FUNGI. 235 burned in June. But of far greater importance are the parasitic diseases caused by Fungi, lowly plants without chlorophyll, unable to assimilate carbon, and dependent for their nutriment either on dead organic matter (saphrophytic fungi) or on living animal or vegetable organisms (parasitic fungi). But many saprophytic fungi in our woodlands become parasitic whenever their spores happen to germinate on any wound-surface, how- ever small. Parasitic Fungi obtain nourishment through a mycelium with branching filaments (Jiyphce) produced from spores borne by the mycelium: This often assumes a complex form of bundles of strands (rJiizomorpha) with branching root-like processes, or the hyphce form tuber-like masses (sclerotia) whose spores may long lie dormant before finding favourable conditions for ger- minating. Spores are produced in sporangia on special branches (sporophores) of the hyphce, and may be either gonidia (conidia) formed at the points of hyphce growing erect, or sporidia on a promycelium formed by the germination of resting-spores (ovi- spores) produced sexually by the union of two cells or energids. In parasitic Fungi the Jiyphce pierce the cells of their host and generate ferments enabling them to dissolve the cellulose and the cell-contents and use them for their own nourishment ; and they may either be autoxenous and complete their generation on one host, or metoxenous and spend part of their life on a second host usually belonging to quite a different kind of plant from the first, and during this intermediate stage the fungus appears to belong to quite a different genus. Trees of all ages are most liable to fungus attack if sickly from any cause what- ever, e.g., unsuitable soil or situation, partial suppression, or damage of any sort ; and many dangerous diseases (e.g., Peziza, Nectria) can only effect an entrance when wounds caused by insects, hail, &c., give their spores a chance of germinating, while others (e.g., Fomes, Agaricus, Rosellinia) spread from root to root by mycelial infection. 236 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. The following are the chief Fungus diseases in our wood- lands, the more destructive kinds being marked thus * : Name of Fungus. Trees. Parts. Chiefly attacked. I. In Nurseries and Young Natural Re- generations. *Phytophthora omnivora, Beech-seedling Beech, Ash, stalks, leaves. fungus Maples Cercospora acerina, . Maple - seedling Maples stalks, leaves. fungus *Rosellinia quercina, Oak - seedling Oak roots, 1-3-yr. -old fungus plants. *Lophodermium pinastri, Leaf-shedding Pine leaves, 1-6-yr.- disease old plants. *Botrytis cinerea (syn. Sclerotinia Conifers leaves, shoots. Fuckeliana), Grape-mould Rhizina undulata, young Conifer root-") fungus Rhizoctonia violacea, Heather root- f Conifers roots. fungus ) II. In Plantations and Woods. * Lophodermium pinastri .... Conifers (as above). L. macrosporum, Spruce leaf-scurf . Spruce leaves. L. nervisequium, Silver Fir leaf-scurf . Silver Fir branches, twigs. Sphcerella laricina. Larch leaf-shedding Larch leaves. fungus *Peziza Willkommii (syn. Dasyscypha Larch stem, branches. calycina), Larch canker P. resinaria, Spruce canker . . .* Phoma pithy a, Douglas Fir canker Ph. abietina, Silver Fir twig-canker Spruce, Larch Douglas Fir, Pine Silver Fir it branches, twigs. Septoria parasitica, Spruce-shoot fungus Trichosphceria parasitica, Silver Fir Spruces Silver Fir leading-shoots, leaves. needle-blight *Nectria ditissima, Canker of broad- Beech, Ash, Oak stem, branches. leaved trees N. cinnabarina, Coral-spot fungus Horse-chestnut, branches. Maples N. cwrcubitula> Spruce-bark canker Conifers bark, cambium. Rhytisma acerinum, Sycamore leaf- blotch Maples leaves. Melampsora genus M . pinitorqua + Cceoma pinitorquum, ( Pine shoot-twisting fungus 1 Aspens Pines (1-10 yr.) leaves, shoots. M. larici-tremulce + C. laricis, Larch Aspens + Larch leaves. leaf-blister M. larici -populina + C. laricis, Larch Black Poplars + leaf-blister Larch FUNGUS DISEASES. 23*7 Name of Fungus. Trees. Parts. Chiefly attacked. II. In Plantations and Woods continued. Melampsorella genus M . cerastii + jEcidium elatinum, Silver ( Cerastium, &c. leaves. Fir canker and twig-cluster fungus ( + Silver Fir stem, branches.- M. betulina + ^Ec. laricis, Larch leaf- Birch + Larch leaves. blister ( Groundsel, Rag- leaves. Coleosporium genus (syn. Peridermium] wort pini acicola), Pine leaf-blister 1 + Pine (3-10 yr. i, old) *Cronarthim genus (syn. P.pinicorticola), ( Ribes, &c. leaves. Pine bark-blister \ + Pines bark and wood. Chrysomyxa abietis, Spruce leaf-blister . *Trametes pini, Pine stem-rot . Spruce Conifers leaves, stem. *Fomes annosus (syn. Trametes radici- root and stem. perda), Conifer Red-rot root-fungus F. igniarius, White-rot stem-fungus F. fomentarius, M Oak, Willows / Oak, Elm j wound surfaces on stem or branches. Polyporus sulphureus, Red-rot stem- Oak, Birch ) fungus P. vaporarius, Red-rot stem-fungus Spruce, Silver Fir j Beech C 1 Saprophytic on *Agaricus melleus, Beech stump-tuft or common Agaric 1 Conifers \ stumps. Parasitic on roots. I. Chief Fungus Diseases in Nurseries and young Natural Regenera- tions. * The Beech-seedling fungus, Phytophthora omnivora, chiefly attacks Beech-seedlings, the stalks becoming brown, the roots black, and the cotyledons and primary leaves spotted with brown before they wither, die, and rot quickly during rainy weather. In about a week from the first signs of the disease its full effect is noticeable if May and June are wet, while in dry seasons it takes longer for seedlings to assume the characteristic scorched, blackened appearance. During warm, damp, spring weather it may do great damage in Beech natural regenerations, as well as in nurseries. Besides being wind-borne, the spores are conveyed on men's boots and clothing, and by animals of all kinds. Next to Beech, it chiefly attacks Ash, Maple, and Sycamore, but also all other seedlings when once epidemic, and whole Conifer seed-beds may be destroyed before the seedlings even appear above ground. Resting-spores may lie dormant for years till finding favourable conditions for germination, and 238 THE PROTECTION" OF WOODLANDS. during wet weather spore-producers are formed in 3 or 4 days from first signs of infection. Hence infected seedlings should be removed and burned before the disease gets epidemic, and infected seed-beds should be used as transplant lines for next 2 or 3 years, and preferably for some other kind of tree than that already attacked. Remedy. To prevent the disease spreading the seed-beds should be watered with a solution of 4| Ibs. blues tone (copper- vitriol) and 1 quart ammonia in 50 gallons water. Men working on infected beds should be told to wipe their boots before working in other parts of nursery. Cercospora acerina causes a similar disease among Maple and Sycamore seedlings in wet seasons, the cotyledons, primary leaves, and stalks becoming spotted or blackened and withering, and conidia-bearers appear- ing, while the mycelium assumes a thread-like dormant form and resumes activity next spring. * The Oak- seedling Fungus, Rosellinia quercina, attacks and kills the roots of 1- to 3-year-old Oak in nurseries during damp warm weather ; but plants are attacked up to about 10 years old, the terminal leaves of infected plants gradually wilting and dying. Roots infected become covered with finely-woven mycelium, the bark turns brown, and small, round, black pustules appear, especially where the first side-roots branch off. From these pustules fine thread-like rhizomorphs, whitish then brown, spread from root to root (as in Agaricus melleus, see p. 251), while the mycelium sometimes also grows above ground and produces conidia which germinate. By means of these small black pustular fruits (sclerotia) the fungus outlives periods of summer drought, and when the air becomes damp again they develop a whitish-grey, mould-like mycelium producing brown rhizomorphs which enter the unprotected tips of rootlets. Remedy. In nurseries diseased plants should be removed and burned, and beds used for other plants : in young plantations or natural regener- ations the infected area should be isolated by a trench about 1 ft. deep to prevent rhizomorphs spreading. * The Pine leaf -shedding disease, Lophodermium pinastri, is caused by a saprophyte on dead Conifer foliage, that can become parasitic, and chiefly on young 1- to 6-year-old Pine and other evergreen Conifers, to which it is very destructive (damage on old plants being slight). Seedlings and transplants in nurseries are thereby rendered useless. During late summer and autumn the needles become speckled with reddish - brown spots, containing the mycelium, and in the following March or April the leaves wither, turn red or brown, and die off, the dead 1-3-year-old leaves usually adhering to the young shoots, while the older needles generally fall off ("leaf-shedding"). If the winter has been mild, open, and followed by a wet spring, black fruits (apothecia) appear early, and burst and scatter their spores, but the disease is chiefly spread GRAPE-MOULD. 239 by spores produced in black spore-cases during the second or third year. The development of L. pinastri depends greatly on a damp condition of the air ; and dry summers, cold winters, and dry spring weather check its spread, while a moist summer, followed by an open t mild winter, favour it. Remedy. Avoid use of Pine foliage in nurseries; pull up and burn infected plants ; and spray annually in July and August or oftener with Bordeaux mixture, 2 Ibs. sulphate of copper (bluestone, copper-vitriol) dissolved in 10 gallons water, and 1 Ib. freshly-burned lime added, which generally, though not always, checks the disease. * The Grape - mould, Botrytis cinerea, saprophytic on dead Conifer foliage, but also spreading as a destructive parasite on all Pines, Firs, and Larch in nurseries and natural regenerations, is the conidia - form of Sclerotinia Fuckeliana, and often does serious damage in wet springs and summers, especially to Douglas Fir, Silver Fir, and Spruce. If Conifer sprays or foliage be used in nurseries there is always great danger of this disease appearing first as a saprophyte, then becoming parasitic, when the shoots of young plants attacked become twisted or bent, and the leaves die off as if frosted, though often held together by the ashy-grey cob web -like mycelium. Spores alighting on young leaves or shoots in damp weather soon germinate and enter the tissue, the mycelium penetrating intercellularly and killing the tissues. Sporophores and sclerotia are formed, the spores remaining dormant and germinating with favourable conditions. On germinating, the spore-tubes cannot pierce the bark of a 2-year-old seedling, except at a wound-surface caused by late frost, insects, &c., when the fungus destroys the cambium and kills the plant. Remedy. Spray frequently with Violet Mixture, 2 Ibs. sulphate of copper, 3 Ibs. carbonate of copper, 3 oz. permanganate of potash, \ Ib. soft soap, and 18 gallons of rain-water (the soap being dissolved in hot water), all the infected ground, and beyond it, being thoroughly wetted. More or less serious damage is also sometimes done by Rhizina undulata, a saprophytic root-fungus, also parasitic on young Conifers on sandy soil, and producing flesh-like, stalkless, velvety sporophores, chestnut brown above and pale below, from 1 to 3 in. long on the roots, and by Rhizoctonia violacea, the heather-fungus, which surrounds young Conifer-roots with a close violet mycelium and produces black warty sporophores on the dead roots. II. Chief Fungus Diseases in Plantations and Woods. * Lophodermium pinastri (see above) also attacks young Conifer plantations, while L. macrosporum attacks the leaves of 2-year-old shoots in Spruce plantations from 10 to 30 years of age, turning them rusty-red 240 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. Fig. 58. and often making them fall off, and L. nervisequium the 2-year-old leaves of Silver Fir branches, turning them brown and causing leaf-shedding. Remedy. Spraying or cutting and burning diseased shoots, but neither practicable extensively. The Larch leaf - shedding disease, Sphcerella laririna, attacks the foliage of poles or trees. In June or July infect- ed leaves turn brown- spotted and soon fall off, and in wet years most of the foliage is shed by August. The only way to stop the disease spreading is to cut and remove infected poles or trees, and burn the diseased foliage, else the small black conidia forming spread the disease in wet weather. The Larch canker- or blister- fungus, Peziza Willkommii (syn. Dasyscypha calycina) (Fig. 58), the most destructive tree-disease in Britain, is saprophytic on dead Larch twigs, and as a parasite chiefly attacks Larch (also Pines and Firs) of 7 to 15 years old. Japanese Larch is still much less liable than common Larch to attacks of insects and of this fungus, though no longer im- mune. Larch is never immune from attacks, though after thick bark forms attacks are confined to young branches. It is a wound-parasite, and spores only germinate where punctures or greater wounds have been made by insects, hail, gnawing, &c. The earlier the attack, the more serious it is. Poles of 7 to 12 years are usually badly deformed or killed outright. On older Larch Canker. a. Dead wood with resin outflow. b. Cup-shaped sporophores of fungus LAKCH-CANKEJ:. 241 trees canker-spots may dry up and become partially cicatrised, but the diseased part is spoiled as timber. The first signs of disease are smooth shining spots or swellings on the stem or branches ; then the bark splits, a slight outflow of resin takes place, and bits of bark scale off, while small cup-shaped sporophores with felty white or grey edges and bright orange-red or pinkish-yellow centres appear. The dead parts grow scurfy and black, while the wounds deepen as the bark curls up at the edges, and gradually spread up and down, or else round the stem, thus killing the pole or the crown above the wound. Remedy. As infected stems or branches spread the disease, diseased poles should (if practicable) be cut and removed from the woods. The cleaner that plantations are kept, and the more regularly they are thinned, the less favourable are the conditions for the fungus. Pure Larch plantations are almost certain to be more or less attacked, and the only way of securing even partial immunity is to grow Larch in admixture with broad-leaved trees (Beech, if possible). Mixing Spruce and Larch is more likely to spread than to prevent the disease (owing to Chermes abietis-laricis, see p. 226). P. resinaria produces a similar disease on Spruce and Pinus excelsa in southern England, and also on Larch, and is only distinguishable by its cup-shaped sporophore being paler in colour, smaller, and more distinctly stalked. Phoma pithya attacks twigs and branches of Douglas Fir and Pine, destroying the bark and producing constriction round the stem, which dies above if the cambium is destroyed right round, but heals by cicatrisation if the stem has not been completely ringed. Infection usually takes place where branches join the stem. Ph. abietina does similar damage to Silver Fir twigs and branches. Septoria parasitica often kills the leaders of common and Menzies Spruces from seedlings up to 30-year-old poles, young shoots infected at their base drooping in May or June, then withering and dying within 7 to 14 days. The Silver Fir needle-blight, Trichosphwria parasitica, often in damp localities attacks young poles and lower branches of Silver Fir, Spruce, and Douglas Fir, and makes the leaves turn brown, when they hang down, Q 242 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. Fig. 59. natural size. Young Beech stem can- kered by Nectria ditissima. natural size. Young Spruce damaged by Nectria curcubitula. a. Sporophores hibernating on the dead bark. held by the mycelium, which perenniates so that the disease goes on from year to year, unless in- fected twigs are cut and burned (before spores ripen, to prevent disease spreading). The Canker of broad- leaved trees, Nectria ditissima (Fig. 59), chiefly attacks Beech and Ash, making Ash black in the heart and useless, and soon becoming epidemic in Ash-groves, especially on wet land. It" can be distinguished from other diseased conditions by small dark-red globular pustules. Growing only parasitically, its spores germinate on wounds made by insects, frost, hail, &c. , on young shoots and poles, especially at forks ; and the mycelium lives chiefly in the bark, killing infected portions and gradually extending, and canker-spots forming as the dead parts cica- trise, and gradually in- crease till the pole or tree is killed. Remedy. In- fected saplings, poles, or trees should be thinned out without making wound -surf aces by in- a. Clusters of red sporo- phores, as seen dur- ing winter months. -juring the bark on the poles or trees left standing. 6> ^aea'd Tod 8 .' Sh Wing The Coral-spot disease, Nectria cinnalarina, is a common saprophyte on dead branches of broad- leaved trees, and also parasitic on Horse-Chestnut, Lime, Maple, Syca- more, and Elm, destroying the sapwood in rings and killing the parts RUST-FUNGI. 243 above those infected. On parts attacked saprophytically small conidia- cushions break out of the bark, upon which the vermilion and dark-red spore-bearers appear in autumn and winter. But the mycelium can extend parasitically from wound - surfaces into living branches, soon spreads quickly in the woody tissue, kills the cambium, and prevents the upward flow of sap. Remedy. Infected parts should be cut off and burned before the spores scatter in autumn and spring. The Spruce-bark Canker, Nectria curcubitula (Fig. 59), occurs chiefly as a wound-parasite on young Spruce poles, also Silver Fir, Pines, and Larch, and is common in Britain, though generally only as a saprophyte. On young trees in vigorous growth it remains saprophytic, but in weakly young trees the canker extends, kills the cambium, and penetrates the sapwood. The first signs of the disease are bleaching of the needles, and drying and browning of the bark and cambium, especially near wounds caused by insects, &c. The mycelium spreads quickly in the bark during the winter. Infected parts should be cut and burned in autumn or early winter, before the spores ripen and are shed. The Maple and Sycamore leaf-blotch, Rhytisma acerinum, appears in damp summer weather as small round yellow spots, about to \ in. broad on the lower side of leaves, that gradually enlarge and turn jet-black in autumn. The spores produced in these black sporophores are scattered from the dead leaves in the following May or June, and are borne by wind to the new foliage, which they attack in the same way as before. It can only be checked by collecting and burning the infected dead leaves in autumn in parks and gardens. It is not a serious disease in woods. The Rust -fungi (Uredinece), so called from their sporophores often assuming a reddish-yellow rusty colour, are all parasitic, and mostly have a change of generation with some other kind of host-plant, upon which they appear like entirely different diseases and have other quasi-generic and specific names. Five different genera of metoxenous (heteroecious) rust- fungi attack our trees, Melampsora, Melampsorella, Coleosporium, Cronar- tium, and Chrysomyxa, one species of which is autoxenous (autoecious). In the genus Melampsora the intermediate form is called Cceoma, and the chief disease of this kind is the Poplar-rust and Pine shoot-twisting fungus, Melampsora pinitorqua + Cceoma pinitorquum, of which the Melampsora stage, that producing resting - spores, is passed as yellow patches on the foliage of Aspens and White and Grey Poplars, while the much more destructive intermediate stage is the Cceoma pinitorquum (Fig. 60, 61), that breaks out in spring after hibernating on the dead Poplar foliage, and chiefly attacks Pine plantations up to 10 years old. The yellow Cceoma pustules, about 1 in. long, burst lengthways, and generally kill young shoots, while older twigs get C- or S-shaped when two pustules break out on the same or on different sides of a twig. The mycelium can perenniate, each year forming new pustules that shrivel up in dry 244 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. weather, but develop freely in a wet May or June. Young plantations are thus often injured, until attacks cease at about 30 years old. Remedy. Dry warm weather retards and checks the disease ; but the only way to prevent would be to collect and burn all Poplar foliage infected with the Melampsora-stage, and all Pine-shoots infected. Other less important kinds of Poplar Melamp- sora are the M. larici-tremulce, producing resting- Fig. 60. Damage to crowns of young Pine by Caeoma pinitor- quum, the abnormal bends being caused by the fungus. Damage caused to Scots Pine by Melampsora pinitorqua in its cceoma-form, Caeoma pinitorquum. y Bent infected spots, which here happen to be both qn same side of twig. spores on Aspen and Poplars, and its Coeoma- form on Larch (C. laricis), and M. larici-populina on Black Poplars + (7. laricis on Larch, the Cceoma being similar in both cases, and forming small, bright, orange-yellow pustules on the Larch leaves. There are also several kinds of willow-rust fungi, some of which may in their Melamp- sora-stage greatly damage osiers by making their leaves black-spotted and RUST-FUNGI. 245 soon shed (Fig. 62), while the Cseoma-stage is spent on Conifer leaves (Pines, Firs, and Larch). In the genus MelampsoreUa the intermediate form is called JEcidium, and the chief disease is M. cerastii, producing round orange-yellow pustules on the leaves of plants belonging to the Alsinece family (and especially Cerastium, Stellaria, and Holostea] which develop the resting - spores producing Fig. 62. JEcidium elatinum on the Silver Fir, either as spindle-shaped cankerous excrescences on the stem, or twig-clusters with yellow-green deformed foliage ("witches' brooms") on branches. It perenniates and often kills trees infected, especially in hot dry years and on sandy soil. Whether a canker-spot or a twig- deformity will be produced depends on where the spores enter and the mycelium develops, but both are often found on a tree. If infection takes place near a healthy bud, a deformed twig-cluster results ; but if the mycelium infects the bark of a shoot, canker is produced, infection being only possible through some wound-surface. The yellow or brownish - orange cecidiospores are pro- duced in the diseased leaves of the young- est shoots in the twig - clusters, and appear from June till August on the lower side. The ^Ecidium perenniates and in course of time the canker-swellings and the twig-clusters at- tain a large size. The disease can only Willow Rust on Osier. a. Green leaf with yellow pustular sporophores. &. Dead parts of leaf. c. Sporophores on the osier-stem. be eradicated by con- tinuously cutting off and burning the twig-clusters in June and July before their spores ripen by pruning infected branches, by thinning out cankered poles or trees, and by removing and burning the host-plants (Cerastium, Stellaria, Holostea) '^upon which the M. cerastii develops resting-spores. Anotner disease of the sam genus is M. betulina + ^Ec. 246 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. Fig. 63. laricis, the Birch-rust fungus producing resting-spores in orange-red, then brown pustules, and forming reddish- orange cecidia on Larch leaves. In the genus Coleosporium the resting-spores are produced in yellowish pustules on coryinbiferous plants, and especially on Groundsel and Rag- worts (Senecio), and the intermediate stage is called Peridermium, from the bladder-like spore-pustules produced on the leaves of Pines attacked. The com- monest kind is C. senecionis on groundsel and ragwort leaves + P. oblongisporium (formerly called P. pini acicola) on the old foliage of 3- to 10-year-old Pines (and up to 30 years), but never on new leaves. In April and May small orange- yellow blisters appear on the leaves of 1- and 2-year-old shoots, which turn brown, burst, and scatter their spores, while the mycelium hibernates in the leaf and again produces cecidia in the following year, the leaves killed showing small, blackish, warty spots with light edging. The only means of prevention is to dig up and burn all ragwort and similar corymbiferous plants in the immediate neighbourhood, and to cut and burn infected Pine twigs. * In the genus Cronartium the inter- mediate stage is also called Peridermium, as the spores are here again produced in bladders ; and to it belongs the several blisters or bladder-rusts on the stems of Pines (formerly called P. pini corticola). The chief disease of this genus is the Pine bark-blister (Fig. 63), a Cronartium species + Peridermium pini, the resting- spores of which are produced in rusts on foliage of peonies, Ribes, and Cynanchum, and the peridermium-st&ge passed on the stems of young Pines, and especially on poor soil with a S. or S.W. exposure, where it may become epidemic and do serious damage. It is purely a wound- parasite, and mainly attacks Pine-poles 15 to 20 years old, and thick-barked parts over 25 years seem immune. It mostly appears first at whorls near the top of the crown, and as the oval pustules filled with reddish- yellow spores break out as blisters on the bark of stem and branches in Pine-shoot with sporophores of Peridermium pini. a. Blisters that have not yet dis- charged their spores. b. Ruptured blisters from which the spores have been partly scattered. SPRUCE LEAF-BLISTER. 247 June, they induce flow of resin, the growth of the tree is interfered with, and often the whole tree above the infected part dies. The mycelium hibernates, but increases year by year, as also the cankerous parts, and in course of time the crown dies, though young poles are often killed during Fig. 64. Twig of Spruce attacked by Chrysomyxa abietis. 3 to 4 times natural size. a, 6. First appearance of pale yellow marks about end of May or June. c. Long spore-pustules formed during autumn. d. The bursting of a spore-pustule in follow- ing May. the first year, and especially in warm dry years. The only way to prevent the disease spreading is to cut out and remove infected poles as soon as possible. The commonest alternative host-plant is not yet known. Of the genus Chrysomyxa, the commonest species is the autoxenous Spruce leaf-blister, Ch. abietis (Fig. 64, 65), on young Spruce foliage, and mostly low down in 10- to 20-year-old plantations on wet soil and in damp warm places, while 1-year-old or older leaves are immune, and the top of the crown is little attacked. New leaves infected in any year become speckled with pale yellow bands on 1 -year-old leaves in May or June of 248 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. Fig. 66. the next year, and these bands develop into long brown spore-bearing pustules, and gradually redden and swell, but only burst and scatter the spores in the following April and May to infect the new foliage. The only remedy is cutting and burning infected twigs, and careful thinning. * The Pine Stem-rot fungus, Trametes pini (Fig. 66), a wound-surface parasite, chiefly attacks Pines about 40 years old or more, also Spruce, Larch, and Silver Fir, as wounds on younger trees usually close up by resin-outflow before the fungus can obtain a firm foothold. The hyphce destroy the cell - walls of the woody tissues and enter the heartwood ; and the mycelium extends up and down the stem, forming long ring- or heart-shakes, and soon producing rot, while the sapwood usually remains un- infected. Tn Pine and Larch only the heartwood is rotted, but in Spruce and Silver Fir all the stem rots. The dis- eased wood first becomes reddish- brown, then white patches appear here and there, and the mycel- ium issues from branch - holes or through the bark, and forms a brown, corky- woody, bracket- shaped sporophore, which lives for many years, showing concentric ridges, and varying up to about 10 in. diameter. Infected trees should be thinned out ; and any Conifers pruned should have the wound-surfaces well tarred. * The Red-rot Root-fungus, Forties annosus, syn. Trametes radiciperda (Fig. 67), chiefly attacks the roots of Pines from about 5 years old upwards, and also other Conifers, and spreads centrifugally from root to root. It is sometimes found on roots of broad-leaved trees (especially Beech and Birch), but is not then so destructive or so apt to become epidemic as in Conifer plantations. Young plants, poles, and trees attacked soon show pale needles and stunted shoots (as also in attacks of Agaricus melleus), then rot near the roots and die suddenly, and the disease quickly spreads, infection taking place wherever a diseased root comes in contact with About i natural size. Rot in Pine caused by Trametes pini. a. Bracket-shaped sporophore. PINE ROOT-FUNGUS. 249 the roots of a healthy tree. The roots then die, the diseased wood turns violet and pale brown -yellow with black spots surrounded with a white zone, then hollows become excavated, and the whole rots. But infection can also be conveyed to wound-surfaces on the roots of healthy trees by mice, insects, &c. The soft, transparent, or snow-white mycelium develops beneath the bark and permeates the cambium and the woody tissue of the roots and the butt of the tree, the cell-walls being destroyed by masses of mycelial filaments. This rottenness soon spreads up into the stem by the cambium and the medullary rays except in the Scots Pine, in which morbid resinification confines the rot to the butt. Destroying the living cells as it spreads, the mycelium soon penetrates the wood of the roots and extends more slowly into the bark, where it forms long thin tissue- paper-like strands, with small yellowish- white pustules protruding between Fig. 67. Half natural size. Sporophore of Fomes annosus on Scots Pine root. bark-scales, these being a sign that the disease has complete hold of the tree. The mycelium can now spread and carry infection to neighbouring plants or trees. Small, glossy, yellowish-white, grape-like masses of sporophores appear mainly on the roots or at base of stem between the bark-scales, and form thin concave woody chocolate-brown cushions, snow-white below, which unite with similar adjoining groups as flat in- crustations or bracket-shaped excrescences up to a foot broad. But mould-like masses of conidia are also produced where the mycelium comes out into free air. Remedy. Direct spore-infection can hardly be prevented; but when the disease has broken out, the diseased plants should be grubbed up and the infected parts burned before the sporophores ripen, and broad-leaved trees planted in place of the Conifers lifted. Infected patches isolated by narrow trenches usually produce sporophores on the roots cut through, 250 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. so that this measure is only advisable where they can be collected and burned before they ripen and scatter their spores. The White-rot fungus, Forties igniarius, is one of the commonest wound- parasites on broad - leaved trees, and chiefly Oak and Willows. When infected, wood turns brown, then yellowish-white, and the spongy sporo- phores form a cap or bracket up to 10 or 12 in. broad. At first yellowish- Fig. 68. Young Scots Pine killed by Agaricus melleus. a. Branching subterraneous rhizomorphs thrown out from the mycelium under the living bark, b. Abortive sporophores produced at extremity of a rhizomorph. c. Normal sporophores produced at extremity of a rhizomorph. d. Sporophores produced in a cluster from the bark at base of stem of the dead Pine. brown and felty, they afterwards turn blackish-brown and smooth with concentric ridges, the openings of the spore-tubes being cinnamon-brown. Its spongy sporophore was formerly (as well as F. fomentarius) used as tinder (hence igniarius) in the days of flint and steel. Forties fomentarius is a wound-parasite on Beech chiefly, also Oak and Elm, where its broad leathery mycelium, penetrating the wood radially, also produces " white- rot." It forms large, hoof-shaped, russet- brown or greyish sporophores, COMMON AGARIC. 251 Fig. 69. sometimes over 3 ft. long, with a hard upper crust and soft spongy inner tissue. Many other species attack broad-leaved trees. Polyporus sulphureus is a " red-rot" wound-parasite on Oak, Willows, Poplar, and Birch chiefly, also other broad -leaved trees, and Conifers. The large, fleshy or cheese-like, bright sulphur-yellow or reddish-yellow sporo- phores appear annually at old branch-holes or on the stem, assuming different forms, and varying up to 2 ft. long. Polyporus vaporarius is another "red-rot" wound -parasite chiefly in Conifers, and also destructive as a saprophyte in timber lying in the woods (like Merulius lacrymans, which is seldom parasitic ; but the mycelium of the latter soon changes from white to grey, while that of P. vaporarius always keeps white). Its sporophores form flat, thin, white incrustations on the bark of the trees infected. * The Beech Stump-tuft or common Agaric, Agaricus mdleus (Figs. 68, 69), an edible mushroom growing saprophytically on dead stools and roots of old trees (especially Beech), is a common and often very destructive parasite in young Conifer crops, especially Scots Pine, and mostly attacks plantations of 4 to 15 years old. As first signs the leaves of the infected plant, pole, or tree turn yellow, wither, and fall ; then the shoots wither and the butt of the stem swells, the bark fissures, resin exudes and flows to the ground, the cambium is killed, and finally the infected poles or trees usually die either in spring or in autumn, while rhizomorphs pervade the rotting wood and the soil round about, even when no tawny yellow mushrooms appear. This disease breaks out in patches and rapidly kills young plants in full vigour. The honey - yellow or dirty yellow -brown mushrooms (pilei} with dark-brown hairy scales and yellowish-white lamellae, which turn flesh-coloured, or on which reddish-brown spots form later, appear in Natural a. Part of a Scots Pine root killed by Agaricus melleus, and showing an external rhizo- morph penetrating the root at a. b. Flattened internal rhizomorphfrom between bark and dead "wood. 252 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. October, and are most numerous in damp seasons, the pale flesh-coloured stalk of the mushroom showing a yellowish-white ring of skin at the point of rupture below the cap. The white spores produced in autumn develop long branching purplish or brownish - black cord - like strands (rhizomorpha) spreading singly like rootlets throughout the soil, as well as below the bark of the dead stump saprophytically attacked, which invade the tissues of the roots they come in contact with ; and (as in Fames annosus) the rhizomorphs from diseased roots spread around and attack the roots of healthy trees, so that the disease becomes centrifugal and epidemic. The disease can only be prevented or checked by collecting the mushrooms saprophytic on stumps, and pulling up and burning all the roots of infected trees, and filling up the blanks with broad-leaved trees. Infested patches can be isolated by trenches 1 to 1^ ft. deep, but this will only be efficacious if the fructifications of the rhizomorphs can be collected along the inside of the trench before they ripen. Another species of Agaric, the Beech branch-tuft, A. mucidus, appears chiefly at branch-forks of Beeches. 253 CHAPTEE IV. PROTECTION AGAINST DAMAGE FROM INORGANIC CAUSES. Non - parasitic Diseases or serious physiological disturbance predisposing trees to disease can be caused by injurious in- fluences in soil or atmosphere. The Soil may be unfavourable through being too shallow, dry, or wet. A dry soil is naturally poor in the amount of plant-food in an available soluble form, and consequently the crops are usually backward, stunted, and likely to become attacked by insects and fungus diseases. Stagheadedness or partial or total death of the crown, often the first stage of decay from old age, is frequently induced by want of water and nourish- ment in the subsoil, though also common when Oaks and other trees are heavily thinned after growing long in close canopy, or when standards over coppice are pruned of lower branches ; for shoots flush along the stem and intercept the sap on its upward flow. Stagheadedness also often follows any sudden lowering of the water-level in the soil, by drainage, railway- cuttings, &c. ; and Willows and Poplars soon become stag- headed on dry soil. Stagheaded broad-leaved trees often live for many years, but Conifers soon die. Trenching round and filling up with manure afford a temporary remedy for old ornamental trees. A stiff soil and a wet soil that has not been well drained before planting are both deficient in oxygen, so that the roots get suffocated and rot away, especially in the 254 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. case of the tap-roots in young Scots Pine plantations. And even when the land is not wet, if the natural drainage be not good the butt becomes spongy and dosed, and pumped or hollow, as is often found in 60- to 80-year-old Larch that have grown well and rapidly up to about 50 or 60 years of age. Such red-rot and dosed condition is common in most middle- aged or old Conifer crops where a thin gravelly soil rests on a clayey or impervious subsoil. On a wet soil there is also great danger from frost, and from windfall if the roots cannot pene- trate into the subsoil. The only remedy is to drain the land before planting, or to plant only trees that do best on a moist soil (Alder, Willow, Poplar, and Spruce on mounds); but stagnating moisture is always injurious. Other unhealthy conditions induced by unsuitable soil or situation are premature seeding and bark-binding. Premature seeding is a sure sign that the individual tree is not in a healthy condition, yet nothing can be done to prevent this natural effort of reproduction ; but bark-bound stems can often be relieved by making a cut through the hard, dry, leathery-like bark lengthways down the stem in early summer, unless the disease is of long standing and the bark has lost its natural elasticity. Injurious atmospheric influences may cause damage in nur- series, young plantations, and older woods by wind, frost, heat and drought, heavy rainfall, snow, hail, ice and hoar-frost, and poisonous gases. Winds and gales are always most destructive when coming after heavy rainfall, which loosens the soil and weights the tree-crowns. Gales from S.W. are frequent about the equinoxes (March and September), but the most destructive storms usually come from the W., N.W., or IsT.E., according to the local situation. The damage consists in breakage of branches and stems, or in single trees, or clumps, or whole woods being blown down (windfall) in the track of the cyclone, while neighbouring WIND AND FROST. 255 woods may be comparatively little injured. The extent of the damage done varies with the kind, age, and density of the crop ; and heavily-thinned woods are more likely to be thrown than those in close-canopy, when the tree-crowns afford each other a slight support. The best means of preventing damage have already been indicated in Part II. (see pp. 120 to 123). Wind- fall and broken trees should be extracted as soon as possible, to prevent insect attacks; and to shorten the time of the land lying unproductive, roads and rides should be prepared for immediate extraction of timber. In natural regenerations, where the roots of standards have torn up great masses of soil, the butts should be sawn through and the stumps tilted back into their former position, if possible, to save the seed- lings. Conifer windfall timber will get soon attacked by insects unless barked ; and weevils will breed enormously, and hinder replanting for 3 or 4 years, unless the stumps can be grubbed up. Frost may do damage in spring (late frost), autumn (early frost), or winter (winter frost). In any frost-bitten part of a plant, water expands beyond the cells and into the intercellular spaces, the cell-tissue loses its tension, and the affected parts wither and die. Late frosts in spring are often very destruc- tive in nurseries, seedlings being killed and transplants losing their young shoots, and in young plantations many deaths are caused, especially in damp, low-lying, sheltered spots (frost-holes), where there is no current of air to carry away the cold layers. Early frosts in autumn nip young shoots before they harden properly, but seldom kill the plant outright, though often causing leaf - shedding in young Conifers (like that in Pine due to the fungus Lophodermium pinastri). Winter frosts lift the soil and the plants in nurseries, especially when a stiff soil is wet, and in young plantations, and make frost- cracks in trees. Among broad - leaved trees Ash, Chestnut, Beech, Eobinia, and Sessile Oak, and among Conifers, Silver Fir, Pacific Douglas Fir, Menzies Spruce, and Maritime Pine 256 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. are the least hardy against frost; while the most hardy are softwoods, Hornbeam, Pines, and Colorado Douglas Fir. Alder, Birch, and Hornbeam flush their leaves earlier than the less hardy Oak, &c. ; and Silver Fir side-shoots are often killed, while the leading - shoot escapes, as the terminal bud is the last to develop. Larch is sensitive just when the buds are opening, but hardy after the leaves expand. Damage from late frosts in nurseries can best be prevented by selecting sites with a N. or N.W. aspect, or protected on E. and S. by old woods, and preferably broad - leaved ; and young seedlings and transplants are best protected by a hori- zontal framework of thin laths about 1 in. broad set 1 in. apart. In planting land exposed to frost, any existing protection, such as heather, &c., should be made use of as long as required ; or hardy quick-growing trees like Birch, Larch, Pine, and White Alder can be planted as nurses to protect less hardy kinds and if practicable they should be planted a year or two in advance ; but they should be cut out in the weedings and early thinnings when they have served their purpose and are no longer needed to protect the other kinds of trees intended to form the timber-crop. When soil and seedlings are lifted in nurseries by hard winter frost, only the soil sets when the thaw comes, so that the roots are more or less exposed and have to be banked up, and the young plants are sometimes lifted so high that they fall over and soon die unless replanted, as is often the case (except with deep-rooting seedlings like Oak, Chestnut, and Pine). Drill-sown beds suffer less than broad- sown, and the danger of lifting is decreased by putting sawdust, moss, or loose earth between the drills. Broad-leaved saplings badly frost-bitten can be cut back to shoot from the stool, and blanks in Conifer plantations should be beaten up with hardy quick-growing trees (Birch, Aspen, Pine). Frost-shakes or Frost-cracks are longitudinal fissures on the lower part of the stem, and especially of 50- to 70-year-old Oak, HEAT AND DROUGHT. 257 caused by rapid shrinkage of the bark and sapwood during intense frost, a sudden rupture of the woody -fibrous tissue taking place along the line of least resistance, usually accom- panied by a loud noise. The clefts or frost-shakes, often only about a yard long, sometimes extend all along the bole and go deep into the tree. When the thaw occurs, the woody- fibrous tissue expands and almost closes up the wound, which cicatrises by a ridge of callus tissue. This may be repeated every winter, or the cleft may remain closed during mild winters ; but the frost-shake remains visible as a long swollen ridge, spoils the timber, and enables fungus-spores to enter : rot is therefore frequent near frost-shaken parts. Frost - cracks are mostly to be found on trees with large medullary rays (Oak, Elm, Chestnut), but also occur on Beech, Ash, Maple, Sycamore, Lime, Poplar, and Willow. Conifers are seldom split by frost, though cracks are sometimes to be seen on Spruce and Silver Fir. Heat causes sun-burn or bark-scorching by direct insolation, whereas Drought impoverishes a dry soil by exhausting the soil-moisture through evaporation, though warmth stimulates the activity of vegetation so long as there is a sufficiency of soil-moisture obtainable from percolations, capillarity, or rain- fall. But when transpiration from foliage is increased by warmth and dry winds, without ample water - supply being obtained from the soil, the natural balance between imbibation and transpiration is disturbed, leaves droop and wither, and even in the usually damp climate of the Western Highlands many deaths are thus caused during a warm, dry, windy May and June, especially when there is no growth of heather, &c., to protect the young plants in new plantations until they have established themselves and got their roots down well into the lower soil where the supply of soil-moisture is more constant than nearer the surface. And, of course, in sandy districts the danger of fire is always great when July and August R 258 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. are dry months. The best protection against drought is to retain the protection of existing trees, heather, &c. (so long as required), or to plant nurses (as for protection against frost) and remove them as soon as no longer needed. Sunburn or bark-scorching by direct action of the sun makes patches of bark on S. or S.W. sides of stems dry, crack, and fall off, and the wood below that rot ; and this occurs oftenest when trees are suddenly exposed to full sunshine. Smooth-barked trees are most easily scorched, and rough-barked trees (Oak, Elm, &c.) have the best natural protection. So far as practicable, the S. and S.W. edges of maturing crops should not be suddenly exposed; but sun-burnt stems along the edge should not be cut, as the trees behind them will be just as likely to get scorched. Heavy rainfall erodes the soil and carries away the finer particles of earth and much of the beneficial humus, though the action of woods in close canopy is to reduce such damage to its minimum. Snow only damages trees if falling in large quantities, by causing the branches to be bent down or broken off. Of our common Conifer trees the brittle Scots Pine is most liable to damage from snowbreak ; while among broad-leaved trees Beech, Alder, Crack Willow, and Eobinia have the brit- tlest branches. In Central Europe, where snow falls heavily and lies long, young Spruce, Oak, and Beech woods are some- times laid by snow-pressure, but this is seldom likely to occur in Britain. Damage from snowbreak may occur anywhere or all over in Scots Pine woods ; but in other kinds of tree-crops it is chiefly confined to the edges of compartments, or to small patches here and there. Heavy snow can be taken off young ornamental trees in parks, avenues, or small plantations, by shaking the poles or tapping them with a padded mallet ; but in woodlands this is impracticable, and the only way of pre- venting damage is to tend the woods carefully, especially with regard to moderate thinning. HAIL AND ICE. 259 Hail-storms "beat down, injure, and often kill young plants in nurseries, besides making surface-wounds on the young shoots of older trees and thus enabling the spores of fungus diseases to effect an entrance. Oak-bark will not strip at damaged spots, and much damage is done to Osier-beds in the fen districts, as the withes do not peel freely, and break at the injured parts. The only remedy is to cut back badly-damaged broad-leaved saplings, and to fill blanks in older crops with stout plants of any suitable kind. Ice and Hoar-frost do damage in mountain-tracts to brittle- branched trees like Scots Pine and Alder, and greatly increase the danger of serious damage should snow fall while the twigs are frozen, and especially in evergreen Conifer crops. Mixed woods suffer less than pure crops of Scots Pine. Lightning does practically no damage in woodlands, though here and there a tree may be struck and badly damaged or killed ; but park-, field-, hedgerow-, and avenue-trees are more often struck and blasted. Among atmospheric impurities the particles of carbon in city smoke choke the pores of the leaves, while poisonous gases from factories and smelting-works, and even from railway trains running frequently through wooded valleys, are always more or less injurious to trees and woodlands, the cause of damage being mainly the sulphurous acid contained in the smoke, which changes the natural colour of the leaves and kills off many poles and trees. But nitrous, hydrochloric, and arsenious gases cause similar damage, though to a less extent ; and the damage is always greatest in damp localities. When dew or rain falls on a leaf-surface, in a smoky locality, the sulphurous acid combines with the water, oxidises into sulphuric acid (S0 2 + H 2 + = H 2 S0 4 ), and acts very injuriously on the leaf -tissue, especially of evergreen Conifers. In broad- leaved trees the leaves become mottled with damaged patches (sulphuric acid) or discoloured at the edge (nitric and hydro- 260 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS. chloric acids), while Conifer-leaves turn yellow or red at the tip before the whole needle is poisoned, discoloured, and killed. And usually, too, in smoky localities Pine pole-woods are very liable to attack by the leaf -shedding fungus, Lophodermium pinastri. Under the Alkali Acts steps may be taken to pre- vent hydrochloric acid issuing in injurious quantities from works ; but the only practical remedies in woodlands exposed to atmospheric impurities of any sort are to try and grow broad-leaved crops, to maintain thick shelter-belts of hardy trees on the side from which smoke comes, and to make oc- casional falls, annually or periodically, rather than clear falls and replantation. But where woods or plantations have been destroyed by atmospheric impurities, the sowing or planting of smoke- or gas-poisoned blanks is useless. PART IV. THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE CHAP. I. TIMBER : ITS STRUCTURE, IDENTIFICATION, COMPOSITION, TECH- NICAL PROPERTIES, PRACTICAL USES, AND MARKET VALUE. II. THE HARVESTING OF WOODLAND PRODUCE, AND ITS PREPARA- TION AND SALE. III. TIMBER-TRANSPORT BY LAND AND WATER. IV. THE SEASONING AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. V. WOODLAND INDUSTRIES : ESTATE SAWMILLS, PREPARATION OF WOOD-PULP AND CELLULOSE, CHARCOAL - MAKING, RESIN- TAPPING, ETC. CHAPTER I. TIMBER : ITS STRUCTURE, IDENTIFICATION, COMPOSITION, TECHNICAL PROPERTIES, PRACTICAL USES, AND MARKET VALUE. Timber has no generally accepted definition. As distinguished from fuel, it is wood used for any technical purpose. For rail- way freight it includes " all descriptions of wood in an unmanu- factured, or roughly hewn, or roughly sawn state ; but not any wood shaped, or prepared, or partially prepared." As dis- tinguished from coppice, with or without standards, it in English law includes all woods and trees not cut in regular rotation ; though Beechwoods in England, cleared and naturally regenerated every ninety to one hundred years, can be used by the heir-in-possession of a settled estate, through local habit and custom, without impeachment for waste a restriction not applying to timber on Scottish entailed estates. Again, in selling trees, local custom usually classes as timber only what measures not less than 5 or 6 in. in quarter-girth (20 to 24 in. in girth) under bark, or frequently in Scotland to 6 in. in diameter free of bark ; while pitwood is measured down to 2J in. diameter under bark, or 3 in. over bark at the thin end. Tops and branches below the local customary timber dimensions are not paid for (see also Part II., pp. 89-91). The technical properties of timber depend mainly on its anatomical structure and its chemical composition, and are evidenced in its outward appearance, its material condition, and its relation towards external influences^ 264 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. I. As regards Anatomical Structure, the woody tissue of trees consists of (1) woody fibres, (2) wood-vessels, and (3) wood- cells, with a framework of cellulose. (1) The woody fibres are elongated, pointed at both ends, and thick- walled ; and they are formed of hard tissue (scler-enchyma) with walls dotted with small pits, and of tubes (tracheids) with large internal spaces (lumina), whose walls are dotted with large bordered pits ; and sometimes there is also a subordinate form of wood fibre shaped like true hard tissue, but filled with protoplasm, starch, and other substances. (2) The wood-vessels, seen as pores on making a transverse section, are long narrow tubes closed at both ends, with thin walls and large lumina. (3) The wood-cells forming soft tissue (parenchyma) are thin-walled, more or less cubical, and mostly with flattened ends ; and they are chiefly found near the vessels, where they serve for storing reserve nutrients (starch, &c.) for reproductive purposes (new foliage, flowers, fruit, &c.), while the sap is conveyed through the woody fibres and the vessels. The wood of broad-leaved trees contains all the above kinds of woody tissue, while that of Conifers differs from it in having no large pores (wood-vessels). Hence, the larger the relative proportion of hard tissue, the heavier, harder, and stronger is the wood of any given kind of broad-leaved tree ; and the larger the proportion of thick - walled tracheids with small lumina produced during the warm summer weather, as compared with the thin-walled tracheids with large lumina forming the softer inner zone produced in spring, the heavier, harder, and stronger is the wood of any given kind of Conifer. In Conifers, wood- cells are found only around the resin-ducts in the AbietineaB, and are sparsely scattered throughout the tracheids in the other kinds. But both broad-leaved and Conifer trees have medullary rays, formed of wood-cells, extending radially from the central pith (or some annual ring near it) to the bark, which serve partly for storing reserve nutrients in winter (for leaf-produc- ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE. 265 tion, &c., in spring), and their number and size affect the technical properties of timber. In Conifers they are narrow and close, giving a sort of silky gloss to a thin transverse section ; but in broad - leaved trees they are usually more prominent, being largest of all in Oak, where they form the " flowering " when planks are cut radially to show " the silver side." The medullary rays are broadest in Oak and Beech, and highest in Oak and Alder ; fairly broad in Ash, Elm, Maple, Sycamore, Plane, and Hornbeam ; narrow in Alder, . Birch, Cherry, Chestnut, Horse-Chestnut, Lime, and Eobinia; and almost indistinguishable in Willows and Poplars. The wood of Conifers differs further from that of broad-leaved trees by usually having resin-ducts or tubular spaces surrounded by resin - producing cells without definitely constructed walls. These resin-ducts are not only found running longitudinally in the stem and branches, usually in the summer zone of wood, but also occur along the medullary rays. Both of these two kinds of resin-ducts communicate with each other, and the total quantity of resin stored up in the wood has a great influence on its technical properties. The width of each annual ring of wood varies with the soil and situation, and with the amount and intensity of light during the growing-period ; and the annual rings are usually broader in young and middle-aged than in old trees, while they are always broadest near the butt of the stem ; but the best class of timber is that in which the breadth of the successive annual rings is fairly equal, and where the annual rings have a relatively broad dense zone of summer wood formed during the warmest time of the year. In Conifers the annual rings are usually very distinct, and also in Oak, Ash, Elm, and Chestnut ; but in Beech, Horn- beam, Maple and Sycamore, Lime, Willow, Poplar, and Birch, there is little difference between the Spring and the Autumn zone in each annual ring. 266 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. IDENTIFICATION OF THE COMMONEST KINDS OF BRITISH TIMBER FROM ITS ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE, AS SHOWN BY THE EXAMINATION OF A SMOOTH TRANSVERSE SECTION : A. BROAD -LEAVED TREES MEDULLARY RAYS AND PORES USUALLY EASILY VISIBLE. I. Autumn zone denser than Spring zone, and vessels in Spring zone forming a distinct circle of pores. 1. Medullary rays numerous and wide, forming light -coloured radial bands ; pores in radial lines often branching obliquely ; wood yellowish-brown to greyish-brown (darker than Sweet- Chestnut) OAK. 2. Medullary rays narrow, and hardly or not at all visible to the naked eye. (1) Wood pale yellowish-brown (paler than Oak, and without wide medullary rays) ; fine vessels in Autumn wood arranged in radial lines SWEET- CHESTNUT. (2) Wood dark reddish-brown (darker than Ash) ; the fine vessels in Autumn zone forming wavy lines in more or less concentric parallel bands ELM. (3) Wood yellowish to light-brown (paler than Elm) ; seen through a lens, the fine vessels in Autumn zone appear few and fairly regularly distributed ; pores in short concentric arcs ASH. II. Autumn zone hardly distinguishable from Spring zone, and vessels scarcely visible to the naked eye. 1 . Some of the medullary rays broad and easily visible, the rest scarcely distinguishable. (1) Medullary rays with silky lustre; wood pale reddish - brown (darker than Hornbeam) ..... BEECH. (2) Medullary rays dull and indistinct ; wood yellowish-white (paler than Beech) ...... HORNBEAM. (3) Medullary rays broad, and annual rings incurving where crossing these ; no heartwood ; wood white when fresh, pale-brown or brownish-red when dry, and with numerous brown pith-flecks ALDER. 2. Medullary rays all very narrow, but visible as very fine, distinct lines. (1) Wood whitish or pale-yellow, with satin lustre, and hard ; annual rings bounded by fine regular lines . . . SYCAMORE. (2) Wood closely resembling Sycamore, but somewhat browner or redder MAPLE. IDENTIFICATION OF TIMBER. 267 (3) Wood whitish or reddish- white, soft and light, and of very even texture ; boundary of annual rings indistinct (softer than Horse- Chestnut) LIME. 3. Medullary rays invisible to naked eye. (1) With distinct heartwood. (a) Sap wood white or reddish- white ; heartwood pale-red to dark-brown, light, soft, and lustrous . . WILLOW. (b) Sapwood white ; heartwood yellowish or light-brown when fresh, and brown when dry (see also ASPEN) . POPLAR. (2) Without distinct heartwood. (a) Wood dingy white, soft and light, often with pith-flecks near centre of stem ASPEN. (b) Wood yellowish or reddish-white, and fairly hard and heavy ; pith -flecks numerous near centre of tree; annual rings with fine clear boundary-line . . . BIRCH. (c) Wood white, yellowish-white, or reddish-white, and not very soft (not so soft as Lime) . . HORSE- CHESTNUT. ^.CONIFEROUS TREES NEITHER MEDULLARY RAYS NOR POROUS RINGS OF VESSELS ARE VISIBLE WITH THE NAKED EYE, BUT THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE VERY DISTINCT, THE HARDER AND RUDDIER OR DARKER AUTUMN ZONE BEING PLAINLY DISTINGUISHABLE FROM THE SOFTER AND PALER SPRING ZONE. I. Wood with resin- ducts. 1. Heartwood about same colour as sapwood, pale yellowish or reddish- white ("White deal") ; resin-ducts few and fine, appearing as light spots in the Autumn zones ; only recognisable from Silver Fir by the resin-ducts SPRUCE. 2. Heartwood reddish-brown when seasoned, sapwood pale yellow or yellowish-white (" Red deals " or " Baltic redwood "). (1) Sapwood broad, and branch-knots regularly disposed in whorls ; Autumn zone of annual ring somewhat paler red than in Larch, but resin-ducts larger and more numerous and distinct SCOTS PINE. (2) Sapwood narrow, and branch-knots scattered irregularly (owing to absence of regular branch- whorls). (a) Autumn zone of annual ring darker red than in Scots Pine, but resin-ducts smaller and less numerous . LARCH. (b) Heartwood and sapwood both resembling Larch, but more of a pink-red or red-brown colour ; resin-ducts small DOUGLAS FIR. 268 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. II. Wood without resin-ducts. 1. Heartwood about same colour as sap wood, pale-yellowish or reddish- white ("White Pine"); only recognisable from Spruce by not having resin-ducts ...... SILVER FIR. 2. Heartwood distinctly darker than sapwood ; annual rings very clearly marked by a narrow line of compact Autumn wood (CYPRESSES). (1) Sapwood yellowish- white and narrow ; heartwood pale brown (Thuja gigantea) RED CEDAR. (2) Sapwood whitish ; heartwood light pinkish-red or brownish- red (C. macrocarpa) . . MONTEREY CYPRESS. (3) Sapwood yellowish ; heartwood pale yellowish - brown (C. Lawsoniana) LAWSON'S CYPRESS. II. As regards Chemical Composition, green wood consists usually of about 50 to 75 per cent of woody substance, and 25 to 50 per cent of sap or water containing organic and mineral substances in solution and suspension ; and even after being seasoned or air-dried, from 10 to 12 per cent of the weight of wood consists of water. The framework of the woody fibres, vessels, and cells is cellulose (C 6 H 10 5 ), with a composition of about 44 carbon, 6 hydrogen, and 50 oxygen per cent, which during a process called lignification loses oxygen and absorbs more carbon along with nitrogen and mineral substances. But the elementary composition of the dry woody substance varies only slightly in different woods, the rough average consisting of the following percentages : 50 carbon, 42 oxygen, 6 hydrogen, 1 nitrogen, and 1 ash or incombustible mineral substances, consisting chiefly of lime, potash, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, the amount and com- position of which vary, of course, according to the kind of tree, and the soil, situation, and climate. The organic and the mineral substances in solution or in suspension in the sap are either parts of the cell- wall or products of its transformation, and include protein or nitrogenous matter, carbohydrates, and glucosides ; oils, resins, and aromatic substances ; tannic, oxalic, and other acids ; and dyestuffs ; and these combine to give the HEARTWOOD AND SAPWOOD. 269 different parts of the tree, and especially the heartwood, their own peculiar and distinctive colour, aroma, and technical properties. Some trees form a harder and darker-coloured heartwood (duramen) of inert tissue, which is heavier, more thickly stored with organic and mineral substances, and more durable than the younger zone of sapwood (alburnum). It is through the sapwood that the sap ascends from the roots to the crown of the tree for elaboration in the foliage ; and on the descent of the elaborated sap through the cambium, part of it is used in adding a new layer of sapwood to the already existing sapwood, while part is also used in forming a new layer of bark (liber) to the outer protective covering. If a ring or girdle be cut through the sapwood into the heartwood, the tree is at once killed, because the upward course of the sap is completely arrested; but this operation is more or less ineffective in trees where the sapwood shows little or no visible change in the older and inner part of the stem (e.g., as in Birch, Aspen, Lime, Alder, Maple, Sycamore, Plane, and Hornbeam). The sapwood is usually softer and less durable than the heart- wood ; and the smaller the proportion of sapwood in any log of timber, the more valuable and durable the timber usually is. With regard to the presence or absence of a more or less distinct heartwood, our timber -trees may be classified as follows : Heartwood trees : Oak, Elm, Chestnut, Robinia, Larch, Pine, Douglas Fir, Cypresses. Trees with Imperfect Heartwood : Ash, Beech, Willow, Poplar, Horse-Chestnut, Spruce, Silver Fir. Sapwood trees: Birch, Alder, Maple, Sycamore, Hornbeam, Lime, Aspen. Heartwood trees can easily be killed by ringing or girdling them i.e., cutting through the sapwood into the heartwood. III. The Ornamental Properties of Timber are its colour, lustre, grain, texture, and marking. When green or freshly 270 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. sawn, timber is lighter in colour than when seasoned and long exposed to the air ; and steaming always darkens its natural colour. Woods used for ornamental purposes, such as furniture, wainscotting, &c., are chiefly selected on account of their colour, texture, and marking ; and the coarser the grain of the wood, the more the texture and the marking are displayed (as in Oak, Elm, and Ash), while the greatest variety of marking is shown on a radial section fully exposing the medullary rays (e.g., the " flowering " of Oak). But the coarser the grain, the better a wood takes a polish, as the material used settles easily in the pores. Forked growth and abnormal "burr" excrescences in- crease the value of timber for ornamental purposes, though depreciating it for building and construction. The usual colour of sound wood is as follows : Colour. GREEN WOOD. SEASONED WOOD. Yellowish-white . Whitish-yellow . . Yellow .... Greyish-yellow . . Reddish-yellow . . Brownish-yellow . Yellowish-brown . Brown Birch, Spruce, Silver Fir. Willow, Poplar. Robinia. Ash, Beech, Maple, Syca- more, Hornbeam. Larch, Douglas Fir, Scots Pine. Oak, Scots Elm, Chestnut. Mountain Ash. Birch, Silver Fir. Willow, Maple, Syca- more. Beech, Hornbeam. Spruce. Chestnut, Poplar, Rob- inia, Ash, Cherry. Oak Elm Mountain A^li Red-brown . . . Dark -brown . English Elm, Alder. Walnut. Larch, Douglas Fir, So -ts Pine, Alder ; Apple, Plum. Walnut. IV. The Physical Properties of Timber, upon which its mechanical properties directly depend, and which are therefore of far more importance than its outward appearance, are (1) its density and weight, (2) the amount of water it contains, or the extent to which it is seasoned, (3) its relation towards drought and moisture, as to shrinking, cracking, splitting, warping and DENSITY AND WEIGHT. 27 1 expanding, and (4) its freedom from defects and unsoundness. All these physical properties continually act and react on each other; for the dryness or moistness of the wood affects its density or specific weight as well as its total volume, and also the direction in which shrinkage and expansion occur under dry and moist conditions of the atmosphere. 1. As KEGARDS DENSITY AND WEIGHT, the Specific Weight of the pure woody substance (exclusive of lumina and other hollow spaces) in our woodland trees averages about 1*5 both for heart- wood and sapwoocl ; but the specific gravity per cubic foot of wood varies greatly for different kinds of trees, and for any given kind it also varies greatly in the green and the seasoned conditions. For technical purposes it is only the seasoned weight that is important, as green timber is not used. As to average weight when seasoned, British timber may be classified thus : Heavy * (sp. gr. 07 to 075 ; 1 cb. ft. =44 to 47 Ibs.) : Oak (47 Ibs.), Ash, Beech, Hornbeam, Maple, Robinia, Elm (44 Ibs.). Medium weight * (sp. gr. 0*6 to 07 ; 1 cb. ft. = 37 to 44 Ibs.) : Sycamore, Chestnut, Birch, Larch, Colorado Douglas Fir, Red Cedar (Thuja). Light* (sp. gr. 0'45 to 0'6 ; 1 cb. ft = 28 to 37 Ibs.): Horse-Chestnut, Alder, Pacific Douglas Fir, Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir, Willow, Aspen, Poplar, Lime, Cypress, and most other Conifers. * While green and sappy, timber is usually more than one-third heavier than it will afterwards be when saivn and seasoned. 2. As REGARDS MOISTNESS OR DRYNESS, on the average green timber contains sap or water to about one-half of its total weight (42 per cent in hardwoods, 52 in softwoods, and 57 in Conifers) ; and it still retains water to about 10 per cent of its weight when thoroughly seasoned (8 to 10 in broad-leaved, and 10 to 12 in Conifer wood, or more if very resinous). To save time and money, the more valuable kinds of furniture woods are now usually dried in hot-air chambers, as this does not affect their strength ; otherwise seasoning takes two to four years for barked 272 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. logs, and splitting and warping are likely to occur if logs are sawn into planks before seasoning. 3. As REGARDS RELATION TO WATER, upon which shrinking, cracking, splitting, warping, and expansion depend, wood shrinks more or less in seasoning, and thus tends to warp, the dense, slow -drying heartwood shrinking more unequally than sapwood, and resinous Conifer wood more gradually than that of broad-leaved trees. But the specific weight of wood gives no indication of its liability to shrink or warp. Conifer wood that is very resinous, and wood that has been steamed, are least liable to warp. Lime, Beech, Hornbeam, Elm, Chest- nut, Birch, and Alder shrink most, and pedunculate Oak and Conifers least. Shrinkage is least longitudinally (being only nominal), greater radially (about 6 per cent), and greatest tangentially (about 10 per cent) ; and it is this want of uni- formity in the rate of shrinkage in different directions that occasions warping, cracking, and splitting. The more rapid the shrinkage, the greater the tendency to warp, crack, and split; hence summer-felled timber is more likely than winter-felled to do so, and barked logs crack and split more than those left with bark on (which in Conifers would lead to bark-beetles breeding in large numbers). Practically, in proportion as wood shrinks in seasoning, it swells or expands again by absorbing water in a damp state of the air ; and this must be allowed for in construc- tion with timber. 4. DEFECTS IN TIMBER are due to abnormal anatomic structure and other conditions, and include branch-knots, twisted fibre, wound-surfaces, and rind-galls completely covered, and shakes of various kinds (simple or star-shaped heart-shakes, frost cracks, cup- or ring-shakes), which all weaken its strength, and therefore depreciate the value of timber for technical purposes. Frost- ribs being mostly full of water, are called " water-shakes " by timber -merchants. Branch-knots are commonest in shade- enduring trees, which do not readily lose their side-branches. DEFECTS IN TIMBER. 273 Knots in Conifers become saturated with resin, and then (especially in Larch) are very hard to plane, though they enhance the ornamental appearance of the wood. Twisted fibre is commonest in Chestnut, Oak, Elm, Beech, Sycamore, and Scots Pine, and makes wood more liable to warp. 5. UNSOUNDNESS is due to fungus disease. The chief kinds of unsoundness are canker, red-rot, white-rot, white-piping (Oak), and blueing of Conifers (especially Scots Pine) ; but root-rot, branch-rot, and stem-rot are common in old trees growing on unsuitable or imperfectly drained land. And even after it is converted and used in construction, timber, especially if only partially seasoned or in a damp place, is liable to be attacked by dry-rot (due to Merulius lacrymans) and other saprophytic fungi. The chief fungi causing unsoundness are as follows (see also Part III., chap, iii.) : Canker : Peziza (Larch) ; Nectria (Ash and Beech mostly) ; JEcidium elatinum (Silver Fir) ; Cronartium (Peridermium Pini : Scots Pine). Red-rot, from decomposition of cellulose : Tramctcs Pini (Scots Pine), Pomes annosus (Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir) ; Polyporus sulphureus (Oak and Birch chiefly) ; P. betulinus (Birch). White-rot, from decomposition of lignin : Agaricus melleus (all kinds of trees); Fames igniarius (Oak and Willows mostly); F. fomentarius (Beech, Oak, Elm) ; Polyporus dryadeus (Oak) ; Hydnum diversidens (Oak, Beech). White -piping is caused by Stereum hirsutum (Oak). Blueing of Conifer timber : Ceratostoma piliferum. V. The Mechanical Properties of Timber are of the first importance, as they govern its relation to external influences. They include strength, elasticity, flexibility, toughness, fissibility, hardness, and durability. 1. STRENGTH in timber is the resistance offered to any force tending to separate its fibres, whether applied longitudinally as if pulling the fibres apart (tension), or pressing them together (crushing), or at right angles to the grain (transverse-pressure or breaking-strain), or so as to twist the fibres (torsion), or more s 274 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PKODUCE. or less parallel to the grain so as to displace and separate the fibres sideways (shearing). The breaking-strain is by far the most important in timber used for construction, Of our British woods, Oak, Ash, and Larch stand this pressure best ; then other hardwoods ; and sapwoods and very resinous Conifer timber least (though Spruce better than Silver Fir, and Silver Fir better than Scots Pine) ; but any defect or unsoundness weakens the strength. The coefficient of transverse strength can be obtained from the formula WxL ~B7D* where W is the weight in pounds placed on middle of the bar which causes it to break, L the length of bar in feet, between supports, B the breadth, and D the depth in inches. 2. ELASTICITY, FLEXIBILITY, AND TOUGHNESS. Any sub- stance changing shape under pressure is called pliable, and its power -of completely resuming its original shape is its elasticity ; if it breaks readily it is called brittle, and if it resists change of form, tough. In timber, elasticity is proportionate to the. strength; while flexibility and toughness usually increase with the amount of water, and are greater in green than in partly or wholly seasoned wood, and also much increased by steaming. Hardwoods have generally the greatest elasticity, and softwoods the greatest flexibility and toughness ; while in Conifers a moderate amount of resin increases, and much resin diminishes them ; but all these three properties depend on the length and straightness of the woody fibres, and are diminished by branch -knots and abnormal growth of any kind. The modulus of elasticity is found from the formula L 3 W E = x , B x D 8 d where L, B, and D are as above, and W is the weight in pounds supported at the centre of the bar and causing a deflection of MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. 275 d inches. The toughest and most flexible stool-shoots are those of Osiers, Willows, Ash, Hazel, Birch, Chestnut, Lime, Aspen, Oak, and Elm ; while the toughest and most flexible timber is Ash, Birch, Willow, Poplar, Kohinia, Hornbeam, and Elm. Beech becomes tough and flexible when steamed. 3. FISSIBILITY is the ease with which wood can be split by driving in a wedge parallel to the run of its fibres, and is im- portant in cooperage, match-making, splitting rails, &c. Eissi- bility is greatest in long and straight-fibred woods, and least where the fibres are short and strongly lignified ; and the drier and more elastic the wood, the easier it is to split (except in Willow and Poplar, in which a wedge holds better when the wood is moist). The greater the fissibility, the more difficult it is to obtain a fine smooth surface by planing. As regards fissibility our woods are classifiable as follows : Easy to split : Chestnut, Eobinia, Alder, Lime, and Conifers (unless very resinous). Medium: Oak, Ash, Beech. Difficult to split : Hornbeam, Elm, Maple and Sycamore, Birch, Willow, Poplar. 4. HARDNESS is the resistance offered to the penetration of another body, and is usually characteristic of heavy woods, the hardness increasing with the strength and cohesiveness of the woody fibres. The degree of hardness manifested varies with the kind of tools used in wood-working (axe, knife, plane, saw, rasp, nail, &c.), as some work parallel to the run of the fibres and others at right angles ; but the following is a rough general average : Hard: Robinia, Maple and Sycamore, Hornbeam, peduncu- late Oak. Moderately hard: Ash, sessile Oak, Chestnut, Elm, Beech, and Birch ; also resinous narrow-ringed Larch and Pine. Soft : Conifers ; Horse-Chestnut, Alder, Willow, Poplar, Lime. 276 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PKODUCE. Older wood is harder than younger wood in trees, and dry wood generally harder than green wood, though heavy, hard woods like Oak, Ash, Beech, Elm, Maple, and Sycamore are easier to work when still moist than when dry. The tougher the wood, the harder it is to saw, owing to the resistance offered to the teeth of the saw in tearing the fibres apart. As regards sawing, our woods may be classified thus : Hard to saw : Lime, Willow, Poplar. Medium : Birch, Oak, Alder, and resinous Larch and Pine. Easy to saw : Conifers. As a rule, woods with a specific gravity below 0*65 when seasoned are classed as Softwoods, these including Aspen and other Poplars, Willows, Lime, Horse-Chestnut, Alder, and Birch (seasoned sp. gr. 0'64, though hard to cut, and often classed as a hardwood) ; while the others are called Hardwoods Oak, Ash, Elm, Sycamore, Beech, &c. 5. DURABILITY means the length of time timber continues sound and serviceable ; and this, of course, varies greatly according to how and where it is used. But it depends mainly on the extent to which the wood is exposed to alternating dampness and dryness, especially during the warmer months of the year ; for it is then that timber-boring insects (Anobium, Ptilinus, Lymexylon, &c.) and saprophytic fungi (Polyporus, Agaricus, Merulius, &c.), which are chiefly instrumental in decomposing the woody tissues and the ligneous substances, find the most favourable conditions for feeding and breeding. The mere weight of wood gives no true indication of its dura- bility ; because the larger the quantity of albuminoid substances contained in any kind of wood, the more likely it is to be attacked by fungi and insects which feed on these ; but, for one and the same kind of wood (whether Oak, Beech, Larch, Pine, &c.), the heavier it is the more durable, owing to the higher proportion of lignin and preservative substances per unit of volume. Oak and other hardwoods (except Beech) are usually much more durable than softwoods, and Larch lasts longer CHIEF USES OF TIMBER. 277 than Pines or Firs ; but in Conifers durability increases with resinousness. Seasoning increases it, and winter-felled timber is more durable than summer-felled. The durability can be greatly increased by artificial means. For use between wind and water, Oak, Larch, and good Pine are best, while Alder, Elm, and Beech last longest under water or as water-troughs. As regards general durability, our woods may be classified thus : Most durable : Oak, Chestnut, Robinia, and resinous Larch and Pine. Durable : Ash, Elm, steamed Beech, and Conifers with dis- tinct heartwood (Larch, Pine, Douglas Fir, Cypresses). Least durable Silver Fir, Spruce ; Beech, Hornbeam, Maple, Sycamore ; softwoods : Birch, Alder, Lime, Horse-Chest- nut, Poplars, and Willows. The Chief Uses to which British timber is put are as follows : I. Hardwoods Oak : ship-, house-, bridge-, and waggon -building, furniture, interior decoration, railway sleepers, telegraph-post arms, cask-staves, estate work, spokewood, and pitwood. British Oak is better in quality than foreign Oak. Pedunculate Oak is harder, stronger, and more durable ; but Sessile Oak grows straighter, and is softer and easier to work. Ash : agricultural implements, coach-building, furniture, oars, shafts, walking-sticks, hurdles, pea- and beau-sticks, &c. Beech : chair-making, tool-handles, boot-lasts, mill-rollers. Elm : coach- and waggon-building, furniture, boat-keels, coffins. Sycamore : mill-rollers, furniture, bobbins, clog-soles, box-making, pulley-blocks. Maple : used similarly, but not for mill-rollers. Hornbeam : cog-wheels, plane-boxes, tool-handles, and wherever great toughness is required. Chestnut : furniture, parquetry, posts and rails for fencing, split- fencing. II. Softwoods Birch : furniture, bobbins and turnery, barrel-staves and crates, clog- soles, heads and handles of brooms, brooms for tempering steel-plates. Birch and Alder were formerly much used for gunpowder charcoal. 278 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. Alder : clog - soles, barrel - staves ; is well suited for use underground and in water. Poplars : Packing-cases, framework for veneered furniture, cart-bottoms and sides, railway brake-blocks, interior boarding, wood-pulp, match- making, turnery and carving. Aspen best for matches, match-boxes, and wood-pulp. Willows : same as Poplars ; also bread - platters, knife - boards, and cricket-bats (Red Willow). Horse -Chestnut : carts, sides and bottoms of, cabinet-making, bobbins and turnery. Lime : turnery and carving, framework for veneered furniture, pack- ing-cases. Walnut : furniture, gun-stocks, turnery, carving. III. Conifers- Larch: railway sleepers, boat- and bridge-building, boarding, cart- making, masts and posts of all sorts, estate-fencing, pitwood. Small wood for hop poles, pea- and bean-sticks, &c. Like Ash, Larch can be used of all sizes, and is durable and useful for estate work. Cypresses, Douglas Fir, and Scots Pine or "red deal" : used for same purposes as Larch, but not so durable ; Scots Pine also for ship masts- and spars, telegraph-poles, scaffolding, herring-boxes, and packing- cases. Austrian and Corsican Pine : used for similar purposes as Scots Pine, but wood coarser and less durable. Weymouth or "Yellow Pine" is largely imported from America for house-building and other constructive purposes. Spruce or "white deal," and Silver Fir or "White Pine " : boarding, planking, and scantling for interior work, rough furniture, masts and spars of ships, scaffolding and ladders, packing-cases, boxes, toys, cask-staves, sounding-boards for musical instruments, pitwood, wood- pulp ; is less durable than Scots Pine. Our Chief Wood-consuming Industries use mostly the follow- ing kinds of timber : Ship-building. Oak, for ribs, crooks, &c. ; Elm and Oak for keels ; Larch and Pine for planking and lining ; Larch, Pine, Spruce, and Silver Fir for masts. House - building and Carpentry. Most.ly imported from Baltic are Scots Pine (red deal) and Spruce (white deal) ; from Rotterdam, Silver Fir (white pine) ; from America and Canada, Weymouth Pine (yellow pine), Swamp Pine (pitch pine), and others. Pitwood. Larch and small Oak best and most durable, but other Coni- MARKET-VALUE OF TIMBER. 279 fers are all largely used, the most resinous being the best. Our pit-mines are at present mainly dependent on foreign supplies, and large quantities of Maritime Pine are imported from Bordeaux. All the Conifers can be used for pit-props down to 2 in. top-diameter, and there is a great and constant demand for pitwood, as it lasts only about 5 years on the average. Railway Sleepers. Oak and Larch are the most durable, but even these are now generally impregnated ; in France impregnated Beech is very largely used. Telegraph and Telephone Posts. Larch and Scots Pine mostly used, as Scots Pine takes creosote well ; Spruce is less used as not taking creosote well, though absorbing readily under the saccharine process (see p. 307). Scaffolding, &c. Larch, Pine, Spruce, and Silver Fir mostly used, but chiefly imported wood. Furniture and Cabinet- Making. Most of our hardwoods of large size. Beech (steamed), Oak, Ash, Elm, Sycamore, Birch. Coach-building and Agricultural Implements, Waggons, , 239-252. Furniture, timber for, 279. Furze, 51. Future management, working-plan for, 130-138. Gall-s iruce, 195, 226, 232. 195, 225. ,, -wasps, 194, 225. Game, damage by, 169, 177, 178. ,, -coverts, 114. Garden-chafer, 193, 208, 229. Gean(see "Cherry"). General characteristics of timber-crops, 39. Generation table of destructive insects, 228-232. Geometridce moths, 194, 214. Germination of seed, 37, 38. 54-56. Girdling of old trees, 77, 234, 269, 300. Girth, measurement of, 91, 94. ,, rate of growth of , 99. Gnats or Gall-midges, 195, 225. Goat-moth, 194, 219, 231. Gorse, 51. 336 INDEX. Gradual clearance of parent trees, 82- Grain of wood, 269. Grape-mould fungus, 236, 239. Gravel, 31, 254. Grazing in woodlands, 329. Grease-banding with patent tar. 189, 191, 213. Green wood, weight, &c., of, 271, 300. Gregarious trees, 39. Ground-fire, 161. ,, -game, damage by, 172-174. ,, -vermin, damage by, 175-177. Groups, natural regeneration in, 82, 83. Grouse, damage by, 177, 178. Growing-stock, description of, 130-132. ,, in a working - circle, valuation of the, 141. ,, or wood - capital, 106, 108,110. Growing wood-crops, measurement of, 96. ,, ,, valuation of, 139-146. Growth in cubic contents, rate of, 98-103. in girth, rate of, 95, 99. , , in height, rate of, 92, 99. of timber-crops, habits of, 39. ,, of a tree, 27, 29. Habits of growth in tree-crops, 39. Hail, damage by, 259. Half-balks, 315. ,, -winged insects (Hemiptera), 184, 195, 225. Handbills or billhooks, felling with, 280. Hand-sawing, 281. Hardness of wood, 275. Hardwoods, 276, 277. technical uses of, 277-279. Hardy trees, 34, 256. Hares, damage by, 173. Harvesting of bark, 280, 287-289. ,, of timber and coppices, 280- 289. of tree-seeds, 289. Haskin's vulcanisation process, 302. Hawkeye machine, 284. Hazel-weevil, 192, 205, 229. Heart-shakes, 248, 272. Heartwood, 269. ,, -trees, 269. Heat, damage by, 257. Heather, clearance of, 51. Heavy rainfall, 258. Hedgerow-trees, bark from, 289. Height, measurement of, 92. rate of growth in, 99. Hemiptera, 184, 195, 225. Jfetcroptera, 195, 225. Highwoods, 42, 44, 112, 114. felling in, 282-236. ,, mixed, 40, 45. pure, 40. ,, regulation of fall in, 120 129. ,, renewal of, 79, 80, 82. History of British Forestry, 19-25. Hoar-frost, damage by, 259. Homoptera, 195, 225. Honey-fungus, Agaricus melleus, 251. Honeysuckle, damage by, 234. Hop-dog moth, 193, 211, 230. -poles, 287. Hops, damage by wild, 234. Hornbeam (Oarpinus), 5, 6, 9, 14, 15. Hornet Clearwing-moth, 194, 221. Horse-Chestnut, 5, 6, 7, 12, 16. Horses, damage by, 165. House-building, timber for, 278. Human actions, protection against, 159. Humus, 35, 234. Hurdle-making, 287. Hybernia defoliaria, 194, 217, 231. Hydrochloric acid, damage by, 259. Hydrostatic pressure, impregnation under, 304. Hylesinini, 192. Hylesinus, insects of genus, 192, 196- 198, 228. HyloUus abietis, 192, 201, 229. Hymenoptera, 183, 187, 194. Hypsometers, 92-94. Hysterium (see " Lophodermium "). Ice, damage by, 259. Ichneumonidce. 187. Identification of broad - leaved trees from buds, 6. ,, of broad -leaved trees from flowers, 12. ,, of broad - leaved trees from fruits, 15. ,, of broad - leaved trees from leaves, 8. ,, of Conifers, 17. ,, of timber, 266, 270. Immersion, impregnation by, 300, 305, INDEX. 337 Imports of timber, &c., 25. Impregnation with antiseptics, 299, 303-309. Increment, or growth in cubic contents, 36, 98-103. gauge (Pressler's borer), 100. ,, measurement of, 98-103. ,, normal, 106, 107. " Indicating percentage," 102, 140. Industries, timber-consuming, 278. Influence of situation on tree-growth, 33. ,, of woodlands, climatic and physical, 26. Injurious influences in soil and atmo- sphere, 253-260. insects, classification of, 183, 192. ,, damage by, 184. ,, extermination of, 189-191. ,, ,, generation table of, 228-232. ,, ,, natural checks upon, 185. ,, ,, protection against, 188. ,, table of chief, 192. Inland sand, fixation of, 74. Insects into orders, classification of, 183. ,, life-history of, 181. ,, useful (predacious and para- sitic), 186. Instruction in Forestry, 24. Interest and discount, tables of, 151- 156. rate of, 139, 144. Intermediate yield from thinnings, 143-145, 280. Irish Forestry Committee (1907), 24. Ivy, damage by, 234. Jack, common, 282. Janker, 291. Japanese Larch, 19. Justice Seat, 20. Kyan's preservative process, 303, 304. Lackey moth, 193, 212. Lamellicorn beetles, 193, 206. Larceny as to trees and woods, 159. Larch, 6, 18, 19. ,, -aphis, 195, 226, 227, 232. Larch-bark, 288, 289. bark-beetle, 192, 200. -canker, 236, 240. leaf-mining moth, 194, 219, 231. leaf-shedding disease, 236, 240. plantations, grazing in, 329. resin-tapping, 327. -sawfly, 194, 224, 232. -seed, extraction of, 290. ,, shoot-mining moth, 194, 219, 231. Late frosts, damage by, 255, 256. Law of the minimum, 30. Laws for the protection of trees and woodlands, 159. Layering, 59, 81. Lead-banding for girth measurement, 95. Leaf-beetles, 193, 209. -blotch diseases, 236, 237, 243. ,, -canopy (see "Normal density"). -gall aphis, Elm, 195, 227, 232. -mining moths, 194, 219, 231. , weevils, 192, 205. , -mould, 35, 234. , -roller moths, 194, 216, 231. , -scurf diseases, 236, 237, 243. , -shedding diseases of Conifers, 236, 238, 239, 240, 260. Leaves, function of, 28. Legal protection of woodlands, 159. Leopard-moth, 194, 221, 231. Lepidoptera, 183, 193, 210. Lever-appliances in felling timber, 282. Liber, 269. Lichens, damage by, 234. Lifting of seedlings by frost, 256. ,, plants for transplanting, 60. Light, influence of, 35. ,, -demanding trees, 35. Lightning, damage by, 259. Lignification, 268. Lime-tree or Linden, 5, 7, 9, 13, 16. Limitation of Forests Act (1640), 20. Limy soil, 31. Lina, insects of genus, 193, 209. Liparis, moths of genus, 193, 212. Load of timber, 316. Loamy soil, 30, 31. Locust-tree (see "Robinia"). Logging of timber, 91, 286. Logs, measurement of, 89. Longevity of trees, 38. Longhorn beetles, 193, 208. Looper-moths or spanworms, 194, 214, 231. 338 INDEX. Lop and top, 91. Lophodermium, fungi of genus, 236, 238, 239, 240, -260. Lophyrus, insects of genus, 194, 222- 224, 232. Lustre in wood, 269. Magna Charta, 20. Main-roads for timber extraction, 119. Major and minor produce, 105, 280.- Malicious injury to trees and woods, 159. Management of woodlands, 87-146. ,, scheme of (see " Work- ing-plan "). Manila shavings, 318. Manuring in nurseries, 55, 56. Map of stock, 130, 132. Maple, natural regeneration of, 85. , , Common or Norway, 5, 6, 8, 12, 16. ,, Great (see " Sycamore "). = leaf-blotch, 236, 243. Maps of woodlands, 130. Maritime Pine, resin-tapping, 327. Marking and texture of wood, 269. -hammer, revolving, 286. ,, stems for thinning or felling, Mature fall, 105, 280. Maturity of timber crops. 38. May-beetle, 193, 206. Mean age of timber crops, 98. Measurement of logs, 89. of girth, 91, 94, 95. of height, 92. of increment, 98. of sample plots, 95-97. of standing trees, 91. of timber-crops, 96. of timber by railway companies, 293. Measuring-board, 92. Mechanical properties of timber, 273- 277. Medullary rays in wood, 264. Atelampsora, fungi of genus, 236, 243. Melampsorella. fungi of genus, 237, 243, 245. Melolontha, insects of genus, 193, 206, 229. Membrane-winged insects, 183, 194, 222. Men and human actions, protection against, 159. Merulius lacrymans, 251, 273, 276, 308. Method of treatment, choice of, 1 12. Mice, damage by, 175. Midges, 195, 225. Mill-saws, different kinds of, 313-315. Mineral food of trees, 30. ,, substances in soil, 30. in wood, 268. Minor produce, 105, 280. Mirror-hypsometer, 93. Mischief, protection against, 159. Mistletoe, damage by, 234. Mixed woods, 39, 40, 45. Moisture, relation of wood towards, 271, 272. Moths, destructive, 193, 210-222, 230. - ,, extermination of, 190. Mottled Umber moth, 194, 216, 231. Mound-planting, 70. Musk-scented Willow longhorn, 193, 208, 230. Naked plants, planting with, 60, 64. Naphthalining, 306. National system of British Arbori- culture, 21, 22, 77. Natural regeneration, 80, 82, 83-85. Nectria, fungi of genus, 236, 242, 243. Nematus, insects of genus, 194, 224, 232. Nesting-boxes for birds, 59, 178. Net returns for woods, calculation of, 142, 143. Night -moths (Noctuidce), 193, 213, 231. Nitric acid, damage by, 259. Noctua (Trachea) piniperda, 193, 213, 231. Non-inflammable wood, 308. Non-parasitic diseases, 253-260. Normal capital in wood, 106, 108-112, 141, 142. j, condition in woodlands, 106, 108, 142. ,, condition of working - circles, 108. density, 106, 107. ,, distribution of annual falls, 106, 107. ,, increment, 106. ,, succession of age-classes, 106. Notching, 65. Number of plants per acre, 52, 63. ,, of trees per acre, estimating, 96. Numbering-hammer, 286. Nun-moth, 193, 212. INDEX. 339 Nurseries, 53. Nursery pests, 59. work, 53-60, 256. Nurses in plantations, 65, 75, 233, 256. Nutrition of trees, 29. Oak, 5, 8, 10, 14, 15. bark-boring beetle, 192, 201. -bark coppices, 81, 287, 288. different qualities of, 288, 289. ,, harvesting and sale of, 288, 289. barking of, 288. leaf-mining weevil, 192, 205. leaf-roller moth, 194, 216, 231. natural regeneration of, 84. -seedling fungus, 236, 238. Occasional falls, 82, 119. Old trees, stimulating the growth of, 253. Oil of turpentine, 328. Orchestes, insects of genus, 192, 205, Oregon Pine (see " Douglas Fir "). Red Cedar (see " Red Cedar.") Orgyia antiqua, 193, 213, 230. Ornamental properties of timber, 269. ,, woods and trees, valuation of, 141. ,, woods and trees, renewal of, 82, 83. ,, woods, stored coppice as, 114. Osier bark, 288. -beetle, 193, 209. ,, -fungus, 245. ,, Gall-midges, 195, 225. ,, -holts, 43, 75, 81. cutting of, 280, 285, 288. Outward appearance of timber, 269. 270. Over-thinning, effects of, 77. Overwood, 44. Owlet-moth, 193, 213, 231. Packing plants for transport, 60. Painting of wood, 300, 309. Pale Tussock moth, 193, 211, 230. Parasitic diseases, 235-252. ,, plants, damage by, 234. Park-trees, bark from, 289. Partial clearances in immature crops, 74, 78. ,, ,, in mature crops, 82, 83. Patent tar, grease-banding with, 189, 191, 213. Percentage, Indicating, 102, 140. ,, of increment, 101. Peridermium-stzge of fungi, 237, 246. Periodic falls, 124, 126-29. Peziza, fungi of genus, 236, 240. Phoma, fungi of genus, 236, 241. Phratora vitellince, 193, 209, 230. Phyllopertha horticola, 193, 208, 229. Physical effect of woodlands, 26. ,, properties of soil, 31. Physiology of trees, 27-30. Phytophthora omnivora, 236, 237. Pigeons, damage by, 177, 179. Pine, different kinds of, 5, 18. ,, natural regeneration of Scots, 85. -bark beetles, 192, 199, 200, 228. bark-blister, 237, 246. ,, Beauty moth, 193, 213, 231. ,, -beetles, 192, 196-205. ,, -bud Tortrix, 194, 218. ,, -cambial beetle, the black, 192, 198. -canker fungus, 237, 248. leaf-blister, 237, 246. . leaf-shedding disease, 236, 238, 260. ,, resin-gall Tortrix, 194, 218. root-fungus, 237, 248. -sawfly, 194, 222, 232. ,, -seed, collection and cleaning of, 290. ,, -shoot beetles, 192, 196-198. ,, shoot-twisting fungus, 236, 243. moth, 194 217, 231. ,, spanworm, 194, 215. stem-rot, 237, 248. -weevils, 192, 201-205, 229. Pissodes, insects of genus, 192, 203, 229. Pit-planting, 68. Pitwood timber, 145, 278, 317. Planks, 316. Planting and plantations, 47-74. and sowing, 47, 80. best distance in, 61. best season for, 60. different methods of, 63-71. factors for successful, 48. for shelter, 74. on moorland, 72, 73. on sand-dunes, 74. on sea- coast, 74. rate and cost of, 71-74. 340 INDEX. Planting, regularity in, 71. soil-preparation for, 48, 51, 73. . Plant-lice, 195, 225, 232. Plants, package, transport, and storage of, 60. ,, supply of, 52. Plashing, 81. Pneumatic pressure, impregnation under, 303, 305, 306. Polyporus, fungi of genus, 237, 251, 273. Poplar, different kinds of, 5, 8, 11, 15, 17. -leaf beetle, 193, 209. ,, -rust fungus, 236, 243. Longhorn beetles, 193, 208, 229, 230. weevil, 192, 205. Portable sawmills and steam-engines, 310, 311. Porthesia chrysorrhcea, 193, 211. Potash burning, 328. Powell's saccharine process, 307. Predisposition to disease, 253. Predominating kinds of trees, 39. Premature seeding, 254. Present capital value of a timber-crop, 140. Preservation of timber, 299-309. Preservatives, superficial application of, 300, 309. Pressler's borer, 100. ,, formula for percentage of girth-increment, 101. ,, "indicating percentage," 102. Private contract, sales by, 286. Protection against destructive birds, 177-180. ,, against farm-stock, game, and vermin, 165-177. against injuries from in- organic causes, 253-260. ,, against injurious insects, 181-232. ,, against men and human actions, 159. ,, against weeds and paras- itic plants, 233-252. ,, of woodlands, 157-260. }, of young timber-crops, 166. Protective falls, 122. Pruning. 78. ,, of nursery-plants, 55. ,, -shears, 55. -tools, 79. Pure woods, 39, 40. Puss moth, 193, 210, 230. Pyroligneous acid, preparation of, 327. Quality of land, 131. ,, of seed, testing the, 54. Quantity of seed for sowing, 38, 55-57. Quarter-balks, 315. ,, -girth measurement, 89. Quartering of timber, 315. Rabbits, damage by, 80, 173. Rafting of timber, 297, 298. Railway Fires Act (1905), 161. ,, -sleeper timber, 279, 317. ,, transport of timber, 293. Rain, action of heavy, 258. Rainfall, influence of, 33. Rapid-ageing of timber 301, 309. Rate of growth, measurement of, 36, 98-103. ,, of interest in Forestry, 139, 144. ,, of planting, 71. Rating of woods and plantations, 140. Red Cedar, 6, 19, 268. , , -deer, damage by, 170. ,, -rot, 237,248,251,273. ,, root-fungus, 237, 248, 254. Sawfly, 194, 223, 232. Regeneration, natural, 80, 82-85. Regenerative power, 36. Register of crops, 126, 130. Regularity in planting, 71. Renewal of shelter-belts, 82. ,, of woodland crops, 79-85. Rentals or returns, permutation of, 151. Reproduction, artificial production anil, 47, 79-82. Reproductive and regenerative power, 36. Resin, distillation of, 328. ,, in timber, influence of, 277, 299. ,, products of crude, 328. ,, -ducts in wood of Conifers, 264, 265, 267. ,, -tapping, 327. Retinia, insects of genus, 194, 217, 218, 231. Revision of working-plan, 138. Revolving marking-hammer, 286. Jihizina undidata, 236, 239. lihizoctonia violacea, 236, 239. INDEX. 341 Rhizophagus depressus, 186. Rhizotrogus solstitialis, 193, 208, 229. Rhytisma acerinwn, 236, 243. Rights of user, 160. Rind-galls, 272. Ringing of old trees, 77, 234, 269, 300. Ring-shakes, 248, 272. Ripping-saws, 313. Road timber-slides, 294. Roads in woodlands, 116, 279. ,, timber transport on, 291. Robinia or False Acacia, 8, 12, 13, 17. Rodents, damage by, 172-177. Roe-deer, damage by, 172. Root-rot, 237, 248-252, 273. ,, -system, shape of, 36. Rosdlinia quercina, 236, 238. Rosin, preparation of, 328. Rot in timber, 273. Rotation of woodland crops, 39, 109, 120. the most profitable, 143. Rowan or Mountain-Ash, 5, 8, 12, 13, 17. Royal Commission on Afforestation (1908), 24. Rueping's creosoting processes, 306. Ruling kinds of trees, 39. Rust-fungi, 236, 243-248. Saccharisation of timber, 307. Sale of Coppices, 287. ,, of firewood, 287, 316. ,, of timber, 286. Salix (see "Willow"). Saltus, 41, 114. Sample-plots, measurement of, 95. ,, -stems, selection of, 96. ,, -trees, measurement of, 90-96. Sand-dunes, planting on, 74. Sandy soil, 30, 31. Sap, dissolving of, 301. ,, in trees, movement of, 28, 264, 269. ,, in wood, 271, 300. ,, substances contained in, 268. Saperda, insects of genus, 193, 208, 229, 230. Sapwood, 269. ,, -trees, 269. Satin moth, 193, 213. Saugh (see " Willow "). Sawdust, utilisation of, 318. waste in, 315, 317. Sawtties, 194, 222-224, 232. Saw-horn beetles, 193, 208 Sawmills, 310-319. ,, cost of converting timber in, 317. ,, for estate purposes, 311. ,, movable, 310, 311. Saws, hand-, 281. ,, mill-, 313-315. Scaffolding, timber for, 279. Scale insects, 195, 227, 232. Scaptlings, dimensions of, 316. Scarabceidce, 193, 206. Scheme, of management (see " Work- ing-plan "). Schizoneura ulmi, 195, 227, 232. , Sderotinia Fuckeliana, 236, 239. Scolytini, 192. Scolytus destructor, 192, 195, 288. ,, multistriatus, 192. Scorching, 60, 257, 258. Scots law regarding timber, 42, 114, 263. ,, Pine (see "Pine"). ,, ,, natural regeneration of, 85. ,, Plane (see " Sycamore "). Scottish Forestry Committee, Preface. Scribe, the, 77. Sea-coast, planting near the, 74. Season for felling, best, 284. Seasoning of Oak-bark, 2S9. of timber, 299-303. Seed-bed, preparation of, 54. ,, sowing on, 55. -collection, 54, 289. -distributor, 58. -extraction, 290. for sowing, quantity of, 38, 55-57. -kilns, 290. -production, 37. -tests, 54. Seedling-pricker, 59. Selection - fellings (see "Occasional falls "). Selection of sample-stems, 96. ,, of trees for planting, 115. Senilising of timber, 309. Septoria parasitica, 227, 236, 241. Service-tree, 5, 8, 10, 13, 17. Sesia aptformis (Sesiidte), 194, 221. Settled Lands Act (1882), 42, 114, 263. Severances, 122. Shade-enduring trees, 35. ,, influence of light and, 35. Shakes in timber, 248, 272. Shearing, resistance to, 274. Sheep, damage by, 1 65. ; Shelter-belts, 74, 82. 342 INDEX. Shelter for planting, 74. ,, planting for, 74. Shifting sand, planting on, 74. Shipbuilding timber, 278. Shoot-boring moth, the Larch, 194, 219, 231. Shooting of timber, 293-296. Shoot-twisting fungus, the Pine, 236, 243. moth, 194, 217, 231. Shrinkage in wood, 272. Side-pressure, resistance to, 274. Silver Fir, 5, 18. bark, 288. canker, 237, 245. needle-blight, 236, 241. resin, 328. Simultaneous natural regeneration, 82, 84. Sirex, insects of genus, 194, 225. Siricidce, 194, 224. Situation, influence of, 33, 34. Skip-jacks, 193, 209. Slabs, waste in, 317. ' Sledging, 293. Sleepers, railway, 317. Sliding or shooting of timber, 293-296. Slips, planting of, 59. Slit-planting, 65. Slugs and snails in nurseries, 59. Smoke, damage by, 259. Snouted weevils, 192, 201-206. Snow, damage by, 258. Soda process for cellulose, 321. Softwoods, 276, 277. ,, technical uses of, 277-279. Soil, classification of, 30. and situation, description of, 131. ,, ,, diseases due to un- suitable, 253-260. ,, influence of, 33, 34. ,, and subsoil, physical properties of, 31. ,, -covering, removal of, 51. ,, -moisture, 32. ,, -preparation, 48, 51, 73, 74. ,, -temperature, 33. ,, ,, influence of wood- lands on, 26. Sowing and planting, 47, 80. ,, of tree-seeds, 54-58. ,, -horn, 58. Spades for planting, conical, 52, 53, 65, 69, 73. ,, ,, cylindrical, 69. Span-worm moths, 194, 214. Spanish or Sweet Chestnut, 5, 7, 9, 14, 15. Sparks, damage by railway, 160, 161. Specific gravity of wood, 271. Sphcerella laricina, 236, 240. Spinners (Bombycidce), 193, 210, 230. Splitting of wood, 272. Spokewood, 277. Sporadic trees, 39. Spruce Aphis, 195, 227. -bark, 288, 289. -bark canker, 236, 243. -gall Aphis, 195, 226, 227, 232. leaf -blister, 237, 247. moth, 193, 212. -needle rust, 237, 247. resin-tapping, 327. Spruces, 5, 18. Square of flooring, 316. ,, of quarter-girth measurement, 89. Squares of timber, 315. Squirrels, damage by, 174. Stacked fuel, 316. Stag-headedness, 253. Standards in copse (see " Coppice with Standards "). ,, ,, thinning of, 76. Standing timber, sale of, 286. ,, trees, bark-stripping of, 288. Statute of Enclosure (1482), 21. ,, of Woods (1543), 21, 44. Steam-power sawmills, 310, 311, 313- 315. Steaming of wood, 302. Stem-rot, 248. Stereum hirsutum, 273. Stimulating the growth of old trees, 253. Stock-map, 130, 132. Stool-shoots, formation of, 37. Storage-depots for timber, 286. ,, of plants, 60. Stored coppice (see " Coppice with Standards "). ,, coppice as game -coverts and ornamental woods, 114. Straight- winged insects, 184. . Straining-posts in fences, 166, 169. Strength in timber, 273. Strophosomus coryli, 192, 205, 229. Stump-extraction, 284. Stunted growth, 253. Subdivision of woodlands, 116. Subordinate kinds of trees, 39. Subsoil, 32. INDEX. 343 Succession Duty, valuation for, 141. Successive falls, natural regeneration by, 82, 83-85. Suckers, formation of, 37. Sulphate of copper, impregnation with, 304. Sulphurous acid, damage by, 259. Summer chafer, 193, 208, 229. Sun-burn or scorching, 60, 257, 258. Superficial application of preservatives, 300, 309. Supply of plants, 52. Suppressed stems, 76. Swainmote, 20. Sweet or Spanish Chestnut, 5, 7, 9, 14, 15. Sycamore, Great Maple, or Scots Plane, 5, 6, 8, 12, 16. leaf-blotch, 236, 243. , , natural regeneration of, 85. Sylva, the British, 1-19. Sylva ccedua, 41, 114. Sylvicultural characteristics of trees, ,, treatment, choice of, 42, 112. Sylviculture, 1-85. ,, scientific foundations of, 27-33. System of Forestry, national British, 21, 22, 77. Tables of compound interest and dis- count, 151-156. ,, of cubic contents of logs, 147- 150. Tachinince, 187. Tannic acid or tannin, 288. Tanning- bark, harvesting of, 287-289. Tarring of wood, 303. Technical uses of British timber, 277- 279. Teeth of saws, 281, 314. Telegraph and telephone poles, timber for, 279. Telescope hypsometer, 94. Temperature, influence of, 33. Temporary nurseries, 53. Tender, sales by, 286. Tending of woodlands, 74-79. Tension, resistance to, 273. Tenthredinidce, 194, 222. Tetraneura ulmi, 227. Texture of wood, 269. Theft, 159. Thinning, 74, 75-78, 234, 280. Thinning, best rule for, 76. ,, marking stems for, 77. of standards in copses, 76. Thinnings, yield from, 143, 280, 285. Thuja gigantea (syn. plicata), 6, 19, 268. Timber, anatomical structure of, 264, average prices of, 279. felling of, 280, 285, 286. identification of, 266, 270. legal definition of, 41, 263. measurement of, 89-103. mechanical properties of, 273- 277. ornamental properties of, 269. physical properties of, 270-273. practical uses of, 277-279. technical definition of, 263. properties of, 263-277. -Bob, 291. -calliper, 95. -carts and -waggons, 291. -consuming industries, 278. crops, estimate of age of, 98. ,, measurement of, 96. rotation of, 39, 109, 120. , , selection of trees for, 1 15. -floating, 297. -jack, 282. -roads, 116, 282. -sales, 286. -sledges, 293. -slides, 293-296. -storage, 286. -tramways, 292. -transport, 291-298. ,, by railway, 293. byroad, 291, 293-296. ,, by water, 297. -trees, British, 4. ,, sylvicultural character- istics of British, 33-40. ,, -valuation for succession duty, 141. ,, -waggons, 291. Tineidcc, 194, 219. Top and lop, 91. Torsion, resistance to, 273. Torlricidce, 194, 216. Tortrix viridana, 194, 216, 231. Toughness of timber, 274. Trachea piniperda, 193, 213, 231. Traction-engine, 291, 292, 310. Trametes, fungi of genus, 287, 248. Tramways for timber-transport, 292. Transplanting of seedlings, 55, 57. 344 INDEX. Transplants, cost of, 57, 72. Transport of plants, 60. ,, of timber, 291-298. Transverse pressure, resistance to, 273, 274. Tree-seeds, collection and extraction of. 289. ,, -stumps, extraction of, 282. Trees, estimating the age of, 98. ,, , our woodland, 1-19. Trespass, 160. Trichosphceria parasitica, 236, 241. Trimming of coppice-stools, 81. ,, of plants, 55. Turbines, 311. Turpentine, preparation of oil of, 328. Tussock moth, the Pale, 193, 211, 230. Twig-clusters, 245. ,, -twister moths, 194, 216. Twisted fibre, 272. Umber moth, mottled, 194, 216, 230. Underplanting, 78, 234. Underwood, 44. Uniform natural regeneration, 82, 84. Universal wedge, 282. Unsoundness in timber, 273. Uredinece, 236, 267, 243-248. User, rights of, 160. Uses of British timber, 277-279. Utilisation of woodland produce, 261- 329. Valuation for rating, 140. ,, for succession duty, 141. ,, of timber-crops and wood- lands, 139-146. Value of mature timber-crops and of thinnings, 139-146. of timber, market, 279. Vapourer moth, 193, 213, 230. Vegetable mould, 35, 234. ,, parchment, 323. Vermin, damage by, 174-177, 181-232. Vertical notching, 65, 67. water-wheels, 311. Vigour of old trees, stimulating the, 253. Violet mixture, 239. Voles, damage by, 175-177. Vulcanisation of timber, 302. Waggon-timber, 279. Waggons for timber- transport, 291. Warping of wood, 272. Wasteland, 25. Waste wood, utilisation of, 218. Water, relation of wood towards, 272. Waterlogging of land, 253. Water-power sawmills, 310, 311. ,, -shoots, 296. ,, -supplies, influence of woodlands on, 26. ,, -wheels, vertical, 311. Wedge, the Universal, 282. Weeding in nurseries, 57. of plantations, 75, 233. Weevils, 192, 201-206. Weight of wood, 271. Wetness, damage by, 253. Whitebeam, 5, 8, 10, 13, 17. White-grub (see "Cockchafer"). ,, -piping in Oak, 273. ,, -rot, 237, 250, 273. -scale, the felted, 195, 227, 232. Whortleberry, 51. Willow, different kinds of, 5, 7, 11, 15, 17. -bark, 288. -beetle, 193, 209, 230. -leaf fungus, 236, 237, 244. -longhorn beetle, 193, 208, 230. -rust fungi, 236, 237, 244. -scale, 195, 227. -weevil, 192, 205. Wind, damage by, 254. ,, protection against, 120-123, 255. ,, -screens or shelter- belts, 74. Windfall, 254. Winter frosts, damage by, 255. , ,, moth, 194, 214, 231. Wire-fences, erection and cost of, 166- 169. Wireworms, 210, 230. Witches' brooms, 245. Wood, anatomical structure of, 264. -boring moths, 194, 219. ,, bark-beetle, 192, 201. chemical composition of, 268. -consuming industries, 278. - demon, 282. Leopard-moth, 194, 221, 231. mechanical properties of, 273- 277. physical properties of, 270 273. -pulp, preparation of, 319. -tar, 327. technical properties of, 263- 279. -vinegar, 327. INDEX. 345 Wood-wasps, 194, 224. ,, -wool, 318. Wooden timber-shoots, 295. Woodland crops, different forms of, 41. ,, industries, 310-329. ,, management, theoretical principles of, 104-129. ,, produce, utilisation of, 261- 329. ,, products, 105, 280. ,, sawmills, 310, 319. ,, trees, 1-19. Woodlands and water-supplies, 26. artificial formation of, 47- 74. ,, capital value or produc- tivity of, 139-146. ,, climatic and physical effects of, 26. ,, economic uses of, 26. ,, in United Kingdom, 23-25. ,, management of, 87-156. ,, planting of, 47-74. ,, protection of, 157-260. ,, rating of, 140. Woodlands, renewal of, 79-85. tending of, 74-79. ,, valuation of, 139-146. Woodmote, 20. Woods and plantations, 41. Statute of (1543), 21. Woodstock, Assize of (1184), 20. Working-circle, valuation of woods in a, 141. ,, -circles, subdivision of wood- lands into, 119, 120. -plan, 106, 130-138. ,, examples of a simple, 128, 134, 136. ,, ,, explanatory note to a, 132, 133. ,, ,, formation of a, 130-138. 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Educational Works. 43 Now issued at Is. 6d. net to meet the requirements of the Education Department for a Latin Translation Book suited to pupils in the early stage of the subject. In its more expensive form the volume has been extensively used by the greater Public Schools, and is in its Twelfth Edition. A specimen copy will be sent gratis to any teacher wishing to examine the book with a view to introduction. TWELFTH EDITION. ADITUS FACILIORES. AN EASY LATIN CONSTRUING BOOK, WITH VOCABULARY. BY A. W. POTTS, M.A., LL.D., Late Head-Master of the Fettes College, Edinburgh, and sometime Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ; AND THE REV. 0. DARNELL, M.A., Late Head-Master of Cargilfield Preparatory School, Edinburgh, and Scholar of Pembroke and Downing Colleges, Cambridge. Contents. PART I. Stories and Fables The Wolf on his Death-BedAlex- ander and the Pirate Zeno's Teaching Ten Helpers The Swallow and the Ants Discontent Pleasures of Country Life The Wolf and the Lamb Simplicity of Farm Life in Ancient Italy The Conceited Jackdaw The Ant and the Grasshopper The Hares contemplate Suicide The Clever Parrot Simple Living The Human Hand The Bear Value of Rivers Love of the Country Juno and the Peacock The Camel The Swallow and the Birds The Boy and the Echo The Stag and the Fountain The Cat's Device The Human Figure The Silly Crow Abraham's Death-Bed The Frogs ask for a King The Gods select severally a Favourite Tree Hear the Other Side. PART II. Historical Extracts THE STORY OF THE FABII : Histori- cal Introduction The Story of the Fabii. THE CONQUEST OF VEII : Historical Introduction The Conquest of Veii. THE SACRIFICE OF DECIUS : Historical Introduction The Sacrifice of Decius. PART II!. 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Guardian. "A most valuable companion to the modern handbooks on his- torical French grammar." 50 William Blackwood & Sons' List. The Tutorial Handbook of French Composition. By ALFRED MERCIER, L.-es-L., Lecturer on French Language and Literature in the University of St Andrews. 3s. 6d. Educational Times. "A very useful book, which admirably accomplishes its object of helping students preparing for examinations It is on rather novel lines, which commend themselves at once to any one who has had to teach the subject." French Historical Unseens. For Army Classes. By N. E. TOKE, B.A. 2s. 6d. Journal of Education. "A distinctly good book Maybe unreservedly commended." A First Book of "Free Composition" in French. By J. EDMOND MANSION, B.-es-L., Headmaster of Modern Languages in the Eoyal Academical Institution, Belfast. Is. School World. "We recommend it warmly to all teachers of French, and trust that it will have a wide circulation." 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"In such an enterprise even a tolerable approach to success is some- thing of an achievement, and in regard to German literature Mr Robertson appears to have made a nearer approach than any other English writer." Outlines of the History of German Literature. For the Use of Schools. By the SAME AUTHOR. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. Educational Works. 51 DR LUBOVIUS' GERMAN SERIES. A Practical German Grammar, Reader and Writer. By Louis LUBOVIUS, Ph.D., German Master, Billhead High School, Glas- gow; Lecturer on German, U.F.C. Training College; Examiner for Degrees in Arts, University of Glasgow. Part I. Elementary. 2s. Part II. 3s. Lower German. Reading, Supplementary Grammar with Exercises, and Material for Com- position. With Notes and Vocabulary, and Ten Songs in Sol- Fa Notation. By Louis LUBOVIUS, Ph.D. 2s. 6d. Athenaeum. "The volume is well designed." Preparatory Schools Review. "A capital reading-book for middle forms." Progressive German Composition. 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Revised by Professor CHARLES LAPWORTH. 2s. 6d. Athenaeum. "The divisions of the subject are so clearly denned, the explana- tions are so lucid, the relations of one portion of the subject to another are so satisfactorily shown, and, above all, the bearings of the allied sciences to Physical Geography are brought out with so much precision, that every reader will feel that difficulties have been removed, and the path of study smoothed before him." PSYCHOLOGY AND LOGIC. An Introductory Text- Book of Logic. With Numerous Examples and Exercises. By SYDNEY HERBERT MELLONE, M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.); Examiner in Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. Fifth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s. Scotsman. "This is a well -studied academic text -book, in which the traditional doctrine that has been handed down from Aristotle to the univer- sity professors of to-day is expounded with clearness, and upon an instructive system which leads up naturally to the deeper and different speculations involved in modern logic The book, in fine, is an excellent working text-book of its subject, likely to prove useful both to students and to teachers. Elements of Psychology. By SYDNEY HERBERT MELLONE, M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.), and MARGARET DRUMMOND, M.A. (Edin.) Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s. Scotsman. "Thoroughness is a feature of the work, and, treating psychology as a living science, it will be found fresh, suggestive, and up-to-date." Education. " The authors of this volume have made satisfactory use of accredited authorities ; in addition, they have pursued original investigations and conducted experiments, with the result that great freshness of treatment marks their contribution to the teaching of psychology rt A Short History of Logic. By ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D., Late Professor of Logic in the University of Glasgow. Edited by W. R. SORLEY, Litt.D., LL.D., Fellow of the British Academy, Professor of Moral Philosophy, University of Cambridge. Crown 8vo, 5s net. "There is no other History of Logic short or long in English, and no similar short work in any other language." FORESTRY. The Elements of British Forestry. A Handbook for Forest Apprentices and Students of Forestry. By JOHN NISBET, D.CE., Professor of Forestry at the West of Scotland Agricultural College, Author of ' The Forester. ' Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d. net. Forest Entomology. By A. T. GILLANDERS, Wood Manager to His Grace the Duke of Northumber- land, K.G. Second Edition, Revised. With 351 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 15s. net. 56 William Blackwood & Sons' List. ELEMENTARY SERIES. BLACKWOODS' LITERATURE READERS. Edited by JOHN ADAMS, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Education in the University of London. BOOK I Pp. 228. Price Is. BQOK II Pp. 275. Price Is. 4d. BOOK HI Pp.303. Price Is. 6d. BOOK IV Pp. 381. Price Is. 6d. NOTE. This new Series would seek to do for Literature what has already been done by many series of School Readers for History, Geography, and Science. Many teachers feel that their pupils should be introduced as soon as possible to the works of the great writers, and that reading may be learnt from these works at least as well as from compilations specially written for the young. Because of recent changes in Inspection, the present is a specially suitable time for the Introduction of such a series into Elementary Schools. In the Preparatory Departments of Secondary Schools the need for such a series is clamant. It is to be noted that the books are not manuals of English literature, but merely Readers, the matter of which is drawn entirely from authors of recognised standing. All the usual aids given in Readers are supplied ; but illustra- tions, as affording no help in dealing with Literature, are excluded from the series. " The volumes, -which are capitally printed, consist of selected readings of increasing difficulty, to which notes and exercises are added at the end. The selected pieces are admirably chosen, especially in the later books, which will form a beginning for a really sound and wide appreciation of the stores of good English verse and prose." A thenxum. "The selected readings are interesting, and possessed of real literary value. The books are well bound, the paper is excellent, and the unusual boldness and clear spacing of the type go far to compensate for the entire absence of pictorial illustrations. "Guardian. A very excellent gradus to the more accessible heights of the English Parnassus The appendices on spelling, word-building, and grammar are the work of a skilful, practical teacher." Pall Mall Gazette. "If we had the making of the English Educational Code for Elementary Schools, we should insert a regulation that all boys and girls should spend two whole years on these four books, and on nothing else." Bradford Observer. "The books are graded with remarkable skill." Glasgow Herald. Educational ;> Works. 57 " Absolutely the best set of all the history readers that have hitherto been published." The Guardian. THE STORY OF THE WORLD. FOR THE CHILDREN OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE.1 (In Five Books.) ByM. B. SYNQE. With Coloured Frontispieces and numerous Illustrations by B. M. Synge, A.R.B., and Maps. BOOK I. ON THE SHORES OF THE GREAT SEA. Is. 4d. Colonial Edition, is. 6d. THE Home of Abraham Into Africa- Joseph in Egypt The Children of Israel The First Merchant Fleet Hiram, King of Tyre King Solomon's FleetThe Story of Carthage The Story of the Argonauts The Siege of Troy The Adventures of Ulysses The Dawn of History The Fall of Tyre The Rise of Carthage Hanno's Adventures The Battle of Marathon King Ahasuerus How Leonidas kept the Pass Some Greek Colonies Athens The Death of Socrates The Story of Romulus and Remus HowHoratius kept the Bridge Coriolanus Alexander the Great King of Macedonia The Conquest of India Alexander's City The Roman Fleet The Adventures of Hannibal The End of Carthage The Triumph of Rome Julius Csesar The Flight of Pompey The Death of Csesar. BOOK II. THE DISCOVERY OF NEW WORLDS. Is. 6d. 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STORY of the Netherlands The Story of Martin Luther The Massacre of Sb Bar- tholomew The Siege of Leyden William the Silent Drake's Voyage round the World The Great Armada Virginia Story of the Revenge Sir Walter Raleigh The ' Fairy Queen 'First Voyage of the East India Company Henry Hudson Captain John Smith The Founding of Quebec The Pilgrim Fathers Thirty Years of War The Dutch at Sea Van Riebeek's Colony Oliver Cromwell Two Famous Admirals -De Ruyter The Founder of Pennsyl- vania The ' Pilgrim's Progress ' William's Invitation The Struggle in Ireland The Siege of Vienna by the Turks The Story of the Huguenots The Battle of Blenheim- How Peter the Great learned Shipbuilding --Charles XII. of Sweden The Boyhood of Frederick the Great Anson's Voyage round the World Maria Theresa The Story of Scotland. William Blackwood & Sons' List. THE STORY OF THE WORLD continued. BOOK IV. THE STRUGGLE THE Story of the Great Mogul Kobert Olive The Black Hole of Calcutta The Struggle for North America George Wash- ingtonHow Pitt saved England The Fall of Quebec "The Great Lord Hawke" The Declaration of Independence Captain Cook's Story James Brace and the Nile The Trial of Warren Hastings Maria Antoinette The Fall of the Bastile Napoleon Bonaparte Horatio Nelson The Adventures of Mungo Park The Travels of Baron Humboldt The Battle of the Nile FOR SEA POWER. Is. 9d. Copenhagen Napoleon Trafalgar The Death of Nelson The Rise of Wellington The First Australian Colony Story of the Slave Trade The Defence of Saragoza Sir John Moore at Corunna The Victory of Talavera The Peasant Hero of the Tyrol The "Shannon" and the "Chesapeake" Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow Welling- ton's Victories in Spain The Fall of the Empire Story of the Steam Engine Water- loo The Exile of St Helena. BOOK V. GROWTH OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 2s. How Spain lost South America The Greek W ar Victoria, Queen of England The Great Boer Trek The Story of Natal The Story of Canada The Winning of the West A Great Arctic Expedition Discoveries in Australia The Last King of France Louis Kossuth and Hungary The Crimean War The Indian Mutiny King of United Italy Civil War in America The Mexican Re- volution Founding the German Empire The Franco-German War The Dream of Cecil Rhodes The Dutch Republics in South Africa Livingstone's discoveries in Central Africa China's Long Sleep Japan, Britain's Ally Russia The Annexation of Burma The Story of Afghanistan The Empire of India Gordon, the Hero of Khartum The Redemption of Egypt The Story of British West Africa The Story of Uganda The Founding of Rhodesia British South Africa The Dominion of Canada Australia The New Nation Freedom for Cuba Reign of Queen Victoria Welding the Empire Citizenship. Also in 2 volumes, at 3s. 6d. each net, suitable as prize books. Uniform with this Series. THE WORLD'S CHILDHOOD With numerous Illustrations by Brlnsley Le Fanu. STORIES 1. Lit-tle Red Ri-ding Hood. 2. The Three Bears. 3. The Snow-Child. 4. Tom Thumb. 5. The Ug-ly Duck-ling. 6. Puss in Boots. 7. The Lit-tle Girl and the Cats. 8. Jack and the Bean-Stalk. 9. Gol-dy. 10. Cin-der-el-la Part I. II. STORIES OP THE 1. A-bout the Gods. 2. The Names of the Gods. 3. Turn-ed in-to Stone. 4. The Shin-ing Char-i-ot. 5. The Laur-el Tree. 6. A Horse with Wings. 7. The Cy-press Tree. 8. The Fruits of the Earth. 9. Cu-pid's Gold-en Ar-rows. 10. Pan's Pipe. 11. A Long Sleep. 12. The Re-ward of Kind-ness. OF THE FAIRIES. lod. CONTENTS 11. Cin-der-el-la Part II. 12. The Lost Bell. 13. Jack the Gi-ant Kill-er. 14. Star-bright and Bird-ie. 15. Beau-ty and the Beast. 16. Peach-Dar-ling. 17. In Search of a Night's Rest. 18. Dick Whit-ting-ton and his Cat. 19. The Sleep-ing Beau-ty. lod. GREEK GODS AND HEROES. CONTENTS. 13. At-a-lan-ta's Race. 14. The Stor-y of Al-ces-tis. 15. The Snow- White Bull. 16. The Spi-der and his Web 17. I-o the White Cow. 18. The Three Gold-en Ap-ples. 19. The 01-ive Tree. 20. A Boy Her-o of Old. 21. The Thread of Ar-i-ad-ne. 22. The Boy who tried to Fly. 23. The Gold-en Harp. Teacher's Appendix. Educational Works. 59 "If history can be given a form likely to make it palatable to young folks, "F" has succeded in doing so in these ' Stories of the English.' It is no exaggeration to say that the book represents not only a masterpiece in literature for children, but a work of no slight value for the national good." Scotsman STORIES OF THE ENGLISH FOR SCHOOLS, By F. FOR JUNIOR SCHOLARS. VOL. I. FROM THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ARMADA. Is. 6d. CONTENTS. The coming of the White Horse The coming of the Cross The Fight with the Raven Alfred the Great Edward the Confessor William the Conquerer The Kings of the Golden Broom Richard Lion-HeartKing John and Magna Charta Earl Simon the Rif hteous Edward the Englishman Bannockburn and Berkeley The Lions and the Lilies A King dethroned Prince Hal King Harry The Wars of the Roses- Henry VIII. and the Revolt from Rome Edward VI. and Mary Elizabeth, the Great Queen : (1) English Adventurers and the Cruise of the Pelican ; (2) Mary, Queen of Scots ; (3) Papist Plots and the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew ; (4) The Armada. ILLUSTRATIONS. Dover Castle The Pharos, Dover Norsemen Homes of our Ancestors Chateau Gaillard Tomb of a Crusader (Gervase Alard), Winchelsea Church- Carnarvon Castle Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey Knights of the Fourteenth Century Edward the Third The Battle of Cressy Tomb of Edward the Third, West- minster Abbey Tomb of the Black Prince, Canterbury Cathedral Richard II. on his voyage to Ireland Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Abbey Henry V. with Military Attendants Henry V. addressing his Army Joan of Arc The Crowning of Henry VII. on Bosworth Field Henry VIII. Wolsey Sir Thomas More taking leave of his Daughter Calais during the Sixteenth Century Queen Elizabeth The Armada Drake Mary, Queen of Scots Drake playing Bowls with his Captains Sir Walter Raleigh. FOR SENIOR SCHOLARS. VOL. II. THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER AND, GREATER ENGLAND. Is. 6d. CONTENTS. The First of the Stuarts The Struggle for Power The Puritan Tyranny The Second Struggle for Power : Charles II. The Revolution The Fight with France : The Dutch King Queen Anne and Marlborough Greater England The Story of Anson The Story of Wolfe The Story of Captain Cook The Story of Olive The War of American Independence The great French War The Story of Nelson The Story of the Great Duke The End of the Stories. ILLUSTRATIONS. James I. Bacon Charles I. A Cavalier Oliver Cromwell The Great Fire of London The Seven Bishops going to the Tower Landing of William of Orange in England Marlborough Gibraltar Chatham Fight between the Centurion and the Manila Ship General Wolfe The Death of Captain Cook Washington Pitt- Napoleon Bonaparte Nelson H. M.S. Victory, Portsmouth Harbour Duke of Wellington Napoleon on board the Bellerophon. Moira O'Neill, Author of ' Songs of the Glen of Antrim,' writing to Mr Blackwood, says : " F.'s ' Stories of the English ' was written for my little daughter Susan. The child is quite fascinated by it, but equally so are all the grown-up friends to whom I have shown it. I lent it once to a sailor uncle, and he sat up to all hours of that night with it, and afterwards told me that he could hardly believe that such an account of Nelson's great battles had been written by a woman, because it was technically accurate. And a soldier friend and critic used almost the same words about the account of Marlborough's campaigns. F. is the most patient and faithful student of history that I know. She has such a strong literary sense that she simply could not write anything except in a literary form, and combined with it she has that rare thing, a judicial mind. This, I think, gives her work a quite peculiar value." 60 William Blackwood & Sons' List. Standard Readers. Revised Edition. With Supplementary Pages, consisting of "Spelling Lists," "Word -Building," "Prefixes and Suffixes," &c. Profusely Illus- trated with Superior Engravings. BOOK I. 40 Lessons . . . . 8d. BOOK II. 40 Lessons 9d. BOOK III. 60 Lessons . . . .Is. Od. BOOK IV. 60 Lessons . . . .Is. 3d. BOOK V. 60 Lessons . . . .Is. 4d. BOOK VI. 60 Lessons . . . .Is. 6d. Schoolmaster. "We strongly recommend these books Children will be sure to like them; the matter is extremely suitable and interesting, the print very distinct, and the paper a pleasure to feel." Infant Series. * FIRST PICTURE PRIMER . . Sewed, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. SECOND PICTURE PRIMER . . Sewed, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. PICTURE READING SHEETS. IST SERIES. | 2ND SERIES. Each containing 16 sheets, unmounted, 3s. 6d. Mounted on 8 boards, with cloth border, price 14s.; varnished, 3s. 6d. per set extra. Or the 16 sheets laid on linen, varnished, and mounted on a roller, 17s. 6d. THE INFANT PICTURE READER. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth, limp, 6d. Educational News. " Teachers will find these Primers a useful introduction to the art of reading. We consider them well adapted to their purpose." Geographical Readers. With numerous Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations. GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. (For Stand. I.) 96 pp. 9d. BOOK I. (For Stand. II.) 96pp. . . 9d. BOOK II. (For Stand. III.) 156 pp. . . Is. Od. BOOK III. (For Stand. IV.) 192 pp. . . Is. 3d. BOOK IV. (For Stand. V.) 256 pp. . . Is. 6d. BOOK V. (For Stand. VI.) 256 pp. . . Is. 6d. BOOK VI. (For Stand. VII.) 256pp. . . Is. 9d. Schoolmaster. " This is a really excellent series of Geographical Readers. The volumes have, in common, the attractiveness which good paper, clear type, effective woodcuts, and durable binding can present ; whilst their contents, both as to quality and quantity, are so graded as to be admirably adapted to the several stages of the pupil's progress." Educational Works. 61 Historical Readers. With numerous Portraits, Maps, and other Illustrations. SHORT STORIES FROM ENGLISH HISTORY 160 pp. Is. Od. FIRST HISTORICAL READER . . . 160pp. Is. Od. SECOND HISTORICAL READER . . .224 pp. Is. 4d- THIRD HISTORICAL READER . . .256 pp. Is. 6d. Schoolmaster. "These new Historical Readers have "been carefully compiled. The facts are well selected ; the story is well told in language most likely to impress itself in the memory of young children ; and the poetical pieces are fitting accompaniments to the prose." School Board Chronicle. "The treatment is unconventional, but always in good taste. The volumes will meet with much favour generally as lively, useful, high-toned Historical Readers." Standard Authors. Adapted for Schools. HAWTHORNE'S TANGLEWOOD TALES. With Notes and Illustra- tions. 160 pp. Is. 2d. Aytoun's Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers. With Introduction, Notes, and Life of the Author, for Junior Classes. EDINBURGH AFTER FLODDEN . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 3Jd. THE EXECUTION OF MONTROSE . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. THE BURIAL-MARCH OF DUNDEE 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 3^d. THE ISLAND OF THE SCOTS . . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 3Jd. Teachers' Aid. "Capital annotated editions Beautifully clear and painstaking; we commend them heartily to our brother and sister teachers." Educational News. "Useful issues of well-known poems The notes are exceedingly appropriate, and leave nothing in doubt. For class purposes we cau specially recommend these little books." School Recitation Books. BOOK I. 32 pages . . . . 2d. BOOK II. 32 pages . . . 2d. BOOK III. 48 pages . . . .3d. BOOK IV. 48 pages . . . .3d. BOOK V. 64 pages . . 4d. BOOK VI. 64 pages . . . . 4d. Schoolmistress. "These six books are a valuable contribution to school literature. The poems for each standard are judiciously chosen, the explanatory notes and questions at the end of every lesson are very suitable." 62 William Blackwood & Sons' List. Grammar and Analysis. BOOK II. 24 pages . . Paper, ld. ; cloth, 2d. BOOK III. 24 pages . . Paper, ld ; cloth, 2d. BOOK IV. 48 pages . . Paper, 2d. cloth, 3d. i BOOK V. 64 pages . . Paper, 3d. cloth, 4d. BOOK VI. 64 pages . . Paper, 3d. cloth, 4d. BOOK VII. 64 pages . . Paper, 3d. cloth, 4d. Schoolmaster. "This is a series of good practical books whose merits ought to ensure for them a wide sale. Among their leading merits are simplicity in definitions, judicious recapitulation, and abundance of well-selected exercises for practice." Teachers' Aid. "For thoroughness, method, style, and high -class work, commend us to these little text-books A practical hand has impressed every line with individuality We are determined to use them in our own department." Arithmetical Exercises. BOOK I. ... Paper, ld. ; cloth, 2d. BOOK II. . . Paper, ld. ; cloth, 2d. BOOK III. . . . Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. BOOK IV. ... Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. BOOK V. ... Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. BOOK VI. ... Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. BOOK VII. . . . Paper, 3d. ; cloth, 4d. HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua- tion Classes. 128 pp. . . Paper, 6d. ; cloth, 8d. %* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct to Teachers only. Schoolmaster. "We can speak in terms of high praise respecting this series of Arithmetical Exercises. They have been carefully constructed. They are well graduated, and contain a large and varied collection of examples We can recommend the series to our readers." Schoolmistress. " Large quantity, excellent quality, great variety, and good arrangement are the characteristics of this set of Arithmetical Exercises." Elementary Grammar and Composition. Based on the ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. With a Chapter on WORD- BUILDING and DERIVATION, and containing numerous Exercises. New Edition. Is. Schoolmaster. "A very valuable book. It is constructive as well as analytic, and well-planned exercises have been framed to teach the young student how to use the elements of his mother-tongue A junior text-book that is calculated to yield most satisfactory results." Educational Times. "The plan ought to work well A decided advance from the old-fashioned practice of teaching." Educational Works. 63 Grammar and Analysis. Scotch Code. STANDARD II. 24 pages. Paper, ld. ; cloth, 2d. STANDARD III. 32 pages. Paper, l^d. ; cloth, 2d. STANDARD IV. 56 pages. Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3 |d. STANDARD V. 56 pages. Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. STANDARD VI. 64 pages. Paper, 3d. ; cloth, 4d. Teachers' Aid. "These are thoughtfully written and very practically con ceived little helps They are most exhaustive, and brimming with examples. New Arithmetical Exercises. Scotch Code. STANDARD I. 32 pages . Paper, ld. ; cloth, 2d. STANDARD II. 32 pages . Paper, ld. ; cloth, 2|d. STANDARD III. 56 pages . Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d. STANDARD IV. 64 pages . Paper, 3d. ; cloth, 4d. STANDARD V. 80 pages . Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d. STANDARD VI. 80 pages . Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d. HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua- tion Classes 128 pages . Paper, 6d. ; cloth, 8d. %* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct to Teachers only. Educational News. "The gradation of the exercises is perfect, and the examples, which are very numerous, are of every conceivable variety. There is ample choice for the teacher under every head. We recommend the series as excellent School Arithmetics." Merit Certificate Arithmetic. 96 pp. Paper cover, 6d. ; cloth; 8d. Mensuration. 128 pp., cloth, Is. Also in Two Parts. Pt. I., Parallelograms and Triangles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d. Pt. II., Circles and Solids. 64 pp. Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d. Answers may he had separately, price 2d. each Part. Educational Times. "The explanations are always clear and to the point, while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is offered to the students who make use of the book." A First Book on Physical Geography. For Use in Schools. 64 pp. 4d. Journal of Education. " This is a capital little book, describing shortly and clearly the geographical phenomena of nature." 64 William Blackwood & Sons' List. Manual Instruction Woodwork. DESIGNED TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINUTE OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT ON MANUAL INSTRUCTION. By GEORGE ST JOHN, Undenominational School, Handsworth, Birmingham. With 100 Illustrations. Is. Blackwoods' Simplex Civil Service Copy Books. By JOHN T. PEARCE, B.A., Leith Academy. Price 2d. each. CONTENTS OF THE SERIES. No. 1. Elements, Short Letters, Words, it 2. Long Letters, Easy Words. ,i 3. Capitals, Half-line Words, ii 4. Text, Double Ruling, Sentences. 5. Half-Text, Sentences, Figures, ii 6. Intermediate, Transcription, &c. 7. Small Hand, Double Ruling. 8. Small Hand, Single Ruling. The Headlines are graduated, up-to-date, and attractive. Blackwoods' Universal Writing Books. Have been designed to accompany the above series, and teachers will find it advantageous to use them as Dictation Copies, because by them the learner is kept continually writing at the correct slope, &c. No 1. is adapted for LOWBR CLASSES, No. 2 for HIGHER CLASSES. Price 2d. each. Practical Teacher. " Our readers would do well to write for a specimen of this book, and of the blank exercise-books ruled on the same principle. They are worth careful attention." School World. "Those teachers who are anxious to train their pupils to write in the style associated with Civil Service Competitions should find the copy-books designed by Mr Pearce very useful. The writing is certainly simple ; it may, in fact, be reduced to four elements, in which the pupil is rigorously exercised in the earlier books before proceeding in later numbers to continuous writing." Schoolmaster. "Those of our readers in search of new books should see Journal of Education. "Aids the eye and guides the hand, and thus checkmates any bias towards error in the slope." UNIVERSITY CALENDARS. St Andrews University Calendar. Printed and Published for the Senatus Academicus. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. net. St Andrews University L.L.A. Calendar. Printed and Published for the Senatus Academicus. Crown 8vo, Is. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EDINBURGH AND LONDON. 12/11. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. OOT 20 1939 AOT O1 HQ!:10 tJM &* "^^ MAY 27 1948 LD 21-100m-7,'39(402s) U.C. BERKELEY LIBRX 344226 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY