P3 ifivm^ n-vv ^L. _^^ '•^'•MiiiWM iV>iV ;]V3-jU- -"'.i'UJiiVJ^U i > r'. '^f ii-i O ^.OF-CAl!FnP^. 4S? ^ft / MF nN!VF!?,r.'A "^X?15' .K-\n^-AyrFffr. • c: < DO 3C -'^ r-T^ •m4 rT% 7 i U ^ «= 3= S < -< "T^ c>> -O C5 'C? -■'' <\ f , I I *■ . "jda/anir^n- ^ ■< '5 .'— cc ^ < n CO ra. rn n-t fcM ^^ir - i --J o '> TO -< .:.(i-ii\v ■S' >i> ,5ME'JWIVFf?.S"//i :2- -n 9 <: \ ^/.V«3AINa-lUV ex; > aSsH rr ^/?A!J (? iwv :? c: '% ^JllVDJO"^ '^' tnt.Aiirnrr ^OFCALlFOft^ ^OF-CAIIFO/?^ o £c C3 <^ SMITH'S NEW GRAMMAR EN€^I.ISII GRAMMAR 0^• THE PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: METHOD OF INSTRUCTION RECENTLY ADOPTED IN GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND iBcsf2Uc'& fq.'- Srljoolg anti ^caTJeiuffs BY ROSWELL C. SMITH, iUTHOR OF -'PRACTICAL AND MENTAL ARITHMETIC," " "^TELLECTUA t AND PRACTiCAL GRAMMAR," AND "INTRODUCTORY ARITriMKTIC" ScconD JSunion. \ S P If 1 L A I) R 1. P H 1 A ; ^ ' WILLIAM MARSHALL & CO. M'ortk-wett comer of ('/it»nwt and Fifth StrteU. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by Perkins & Marvin, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. PREFACE. The following work was composed, as is indicated by the title, on what is styled in Germany and Switzerland the " Productive System of Instruction." Tt is in these countries that the subject of Education lias been deemed a matter of paramount importance. The art of teaching, particularly, has there been most ably and minutely investigated. To give a brief account of the ditierent systems which have prevailed there, may not be irrelevant on the present occa- sion, as they assist in forming an opinion of the comparative merits of the " Productive System," on which this work is principally based. " In reference to intellectual education, the persons who were in- strumental in producinir the reformation in schools, in the last century, in these countries, may bo divided into four classes — the Humanists, Philanthropists, Pesl.aiozzian and the Productive Schools. '• At the restoralit'U of learning, iii the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the classics were brought out from the libraries of tha cloisters in which they had been buried. As they presented the onl}' examples of cxakod sentiments and elevated style which the secular literature of the age aiforded, they were regarded as the only- means of acquiring enlarged views and a liberal education ; the study of them recoi ved the proud title of Humanity ; and the zealous and meritorious men who employed this means for the revival of learning, were subsequently termed Humanists. " Tlie rigid Huniaulsts maintained tJiat ' the Greek and Latin authors are the only source of sound learning, whether in philosophy or rhetoric, in poetry or history, in medicine or law, and even in the elements of religion , all his come to us from Greece and Rome.' ' The learning of the Greek and Latin languages is the only founda- tion of a thorough education;' the knowledge of the gramnrar ought to precede all other knowledge ; ' and jdiilologists arc the only thor- oughly learned men.' "The Humanists maintained the entire sway of the learned world until about the middle of the last century, when the school of the Philanthropists aro^^c. Disgusted witii the extravagant manner in which the ancient languages were extolled, they were led to examine into the foundations of their pretensions. VViiile they yielded the palm to the ancients in all that relates to matters of taste and beauty, they maintained that this superiority arose from the fact, that the ancients derived their views directly from the inspection of nature and the observation of man, instead of occupying themselves, as we do, with the mere pictures of them drawn by others; — they pointed to the obvious truth, that the world is older and vastly more experi- enced than it was two thousand years ago ; that in regard to all that relates to human knowledge, the present generation are really the ancients. They believed that much time was lost by the indiscrimi- nate and exclusive use of the classics as the foundation of education, which ought to be spent in acquisition of practical knowledge ; and that by this tedious and laborious task, without any perceptible ad- vantage to the pui)il, they were often disgusted with every species n*" intelloctual effort. Tliey.a^so, pM^nted out the moral corruption 4 PREFACE. which arises from many of the examples and sentiments of the ancients, and especially disapproved that discipline of compulsion and violence, by which children have been forced to this ungrateful employment. They urged the importance of leadiiig by the attrac- tion of knowledge itself, rathei than by force. They paid much attention to the developement of the bodi!}' constitution and powers, and professed to aim at forming men, and not mere scholars. " But, with the ordinary weakness of human nature, in avoiding one extreme, they ran into the opposite. They forgot the valuable influence of these studies, properly regulated, upon the faculties and habits of the mind. " Notwithstanding their error, the Philanthropists unquestionably exerted much influence on the improvement of education. The extravagant views of the Humanists were considerably modified, and although many still retain the exclusive maxims of their pre decessors, many admit, as stated in the German ' Conversations Lexicon,' that ' all should be embraced in education which can pro- mote the formation of the man, and prepare hhn for the eternal destiny of his spirit.' The Philanthropists also prepared the way for theii successors of the School of Pcstalozzi. This remarkable man adopted many of the opinions ofliis predecessors of the Philanthropic school, especially those which related to the developement of the bodily powers, and the methods of discipline, and religious instruction. He perceived, however, that, in assuming practical utility as the exclusive test of the value of particular objects of instruction, they had too much neglected the developement of the mind itself. In seek- ing to avoid this error, however, he did not entirely escape the other extreme. He assumed, as a fundamental principle, that a certain developement of mind was necessary for every rank and every occu- pation. The means of this developement he supposed himself to have found, so far as the intellectual faculties were concerned, in the elements of form and number, which are combined in the science of Mathematics, in Language, and in jYuturul History. Tlie Math- ematics appear to have assumed a preponderance in practice, which was uiiffavorablc to the regular and harmonious cultivation of other powers. The senses and the bodily powers he endeavored to de- vclope, in accordance with the views of the Philanthropic school, by the careful examination of the various objects of nature and art, which surround the pupil, by meaiiis of music, and by gymnastic exercises, alternated or combined with labor. Pcstalozzi himself was remarka- bly tlie creature of powerful impulses, which were usually of the most mild and bcnevoleat kind, and preserved a child-like character in this respect, even to old age. It was probably this temperament which led him to estimate at a low rate the importance of positive religious truth in the education of children, and to maintain that the mere habit of faitli and love, if cultivated towards earthly parents and benefactors, would of course be transferred to our heavenly Father, whenever his character should be exhibited to the mind of the child. The fundamental error of this view was established by the unhappy experience of his own institution ; and his own ex- ample afforded the most striking evidence that the noblest impulses, not directed by established principles, may lead to imprudence and ruin, and thus defeat their own ends.* This principle, combined * As an example of this, it may be mentioned that, on one of those occasions (fre- quently occurriiijj) on which lie was reduced to extremity for want of the means of sup- plying liig large lamily, ho borrowed $100 from a friend for this purpose. In going home, ho met a peasant wringing his hands in despair for the loss of his cow. Pcs- »ftlozzi put the entire bag of money into his hands, and ran off to escape bis tlianka.. PREFACE. V with the want of tact in reference to the affairs of common life, materially impaired his powers of visofulness as a ])ractical instructer of youth. The rapid progress of his ideas rarely allowed him t« execute his own plans and, according- to his own wysteni, too much time was employed in the profound devolopernent of principles to admit of much attention to their practical application. iJiit, as one of his admirers observed, he seemed destined to educate ideas and not children. He combated, with unshrinking boldness, and untir- ing perseverance, throujrh a long life, i)oth by his example and by his numerous publications, the prejudices and abuses of the age, in reference to education. He attacked, with great vigor and no small degree of success, that favorite ma.xim of bigotry and tyranny, that obedience and devotion are the legitimate offspring of ignorance. He denounced that degrading sysiem which considers it enough to enable man to procure a subsistence for himself and his offspring — and in this manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of the forest; and which deems every thing lost whose value cannot be estimated in mone}'. He urged upon the consciences of parents and of rulers, with an energy approachino- that of the ancient prophets, the solemn duties which Divine Providence had imposed upon them, in committing to their charge the present and future destinies of their fellow beings. In this way he produced an impulse, v/hich pervaded the continent of Euro})o, and which, by means of his popu lar and tlieoretical viforks, reached the cottages of the poor and palaces of the great. His institution at Yverdun was crowded with men of every nation, not merely those who were led by the same benevolence which inspired him, but by the agents of kings, and noblemen, and public institutions, who came to make themselves acquainted with his principles, in order to become fellow-laborers in his plans of benevolence. " It is to these companions of his labors, most of whom resided in Germany or Switzerland, that we owe the formation of another school, which has b.een st3-lad the Productive School, and which now predominates in Germany and Switzerland. It might, perhaps with equal propriety, be termed tlie Eclectic ScUoiil ; for it aims at embody- ing all the valuable principles of previous systems, witho\it adhering slavishly to the dictates of any master, or the views of any party. It rejects alike the idolatrous liomage to the classics, which was paid by the Humanists — tiie unreasonaldo prejudices of the Philanthro- pists against classical and merely literary pursuits — and the undue predilection for the mere expansion of mind, to the neglect of posi- tive knowledge and practical application, which characterized too many of the restalozzian school. " The leading principle of this system, is that which its nam© indicates — that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient of the ideas of others, but as an ;igent capable of collecting, and originating, and producing most of the ideas which are necessary for its education, when presented with tlie objects or the facts from which they may be derived. While, on the ono hand, they :ire careful not to reduce the pupil to a mere machine, to be moved by the w^ill of his instructer in an assigned direction, or a mass of passive mat- ter, to be formed by him according to his own favorite model, they are equally careful to avoid the extreme, into which some of the preceding school have fallen, of leaving him to wander indefinitely in a wrong direction in search of truth, in order to secure to him the merit of discovery. They consider a course of education as divided into two parts — the period of dcvelojiement and the period qf g rilEFACE, acquisldoti. In the first period, wlfl<;h they consider as particularly devoted to developing the faculties and forming the habits of the mind, in order to prepare it as an instrument for future operations, Uiey em- ploy the inductive process chiefly. Time is net liere of so much importance as the habit of investigation and effort, which can only be acquired by meeting and overcoming difficulties. This period, wliich must bo made longer or shorter according to the character of the pujjil, or the necessity that his circumstances in life may im- pose, is succeeded by the period of acquisition, in which the mind is more especially called upon to exercise tlie powers which have been vreciuushj developed and cultivated, in the acquisition of such positive linowlcdge as may prepare the individual for life and actioti. The inductive process is still employed as much as possible, not only be- cause it has become, for many cases, the shortest and most agreeable, but because it is important to maintain the habits it has produced, and invigorate the faculties it has seri^ed to develope. " But stili it is far less employed than previously, and the pupil is never suffered to waste his time in attempting to create a sci- ence for himself, and thus deprived of the benefit of the experience of sages and centuries. On the contrary, they deem his mind capable of being elevated even more rapidly by following the pro- cesses of patient investigation, by which the most exalted minds have arrived at results that astonish and delight him, and of thus learning to imitate strides, wliich seem to him like those of a giant, and to cultivate those habits of untiring attention, which the greatest philosophers have declared to be the principal source of that telescopic glance, that almost unerring vower of discrimination, which seems to others so nearly miraculous '■ Such is the Productive Systeis, by which the powers of the pupil arc called into complete exercise by requiring him to attempt a ta.sk unaided, and then assisting him in correcting his own errors, or returning from his own wanderings, before he is discouraged by the waste of time and the fruitlessncss of his efforts. They distin- guish carefully between knowledge and the means of obtaining it. To cultivate the senses, and present the objects which they are capa- ble of examining, is to open to the child the sources of knoicledge — to place be/fore him a book which is ever open, and in which he may every moment read. This, they maintain, is the first and most obvious part of education, according to the dictates of common sense. It is one in which nothing but truth is presented to him, and which, by calling his powers into constant exercise, ensures their improve- ment, and cultivates a spirit of investigation." The preceding extracts are taken from Art. I. Vol. I. No. VI. of the American Journal of Education, New Series. The author avails himself of this opportunity to express his obligations to the conductors of this valuable periodical. A constant perusal of its pages has afforded him many valuable ideas on the subject of education, and he cheerfully ac- knowledges material assistance derived from it in the prepa- ration of the "Productive System of English Grammar," which is now respectfully submitted to the candid examina- tion of the Dublic. THE AUTHOR. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I. OF THE NOUN Q. What is your name '! Q. What is the name of the town in which j-ou live ? Q. What does the word umin mean ? Jhis. The word noim means name. Q. What, then, may your name be called ? 1. A NOUN. Q. What may all names be called ? 2. Nouns. Q. Boston is the name of a place ; is Boston a noun ? and if so, why ? 3. Boston is a noun, because it is a name. Q. Hudson is the name of a river : is Hudson a nomi, and why ? Q. Book is the name of sometliing- to read in : is book a noiui, and why ? Q,. Will you now infonn me what a noun is ? 4. A noun is the name of any person, i)lace, or thing. Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons ? two, the names of thinffi ? two, the names of diffeient places ? Q. will you tell me which words are the nouiis in the following sentences, as 1 read them to you ? " Thomas and Joseph are in the house." " The horse and cow are in the lot." " The liawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain." '* Trees, corn, potatoes and apples grow in the fields." II. NUMBER. Q. What is the meiuiing of the word number ; as, " The number of bu» •ons on your coat" 1 5. Number means a sum that may he counted. Q. What does the word singular mean ? 6. It means one. Q. When, then, I sjjcak of one thing only, as chair, what number is it 7 7. Singular number. Q. What, then, does the singular number of nouns denote ? 8. The singular number denotes but one thing. 8 ENGLISH GRAIMMAR. Q. Of what number is book, ;uid u I13' ? 9. Book is of the singular number, because it means but one. Q. Of what iiLiniber is chair, and wliy 7 Q. What does the word plural mean ? 10. It means more than one. Q. Of what miinber is lamps, and \\ hy ? 11. Lamps is of the plural number, because it means more than one. Q. Of what number is iiilcstaiid, and win' ? Q. By adding s to dove, we have doves, and es to box, we have boxes How, then, is the plural number of nouns usually formed ? 12. By adding s or es to the singular. Q. Will you spell the plural of ounce ? glass ! window 1 theatre ? antece dent 7 church I labifrinlh ? Q. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they 7 13. Two, the singular and plural. Q. Will you name a noun of the singular aumber ? one of the phiraJ luimlier ? in. GENDER Q. What does the word gender mean 7 14. Gender signifies sex. Q. What does the word masculine mean 1 15. It means male. Q John is the name of a male : of what gender or sex, then, is John? 10. Of the masculine or male gender. Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of tlic masculine gender 7 17. The names of males. Q. What gender, llien, is man, and why 7 18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male. Q. Of what gender is uncle, and why 1 failier ? w hy ? Q. What does feminine meaji ? 19. It means /ema/e. Q. {^nxan is the name of a female : of what gend.er, then, is Snsan? 20. Of the feminine gender. Q. What nouns, then, ar" said to be of the feminine gender 7 - 21. The names of females. Q. What geniler is woman, and why ? 22. Woman is of the fenriinine gender, because it is the name of a female. Q. Of what gender is aunl, and why 7 daughter? why 7 Q. What does tlie word muter mean ? 23. It means neither. Q. Chair is the name ncidier of a male nor a feinale : what gender, then, may 't properh' be «n!lod? 24. Neuter gender. Cl- What nouns, Uien, may be sai-ticidar. Q. John, you know, is the i)articular name of a boy : what kind of a noun, then, may it be called ? 35. A proper noun. Q. When, then, may a noun be called proper ? 36. Wlien it is a particular name. Q. What kind of a noun is Susan, and why ? _ _ 37. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a particu- lar name. Q. What kind of a noun is John, and why 7 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. What kind of a noun is j-iver, and why 7 3S. River is a common noun, because it is a gene- ral nair\e. Q. How niaiiy kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they ? Q. Wliat kind of a noun is girls? Alarij? town? New York? London? boat ? chain ? Q. Will you now tell me which words arc the nouns in the following sen- tences ; which are proper, and which common ; also their gender and number ? ''Thomas and John." " King and queen." *' Susan and Mnrv." " House and barn." V. PERSON. Q. When a person, in speaking, snys, " I, Jolin, will do it," what ]»ersoB do grammarians call Jolm? 39. The first person. Q. When, then, is a noiui of the (irsl person ? 40. When it is the name of the person speaking. Q. When I say, " James, inind your studies," what person do grammarians call Janies ? 41. The second person, being the person spoken to. Q. When, then, is a noun of the second person ? 42. Wiien it is tlie name of the })erson spoken to, or addressed. Q. " W'illiam, James has come." What person is William, ajid why ? 43. Of the second person, because WilHam is spoken to. Q. When 1 say. " William, James has come " 1 am speaking to William about James : of what person, then, is Jumes, and wliy ? 44. Of the third person, because James was spoken of; that is, I was talking about James. Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person ? 45. When it is spoken of. Q. " Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." What person is TTiottias ? why 1 Is Rjtfiis ? why ? Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 46. Three persons — the first, second, and third. Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which common ; also their gender, number, and person ? " I, James, of Boston." " Boy and girl." " Henry, study your book." " William and his sister.' VI. CASE. Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " He is m a good case" ; and, when he is lean, that " He is in a bad case" I what, therefore, does the word case mean ? 47. Case means condition, state, &c. CASES. 11 Q. Wlien I say, " Charles strikes William," " William strikes Charles," you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the former example IS quite dilferent from his state or condition in the latter: in llie one, Charles strikes ; in the other, he is struck ; what, tlicn, is meant by the different cases of nouns 1 48. The different condition or position they have in relation to other words in tlie same sentence. Q. What does tlie word nomiiialive mean ? 49. JVominative means naming. Q. When I say, " John strikes," he evidently does something : what, then, may John be called 7 50. An actor or doer. Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming- or leading noun, in what case is John, when I say, " Jolm strikes" ? 51. In the nominative case. * Q. What, then, is the nominative case of nouns ? 52. The nominative case is the agent or doer. Q. When I say, " The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why ? 53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, actor, or doer, Q. " The cat catches mice." In what case is cat, and why ? Q. Wlien 1 say, " Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is tlie object here which Thomas is pursuing ? 54. Thief. Q What does the word ohjcctire mean ? 55. It means belonging to the object. Q. Ill what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the phrase, " Thomas pursues llie thief" ? 56. In the objective case. Q. What, then, does the objective case denote ? 57. The objective case denotes the object. Q. When I say, " William whips John," in what case is Johji, and why 7 58. In the objective case, because John is the ob- ject. Q. What does the word possessive imply ? 59. Possession, ownership, property, &-C. Q. When I say, " It is John's slate," 1 mean to say that John owns the ate : in what case, then, shall we reckon John's ? 60. In the possessive case. Q. What, then, does tiie possessive case of nouns denote ? 61. The possessive case denotes possession, prop- erty, &c. Q, When I say, " Pel pi's kiiif(>.," who owns or possesses the knife ? Q. In what case, then, is Peter's, and why ? 62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses the knife. Q. In the example " John's slate," you perceive tliat John's ends in s, with a comma before it : what is the comma, and wiial is the s, called in grammar 7 63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the s, an apostrophic s. Q. You also perceive that John's is singular : how, then, do nouns in the singvil&r number usucdly form their possessive case 7 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter s following it. Q. "On eagles' wing's." Here eagles' is plural, and in the possessive case : how, tlien, do nouns in tlio plufal usually form their possessive cas« ? 65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the addition of 5. Q. But if the plural noun does not end in s, as, " men's concerns," how is the possessive case formed ? 66. As the same case in the singular number is formed. Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouus appear to have, and whai are thej ? 67. Three — thfe nominative, possessive and objec- tive. Q. Declhu somelimes means tn ranj the eiidings of a word : what, then do I mean when I ask you to tlecline a noun ? 68. To tell its different cases or endings. Q. Will you decline John 7 69. JVoininatlve case, John. Possessive case, John's. Objective case, John. Q. Will you decline hoij, in both numbers ? Si)igi(lar. Plural. 70. JVoffi. Boy. JVow. Buys. Poss. Boy's. Pass. Boys'. Obj. Boy. Obj. Boys. Q. WHien I say •' W'illiaiii's coal," you perceixe thai ilie noun coat follows H'illiam's : by wlial is VMIIium's sa\<.\ to he goveriii-d, niid why? 71. By coat, because it follows William'' s. Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for go\cniing the possessive case i 2inx.K I. The possessive case is governed by the folloxmng noun. Q. "William's hni." Is WiHiaui's a proper or common noun? Why? (3G.)* Q. Wlial is its person ? whv ? (-to.)* Its number? why? (8.)* Its gen- der ? why? (17.)* its case? wi:y ? (61.)* What noun follows WillianCs? What wtird, then, gov.'rus William's'f What is the rule? Q. When we irientiun the several properties of the difierent words in sen- tenaiticulcir name — mas«'ui,inr gender ; it is the name of a male — tiiiri> rEU.soN ; it is spoken of — siNat kind of a verb, then, shall we call strikes ? 146. An active verb. Q. Wlial kind of a verb is walks, in this sentence, " John walks," and why ! 147. Walks is an active verb, because it expresses action. Q. •• He beat William." ^\'hich word here is the verb? Is William an agent or an object ? 148. An object. Q. When I say, " The child ^^ alks," walks, it is true, is an active verb, out it has no noun after it for an oliject, as heat has, in the phrase above; nei- ther can we supply one; for we cannot say, "The child walks" any thing: w,.at, therefore, is to be inferred from this fact, in regard to the nature of ac- tive verbs ? 149. That some active verbs will take nouns after them for objects, and others will not. Q. We will lie.xt notice this difference. The term trans-itix-e meajis pass- ive- over ; and when 1 sav, " William whips Charles," the verb whips shows that the action which Wil'iam performs, passes over to Charles as the object. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call whips? 150. An active-transitive verb. Q. What, then, is an active-transitive verb ? 151. It is one tlmt either has, or may have, an ob- ject after it. Q. yValks, we found, would not take an object after it; and, as intransU live meajis nof passing over, what shall we call such verbs as walks ? VERJIS. 21 (52. Active-intransitivo verbs. Q. VVliat, then, is an aclive-iiilninsiiive verl) .' 153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses ai (,ion, but will not take an object after it. Q. When I say, '• He cats it," " He beats liini," wc imtnialiately dcter- >iiiL.e that hcctts ami eats are activc-transilivc vcilis, hy the objccis atter them ! how, then, nia}' transilive ;uid intransitive verbs be distingiiislied .' 154. When we can place him or it alter any active verb, and make sense, it is transitive; otherwise, it is intransitive. Q. "James remains at home — sleeps at lionie — is at home." Which words are the verbs here ? 155. Remains, sleeps, and is. Q. These verbs tlo not imply action, hke slri/ces, beats, &c. ; what do they unply ? 156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state. Q. These verbs, and oUiers of similar cliaracter, have been called neiiier (signifying- neither) by grammarians, because they aro neither active nor pas- sive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a passive verb. It is sullicicnt for our present purpose, that you perceive the reason of the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ? 157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or existence in a certain state. Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, \\hat is a correct definhion of a verb ? 158. A verb is a word which signifies action or BEING. Q. When I say, "^ I stiike," in \vliat number and person is strike, and why ? 159. Strike is of the first person singular, because its agent, /, is of tliis person and number. Q. Hence you may perceive, that verbs, in themselves considered, tlo not have person and number : why, then, are they said to have diese properties at all ? 160. On account of the connection which they have with their agents or nominatives. Q. We say, " I write," and '' He writes" ; hence you perceive that the endmg- of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, then, will be the rule for the nominative case"? RUZcX! VS. The nominative case governs the verb in iinmber Mud person. Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number aiid person, in what respect must the verb agree with its ncnninative case? A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Q. When I say, "James beats him," the pronoun him is the object of the action denoted by heats, and is, therefore, in the objective case': what then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs ? Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. I will no\ (, ^ on the cUflerent endings of tlie verb leve, in its different numhers and persons. Will you repeat them 1 Singular. Plural. 161. First person, I love. First person, We love. Second person, You love. Second person, You love. Third person, He loves. Third person. They love. Q. Will you repeal the variations oi am? Singular. Plural. 162. 1 Pers. I am. 1 Pers. We are. 2 Pers. You are. 2 Pers. You are. 3 Pers. He is. 3 Pers. They are. Q. Will you repeat, in the same manner, the variations oihate 1 desire ? read 7 EXERCISES IN PARSING. " 1 study my lesson." 163. / is a PRONOUN, a wci-d used instead of a noun — per- sonal ; it always denotes the same person, (the first) — first PERSON ; it denotes the speaker — singular number ; it means but one — " Nam. J " — made in the nominative case to study, according to ^ Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in num- ber and person. Study is a verb ; it expresses action — transitive ; it ad- mits an object after it — " I Pers. I study'' — made in the first person — singular number, because its nominative 1 is, with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and jierson. My is a pronoun, a word used for a noun — personal ; it always represents the same person — first person ; it repre- sents the person speaking — "Nam,. I; Poss. my, or mine" — made in the possessive case — and governed by the noun lcsso7i, according to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name — neu- ter GENDER ; it is neither male nor female — third person ; It is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and in the oh.tective case ; it is the object of the verb study, and governed by it, according to Rule VIII. Active-transitive vei'bs govern the objective case. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. Transitive Verbs. « I lament my fate." " He found a dollar." " You regard your friends." " She attends the school." " We desire your improvement." " It retards the work." " We love our children." " They shun vice." " You make a knife." " Ye derive comfort " VERBS. 23 2. •* I love hhn." " She forsook you." "I lament her." "Tiioy annoy mc." " You assist them." " We took it." "He struck her." "Siie relieved us." " John reads his hook.^^ His is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — pkr- SONAL ; it uniformly stands for the same person — masculine GENDER, TUIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMIJER, becaUSC the noun JoJi7i is, with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule V. Pronouus must agree ivit/i tlir nouns far which they stand, in gender, mnnher, and person. "Norn, he; Pass, his" — made in the possessive case — and governed by the noun hook, according to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. ^!Cf The remaining words, look, read's, and John, are parsed as befoi-e. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 3. " Mary studies her lesson." " Virtue rcAvards its followers." "The girls love their books." "A disobedient son j^a-ieves his "Good children mind their parents." parents." "The intemperate man loves his " Sin deceives its votaries." dram." JK/°" In parsing personal pronouns, we do not a;)ply Rule V. unless the nouns for which they stand are expressed. Intransiiive Fei-hs. 4. ^ " I walk." " You smile." « John swims." " James runs." " They wink." " Birds fly." " William hops." " We dance." " Lions roar." JVeidcr Verbs. « William is (1.) discreet." (2.) " John's wife is fortunate." " James is happy." " John's brother is uniiappy." " He was studious." " The eagle's fl ioht was sudden."" " He became intemperate." " The scholar's duty is plain." " Thou art wise." " The judge's pay is suffici^?nt." " XI. INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE. Q. ^Vhcl1 .Tames says, "1 will leani," he eviilciilly means, by his mamio;- of speakinff, to express his intention to learn ; but wheii he says, -'I" can learn," what does he mean ? (1.) Is is a VERB ; it implies being- — neuter ; it is neither active nor pHs- sive, but expresses beinjr, merely — •' 1 pers. I atn ; 2 -pers. You are ; 3 pfis. He, or \yilliam is " — made in llie third person, singular, because WilLiam, iu nominative, is, and agrees with William, according- to Rule VII. A verb must a^ree with its iiominative case in number aiid person, (2.) Discreet belong-s to William, by Rule IV. S4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 165. That he has the ability to learn. Q. What does the word mood mean 1 16G. Mood means manner. Q. What, then, docs the mood of verbs denote ? 167. The diflerent manner of representing actions Q, Wliat does the word indicative mean ? 168. Declaring or showing. Q. When I say, " Wilham has studied," I aecl are some fact: in what mood, then, shall \vc class has studied? 169. In the indicative mood. Q. When I say, "Has William studied V the only difference between tins phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in llie order of the words, so as to show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call lias Wil- liam studied ? 170. Indicative mood. Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for? 171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, in- dicating or declaring a thing, or asking a question. Q. In what mood is " They ilo sing-'' ? Why ? (171.) Q. Wh.at does the \\ ord teiise mean 1 > 172. Tense meajis time. Q. What does present mean 1 173. Present means now. Q. When I say, " The bird sings," I mean that th« bird sings now i in wliat tense, then, is sings? 174. In the present tense. Q. What, then, is the present tense used for? 175. The present tense is used to express what is now taking place. Q. In what tense is " The dog runs" ? Why ? (175.) Q. •■' James wrote." " James has written." These phrases denote what is past : in what tense are they ? 176. In the past tense. Q. What docs the word future mean ; as, " At some future time" ? 177. Future means yet to come. Q. In what tense arc the phrases, " I will come," " I shall have come" ? 178. In tlie future tense. Q. How inaii\' grand divisions of lime do there appear to be, and what are they ? 179. Three — the present, past, and future. Q. When I say, " John wrote," is the action here spoken of past jmd finished ? ISO. It is. Q. What docs imperp'ct mean ? 181. Unfinished, or incomplete. Q. "Jolni was writing when I saw him." This denotes an artioE ;■ finished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated W Latin the imperfect tense : hence the origin of ilic name selected h^' Eiiglisp grammarians to denote action past and Iniishcd ; a term not all significaiU of an action fini-;!icd in past time: wliat, then, does the imperfect ten>e express? 182. The imperfect tense expresses whal took place in i)ast time, however distant. Q. " i'eter wrote yesterday, and lias written to-day. Here both acts of VERHS. J5 writing arc past and finished; but which has more immediate reference to the present time ? 183. Has written. Q. To disting-uisli tiiis (ense from the imperfect, grammarians have called it the perfect tense : what, then, will the peilect tense express ? 184. The perfect tense expresses what lias taken place, and also conveys an allusion to the present time. Q. "James had read before I wrote." Here, both acts are past and finished ; but which look place first ? 185. The act of reading. Q. What (Iocs the word jilupcrftxt mean ? 186. More than the perfect. Q. Wliat tense, then, shall we call "James had read" ? 187. The pluperfect te?ise. Q. What, then, does ilu- pluperfect tcr.se express ? 188. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place at or before some past time mentioned. Q. " John will come." This, you know, wns calleii the future tense: can j-ou tell me why I 189. Because it implies time to come. Q. What, then, does the future tense express ? 190. The future tense expresses what will take place hereafter. Q. " I shall have learned my lesson hy noon." Here, an action is to take place at a future time specified or nieiiiioiied ; and since we already' have one future tense, we will call that the first, and this the second future tense : what, then, will the second future tense express ? 191. The second future expresses what will have taken place at or before sorhe future time mentioned. Q. AVhal docs synnpsix mean ? 192. A concise and general view. Q. I will now present you witli a synopsis of all ihe different tenses, illiis trated by the verb learn : will you repeat it ? SYNOPSIS. 193. Pirs. tense, I learn, or do learn. Imp. tense, 1 learned, or did learn. Peif. t>:nse, 1 have learned. Plitp. tcn.^p, I had learned. 1st Fid. iense, I shall or will learn. 2(/ Fut. tense, I shall have learned. fnp You shall next have t!ie diflercnt variations of the foregoing verb, in each tense of the indieative mood : these 1 wish 30U to study very carefully that you may be able to answer the questions which wlU ilien be asked you. 194. To learn. INDICATTVE iMOOD. TRESENT TENSE. Singular. Phiral. 1 Pers. T learn. 1 Pcrs. We learn. 2 Pcrs. You learn. 2 Pcrs. Yon learn. 3 Pers. Hbj she, or it learns. 3 Pers. They learn. 3 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OR, When we wish to express energy or positiveness, t.ius— • Singular. Plural. 1. I do learn. 1. We do learn. 2. You do learn. 2. You do learn. 3. He does learn. 3. They do learn. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I learned. ]. We learned. 2. You learned. ^ 2. You learned. 3. He learned. 3. They learned. OR, Singular. Plural. 1. I did learn. 1. We did learn. 2. You did learn. 2. You did learn. 3. He did learn. 3. They did learn PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have learned. ] . We have learned. 2. Yon have learned. 2. You have learned. 3. He has learned. 3. They have learned PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I had learned. ]. We had learned. 2. You had learned. 2. You had learned. 3. He had learned. 3. They had learned. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall or will learn. 1. We shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 3. He shall or will learn. 3. They shall or will learn SECOND ► FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. 1 shall have learned. 1. We shall have learned. 2. You will have learned. 2. You will have learned. 3. He will have learned. 3. They will have learned. * * For the bonefil of those who choose to retain the second person singu lar, as given in former irealises, tlie following synopsis is inserted. 195. SYNOPSIS. 2d Pers. Sing. Pres. Thou learnest, or dost learn riiou leariiedst, or didst learn. Thou hast learned. Thou hadst learned. 2(/ Pers. Sing, ist 'Ful. Thou shall or Mdlt learn. 2d Pers- Sing. 2d Fid. Tliou wilt liave learned. 2d Pers- Sing. Imp. 2d Pers. Si7ig. Per/. 2d Pers- Sing. Plup. In what mood is '• I learn''? Why? (171.) In what tense ? In what mood and tense is " He learns'- ? " We learn" ? Q (175.) learn"? "I have learned' ? '' I shall have learned" ? Q,. In what p(>rson and nnmher is " I learn" ? learir"? " They had learned" ? " He shall leani" ? Q. What does the word auxiliary moan 1 19G. Auxiliary means helpiiig. Why ? "I did ' I had learned" ? "I shall or will learn" ? 'You learn"? "We ' We had learned" 'I VFRBS. 97 Q. In the phrase, " I will sin"/' will, you perceive, is used to liclp form the future leiise of shia; : vUl is, Ihcrcforc, called an auxiliary verb, ;ui, we joined tlie pronouns with it; hence this exercise is called conjugation : vviiai, then, do you understand hy the conjugation of a verb ? 218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular com- bination and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, numbeis and persons. 219. Conjugation of the verb Learn. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1. I may, can, or must learn. 1. 2. You may, can, or nuist learn. 2. 3. He may, can, or must learu. 3. IMPERFECT Sinirulnr. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. should learn. 2. You niiulit, could, would, or 2. should learn. 3. He miirht, could, would, or '3 should learn. PERFECT Singular. 1. I may, can, or mu.st have 1 learned. 2. You may, can, or lanst have 2 learned. 3. He may, can, or must have 3 learned. PLIIPERFECT Singular. 1. I might, could, would, or 1 should have learned. 2. You might, could, would, or 2, should liave learned. 3. He miirht, could, would, or 3 should have learned. would, OT would, or Plural. We may, can, or must learn. You may, can, or nmst learn. Thej' may, can, or must learn. TENSE. Plural. We miivht, could, should learn. You mig-ht, could, should learn. They mi', " I'lie I>ir/inZ is dis- creet." 306. When a noun signifies manij, it is called a nothi of multitude, or a col- lective noun ; as, " The people," " The army." 307. Abstract signifies ta/teiifrom : hCnce an abstract noun is the name of a quality abstracted from its substance ; as, knowledge, goodness, virtue, &c. 308. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case. XXV. PERSON. 309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own name, it is the first person ; as, " I, James, of the city of Boston, do give," &c. 310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second person ; as, *' James, come to me." 311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is the third person ; as, " James has come," XXVI. GENDER. 312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the femi- nine, the common, and the neuter. 314. Th« masculine gender denotes the names of males ; as, man, hOy, &lc. 315. The feminine gender denotes the name of females; as, woman, girl What do they become when soused.' When is a noun of the second person ? 304. Give an cviimpK^. 310. Give an example. Wliat kind of nonns are Spaniard, When is a noun of the third person? AinerUans, Spaniards'! 304. 311. Give an cxamolo. ^V!iat elToct does tlio use of articles XXVt. Wliat does the word gender have on connnoii nonns.' oOo. mean .' 14. Wiiat is a nonn of njulfitude, or a col- What is gender as applied to nouns? lecti'>e noun? 306. Give an example. 313. VVhat is an abstract noun ? 307. Give Whatdocs the word Trtasci/Zi'ne mean? 15. an example. What does the masculine gender of What bslonjr to nouns? 308. nouns denote? 314. Give an example. XXV. Whoji rs a noun of the first What does /smrame mean ? 19. person? 309. Give an example. What does the feminine gender denote? 315. Give an example. * Svairt in Ihe proper n.ime of a countf}', and Sftaniard has, by some gommarians, been caJted the proper Dame of a jieople ; but the latter is a ^c-neric ter-m, characterizing any one of a great number of penODS, bf their connection with Spain. •-£?(/:yc/opsc/trt. 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 316. The common gender denotes the names of such animals as may be either male or female ; as, parent, bird. 317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects which are neither males nor females; as, chair, table. 31S. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a fig^ure of speech, as it is called, become ipascutine or feminine ; as when we say of the sun, " He is setting,' and of a ship, " She sails well," &c. 3iy. The English lanj^uage has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz. i By different words ; as, riguag 519-1. Male. Female. Male. Female Ijachelor, Maid. Husband, Wife. lioar, Sow. King, Queen. Hoy, Girl. Lad, Lass. lUoiher, Sister. Lord, Lady. Buck, Doe. Man, Woman. BmII, Cow. Master, Jlistress. I'ullock or \ Steer, y Heifer. Milter, Spav\ncr. Nephew, rsiece. Cock, Hen. I!am, Ewe. Dog, Bitch. Singer, \ Songstress or 1 Sin"er. Drake, Duck. Earl, Countess. Sir, Mailam. Fatlier, Mother. Sloven, Slut. Friar, Nun. Son, Daughter Gander, Goose. Stag, Hind Hart, Roe. Uncle, Annt. Horse, Mare. Wizard, Witch. 319-2. By R different e of termination 5 "*• Male. Female. Male. Female. Abbot, Abbess. Enchanter, Enchantress. Actor, Actress. Executor, Executrix. Administrator, Adniiiiistralrix. God, Goddess. Adulterer, Adulteress. Governor, Governess. Ambassador, Ambassadress. Heir, Heiress. Arbiter, Arbitress. Hero, Heroine. Baron, Baroness. Hunter, Huntress. BridcE^room, Bride. Host. Hoste-ss. Benefactor, Benefactress. Iiistructer, Instructress. Caterer, Cateress. .Tew, Jewess. Chanter, Chantress. Landgrave, Landgravine. Conductor, Conductress. Lion, Lioness^ Count, Countess. Marquis, Marchioness. Czar, Czarina. Mayor, Mayoress. Deacon, Dea^-oncss. Patron, Patroness. Duke, Duchess. Peer, Peeress. Elector, Elcclress. Poet, Poetess. Emperor, Empress. Priest, Priestess. What (Iocs the common gender denote .' 31H. Give an example. What does ■nauter mean.' 23. What does the neuter gender denote .' 317. Give an example. What ia said of nouns naturally neu- ter, in respect to gender.' 318. Give an example. How many genders do nouns have, and what are they .' 30. How many methodfi are there in Enj- iii«b of (listin^uishlnj-itnx.' 319. Which is the first ; an, iD j/ 7 /TtrZ? 319-1, Will you •pell tha feroinmeeorreiipond- Irj to if>(rj*f»rf 319-1. xabvyl nephrxl vizard ? friar ? sir ? drake ? farl ? gander 7 hart ? king 7 lad 7 man 7 ma-tter ? singer 1 sloven 7 son 7 starr 7 unele 7 Will you spfll the maBcnIine corro- f ponding to maid 7 g-irl 7 madam 7 daugh- ter 7 niece 7 What is the second method of distin- guishing sex ; as, abliot 7 abbess 7 319— i2. Will you spell the feminine corre- sponding to abbot7 ocfer? administrator 7 harnn 7 benefactor 7 bride-groom 7 conduct- ifr 7 czar 7 dvke 7 emperor 7 eiecntar 7 god 7 govern»r 7 heir 7 here T host 7 hunt- er 7 instructer 7 .fete 7 lion 7 marquit 1 yatron 1 peer 1 proprietor 1 ehepherd f rorv NOUNS. Male Prince, Prior. Propliet, Protector, Proprietor, Shepherd, Songster, Sorcerer, Female. Male. Princess. Prioress. Sultan, Prophetess. Protectress. Tiger, J'raitor, Proprietress. Sliephcrdess. Songstress. Tutor, Viscount, Votary, Sorceress. Widower, 319-3. By prefixing a noun, A cock-sparrow, A man-servant, A he-goat, A he-near, A male child, Male desceuoants, Female. ( Sultaneas, ( Sultana. Tigress. Traitress. Tutoress. Viscountess. Votaress. Widow. pronoua, or adjective 5 as, A hen-sparrow. A maid-servant. A she-goat. A she-bear. A female child. Female descendants. XXVII. NUMBER. 320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one or more. 321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, bot/. 323. The plural number implies more than one ; as, boys. 324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only; as, wheat, gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness. 325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine. 327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular ; as, sing, dove, pbir. doves. 328. The irregular mode of formino; the plured is as follows : when the noun singular ends in x, ch, sh, or ss, we add es to form the plural 5 as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses. 329. Nouns ending in / or Je, change these terminations into ves to form •he plural j as, loaf, loaves ; wife, wives. cerer ? sultan 7 tiger ? tutor ? viscount ? votary 7 toidower 7 Will you spell the masculine corre- sponding to abbess 7 czarina 7 duchess 7 ambassadress 7 heroine 7 huntress 7 poet- ess 7 prophetess 7 widow 7 What is the third method of distin- guishing sex ; as, a man-servant 7 a maid- servant! 319—3. Will you spell the feminine corre- sponding to male child 7 male descendants 7 XXVII. What does the word number mean ? 5. What does the number of nouns show? 320. What does singular mean f 6. What does the singular ndmber of nouns imply .' 322. Give an example. What does plural mean .' 10. What does the plural number of noims imply.' 323. Give an example. How are wheat, gold, &c. uesd ? 394. How are bellows, lungs, &c. used.' 325. What is said of deer, sheep, &c. .' 326. How many numbers do nouns have, and what are they ? 321. How is the plural number regularly formed.' 327. Give an example. When do we add es to form the plural ? 328. Give an example. What is the plural of loaf 7 329. What is the rule for it .' 329. 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. Sing. Mouse, Louse, 330. \Micn a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the plural if formed regularly ; as, ktij, kfys ; delay, (If luijs; valley, valleys. Bui if the y does not have a vowel bclbre it, the plural is formed by changing y into ies ; Z.s,,Jly,Jiies ; beauty, beauties. 331. The following nouns form ihcir plurals not according to any general rules : — Plur. Mice. Lice. Cows nr Kine. Pence. (1.) Dice. (2.) Peas. (3.) 332. Matlumatics, melctphysics, pneumatics, ethics, politics, &c. are reck- oned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally true of means, alms, amends. Antif^cdes, crednvda, miniitia', literati, &c. are always plural. Bandit is now considered the sinijular of banditti. The noun neics is always sing-ular. Mi ny nouns form lUclr plurals according to the laws of the Ian gxiage from \\ hich they are derived. The following are of this class : — Sing. Man, Woman, Child, Ox, Tooth, Foot, Goose, Plur. Men. Women. Children. Oxen. Teeth. Feel. Geese. Sing. Plur. Fish, Fishes. (3.) Cupful, Cupfuls. Spoonful, Spoonfuls. Brolher-iii-law, Crolhers-in-law. Court-martial, Courls-martial. ( Brothers or Brother, Brethren. Sing^nlar. Antithesis, Appendi.x, Apex, Arcanum, Automaton, Axis, Beau, Basis, Calx, Cherub, Crisis, Criterion, Datum, Diaeresis, Desideratum, Effluvium, Ellipsis, Emphasis, Encomium, Erratum, Plural. Antitheses. 5 Appendixes or Appendices. Apices. Arcana. Automata Axes. Beaux or Beaus. Bases. Calces. Cherubim or Cherubs. Crises. Criteria. Data. Di^^reses. Desiderata. Effluvia. Ellipses. Emphases. Encomia or P^ncomiums. Errata. Singular. Genius, Genus, Hypothesis, Ignis faluus. Index, Lamina, Magnus, Memorandum, Metamorphosis, Parenthesis, Phenomenon, Radius, Stamen, Seraph, Stimulus, Stratum, Thesis, Vertex, Vortex, Plural. Genii. (4.) Genera. Hypotheses. Ignes fatui. Indices or Indexes. (5.) Laminae. Magi. Memoranda or Memorandums. Metamorphoaes. Parentheses. Phenomena. Radii or Radiuses. Stamina. S Seraphim or Seraphs. Stimuli. Strata. Theses. Vertices. ( Vortices or f Vortexes. What is the singular of banditti^ In acr.ord.nncc with what laws does an^ titlir.'.-is form the plurnl .' 332. AVill you ?pcll the plura! of apex'! dp- pendic? arcaiiuml avtomalonl axis'? eri- sif ? bafis ? criterion 1 datuw ? desidera- tum 7 ffflvrivml evcnmium.1 erratumi genius! index t memirranduml Will you Rpcll the singular of basts ? beaux f clierubst ellip.'esl genii 7 tiitsesi parentlie.it?, for coining. (3.) Peaxe and ^^, meaDing quantitia , but pwi and yi.T/jej, vibcn number is meant. (4.) Genii, when denoting aeriat or imaginary spirits ; gaihtfa, wtien denoting persons of gexius. ^6.) /»• Sexet, when dCDoting pointers or tables of contents ; irtdica, \\ hen referring to algebraic qiaotitici. NOUNS. 47 XXVIII. CASE. 333. Case means the different state, condition, or rela- tion which nouns liave to other words in the same sentence. 334. In English, nouns have three cases — the nominative, the possessive, and tlie objective. 335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and always the subject of the verb. 3.'i6. 'J'hc subject \h the thing chiefly spoken of; as, "John assists Wil- liam :" here, John is tlie subject spoken of, or the nominative cas« to the verb assists. 337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, property, &lc. ; as, " William's book." This case may be distinguished Irom the other cases by the apostrophe or the letter 5. 338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by taking the apostrophe and the letter s after it ; as, " John's hat." 339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case sim- ply by taking the apostrophe ; as, "On eagles' wings." 340. When the plural of nouns does not end in s, thej form their possessive case by taking- botli the apostrophe and the letter s : as, •' Men's liouses." 3tl. When the sinsailiir ends in ss, the apoitrcmhe only is added ; as, " For goodness' sake ;" exrcpt tiie noun witness ; as, " The wihihss's deposition." 3'l-2. Nouns endins;^ in nee form the possessive by adding- the apostrophe only •, as, " For couscirnce' sake :" because an additional s would occasion too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation. 343. The objective case denotes the object of an action or relation. 344. In the sentence, "John strikes him," hini. is the object of the action denoted by slnkes ; and in the sentence, " He went from London to York," York is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to. 31.5. DF:CLENSI0N of NOUNS. Sm^ii/ar. Plural. lingular. Plural. Nomiruih've ca.te, IMother, Mothers. Man, Men. Possessire case, Mother's, Mothers'. Man's, Men's. Objective case, Mother, IVIothers. Man, Men. XXVIII. What is tlio inoaniii<> of the How do nouns in tlin phiral ? 339. w<_>rtl rase ? 47. When tho plural noun does not end in What is meant by tlu! case of nouns.' . nnaU manuicriitt book lupt for the puj^oK. so ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ituZii: zz. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the sin- gular number. Rirzii: zzz. TTie definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular or plural number. ^9. Exception. When the adjectives few, great many, dozen, hun- dred, thousand, &c. come between the noun and article, the noun to which the indefinite article belongs, is plural ; as, " a few men," " a ffreat ma ny men." " EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " The bird flics swiftly:' 360. The is a definite article, and belongs to bird, accord- ing to Rule III. Bird is a common noun, of the common gender, the third PERSON, singular NUMBER, and in the nominative case to flies. by Rule VI. Flies is an active-intransitive verb, indicative mood, PRESENT TENSE—" 1. I flj ; 2. You fly ; 3. He flies, or bird flies" — made in the third person, singular, and agfrees with hird, by Rule VII. Simftly is an adverb, qualifying/ie«, by Rujlk IX. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " The boys have arrived seasona- " Children attend the school." bly." " 'Williain founded a university." " Galileo invented the telescope." " The grass is green." " The boy had an ulcer." " Farmers carry hay into the " William gave an historical ac- barn." count (1.) of the transaction." " The good scholar obeys his in- " Columbus discovered the conti- structer." nent of America." SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " He had a ulcer." 361. Incorrect, because we use an before a vowel, except m long : a should, therefore, be an ; thus, " an ulcer." SENTENCES TO RE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. " A enemy approaches." " Three barley corns make a " James procured a inkstand." inch." " He conferred a honor." " Eight drams make a ounce." " An unit figure occupies the low- " They formed an union." est place in whole numbers." " He quoted an hard saying." " Tliomas has lost an horse." VVhat is the rule for the indefinite ar- {jCf The remainintr exercises are next to tide .' Rule II. be parsed f mm the book. What exception to this rule .' 3.')9. Would you snv, " a ulcer," or " an ul- What is the rule for the indefinite ar- cer" .' Why? .%!. tide .' Rule III. gpp. The pupil should now teJfcd tAe re- in the sentence, " The bird flies swift- maininir sentences to be corrected. Ht ly," how do you parse the ? bird 7 flies 1 should be required to parse as well a* eor- rto ifUy ? 360. ^ rectthem. (1.) Apply Rul< Vin. ADJECTIVES. il SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 362. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definite, and in the other the indefinite article ? One, containing a correctly used before u long ? One, having a delinite article correctly used before the consonant h 7 Will you write two nouns, the names of different things in the school-room? Two, the names of different cities? One sentence, hav- ing a proper noun used as a common noun ? XXX. OF ADJECTIVES. 3G3. An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to de- scribe or define it ; as, " An obedient son." 3C4. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of com- parison — the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 365. The positive degree simply describes an object ; as, " John is good." 366. The comparative degree increases or lessens the pos- itive in meaning; as, " William is better than John." It implies a comparison between two. 367. The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- tive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, " Thomas is the best ;^' " Walter is the icorst.^^ 368. It implies a comparison between three or more. 369. The simple word, or positive, if a monosyllable, (1.) becomes the comparative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the end of it; as, wise, wiser, wisest; great, greater, greatest. 370. In words of more than one syllable, the comparison is usually made by placing the adverbs mure and most before the positive; as, benevolent, more beneroleiU . most benevolent. 371. The comparison is sometimes formed by the adverbs /es5 and ieewf / as, wise, less wise, least wise. 372. Dissyllables (2.) ending in y, as, happy, lovely, and in le, after a mute, (3.) a."!, able, ample, or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite, ezisily XXX. What is the meaning of the What does it Imply ? 368. word adjective ? 9.5. What is a monosyllable ? 3C9. What is an adjective.' 363. Give an How are monosyllables compared? 369. example. Give an example. How many degrees of comparison are How are dissyllables compared? 372. there .' 364. What efToct do less and least have on Will you name them? adjectives .' 371. What does the positive degree do? What is a dissyllable .' 37SJ. 365. Give an example. Will you spell the comparative and gu- What does the comparative degree do? perlative degroes of ablel lovely 7 am- 360. Give an example. pie'! discreet 1 polite? 372. What does it imply.'' 366. Which are the nmtes .' 372. What does svperlatioe mean.' 103. How do words of more than two Bylla- What does the superlative degree do .' bios almost invariably form their compar- 367, Give an example. ison ? 372. U.) A word of one sy.lablo. (2.) A word of two fiylUblei. (3.) b, k, p, t, aud c and ^ bard, are mutes. 52 ENGLISH GRABIMAR. admit of er euid est ; as, happier, Iiappiest ; abler, ablest, &.C. Words of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of these terminations. 373. In some words, the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most to the end of them ; as, iietliennosi, uttenuosi, uppermost. 374. Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, do not admit of comparison ; ;is, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, iiijinite, ceaseless, supreme, omidpolcnt, eternal. 375. By adding ish to adjectives, we have a slight degree of comparison below the posilive ; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish. 376. Very expresses a aegrce of quality, but not the highest ; as, " good," " very good."' 377. .Words used in counting and numbering are called numeral adjectives ; as, one, two, three ; Jirst, seconcl, third. These adjectives are not compared. 378. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article before it, becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and may be considered as such in pars- ing ■) as, " Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." RVXii: zv. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe, ' EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "■John is sincere." 879. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singu- lar NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and in tllG NOMINATIVE CASE to {*, by Rule VI. Is is a NEUTER VERB, in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE — " 1. I am ; 2. You are ; 3. He or John is," — made in the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, and agrees witli John, according to UULE VII. Smcere is an adjective, — " sincere, more sincere, most sin- tere," — made in tlie positive degree, and belongs to John, by Rule IV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " You are studious." " One man has come." " John is more studious." " Two men have departed." " William is most studious." " Twenty men will sail." " Mary is intelligent." " James wrote liis name on the first " James is active." page." " Thomas is less active." " Here comes a great man." " Charles is happy." " Here comes a greater man." " Mary is tall. Susan is taller." " Here comes the greatest man." " No composition is perfect." " The first fleet contained five hundred " Religion makes its votaries happy." men." le perfect compared ? Why ? 374. pcrlative degrees of good 1 ill 7 rmuk ? Will you name several others that are little'! not comparcil .' 374. When is nn adjective to be considered How is the superlative formed in the a noun ? 378. word upper ^ 37;S. What is the rule for the adjective .' IV. AVhat is the ttfect of Uh added to ad- In the phrase, " Jolin is sincere," how jectives .' 37.'). Give an example. do you parse John! is 1 sincere? 379. What is the force of very iu conipari- Why is sincere in the positive degree ? son ? 376. 365. Why do yoa call is a neuter verb ? What are numeral adjectives.' 377. 157. Give an example. Arc they compared ! ^jCr'^et the pupil next take tM exercises ^77. Viat follow, and parse as before Will you spell the comparative and su- fRONOUNS. 88 XXXI. 380. Double comparatives and superlatives, since they add nothing to the sense, should be avoided ; as, tvorser, mori tviser, &c. ; also, lesser, supremest, most iii/inite, &c. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Q. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a different adjective in the positive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the compara- tive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the superlative degree ? Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the following sentences as will make sense.' "A boy studies his lesson." " A boy deserves punishment." " A man helps the man." " Mer- chants own ships." " The instructor loves scholars." " WilUam is a scholar, Rufus is a one, but Thomas is the one that I ever saw." XXXII. OF PRONOUNS. 381. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid a disagreeable repetition of the noun. 382. A PERSONAL PRONOUN Is SO Called, because it invari- ably represents the same person. There are five personal pronouns — I, thou or you, he, she, it. They have per- son, number and case, like nouns ; and those of the third person have gender also. 383. / is the first person, thou the second, he, she or it, the third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nomi- native, the possessive and the objective ; and two numbers — the singular and plural. 385. Mine and thine, instead of mij and tJuj, were formerly used in the solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning witii a vowel or silent A; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities." XXXI. Is it correct to say, "A lesser XXXIl. What does the word fro- evil?" Why not? 380. noun signify ? 120. Will you correct the following inaccu- What is a pronoun ? 381. racies in comparison as I read tiiein to Why is a personal pronoun so called / you ? 382. " He is intelligcnter." How many personal [pronouns are there, " She is tho most wisest." and what are they ? 382. " A worser evil." * Why is this numher said to include all " William is a bad boy ; Joseph is a the pronouns ? 134. worser one." Which is the first person? the second? " He gave a more stronger proof of the the third ? 383. fact than the other." To which of the pronouns do we apply " The pleasures of the mind are more gender ? 383. (1.) preferable than those of llic body." Why js not gender applied to tho first " That table is round, but this is a and second persons ? 130. rounder one, and that is the roundest of Which is miisculine ? SB.*?, which fem- tho three." inine ? 383. wliich neuter ? 383. " Tills is more square." How many cases have pronouns, and "A more greater concern." what are they ? 384. " The most fairest of all the daughters How many numbers ? 384. of Eve." Will you decline / ? the'i. « 7 she 1 " His mother's extremest joy." it 7 127. (I.) VoT more preferablt than, reaJ pr^'iraWe lo. 5 * 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. XXXIII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 386. Compound personal the word self, in the plural himself, themselves, &c. pronouns are formed by adding selves, to the simple pronouns, as PERSON. CASE. First Norn. Pass. Ob/. Second. Nom. Poss. ObJ. Tliird. Nom. Poss. ObJ. Nom. Pass. Ob/. Nom. Poss. ObJ. SINGULAR. Myself, Wa7i/iTig. Myself, Thyself, or } Yourself, ) Thyself, or Yourself, Himself, Himself, Herself, Herself, Itself, PLURAL. Ourselves. Ourselves. Yourselves. Yourselves. Themselves. Themselves. Themselves. Itself, Themselves. Themselves. Themselves. nULE V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number and jjerson. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " John found his knife." 387. John is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, tlie THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and NOMINATIVE CASE tO found, by Rule VI. Found is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative MOOD, imperfect TENSE — "1. I found ; 2. You found; 3. He or John found" — made in the third person singular; and agrees witli John, by Rule VII. His is a personal pronoun, of the third person singu- lar, MASCULINE GENDER, and agrccs with John, according to Rule V.; in the possessive case, and governed by knife, by Rule I. Knife is a common noun, of the third person singular, NEUTER GENDER, the OBJECTIVE CASE, and govemed hy found, according to Rule VIII. Of what number and person is viine ? ours 7 me 1 icel they ? thUie 1 you ? yours ? 127. Of what gender, number and person is he ? site 7 it 7 Of what number, person and case is tJiey 7 ours 7 his 7 hers 7 mine'7 In what stylo wera mina and thine for- merly used ? 385. XXXIII. How are the compound per- sonal pronouns formo4 .■' 386, What is the rule for the agreement of personal pronouns in tho phrase, " JoKn found his knife" ? V. How do you parse John 7 387. Will you parse John in the phrase, " John found liis knife" ? 387. Will you parse found 7 his 7 kaife 7 387. 3:5* 7%e learner should next parse the re- r/iaining exercines in Sijntax from the book and then take the exercises to be written PRONOUNS. 55 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " James obtained his request." " I will assist you." / " He will receive his reward.'' " She misused him." '' Sin ruins its votaries." 1. Ye despise reproof." " They mend their pens." " Mary tore her handkerchief." " Virtue has its reward." " She deceived them." 2. • An indulgent father will reprove " John is in distress, and I will his son when (1.) he deserves assist him." it." " I found Mary and her mother in " A dutiful son gladdens the hearts trouble, and (2 ) comforted (3.) of his parents." them." - EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different personal Dronoun of the first person ? One, having a pronoun of the first per- son plural ? Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns, ^0 as to make sense .' " — lost my hat, but found — again." " Let Harriet have — book, for — will need — to get her lesson." " The travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes." Q. Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable words to make sense ? " Intemperance evil." " Washington father of his ." " Columbus America." " Bosto»< inhabitants." " The ocean is miles wide." " — first man." XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 388. In the sentence, " Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discoalent;" you perceive that the word that repre- sents vvealth, and the word this poverty. Tliis and tlutt do, therefore, resera ble pronouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns. 389. When I say, "This house is mine, tliat bam is yours," the words this and that are joined to nouns like adjectives, to define or specify them : they may, on this account, be called adjectives. 390. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble both pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are some- times called pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. 391. The ADJECTIVE pronouns may be divided into three sorts — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 392. The distributive are those that relate to persons or things, taken separately and singly. XXXIV. What are adjective i>ro- nouns ? 390. Why are they so calloa ? 388, 389. By what other name have these pro- nouns been called ? 390. Will you give an example in which these v.-ords resemble pronouns ? 3S8. One in which they resemble adjectives ? 3S9. Into how many sorts may these pro- nouns be divided, and what are thoy .' 391. What is a distributive pronoun ? 392. ().) Adverb. ^2.) Conjuucti ju. (3.) Apply Rule XI. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAIt 393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1.) PRONOUNS. Each, every, either, and sometimes neither. 394. Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken separately ; as " Each of his brothers is doing- well." 395. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them, taken separately ; as, " Evenj man must account for himself." 3!)6. EiTHKR relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, and signifies the one or the other ; as, " I have not seen either." Hence to say, "Either of the three," is incorrect. 397. Neither means not cither; that is, not one nor the other; as, " Neither of my friends was there." 398. The demonstrative (2.) pronouns are those which precisely point out the things to which they relate. 399. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Sing. Plu. This, These. That, Those. Former, Former. Latter, Latter. 400. This cind these refer to the nearest persons or things, — that juid those to tlie most distant ; as, " These gloves are superior to those.'' " Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; tliut tends to excite pride, this discontent." 401. The indefinite are those that refer to things in an indefinite or general manner. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 402. Some, other, any, one, all, such, none. Ot these pronouns, one and otkci- are declined like nouns. An- other is declined in the singular, but it wants the plural. tiing. Plu. 403. Nom. Other, Others. Pass. Other*s, Others'. ObJ. Other, Others. Sing. Plu. 404. Nom. One, Ones. Pass. One's, Ones'. ObJ. One, Ojics. We say, " This book," but " These books ;" also, " One man," " Twenty men :" hence, 405. Note L Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in number with the nouns to which they belong. Why ie it so called .' 393. Wliirh are singular ? 399. Which plu- Which are they ? .'^S. ral ? 399. Wliat does each refer to .' 394. Give What do this and these refer to .' 400. nn example. What do tAat and «Aos« refer to.' Give What does c«crj/ relate to .' 395. Give an px:implc. 400. an example. What does iiidejinife mean .' 8]. What does eifAcr relate to.' 390. Give ^^■IKlt is an indefmito pronoun .' 401. un example. Wliich are they.' 402. What docs neither mean .' 397. Will you decline vtker ? 403. What does dcmonslratire mean .' 398. Will you decline one! 404. What are demonstrative pronouns ? What note do you apply in parsing ad- 398. jcctive pronouns? Note I. Which arc they .' 399. (1 .) So called from distrihtitt. to divide among several. (2.) So called froui deinvustratey to prove or show precisely. FRONOUNS. 57 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " These tivo books belong to me." 406. These is an aujkctiv£ pkonoun of tlie demonstrative kind, in the plural number, and belongs to books, according to Note I. Two is a NUMERAL ADJECTIVE, and belongs to books, by Note I. Sooks, belong, &c. are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " Every man perforins liis part in " Tliese men might remain vyith creation." us." i ] ,. " Each man arrived at his station." "Those men make many pre- " Either party can repair the in- , tences to religion." jury." " All rational beings desire liappi- " Some persons cannot acquire ness." wealth." " By application almost any boy " Many people obtain riches with may acquire an honorable apparently little exertion." rank in liis class." " One boy labors for his improve- " Good and virtuous men will, ment." sooner (1.) or later (1.), attain " This man neglects his affairs." to happiness." " The old bird feeds her young ones^ 407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds ; in the COMMON gender, THino person PLURAL, in the objective CASE, and governed by feeds, agreeably to Rule VIII. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. "One boy influences many oth- others spend their time in idleness; ers." the former will receive praise, the " None act their part too well." latter censure." " Some scholars study diligently ; We cannot say, " Tlicni run," but " Tliey run" : hence, Note II. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of the verb, it should be in the nominative case. It is very common for persons in conversation to say, " Tliem books," " Them knives," &c. instead of '' Those books," " Tliose knives," &c. The incorrectness here alluded to consists in substituting a personal in the place of an adjective pronoun : hence, Note III. The pronoun them should not be used in the place of these or those. Ill the phrase, " These two books," " Them will go." &c. will you parse Uicsc'! twol 40o. " Him uml mo went to church." Will you now take the book, and parse " Art thee well .'" the remaining exercises under Note I ? " Him who is diligent will improve." In the phrase, " The old bird feeds lier Would you say, " Them knives," or young ones," will you pass oinisl 407. " These knives" ? Why i III. Will you correct by Note I. the follow- In what does the incorrectness con- ing examples, as I road them to you ? sist ? UI. " He will not come this two hours." Will you correct the following exproa- " I dislike those sort of books." sions .'' " I have two canes ; you may have any " Them boys are very idle." of them." " Bring me them pens." Do we say," They run," or " Them " Which of them throe things do yotl run"? Why .' Note II. prefer ?" Will you now correct, by Note II. the J)3" The pupil may next take tlie ezer- following examples aa I read them to you .' cises to be written. (1.) Adverb. 58 KNGLISH GRAMMAR. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different adjective pronoun ? One, having a demonstrative pronoun ? One, having an in- detinite pronoun used as a noun ? Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the follow- ing phrases? " When Harriet found — book, — tore — ,and then flung — away." " — man likes — farm, — merchandise," Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule I..> One under Rule II. ? Rule III. ? Rule IV. ? Rule V. ? Rule VI. ? XXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 408. In the sentence, " That man is happy, who lives virtuously," th« word who is a pronoun, because it stands lor a nomi (the noun man), and it is a relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in the same seiUence : hence, 409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands for some noun before it in the same sentence. 410. There are three relative pronouns, viz. 411. Who, which, and tiiat. 412. W/io is used in speaking of persons ; as, " The man who came." 413. Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as, " The bird tvhich sings," " The tree which I planted." 414. Which, however, is used in speaking of persons, when we wish to dis- tinguish one of two individuaJj, or a particular person among many others } as, " Which of the two is he ? " Which of them has gone 1" 415. That, as a relative, is often used, in speaking either of persons or things, in the place of who or ivhich ; as, " The boy that reads," or, " The boy who reads ;" " The bird that flow," or, " The bird which flew ;" " The bench that was made," or, " The bench which Was made." That is used in preference to vho or which, in the following cases :— 1. In speaking both of persons and things ; as, " The man and the boast that I saw, perished." 2. In speaking of children ; as, " The child that 1 met." 3. Alter the adjective same ; as, " He is the same man that we saw yester- day." 4. After the superlative degree; as, " He is the wisest man that the world ever produced." 5. After the relative who ; as, " Who that reflects." 415 — 1. Exception. Timt, as a relative, cannot take the preposition im- mediately before it ; as, " He is the same man with that you were acquainted." Vox with that, read with whom. It is remarkable, however that, when the ar- rangement is a little varied, the word that admits the preposition ; as, " He is the same man iliai you were acquainted with." XXXV. In the sentence, "That man is speaking of persons ? Givo an example. htippy, who lives virtuously," what part 414. of speech is who'! Why? 408. What When may tAat be used ? 415. kind ? Why ? 406. Is it correct to say, " The child who" ? What is a relative pronoun ? 409. Why not.? "Tlie same man who"? Why Will you name them ? 411. not.' " The wisest man which" ? Why When do we use M)/io ? Give an e.\am- not? " Who, who reflects" ? Why not ? pie. 412. 415 ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. When do we use icAicA ? Give an ex- What exception is mentioned? 415 — 1. aipple. 413. Give an example. 415 — 1. In what eases do wo use vhich, in PRONOUNS 59 416 — 1 . W« can say, " The man who," or " The men who," using: lh« relative who in speakinj:; either of one meui or more than one i who, tiien, is ot both numbers, and is thus decliiicc! : Singular. Plural. Norn. Wlio, Who. Foss. Wliose, Whose. OhJ. Wiioin. Whom. ill. IVIiich and that are of both numbers, but they are not decluied, ox cept that whose is soinetiincs used as the possessive case of which; ais, " Is theie any other doctrine whose followers are punished ?" 418. Whose, used in the manner last described, is made to represent three words ; as, " Pliilosophy whose end," for " the end of which." 419. Antecedeid sigriilies going before. 420. The noim or pronoun which goes before the relative, and to which the relative refers, is therefore called the antecedent of tlie relative ; as, " John, who has gonn." Here, John is tlie antecedent of who. 421. When you are told that u-ho, which, and that are relatives, yoii should not get the impression that the last two are always relatives ; for tliat is a relative only when it is used in the sense of who or which ; that is, when who or which may be used in its place, without destroying the sense ; as, " Here is the knife that I found," which can be altered to " Here is the knife which I found," without injury to the sense. 42!;;. That, when it points out or specifies some particular person or thing, is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not used as a relative, nor as an adjective pronomi, it is reckoned a conjunction ; as, '• He studies that he may learn." 423. Hence it appears that the word that may be used sometimes as a rela live pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and sometimes as a conjunc lion. 424. Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, askvell eis personal pronouns tliey should therefore agree with nouns in the same particulars and by the same rule. Rule V. will therefore apply to both. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " That man is hapj^y w'Ao lives virtuouslyy 425. That is a demonstrative pronoun, of the singular NUMBER, and belongs to man, by Note I. ?f7lO is a RELATIVE PRONOUN, of tlie MASCULINE GENDER, third PERSON SINGULAR, and agTces with man, by Rule V. It is in the nominative cask to lives, according to Rule VI. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " That man is fortunate who es- " 1 met the same man in the mar- eapes censure." ket to-day (1.), that I met *' The girl wlioin I saw, pei-isbed." yesterday in the street." How many nunil)ers has jcAo ? 410. Whfn is that an adjective pronoun.' Will you decline it .' 416 — 1. Give an example. 4^. How many numlx^rs have which and ^Vh^n a conjunction ."' Give an exam- thatl Ar« tliey declined .' -117. pie. A-2% What exception to lliis ? 417. How many different parts of speech When whose is used as the possessive may that represent .' 42.3. case of which, lunv many words does it What is the rule for tlie agreement of represent ? Give an example. 418. relative pronouns ? 424. What is the meaning of antecedent ? Will you parse that in the phrase, 419. "That nian" .' 425. What is the antecedent of a pronoun .' In tlie sentence, " That man is happy Give an example. 420. who lives virtuously," will you parse Is that always a relative.' 421. who ? 425. When is it a relative .' Give an ex- Will you now take the book, and parse ample. 421. the remaining e.xerciscs ? (I.) Ad7eib. GO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " You, who came first, should re- " That house, which stands on the the first." hill, once (1) belonged to me." " You taught the boy Avhose hat I " The boy whom I instruct learns found." well." SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " The man which I saw.^^ 496. Incorrect ; because, in speaking of persons, toho, toliose, or whom is generally to be used. It should therefore read, " The man whom I saw." SENTENCES TO BE PAPSEO AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. " The bird whom I killed had made " Thou who are in prosperity must her nest." assist me in adversity." •' The man which visited me has " He which shuns vice does gen- left town." erally practise virtue." " That man is happy whom is vir- " I, who lives by your charity, tuous." should be grateful." SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. . Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative t<;/io .? One, containing which 1 One, containing that 1 Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correctly used ? " The man sins shall die." " The boy studies will learn." " The bii-d sung so sweetly has flown." Will you fill up the following with one or more words that will make sense ? " In- temperance evils." " If truth sorry." Q. Will you embrace in diffei-ent sentences, each of the following words? Washington* Coiunibxis, Captain Cook, Indians, Wisdom, Riches, Jamts Monroe. XXXVI. OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 427. " I took what you gave me." " I took Unit irhich you gave me." " 1 took tile ilihi'x u'hit:h yfiu gave me." " I look thc.'e things iihiik you gave me." 428. By exiiniiiiiiig die' foregoing scuiences, 3'ou v.ill see that the word v-hat, in llio iirst exaiiiplo, iiicaus the same as the words in italics in the suc- cessive ones : the word Kktd, then, is clearly a pronoun ; and because it stands for more than one uT^rd, it is called a conijiound pronoini. The word before the relative uhich, in the phrase " that which," or '• the thing which," is the antecedent of xrhicli. Hence, 429. What is a compoiint! relative pronoun, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is generally equiva- lent to THAT WHICH. In-.^tcnil i)C saying, " Tim man wlikh I toncus wliicli niean tlie same as " I took saw," «lint aliiiiiKl I .say .' VVIiy .' •i-Jfi. wliat yon gave iiiii" .■' 427. Will you oorrrct and par.sc the iiMnain- Wlitit wonis, then, (Iocs icAai stand for.' injj exiirriso.s, and then luKetliu exorcises 42s. to lie written ? Why is «•/(«/ a pronoun .' 42S. XX.WI. Will you repeat those .>ien- Why a ciinifmunil T'-'onoun .' 428. (1.) A.lvcrl.. * Tlius, " WafihiDgtou wis a true pa'.riul,*^ &c. Tin ii'i'il "lay tynlc si^oaal saUences en vuJi wordt PRONOUNS. 61 430. \Vlio, vihkh, and what havo soinetinics llie words ever or soei-er nn- ne.xed (1.) to llioiu : and cacli coiiiliiiuuioii ol' lliis son is called a coinpouiid relalive ; as, wkoecer, wlwsoex^er, ivliichcrer, ivlikh^oerer, >Sic. Tliey are not often used. 4;3J. Mlin ivhich, and what are called inlcrrogalives, or relatives of the in- tcrro'Tative kind, wlu-n llio^' are used in askin<^^queslions ; as, " Who is lie 1" " VVliicli is the hook !" '• What are you doiii^ !" 'I'heso relatives, you per- ceive have no antecedculs, but relate to some word or phrase contained in the luisvver, which is called a aithseqiiciit, because it follows alter the relative ; as " Whom ilid you see I" Am. " John." Here John is the subsequent to which whom refers. 43i. Hence it follows, that antcccd>mi and svlisequcnt arc opposed to each otiier in meaninj^ ; the former signifying ifoWj? i'yo''e,ihe latter yy//o(('//(if ajUr. 433. i\nu'th"r was fornii-rly made use of to e.xpiess interrogation ; as, "Wliether of these shall 1 choose V but it is now seldom used, the interrogative tchirh supplying its place. 43k H-iucli, what, and, as we have alread}' seen, that, when joined to nouns, are adjective pronouns ; as, " unto wifich promise our twelve tribes." 435. When what and which arc Joined to nouns in asking questions, they are called interrogative adjective pronouns ; as, " Which liorse did he take V 436. In some uistances, we find what used in the sense of an iiilerjocUoii j as, " What ! lake my money, and then my life V EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. '^ I will leave ^vhat is imeless.^^ 437. MHial, in the example above, means the same as " that which," or •' the thino- which" ; we will, therefore, in parsing it, bear in mind that it lias the government and agreement of two separate words. We will first parac it as standing for thing, and secondl}' for irhich. Jfliat 'is ?i COMPOUND RELATivK pRONou.v, aiid is cquivalpiit to " that which," or " the thing- whicli." In representing thing, it may be considered a PR,oNOUiN' of the third pkrson siixgu- j.AR, NEUTER GENDER, in the OB.iECTivF. CASK, and goVemed by leave, according to Rule VIII. What, in representino- which, may be considered a reI/ATive PRONOUN of the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, NEUTER GENDER, and relates to thing for its antecedent, according to RuiE V. and in the NOMINATIVE CASE to is, by Rule VI. Is is a NEUTER VERB, in t!ie indicative mood, PRESENT tense — "1. Iain; 9. You are ; 3. Ke or which is" — made in the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, and agrees with which, the relative part of the pronoun ivhai, according to Rule VII. Useless is an ad.iective, in the positive degree, and belongs to what, by Rule IV. How may zckat bu descrilK-J ? 42'.). When are wlial, wtiiclt., and tliat a'ljec- Will you give tliroo examples of com- live pronouns .' Give nn exainplo. 4,'J-!. pound pionouna formed by anne-xing crfc Wliicb of tlio relatives are sometimes or soever "! 430. iiitervogative adjective pronouns .' VVIieii? VVIiat is the meaning oC annexed ? 4"0. 43'>. When are icho, tniddi, and v:!uil. called When I say, " What ! rob me of my interrcatives .' 431. money, and then take my life .'" in what Wiiat arc the nouns called, to v,-hich sense is tc/iot used .' 431). interroo-atives refer r 401. In the sentence, " I will leave what is What is the meaning of subsequent 7 useless," how do you parse whatl isl 430_ useless 7 437. VVhy so called ? 431. Wbat does what stand for ? 437. In the phrase, "Whom dbl you see .'" Do you parse it as one word or two? Ans. "John"; which word is "the subse- What two.' 437. quent .' 431. 55° ^''^ pupil may void parse the re- mainlng ezerciscs on the pronoun what. '" ~" "" ^1.) placed ittcr. 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. ' William demands what I cannot " James will do what is proper." " You heard what I said." " Whatever improves delights give. They advocate lent." what is excel- XXXVII. OF THE VERB. 438. A VERB is a word that expresses action or being. Verbs are of three kinds — active, passive, and neuter. 439. An active verb e.xpresses action, and the actor is always the nominative case ; as, " John runs." Active verbs are either transitive or intransitive. 440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or may have an object after it, on which the action terminates ; as, " John beats William." 441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has nor can have an object after it. 442. Passive means svjfcring or receiving. 443. When I say, " John is beaten by Wilham," is beaten is a verb, because it exprosses action ; ajid it is a passive verb, because it expresses tlie action received by John ; and if John receives the action, tlion he is the object of iti hence, 444. A passive verb expresses action or effect received. 445. The object is always its subject or nominative case. 446. Active nomincttivc, or actor, " John strikes William." 447. Passive nominative, or object, " William is struck by John." 448. By examining the foregoing examples, you will see that when the verb is active, its nominative is likewise active j and when the verb is passive, its nominative is likewise passive. 449. The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on occasions when we wish to state irliat has been clone, without exposing the author ; thus, instead of sa^'ing, " William struck John," I can, to avoid alluding to William, say, " John was struck." XXXVII. What is the meaiiingof verb 1* Why so called ? 143. What is a verb ? 438. Wliat is an active verb ? ,430. What is always its nominative.'' Give an example. 430. What is the meaning of transilicc 1] of intra iL^itive ?J How may active verbs l)e diviJed? 439. When is an active vorb transitive ? (Jivo an example. 440. When is an active verb intransitive ? Give an example. 441. What is the meaning of passive 7 4 12. In the e.xample, " John is beaten by William," which is the verb.' Why.' What kind.' Why.' 443. Which word is the object ? Why.' 443 'What, then, is a passive verb .' 444. Which is the nominative to .a pnssivo verb, the asont or the object.' 445. is the nominative to an active verb act- ive or passive .' Give an example. 448. Is the nominative to a passive verb ac- tive or passive .' (live an example. 448. In what particular is tho passive voice a convenient lorin of expression.' Give an example. 449. What is the meaning of neuter ?^ • See queitioD to 142. I See queatioii to 150. ] See questiOB to 152. { See question to 157 mooD. 63 450. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor pas- sive, expressing simply either being or existence in a certain state ; as, " He sits," " lie is at ho 2. If ye love, or ^ If you love. 5 If 30U love. 3 3. If lie loves. 3. If they love. _ 46G. Other ccnjunciions, besides if, are used before the subjunctive mood. J/ 13 perhaps used most frecjucntly, because it implies doubt more strongly than most others. 467. Bj' the foregoing, you ma\' pcrcei\'c that v\ hen the verb is in the sub- junctive form, some au-xiliary verb is always understood ; as, " He will not be pardoned unless he repent,'' that is, " unless he will repent ;" " If thou ever return, thou shouldst be rhankl'ul," that is, "if thou shoufdsl ever return.' 468. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, com- mon form, simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, before it ; as, '■' I walk," the indicative mood, becomes subjiuictive by prefixhig if; thus, "If I walk." ' • 469. In like manner, a verb in the polential may be changed to the sub- junclivc ; as, " I can go" is the potential ; '• If I can go," the subjunctive. 470. Of tlso iiMPKKATiVF. MOOD. Wlicn I say, "John, mind your book," I command John to do soniethin^ ; and because imperative means command- iiig, we say tliat iidnJ, in the phrase abo\ e, is in tlie imperative mood. With what does the verb is coirespond ? fraiiiioiitly in the subjunctive mood ? 4^6. 461. \Vb:U "does " Me will not be pardoned How is the verb varied in the common unlc - ; lio rcficnt" mean ': 4G7. form of I he subjunctive mood.' 461. What, then, is understood .' 467. Why called common .' How varied in " If thou ever return, thou shouldst be tlie subjunctive form.' Why called sub- thaiiUful:" what does this mean ? 467. juiiclivo .' -161. What, then, is understood .' 4G7. How is this distinction limited? 4ril. Wiiat is always understood in this form.' How are the remaining lenses varied .' 407. 461. How may a verb in the indicative mood When do we uso the subjunctive form? be converted into the subjunctive .' 468. 403. How can the potential bo changed to Will you conjugate the verb Zouc in this the subjunctive .' Give nn example. 469. form, in the present tense.' 461. In what mood is "John, mind your When do we uso llie common form.' etudics.'" Why.' 470. 40.5. What is the meaning of imperativt 1 Why is the conjunction if used most 470. MOOD. 05 471. This mood, for re«wons assigned before, (214.) embraces tlie following particulars i 1. Command; as, " John, sit up." 2. Enlrealij ; us, " Do visit me." 3. Exhorting ; as, " llcinembcr my counsel." 4. Permitting ; as, " Go in peace." 472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding, entreating, exhorting, or periuitting. 473. The applicatioii of tins moot! is limiicii lo the second person ; as, "John, conic to me ;" because, in uttering a conniiand, making an entreaty ifec. we must necessarily address some one ; hence you can see the reason wiiy this mood has but one person, viz. the second. 474. We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or in pres- ent time, to do an}' thing in past time, yesterday for inslaiice ; consequently a verb in this mood cannot have ;uiy past tense. 475. When 1 conunand a person to do any thing, the performnnce of the command must take place in a period of time subsequent to that of the com- mand ; that is, in future time; but the command itself must, from the very nature of the case, take place hi present time : this mood, therefore, cannot, strictly speaking, have any future tense : hence, 47G. A verb in the imperative mood must be in the present tense, and in the second person. 477. Of the infinitive mood. In tlic phrases, " John begins losing," " The boys begin to sing," " Thou beginnest lo sing," you perceive that the verb to sijig is not varied to corri^spond with the number and person of its ditfereut a.gents, Joltn, the boijs, and thou: hence to sing is said not to be limited either by person or number. 478. This mood, then, is properly denominated iiifinitive, signifying not limited : hence, 479. The infinitive mood is used to express an action not limited either by person or number. 480. To, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood ; as, " Let me go," instead of" Let me to go;" " I heard him say it," for " I heard him 1(1 say it." T'his little word to, \\hcn used before verbs in this manner, is not a preposition, but forms a part of the \trb, and, in j>arsing, should l)e so cou- siderttd. 481. From the foregoing, it appears that there are five moods — the indicative, the imperative, the potential, tlie subjunctivS, and the infinitive. How many particulars does this mood Wliat is the meaning of infinitive! embrace.' 471. Why so many.' 214. 478. \Vh:it, then, is the imperative mood In what mood is sing, in the phrases, used I'lir .' 472. Give an example of com- " John begins to sing," "The boya begin mamling .' one of entreating.' one of ex- tdf-'sing," " Tliou beginnest to snig"? hortins .' one of permitting.' 471. 477, 478. How many persons has this mood.' 473. In what particulars is this mood reckoD- Wliat person is it .' 473. ed not to be limited .' 477. Has this mood any past tense .' Why.' What, then, is the infinitive mood used 474. fur .' 47',). When I command a person, when, if at What is the usual sign of this mood? all, mnst the performance of the command 480. take place.' 475. Is it always expres.sed.' Give an exain- VVhon, or in what lime, mnst the com- pW. 480. mniid itself be given .' 47.5. How is the sign to to be parsed.' 480. Has this mood, then, any future tense.' Wliy parsed with the verb .' 480. 47.1. How many moods are there, and wbftt How many tenses, then, has it .' How are they .' 481, Ijiany persons I 476. 6* 66 , ENGLISH GRAMMAR. XXXIX. OF TENSE. 482. The present tense expresses what is now taking place ; as, " John swims." 483. Tliis tense is ol'ieii employed to express the actions of persons long since dead ; as, '• Seuoca reasons and moralizes well." 484. The present tense, preceded 'oy the words when, before, ajler, as soon as, &c., is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action} as, " Wlien lie arrives, he will hear ihc new s." 483. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and things which are in their nature unchangeable ; as, " Truth is eternctl ;'' '' William boldly asserted there was no God ;" properly, " is no God." 486. In animated (1.) historical narrations, (2.) this tense is sometimes used for the imperfect; as, '• He enters the territory' of the pcaceaMe inhabitants ; he fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he divides among his soldiers, and returns home to e)iJoy an empty triumph." 487. The imijcrfect tense expresses what took place in time past, however distant; as, " John died." 488. The we;;/itfc ?tnie expresses what has taken place, and conveys an allusion to the present time; as, "I have finished my letter." 489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded to, we use the imperfect tense ; as, " John wrote 3'esterday ;" but when no particular past time is specified, we use the perfect tense ; as, " I have read Virgil many times." 490. The perfect tense cutd the impcrlect tense both denote a tiling that is past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually re- maining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been doite ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If we speak of the present century, we say, " I'liilosoj-'fliers hare made great discoveries in the present century ;" but if we speak of the last century, we say, " Philoso- phers made, great discoveries in the last century."—'-' lie has been much aiiUcted this ^^ear." " I have this week read the king's proclamation." " I have heard great news this morning." In these iisstances, He has been, I hare read, and heard, denote things that are past 3 but they occurred in tliis year, XXXIX. What is the n:eai)hig oi' pres- What doj^ the perfect tense express ? entl 173. Give an example. 4S8. Vv hat decs the present tense express .' " Joliii wrote yesterday." UHiat tense 469. Give an exaniplo. 4c2. is t lie verb in here.' 489. " Boncca ru.iso'.is well." What tense is Why is this tense used .'' 489. employed here .' Why.' 433. ' " I have road Virgil many limes." AA'hy In the phrase " V/lien he arrives," is the perfect tense iiised here ? 489. f.itnro time is alluded to : why, then, is What do both the perfect and imperfect the pre.=;cnt employed .' 4S4, douule .' 490. Do wo sr.v, " There is," or " there was Huw does the former deri'ote it ? 4S0. no God i"" "Why .' 48.5. liow does the latter > 490. What is the meaning of (i.u'wntetZ? 48C. Do we say, " Pliilosophers math'," nr USeaning oi narrationa 7 48G. " have made, great discoveries in the pras- " He enters the territory," &.C. Why is cnt century .'" Why ? 400. the present tense used ? 480. Which tense do we use in speaking o.' Vvhat is the meaning of imper/i'cf? 181. the last century ? 490. Give an examplo. How came this term to bo used, to de- 490. note an action past and tinis!-.cd .'* " I have this week read the king's proc What does tlio hnperil-ct Icnse express .' Inraation." " I liave licird ^rcat ncw» 487. Give an example. 437. this morning." ^Vllich are the verbs used Meaning oi perfect ';] in those two sentences.' 490. (1.) Livfly. (2.) Descrirtinns, or fellin.^ nhat h.i5 been done. * See quesiiou to 182. t Fiuishul, or complete. TENSES. rARTlCJFLES. 67 in this week, aiul io-da/ ; and still there remains a part of this year, week and day, wliereof I sjjeak. 490 1. In g'fcneral, (lie perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the author or of llie work, liioiif^li it may have been performed many centuries ago ; but if neither the aiitiior nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. VVe inaj' say, " Cicero has wrllti'n orations ;" but we cannot say, " Cicero has written poems ;" because the orations are in being, but tlie poems arc lost. Sipcakiiis; of priest.' m general, we may'say, " They /wee, m all a^cs, claimed great powers ;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists : but il we speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we ciuniot use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid priests have claimed great powers ;" but must say, " The Druid priests claimed great pow- ers ;" because that order is now totally e.xtinci. 491. 'V\\e pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place at some past time mentioned ; as, " I had finisked my letter before my fatlier returned." 492. ^\\Q first future tense expresses what will take place ; as, " John will come." 493. The second future expresses what will have taken place, at or before some future time mentioned; as, " I shall have finished my business before the steam-boat starts." 494. Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six variations, namely — the present, the imperfect, tlie perfect, the pluperfect, and the first and second future tenses. XL. OF PARTICIPLES. 49.5. Li the phrase, " I found a man laboring in the field," the word labor- ing shows what the man was doing, and therefore resembles a verb. When I say, " The laboring man should not be wronged," laboring is joined to the noun mMi, to describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective. 496. The word laboring, then, partakes of the nature of two different parts of speech ; and since participle s\-g\\Aes partaking of, we will call such words as laboring, participles. What do they denote? When did these Give an example. 402. Why called fust things occur ? 490. future .'* To what may the perfect tense in gen- Wliat does the second future cypress .' era! be applied i What exception is men- Give an example. 493. tioned .' 490—1. IIow many tenses are there in all, and Do wo say, " Cicero wrote," or " has what are they .' 494. written, orations.'" " Cicero ic;-ofc," or In wliat mood is " He runs" .' Why? " has written, poemg ?" Why ? 490—1. 452. " Does he run ?" Why ? 452. " I In speaUiiij; of |u-iest3, in general, why may run" ? Wliy ? 453. " !:?hould I have 3o we say, "They have in all ages studied?" Why? 453. " If he accept" ? claimed great powers." 490—1. Why? 4.56. " If he accepts" ? Why ' Can we say, " Tlie Druid priests kai-c 456. " To sing" ? Why ? 479. claimed "reat powers" ? What should we lu what tense is " Ho sings" ? Why ? say ? VVhy ? 490— 1. 482. " Did he sin??" Why ? 487. "He What is t!i6 meaning oi pluperfect 1 has read" ? 4HB. Why? "Had he writ- 186. ten" ? 491. Why ? " Shall he go ?" What does the pluperfect tense e.x- 492. " I shall have gone" ? Why? 493. press ? 491. Give an example. 491. XL. What parts of speech does laior Meaning of future 7 177. mo- resemble ? Give an example. 495. What does the first future express? What is the meaning of jjarticipZe? 49G - «5ee question to 191. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 497. All participles are tlerivcd from verbs ; thus, from labor conies labor- ing : from heat, beating ; rejoice, rejoicing, &lc. : lieiice, 498. The participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb and adjective. 499. VViien 1 say, " John is writing/' the participle urriting shows what Jolin is now doing, but has not iinislied ; tenting, then, may be called a i)res- enl participle ; lience, 500. The present participle expresses what is now taking place, but not finished. 501 — 1. This participle always ends hi ing; as, sinnhig, fighting, weeping, lovhig, tfcc. There are many words of this terniiaation, wlii'ch are not parti- ciples ; as, niorving, evening, which are nouns ; uninteresting, unsalis/ying , wliich are adjectives. The fact that these cannot be lonncd from verbs will furnish you with a certain rule lor distinguishing- the participle from all other words of the same termination ; as, for instance, uninteresting, we know, is not a participle, because there is no such verb as uninterest, from which to form it. 501. '■ 'I'he letter is written." Here the participle jtviVtot shows that the act of writing; is past and finished 5 it may then be called a perfect participle : hence, 502. The perfect participle expresses what is past and fin- ished. 502 — 1. This participle ma}' alwavs be distinguished by its making sense with liaving ; thus, having written, having sung, &,c. Here written and smig are perfect participles. 503. " John, having vvrlilen his letter, sealed it." Here you doubtless per cei\-e tliat the act of writing look place bef(H-e that of sealing; also, that the participle is composed of two words, having and written. ; it ma^' ihon be call ed a rompoimd participle, and because it denotes also an action past and finish ed, it may very properly be called a compound perfect participle : hence, , 504. The compound perfect participle expresses what took place before something else mentioned. 501 — 1. 'J'his ]iartici|)le is formed by })lacing the present participle havino before the perfect participle oi'aiiy \erb ; as, having J'onght, having ciphered. XLI. FORiMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 505. Strnrk is a perfect participle, from the verb strike, and this you know because it makes sense joined with liaring; as, having slrnrk. From what are nil participles derived.' Having written, liavinjr sung. Wliich 49.". Give an example. 497. are the perfect participles here .' ."JOS. What ii a participle .' 498. " John, having written his letter, seai- Whuii [ say, "John is writing," what ed it." Which took place first, the does >rr(t/>if show .' 499. writing or sealinij.' 50;<. What, then, may it he called .' 499. Of what is this participle composed .' What, then, is a present participle .' 50:f. 501). What, then, m vy it he called ? .503. What does this partici])le always end What does A«t.(?'^'' wriWfiu denote in rof^ in .•' .509 — 1. Give an exam-pie. ."iOO — 1. erence to time and action.' 50;!. Are all words eniling in h(o- participles .' What may it thence he called .' .503. Givi.' an example of nomw of this termi- What duos a compound perfect parti- nation .' of adjectives .' oOO— I ci))le expre.«s .' 504. How, then, can the participle he dis- How is this participle formed .' .504. tingui«!hed .' (Jive an example. 500 — 1. Give an example. .504. "The lett':'r is written." What dees XLI. Slrildiig, strxicli, having struck. the participle written show here.' Wliat, Hero are thrive different participles : can tlien, may it he called .' 501. you tell which is the i)reBont .' Why.' What is a perfect jiarticiple .' 502. 500. Perfect .' Why .' 502. Compound How may this participle always bo perfect.' Why.' 503. known .' Give an example, 502 — 1. What kind of a participle is struck 7 505. How do you know tins' SQ5- VERBS. 69 506. Is, ^'ou doiiblless locolloct, is a variation of ilie vert) lo be ; as, " I am, you are, lie is :" now, by joining is with struck, wo ciiii form the passive verb is struck ; " John strikes Joseplr is active ; but ''Joseph is struck by Johii" IS passive. 307. In these two examples, you perceive that the sense of each is the same : hence, by means of tiie passive verb, we are enabled to express, in a difTcrent form, the precise mcniiinj^ of the acti\o, which, you will oftentimes find, contributes not a httle to the variety ;uid harmony of the laiigunge. 308. Hy examinino' tiie conjugation of tiie verb lo be, you will discover that it has, hi all, ten variations ; viz. am, art, is, are, iras, wast, tcere, been, Ae, and being. Every passive verb must be composed of one of these ten variations, and the perfect participle of any active transitive verb. 'I'lius, taking xcas, and joining it with the perfect participle of the verb beat, namely, beaten, we form the passive verb was beaten, lo which prcfi.xing; an object, or nominative case, we have the phrase, " William was beaten." 50'J. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb always retains the same mood, tense, niiniber, and person, that the verb to be has, be fore it is incorporated with the participle ; tlius, '• He has been" is the indica tive perfect, third person singular ; then, " He has been rejected," is Ijkewise the indicative perfect, third person singular, passive. It cannot, dicrefore, be difficult to tell the mood, tense, number, and person of any passive verb, if you are familiar with the conjugation of the verb to be. From the foregoing particulars, we derive the following general rule : 510. All passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect participle of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to he. XLII. OF THE AUXILIARY VERB. 511. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the principal verbs are conjugated. 512. The auxiliary verbs are may, can, must, might, could, would, should, and shall. The following are sometimes aux- iliaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do, he, have, and will. 313. When, in the formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, that tense is called a compound one 3 and "the tense formed by the j)rincipal verb alone is called a simple tense. XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 514. The indicative mood may be known by the sense, or by its having no sign except in asking a question ; as, *' Who comes here ?" Of what verb is the verb is a varia- Wliat fact is mentioned as worthy of lion .' 500. notice i 509. Will you form a passive verb with is VVIiat moo'l, tonae, number, and per- and struck 1 506. son ia " He lias been" .' 509. I3 " He has " Jolin strikce Joseiili." Howmayt.ho been rejected" .' 509. sense of tliis sentence be expressed by a \Vhat will make the mooj, tense, &c. passive verb .' 506. of passive verbs IUinilia> ? 509. What advantage does the use of the How are all passive verbs formed .' 510 passive verb often afford us .? 507. XL! I. What is tiio meaning of auM- To what does it contribute .' 507. ian/ ? 196. How many variations has the verb to What are auxiliary verbs .' 511. 8«in all .' 508. What are they ? 508. Will you name them ■> 512. What will always compose one part of What verbs are used both as au.xiliary a passive verb .' 508. What the other and principal verbs .' 512. part .'508. XLIH. What is the signof the indica- tive mood ? 514. Give an exumplo. 514. 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 615. The potential mood has for its signs the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would, and should ; as, " I could loFc," &c. 516. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest; as, •'Unless he repent," «fcc. 517. The infinitive mood has usually for its sign the word *o ; as, to sing. 518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its always being in the second person, and by its agreement with thoii, or ye, or you ; as, " Depart thou," &bc. XLIV. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of the verb ; as, weep, remain, &c. ; excepting the occasional use of do ; as, " I do learn." 520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, ex- cept did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb is not in the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows that it is in the imperfect; as, " I fought." 521. The perfect tense has for its sign the word have; as, have loved. 522. The pluperfect has for its sign had ; as, had loved. 523. The first future has for its sign shall or will ; as, shall or ivill love. 524. The second future has for its sign shall have or will have ; as, shall have loved, or will have loved. 525. The indicative mood has six tenses. 520. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. 527. The potential mood has four tenses. 528. The infinitive mood has two tenses. 529. The imperative mood has one tense. What is the sign of the potential mood.' Pign of the perfect.' 521. Give an ex- 515. Give an exuniph?. 515. am])le. 521. V\''lmt is tlio sign of the subjunctive Sign of the pluperfect ? 529. Give an mooil .' 516. Give an exanijile. 510. example. 522. What is lh(^ sigii of the infinitive mood.' Sign of the first future .' 523. Give an 517. Give an exani])le. 517. examjile. .523. What is tlie sign of the imperative.' Sign of the second future.' 524. Give 518. Give an example. 518. an example. 524. XLIV. What is the sign of the pres- How many tenses has the indicative ent indicative r 519. Give an example, mood .' 525. 519. How many the subjunctive .' 526. Sign of the imperfect .' 520. Give an How many the potential .' 527. exomole. 520. How many the infinitive .' 528. How manv the imperative / 539> VERRS. 71 XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 530. When I ask you to raise your voirr, \n rc;i(liiidar. \. Am I lo\ed ? 2. Are vou Icved ? 3. Is he' loved ? Plural. 1. Are we lovpd ? 2. Are you lo\e(l ? 3. Are the}' lo\cd ? 542. You will find, on examination of the foregoing ronjiigation, that the lenses of the subjunctive are in evorj' rcsp«cl similar to the corresponding ones of the ine? we.'" In what number and person is " He 111 what did the second person singular hath"? "lie hates"? " Tlioii loveat" ? of all verbs formerly end ? 544. Give an "Thou hast"? "He Icarnotb" ? " Yo e.vample. 544. learn"? He rejoiceth" ? "Thou art re- Meaning of/ormcrJi/? 5!4. joiccd"? "Thou art"? "He weepeth"? * F.-xccpline art. (I.) Si>iiie lime ajo. (2.) Called. (3.) Tliu B'.blc. (4.) Prevailed. (3.) Late. (6.) Serious. (7.) Aboiinding in precepts, or instrutiive. (S.) Positively. (9.) Use. (tO.) Have miiuf. VERBS. 79 Plural. Plural. Plural. 1 l\^e love. 1. We are loved. 1. We are. 2 Ve o>- you love. 2. Ye or you are loved. 2. Ye or you are. 3 They love. 3. They are loved. 3. They are. 6'18. [nrTor a further illustration of these obsolete coiiju^jations, the learne. ia referred to those treatises on grammar in our schools, which profess to fur- ni,-»-v^ pointed." . " Unless he be punished." " If the man had been elected " " Although they are respected." " Except he repent." " Columbus discovered America." " Susan assisted the little girl." " America was discovered by Co- " The little girl was assisted by lumbus." Susan." " John wounded his brother." " Pain follows pleasure." " John's brother was wounded by " Pleasure is followed by pain." him." 2. " An obedient son is deservedly " Unless great labor had been be- respected by his friends." stowed on William, he would " An idle boy will be punished." have disappointed the expec- " Without knowledge, a man is tations of his parents." connnonly (1.) despised." "He will not (1.) mind without corporal punishment." 3. " The boy who visited me in Sep- " They that seek knowledge will temberdied in the city of Bos- tiud it." ton." " That lion which wa,s exhibited " The man whom 1 found perished in this town has been killed in a storm of snow." by his keeper." .4. " I found(2.) John and William (3.) " I have assisted him and his sister in the garden with their father in many difficulties, to no (4.) and mother. (3.) purpose." XLVI. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the present tense ; as, "• If he be learned." Will you parse i/? Why iii the subjunctive form .' -163. 550. be learned! 550. Why in the eub- Will you parso the remaining exercise* junctive mood? 456. in these lessons? (),) Idvcrb (2.) Irregular verb, (2.) Tm IViUiam wi viother if^iXy Kule XI. (4.) Adjective. Pres. Go, Icnse. Begiii, IRREGULAll VERBS. 81 Tmperf. tense. Paf. Participle. ^Vent, Gone. ^^S'l", Begun. Pixscnt Abide, Aia, Arise, Av.alie, LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Tliosc marked r lulmit likewise a reeular ("onn. Irnpafcct abc-tJe, was, arose, awoke, r. "car, to liriiig > . Bear, fj carry, bore, Beat, BLgil'l, Bend, Bereave, Beseech, Bid, Bind, Bite, Bleed, Blaw, Break, Breed, Bria», Build, Burst, Buy, Cast, Catch, Chide, Choose beat, begau, beut, bereft, r. besought, bid, bade, bound, bit, bled, blew, broke, bred, brought, built, burst, bought, cast, caushi, r. cliij, chose. Cleave, to stick > ""' er ad/ure, I regular. Cleave, to split, clove or cleft, Cling, clung, Clothe, clothed, Come, came, Cost, cost. Crow, crew, r. Creep, crept, Cut, cut. Dare, to vmtws, durst. Dare, to chal- 1 Pcrf. oi- Pass. Part abode, been, .irisen. awaked. born. bo rue. beaten, beat. bettun. beat. beifft. r. besought. biddeii, bid. bound. bitleu, bit. bled. blown. broken. bred. bruught. built. burst, b&ujht. cast. caught, r. chidden, chid. chosen. cleft, clovtn. clung, clad. r. Bis, Do, Draw, Drive, Drink, Dwell, Eat, Fall, Fee-i, Feel, Fight, Fiud, Flee, Fhug, Fly, Forget, Forsake, Freeze, Get, G:!d, Gii-d, Give, Go, Grave, Grind, Grow, Have, dealt; r. due, r. did, drew, drove, drank, dwelt, r. eat or ate, fell, fed, felt, fought, found, fled, new, forgot, foi-sook, froze, got, gift, r. girt, r. gave, went, graved, ground, grew, had. cost. crowed. crept. cut. daied. dealt, r. done, drawn. driven. drunk. dwelt, r. eaten. fallen. fed. felt. fought. found. fled. flung. flown. for^oiten, forgot. forsakeu. frozen. got.* gilt. r. girt. r. given. gone, graven, r. ground. grown. bad. Prevent. Han^>, JItar, Hew, Hide, Hit, Hold, Hurl, }S"i'. Knit, Know, Lade, Lay, Lead, Leave, Lend, Let. Lie, to lie (kiivn, by, Imjvrfcd. bun^, r. beard, hewud, hid, hit, held, hurt, kept, knit, r. kuew, laded, laid, led, left, lent, let. Load, I>nse, M.ake, Meet, Mow, Pay, Put, Read, ReuJ, Rid, Ride, Ring Rise, Rive, Run, Saw, Say, See, Seek, Sell, Send, Set, 8li:ike, shape, Shave, Shear, Shed, Shine, Show, Shoe, Shoot, Shrink Sbred, Shut, Sing, Sink, Sit, Sleep, Slide, Sling, Slink, Slit, Smite, Sow, Speaj£, Speed, Spend, Spill, Spin, Spit, loaded, lost, made, met, mowed, paid, put, read, rent, rid, rode, rung, rang, rose, rived, ran, saw, said, Baw, sought, sold. sent, set, shook, shaped, Bhaved, sheared, shed, shone, 'r. showed, shod, shot, shrunk, shred, shut, sung, sang, sunk, sank. Bat, slew, slept, slid, sluug, slunk, slit, r. smote, sowed, spoke, sped, spent, spilt, r. spm, '• spit, spat. Pcrf. iir Pass. Pmt. hung. r. heard. hewi. r. hidden, hiJ. hit. held. hurt. kept. knit, r. known. laden. laid. led. left. lent. let. lain. laden, r. lost. made. met. mown. r. paid. put. read. rent. rid. rode, ridiien. rung. risen. riven. run. sawn. r. said. seen. sought. sold'. sent. set. shaken. shaped, shapen.r shaven, r. shorn. shed. shone, r, shown. shod. shot. shrunk. shred. shut. sung. sunk. sat. slain. ^. slept. ^ sliddcn. slung. slunk. slit, or slifted. smitten. sown. r. spoken. sped. spent. spilt, r. spun. spit, spiften.J ^^XLVI. When is, verb called hrega- (to carry ) i,Vn to.r^;;,,,? aoos7l Will you name Iho present and imner 111 i? v f ' /"''i'^'- ? ''««=? kwwnl got begin? am? arise? awake? bear? t ^ is l^^S^l^ •" co;.pound,^^r.n, n still in good use. J SfUten IS neaily obsolete. BU ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PretaU Split, Spread, Spring, Stand, Steal, Stick, Sting, Stink, Strida, Strike, String, Strive, Strow or streWj Swear, Sweat, Swell, Swim, Swing, fHiperfed Eplit, bpread, sprung, sprang, StiXHl, St' lie, stuck, stung, slunk, strode, or Btrid, struck, strung, strove, C St rowed or I strewed, swore, swet, r, swelli-d, swum, swain, swung, Pcrf. or Pais. Part. Prestnt. ftnpofect. Perf. ct P—. Pmt spilt, r. Take, toik. taken. sprea-l. Teacn, taught. Uugkt. sprung. Tear, tore. torn. stood. Tell, told. told. stolen. Think, thought. thought. stuck. Thrive, throve, r. thriven. StUDg. Throw, threw, thrown. slunk. Thrust, thrust, thniit stridden. Tread, trod. trtxlden. struck tfr stricken. Wax, waxed, waxen, r. strung. Wear, wore. worn. stiiven. Weave, wove. woven. J stDWn, strowed, I strened. Ween, wept. wept. Win, won, won. sworn. Wind, wound, wound. swet. r. swollen, r. Work, wrought, J wrought or I worked. swum. Wring, wrung. wning. swung. Write, wrote, written. 553. We sa\', " I have seen," " I had seen," and " 1 am seen," using the participle seen instead of the verb smo : hence, Nt)TE VI. We should use participles, only, afier have, and had, and the verb to be. EXEkCISES IN SYNTAX. "^ John has written his copy." 554. Has toriltpu i.s an irregular active-transitive verb, from the verb to lurite — " Pres. write ; Imperf. wrote ; Perf. part. written. \. I have written ; 2. You have written ; 3, He or John has written" — found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and agrces with John,by Rule VII. John, copy, and his are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " Job has struck John." " John has been struck by Job." " The men caught the thief in tlie tavern." " The thief was caus;ht by the men in the tavern." " A wise son will make a glad father." " The act was done by William." " James found his little brother in the boat." " The instructer makes good pens." " The farmer ploughs the ground in spring." " I may spend my time in the country." ^\'#l you correct, in accordance with Note VI., tlie following exainples from the list above .' " .loliii lias wrote." " llo (lone it well." " 'J'lie siiii has roise. ' "The sun risen yesterday in a cloud." " I see him yesterday." " rie has did his task." " The l)irds have Hew away." "'J'he hirdii flown or flew." '' The post is drove into the ground." " He bewail or hefrnn to write." " The task is l)e<;an." " I had went with him." " iMy brother has not s))oke." " The cloth is wove." "The boys run swiftly." "Tho thief has alole my watch." " Flis copy was wrote well." " l[e was smote on his cheek." "John was awoke by tho noise." "My fatlior baa came." " IJe come yesterday." " Mary has chose the better part." " lie (Irunk to excess." '' The book was gave to me." " IFis friends have forsook him." " lie was not forsook by his children.' "The laborer worked for me forty days." " He was took and bound." "John has wrilton his copy." Will you parse has written'! Why is has written an irregular verb? 551. Why active ? 439. Why tiansitiv* ? 440, EXERCISES. 83 2. " John is at home." " He abode in peace." " Rufus rode into the conntry." " They would be cruel." " The sun will shine." " We may have been negligent." " The thief was confined in jail." " The boys should have been stu- " The horse ran with great vio- dious." lenoe." " Wilhara was in town." 3. " If he will assist ine, I shall be faults, still he would not recom- inuch (1.) obliged to him." pense me." " If he be virtuous, then he will " I will write hini, lest he neglect be happy." my business." " If he is happy, then I am con- " Should I be disappointed, I shall tented." despair." " Had he mentioned that circum- " Unless he repent, he will not be stance, I should have avoided pardoned." my present calamities." " Were I* in your place, I would " Although he acknowledged his relieve him." 4. " Thou hast benefited me." " Dost thou hear me .'" " Ye make no pretensions." " Hath he many advisers ?" " This doctrine hath no follow- " Ye do always err." ers." " Thou shalt surely die." " If thou love me." " If thou hadst obeyed me, thou " If thou art more comfortable, I wouldst not have been disap- heartily rejoice." pointed." 5. " If Thomas, who is at school, " The task which the instrucler return in season, I will visit imposed was performed with you." reluctance." " The boys whom I admonished " The measure which he adopts have reformed." will succeed." ♦' The man whose lile was in dan- " I have known a little child that ger returned in safety." exhibited the prudence of ma- ture years." XLVII. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 555. Wlien I say, " John begins to read," to read is a verli in the infinitive mood; and it follows, as 3'ou perceive, l!ie verb heghis : hence ue say that it is Kovenied by begins. " He is beyinning- to read." Here, the infinitive follows the participle hegit. ting ; it Is, therefore, governed liy liei^iiniing. " He IS eager to learn." Here, the infinilivo lollovvs llie adjective ca^er; we ti rrcfore say thai it is <^ovcnied by eagT. " lie has an oppor.niiil v to learn " Here, the infinitive, to learn, is gov- ernt^d t>v the nonn ojipnrtinil/t/. because it follows the noun. In like manner the infinitive niav bo governed by pronouns ; as, " There is a finf o])j)orluniiv fi)r him to learn :" hence, XLVII. "John begins to rnaii." In "Ha lias lui opportunity to learn.'" what mood i.s to rcaill it^h. Why.' .179. What part of sppt'cii governs to learn in By wlint is it governed .' .5.55. Why.' .555. this e.xample .' .555. VVIiy.' 555. " Ho ii beginning to read." What gov- "opportunity foi- him to learn." erns (0 ?-fnd in thi.s case .' 555. What does the infinitive here follow? " He is eager to learn." What governs By what, then, is it governed .' 555. to learn in this case.' .555. Why.' 555. (I.) Adverb. » See 543. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ntrziiB xi£. The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs, partici' pies, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, " James begins to learn." 556. To learn is a regular transitive verb — " Pres. learn, Imperf. learned ; Peif. part, learned" — made in the infinitive MOOD, present tense, and governed by begins, agreeably to Rule XII. James and begins, are parsed as before. exercises in syntax continued. " George desires to learn." grammar teaches Ud to write " He is eager to learn." correctly." " He has a desire to study." " He should seek to obtain " It seems to please John." knowledge." " William has come to see us." " We may be taught to write, " They are determined to excel." read, and spell. " A knowledge of the rules of Omission of to, the iisual Sign of the Infinitive. "John saw the man strike (1 .) " I heard the clock strike." the boy." " The tutor bade him do it." " The instructer made him sub- " The soldiers dare not rebel." mit." " My uncle let the boys play in " They need n&t proceed in such the garden." haste." " See (2.) the blind beggar dance." Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs ; as, " The summit of a mountain so high as to be invisible." EXAMPLES. " They are about (.3.) to depart." " He desired no more (4.) than (5.; " He is wise enough (.3.) to study." to know his duty." XLVIII. 657 We have before seen, that participles partake of the nature of two parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance which participles have to adjectives, is in referring to some noim in the sen- tence in which tlicy are used ; as, " The sun is setting- :" here, the participle setting is said to refer to the noun sun : hence, What, then, ir.ay !)■! rejanlcd as a rule " Tliey arc aboat to depart." By what for the govcrniiient ofthe infinitive ? X[I. is tlic infinitive here so^Kf'^'l ■' What ia "John begins to l-jarn." Will you the note lor this.' VII. pVLTSe to learn 1 James'? hrgins 1 55C. XI/VIII. What is a participle .' 498. Is fo ever omitted .' 4S0. "The sun is setting." What is set- Will you no%v parse the exercises in tins'! 5."i7. To what, then, does setting the lessons which follow .' refer.'' 557. Rule.' XIII. What is the infinilive mood used for .' Will you now parse setting in full.' 479. [ (1.) Strike, is governed by Rule XII. (2.) See is in the imperative^ a^Teeing with thou or yoH, understood, by Rule VU. (3.) Adverb. (4.) Noun, {p.) Conjunction. PARTICIPLES. 10 RUiii: XIII. Participles refer to nouns. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " The icind is rising y 558. Rising is a present active participle, from the ir regular verb to rise — " Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Per/, part, risetl' —and it refers to loind, according to Rule XIII. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " The moon is setting." " Mary was playing." " The sun is rising." " I have been writing." " The trees are growing." " I found him crying." " Jolm was dancing." " I left him rejoicing." PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. " The rising sun cheers us." _ 559. Rising is a participial adjective, from the verb to rise — " Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Per/, part, risen" — and belongs to sun, by Rule IV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED, 2. " The setting sun reminds us of " We view with pleasure the declining years." twinkling stars." " The roaring winds alarm us." " The roaring cataract strikes us " The rippling stream pleases with awe." us." " The laboring man should not " The singing-master visited me." be defrauded." 3. "Having dined. I returned to " Having slept, he recovered his school." strength." " Having fought bravely, they " Having retired to rest, he was were at last (1.) overcome." seized with violent pain." " .John, having exercised too vio- " The thief, having escaped, was lently, fainted." never afterwards seen in that region." 4. " William returned, mortified at " A child left to follow his own his loss." inclinations is most common- " The stream, swollen by the ly ruined." rains, overflowed its banks." " Admired and applauded, he be- " The man accustomed to his came vain." glass seldom reforms." Will you parse the next lesson.' What kind of a participle is " Having Will you parse rUivrr^ in the sentence, dined".'' 504. Why i* 504. " The rising sun" .' 559. Why is it call- Who dined, in the phrase, " Having ed a participial adjective? .^Ins. Because dined, I returned to school" .•' it de.«crib9s, like an adjective, and im- To what, then, does Aauin^dined rofer.' p^es action, like a participle. Rule XIII. Will you now puree tho re- Wili you now parse the next lesson .' maining lessons ? (1.) .^t tost is an adverbial phrase- 8 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. " A dissipated son grieves his youth into his own house, parents." and rendered to him deserred " We must not neglect any known assistance." duty." " William befriended the deserted " My uither took the forsaken man." 6. " The men, being fatigued by la- feet, was severely and justly bor, sought rest in sleep." punished." " William, being dismissed from " The tree, having been weighed college, retired to the coun- down for a long time by abun- try." dance of fruit, at last (1.) fel. " Thomas, after having been re- to the ground." peatedly admonished to no ef- nxTiiz: XIV. Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, govern the objective case. " James is beating John." 560. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singolar NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and gOVemed bj beating, by Rule XIV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " John is striking William." immediately set off for Bob- " Susan is studying her lesson." ton." " Mary has been repeating her " I spied the cat watching a lesson to her mother." mouse." " The teamster, seeing the stage " Having given directions to hia upsetting, ran and prevented servants, he left his family it." and took the stage for Wash- " Having obtained my request, 1 ington." " He delights infighting." 561. Fighting \s a participial noun, in the objective case, and governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " Job was exhausted by wrest- " Job practises fencing daily." ling." " The instructer teaches reading, " Mary acquired a livelihood by writing, and spelling, in hi3 sewing." school." " Walter excels in writing. " Whispering is forbidden ia " Fishing delights me." school." " Beating John." Will you parse ticipial noun ? Jltis. Because it implies John 1 560. Beating'? .'jSS. action, like a participle, and has, also, th« Will you parse the remaining exercises sense of a noun. in the lesson above ? Will you parse the rest of the exerciiei "In fighting." Will you parse fight- in this lesson ? ing 1 561. Why is fighting caWcd a par- (l.) At last kaa adverbial ptu-ate. EXERCISES. 87 2. 562. "You win much oblige me hij scnning those books." Sendijiff is a participial noun, in the objective case, and governed by the preposition by, according to Rule X. Books is a cOiMmon noun, of the third person, pluralnum- BER, neuter gender, OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by the active participle sending, according to Rule XIV. ^-"— ^ EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " James derives pleasure tVoin " Mary's reading has been useful reading useful books." in improving her taste in " John is above doing a mean composition." action." " I am discouraged from under " Parents are pleased at seeing taking lliis study." the progress of their chil- " A good instructer takes no de dren." light in punishing." The present participle, when used as a noun, (.fion lias llic definite article thi before it, and the preposition of after it ; as, " By the observing of truth, you will connnand respect." With <-(inal propriely, however, it may be said, " By observina;- truth," &c., omitting both the article and the preposition. If we use the article without the preposition, or die prei)osition w ithout the arti- cle, the C'cjiressiou will appear awkvveird : hence, Note VIII. The definite article the should Le used be- fore, and tlie preposition o/ after, participial nouns, or they should both be omitted. EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " By the observing these rules, " In the regarding his interests, he he will avoid Mistakes." neglected the public affairs." -" He prepared them for the event " He was sent to prepare the way by the sending to them proper by preaching of repentance." information." " Keeping of one day in seven (1.) " In writing of his letter, he made is required of Christians." some mistakes." PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " William calls George." " John will be punished for his " John's father will reward his insolence." industry." " We may improve under our in- " George's father's carriage pass- structer, if we choose." ed the tavern.' " He who would excel in learn- " If William return, he will be ing, must be attentive to his disappointed." books." " John has beaten his little brother " She begins to improve.' most shamefully." " By sendin>; tliose hooks." Will you Instpud of saving, " By tho observing parse sending 1 562. books ? 5'">2. these rules," what should I say.' Why .' Will you parse the romaiuiiig exercises Note VII [. in this lesson .•■ Will you now parse and correct tho From what are present iiarliciples exercises under Note VIH. .' formed .' 497. Will you parse the promiscuous exer- How may partisiples in ing be distin- cises iu Syntax .' Next take those to be guished from other parts of speech of the written. game termination .' 500- (1.) Seven is a numeral adjective, belonging lo days, uuderstood, by Note 88 ENGLISH GRAM3IAR. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 563. Will you compose a sentence, containing an active-transitive verb.? One, containing a neuter verb.? One, containing a passive verb ? One, expressing the same sense as the last in an active form.? Will you com])ose a sentence having a verb in tlie potential mood .' One, in the subjunctive mood ? One, in the imperative mood ? One, in the infinitive mood .? One, having an adjective in the superlative degree ? One, having tlie article an correctly used before a vowel ? One, having an adjective in the positive degree that has in itself a superlative signification ? One, containing the relative lohosef One, containing which? One, with what used as a compound pronoun.' One, having loho used as an interrogative pronoun.' One, having a verb in the subjunctive mood, common form.? Will you construct one or more sentences, which will make sense, with the word truth contained in them .? One, v/ith the word icisdmn contained in it .? One, with the word knowledge ? One, with the word learning ? One, with the word science ? Will you construct a sentence about prudence 9 One about his- tory ? One or more on the following subjects, namely, geography y gardening, farms, orchards ? Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make sense, namely, " Industry health" .? " By — we acquire " .? '• In youth characters ".? » Arithmetic business"? " Washington live hearts of his " .' XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 564. The verbs Imve, be, will and do, when they are unconnected with a , ^ gralel-.., „^. 565. The peculiar force of the sevcrtil auxiliaries will appear from the following account of them. 566. Do and did mark iho action itself or the time of it, with greater en- ergy aiid positiveness ; as, " I do speak truth ;" " I did respect him ;" " Here am I, iur tliou (/;V4-< call me." They are of great use in negative (1.) sen- tences ; as, " I do not fear ;" " I did not write."' They are almost universally cni]iloyed \n askuig questions ; as, " Does lie learn V " Did he not write ?" I'licy sometimes also supply (2.) the place of another verb, and make the rep- etition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence, unneccssarv ; as, " You attend not to your studies as he does ;" (i. e. '■ as he attends," &c.) " I shall conje, if I can ; but if I do not, please to excuse me ;" (i. e. " if I come not."') 367. i5/(/.'/ and j^hVA; express the possibililv or liberty of doing a thino- ; cm &i\A could, the power; as, '^ 7t may rain;" "I may write or read";" ' He might have improved more than he has ;" " He can write nutch better than he could last 3car." XLIX. Which are the auxiliary verbs.' Wliat efTcct have (iq. and did in son- °,-, . . tencfs.' 5G6. Give an exanipln. .56f!. VV lat IS an auxiliary verb .= 511. Will you 6. Give an example, you parse within 1 (500. income ? GOO. Why called compound .' 254. Will you now take the romainin!,' ex- J^IIJ. Meaning of coTijuncticn ? 257. ercisos to be parsed ; after which, those What is a conjunction .' 6ft2. to be written ? Meaning of copulative 1 264. (I.) The sense is, " He made the moon." Moon, then, is iu the objective case, governed by madt uDdes stood, and cooncclcd with sun, by Rule XI. 1NTERJPXTION8, 95 003. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen- tences ; as, '' IJIcsscd is the niiin irho feart-th tlm Lord." 604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences wlien they appear to unite only words ; as in tlic Ibllowiu^ sentences : " Duty and interest torbiJ vicious indulgences.". " Wisdom or folly -joverns us." Lacli of these forms of ex- pression contains two sentences, "namely, tlic first, "Duty forbids vicious in- dulgences ;" " Interest forbids vicious indulgences :" the second, " Wisdom governs us ;" " Folly governs us." RXTIiEl XI. Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense^ and nouns or pronouns of the same case. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 605. " William writes and cipher s.^' And is a copulativS conjunction. Ciphers is a regular active intransitive verb, from the verb to cipher — " Pres. cipher ; Imperf. ciphered ; Per. part. ciphered. 1. I cipher; 2. You cipher; 3. He or William ciphers" — made in the indicative mood, present tense, THIRD perron SINGULAR, and agrees with jVilliam understood, and is connected to tvrites by the conjunction and, agreeably to Rule XI. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " John ciphers rapidly, and reads " Though he is lively, yet he ia correctly." not too volatile." * If we contend about trifles, and " If he has promised, he should violently maintain our opin- act accordingly." ions, we shall gain but few " He denied that he circulated friends." the report." SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 606. Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction iff One, containing and? As many sentences as there are conjunctions which follow ; eacli sentence containing one .' .Although. Unless. For. B<'Miuse. Therefore. Or. Neither. J^^or. Will you compose a sentence about JacA:*on .? One, about CZrty? One, about Monroe ? One, about Madison ? LIV. OF INTERJECTIONS. 607. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings ©f the speaker. What is tlif! use of thn copulative con- Do (-oiijinictions ever connect sen- junction.' SJti.i. tencesnhentheyajipear to connect words Will you repeat the list of copulative only .' fi04. Give an example. 604. •onjunc'tions .' 9GG. " William writes and ciphers." Will What does disjunctive signifv ? 271 you parse rnid ? R05. ciphers ? 605. What docs the disjunctive conjunction Will you, in the ne.\t place, take the •onncct ? 274. exercises to be parsed and written, and Will you repeat the list of them ? 275. dispose of them .' What i« the rule for connecting words lAV. What is the meaning of iiUer- hy conjunction! ? XI. jVction ? 283. Wbat oth«r word«, bssidas coniunc- What are interjeotioni ? 607. tioai and prepoiitiens, connect ? 60o. 96 ENOLfSH GRAMMAR. 60S. We do not say, " Ah, I !" "Oli, I!" but "Ah, me!" "Ob, me!" using ilie objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here spoken of, you perceive, is of the first person : hence, Note X. Pronouns of the fiist person are put in the objective case, after the interjections Oh ! O ! ah ! &-c. G09. We say, " O thou persecutor !" " Oh ye hypocrites \" " O thou who dweiiest," &.c. : hence, Note XI. The interjections O ! oh ! and ah ! require the nominative case of pronouns in th6 second person. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 010. "Ah vie! I must perish." Jill is an iNTEnjECTioN. Me is a pbrsonal pronoun', of the first person, singular, OBJECTIVE Case, and governed by ah, agreeably to Note X. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " O, thou (1.) who hast murdered deaf (3.) to the calls of duty thy friend !" and honor." " O, thou who Jiearost prayer!" " Oil ! happy (4.) us, surrounded " Ah me ! must I endure all this.?" with so many blessings. " Ah ! unhappy (2.) tiiou, who art SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 611. Will you compose a sentence containing aJas? One, con- taining oA.^ One, about volcanoes? One, aho-at lakes? One, about islands? One, about Webster the statesman.? One, about a good scholar? One, about a poor scholar? One, about a good instructer? LV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. 612. Apposition, in grammar, signifies the putting of two nouns in the Same ease. 613. When I say, " John the mechanic lias come." I am speaking of only one person ; ilie two nouns, John and nieclmnic, botn meaning' or referring to the same jKTion j consequently they are put, by apposition, in the same case i lience B.UZ.Z! XV. JJ'licn tirn or more nouns, in the same sentence, signify ilie same thing, they are put, by apposition, in the same case. Will you ri'ijcat from the list six inter- Will you now take the remaining ex- jections .' 2,^5. erciacs to be parsed and written .' IIow may an interjection generally he LV. Meaning of o/i/)o.W£icm ? 612. known ? 98(j. "John the mechanic." IIow many " Ah me I" In what case is me ? filO. persons are here spoken of.' 613. ShouM, f What rule or note applies to me 7 X. then, the two nouns, John and mechanic, " O thou," &.C. What note applies be in the same, or a different case .' 61.3 to thou 1 XI. What is the rulo for this agreement ? " Ah me !" Will you parse ah 7 me 7 XV. 610. (1.) For lAou, apply Note XI. a 1 Ajn-ees with (Anw, by ft»I«IT. a.)BelooBHau)/io,hjR»ttVf. (4.) .Apply Rale IT. EXERCISES. 9? * EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 614, "Webster the statesmmi has left us." Slalcsman is a common noun, masculuxk gender, third FEUSON, SINOl'LAR nUMUEK, NOMINATIVE CASK, tUld pUt in appO- sition with JFtli^ier, by Role XV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. ]. " John the Bapliitwas beheaded." " Cicero, tlie orator, flourished in "David, the tliief, was appre- the lime of Catiline, tlie con- hended." spirator." " Joiinson, tiie bookseller, has " I visit Thompson, tlic profcB- jkiled in business." sor, ofucn." " I consulted Williams, the law- " Jolin, tl-.e miller, died yester- yer." day." ^ 2. " If John will not go, I will go " We will inspect the goods our- myseif." (] .) _ selves." \' You yourself are in fault." " h^ '"'-i* ^''^ "i^'i \^ho committed " They themselves were mis- the deed." taken." RcmKi-k I . — Fir llic same rr-ason I'mt one noun agrees with auollicr in cajC, it agrees with il in nimi!;cr and person al'o. " I, Alexander, by the grace of " We, the representatives of tlie • God, emperor of all trie Rus- " people of these colonics, do Biauii, promulgate this law." make tliio declaration." Remmk 2. — Wlien one noun describes or quatines anotlicr, the one so qualifying" hoco'.nes an adjective in sense, and may ho so considered m pars- ing'. Accordingly, !/'re)«o!ii, in the phrase '•' Tremojit IloUbC/' is an adjec- tive belonging to House, b}' RuLK IV. 615. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "The Marlborough Hotel is situ- " John Dobson vv'as in town yes* ated in Washington-street." terday." " Th& firm of Messrs. Williams " John Johnson, the blacksmith, ik, Sons, has failed." has broken his leg." Remark 3. — When the nouns which refer to the same person or thing are separated by ver!is, as, " Webster is a statesman/' il is customary to apply one or more of the following rales : 1. Any verb may Iiuve the same case after it as hefon it, when both words refer to the same tiling. 2. jf7i(! verb TO EK, through all its variations, has the savie case after it as that ivhicli next precedes it. " Webster the .'Statesman." Will you " Tromont House." Wlint part of pAne statesman ? G14. speech is Trcmontl Kemark 2. How Will you now parse the succoctling ex- use;I here.' Remark 2. Will you parso eroiscs ? it in full .' " I will go myself." Will you parse Will you now parso all the exercieea myself ? uiiiler Remark 2 .' How is the compound personal pronoun What is the rule or rules usually giv- formod in the singular ? 383. How in tho en for parsing statesman, in the plirase, plural .' 386. " Wehstcr is a stutesmau" .' Remarks, When one noun is put in apposition 1, 3, 3, 4. with another, in what particulars does it In tlio same sentence, do Webster and agree with it? Remark 1. slatesinaH lioth mean or refer to the same Will you now parse the ne.\t oxer- person ? In v.h.it case, tlicn, ought lliey cisea ? to be .' 613. By w^iat rule ? XV. CD &Iyt^)e a cpmpouad penonal pronouD, Srst persou, siiigrilar, Eominative ease, and put to apportion with /, I^HulorXV. 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Passive verbs of naming , judging , SfC. have the same cast after them as Before tliem. 4. Neuter verbs have the same case after them as before lliem. 616. The foregoing- rules, in the opinion of the writer, are wholly unneces- sary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by requiring him to make a distinction in form, when there exists none in principle. In corrobora- tion of this fact, Mr. Murray has the folloxving- remark : — 617. " By these examples it appears, that the verb to he has no government of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the cases ; so that the two cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before juid after it, must alwa^'s be alike. Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible by ob- serving that the words, in the cases preceding and following tnc verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in tlie sentence, ' I un- derstood it to be him,' the words it and him are in apposition ; that is, they re- fer to the same thing, and are in the same case." 618. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 1. " Webster is a statesman." " Julius Caesar was that Roman " John is a good scholar." general who conquered the " William will become a distin- Gauls." guished and valuable citizen." " Tom struts a soldier. (1.) " She walks a queen." (1.) " Will sneaks a scrivener." " He is styled Lord (1.) Mayor (1.) "Claudius Nero, Caligula's un of London." cle, a senseless fellow, obtain- " He was named John." (1.) ed the kingdom." " She moves a queen." (1.) 2. " Susan took her to be Mary." (1 .) who is the son of Mr. (2.) John " I took him to be John (S.) Og- Quincy (2.) Adams." (1.) den." " Slie is not now the person whom " We at first took it to be her, but they represented her (I.) to afterwards were convinced have been." that (3.) it was not she." " Whom (5.) do you fancy them "He is not the person who (4.) to be.'" it seemed he was." " The professor was appointed "I understood it to be him (1.) tutor to the prince." Remark Z. — It not uiifrequentl}' hnfipens that tlie comiecting verb is omit- ted ; as, " Tlicy made him captain ;" that is, to he captain. 3. " They named him John." " Tliey proclaimed him king." " The soldiers made him gen- " His countrymen crowned him eral. emperor. G19. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " It might have been hiin,(G.) but " She is the person who I under- tliere is no proof (7.) of it." stood it to iiave been." "Though I was blamed, it could " Who do you think me to bo.'" not have been me.' " Whonj do men say that I am.'" " I saw one who 1 took to be she." " Whom tliinJi ye that I am .''" What olficp does llie verb J.; ic piM'Torni he parsed in the phrase, " I understood it between cases? GI7. to he him" .' 617. Are the cases next before and al'ti r it, Will you now parse lessons 1,2 and 3.' alike, or different .'' G17. Is the verb to be always exprepsed .' What is the opinion of Mr. Murray Remark.3. Give an example. Remarks, respecting tlio cases before and after to Will yon now take the sentences to be be! 617, parsed and corrected; also those to be How iloea he think it and hirn stionld written .' (I.) Apply Rule XV. (2.) Rcniaik 2. (3.) Coujunrlinn (4.) WTio is put in apposition with kt, by Rale XV. (5.) Whom agrees vrilh theni^ by Rale XV (b.) liim shuuld lie /w, to agree wi'Jl itf •wording to Rule XV. (7.} Apply Rule VI NOUNS. 99 620. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Will you compose a sentence having nouns in apposition ? One, having nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb ? One, having a noun used as an adjective ? Will you construct a sentence Imving in it the word who? One, having whose? One, having ichom ? One, having what? One, kaving that ? One, having 7««w ? One, having ?coma«? One, having boy? One, ha.\\ng ffir Is? One, having parents? LVI. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 621. To address si-^-nifics lo spea/c to ; as, " James, your father has come." The name of the persim addressed must always he of the second person ; and a noun in this situation, when it lias no verb to asfree with it, and is wholly dis connected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be independent. Hence, RUiive mooJ, anJ agiees with tliou or yuu understood, by Rule VIL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LVII. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE. G23. In die phrase, " Tlie sun being risen, we set sail," tlie first clause of the sentence, naiTiel3', " Tlie sun being risen," has nothing- to do with the re- mainder: the noun and partici])le may, iherelbrc, when taken together, be said to be in the nominative case indejiondent ; but as wc have already one case of this nature, we will, lor the sake of making a distinction, call this (the noun joined with a participle} the nominative case absolute. Hence, RULE X"^!!. A noun or pronoun before a participle, and independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case absotuic. G2k EXERCISES * The sun(l.) being risen, (2.) we departed." " I^gypt being conquered, Alex- ander returned to Syria." " Shame being lost, all virtue was lost." " The soldiers retreating, victory was lost." IN SYNTAX. " Wellington having returned lo England, tranquiUity was re- stored to France." " Bonaparte being conquered, the king was restored." " The conditions being observed, the bargain was a mutual beneiit." 625. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " Him (3.) only excepted, who " Him being destroyed, the re- maining was a nmrderer." " Her being dismissed, the rest of the sciiolars behaved well." robbers made their escape. LVIII. OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. Note XII. — A verb in the infinitive mood is sometimes placed independently; a?, " To be frank, I own I have in- jured you." G26. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " To confess the truth, I was in " To tell the plain truth, I per fault." suaded him to stay." " To display his power, he op- " To convince you, I will con pressed liis soldiers." tinuo here till you return." IjVII. " The sum being risen, we set Bail." Ilo-,v many v.-oriis in this sen- tence, used iuueiiendently, pjrc taken to- gnlher.' 62:^. Why is this case denominated thocaso absolute ? 623. What is the rule for the case absolute? XVII. Will you now take the parsing exer- cises under Rule XVIl., and then the sentences to be corrected.' " To confess the truth, I How is to covfcss used .' — LVIII. was," &r. Note XII. What id the rule for it .' Note XII. AVhat is the infinitive mood used for ? 479. How many tenses has it .' 528. What it hs usual sign .' 517. Will yon now parse the exercises un- der Note XII. ? (I.) In tlin nominative case absolute with Ltingriscn, by Rule XVIf. (2.) Ruls XHI. (3.) Wlien a noun b in lie case absolute, it should be in the nomioative caje. Him ihould tieretore be li£, 1 Rule XVIl. MOOD. 101 626-1. Note XIII. — The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb of the third person singular. 627. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. ' To excel requires much exer- " Tliou shalt not kill, is the com- tion." mand of God." " To abandon friends will sink a " Honor thy father and thy moth- man's character." or, is required of all men." " To practise religion is our du- " To write a fair hand requires ty." practice." Remark I.— To excel is the iioiniiialive case to reqtiires by Note XIII. ; and requires agrees with to excel by Rule V'll. In parsing " Thou shalt not kill," we first apply Rules VI., Vlf. and IX. The whole phrase is considered the nominative to is required, by Note XTII. 2. The infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, is frequently the object of a transitive verb ; as, " Bo>'s love to play." What do l)oys love ? " To play." The object oi' lore, then, is to play. " Children do not consider how much fias been done for them l)y their parents." Consider what ? '' How mnch has been doiufor them Inj their pi,:reiUs ;" including for the object of the verb the wlioie phrase in italics. Note XIV. — The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, may have an adjective or participle agreeing with it, when there is no noun, either expressed or understood, to which the adjective may belong. 628. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " To see the sun is pleasant." " Defraud not thy neighbor, is " To practise virtue will be pro- binding on all." ductive of hajipiness." " To do good to our enemies, is " To be ridiculed is unpleasant." not natural to our liearts." Remarks. — P/i'asrw; agrees with " to see the sun," by Note XIV. Bind' ing agrees with '' Defraud not thy neighbor," by the same aiilliority. To is apply Rule VII. ; to ■<;un, Rule VIII. ; to the infinitive to see, Note XIII. 629. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Will you compose one or more sentences having an infinitive gov- erned by a participle ? One, using an infinitive after a noun .' One, describing the manner of playlnVhen is the coiijunctio;) as u.scd as a What docs Englisli grammar teach f relative pronoun ' Note XIX. 288. How many parts of speech aro VS'ill you parse a-i, iii llie phrase " He there in Englisli .' 299. roceiveif into his school as many scholars Wluit does orthngraphy include f 291. as applicil" ? Note XIX. What does it teacli us ? 291. Will you p;irse llie remaininj exercises What does ctijinvlogij teach .' 293. under this Note .' Wl:ul are projicr nouns.' 302. VVIion is than considered a preposition.' \Vliat aro common nouns .' 301. Koto XX. Oivn an example. In what manner may proper names bo Wliiit would Ijo the efl'ecl of u:ilnn[ the used as coiJimoii names ? 303. personal proijoun in^-tead of the relative .' How may common iiamea be used to Ohservation under Note XX. Give nn reiircsent individuals .' 304. exauiple What is a collective noun .' 306. Will you now take the sontences tobe VVliut lour things beloiig to nouns .' 308 par?ed and written .' What is gender.'' 312. Masculine gon- Uow many articles are there .' 3.51. der .' 314. Feminine gender ' 315. Will vou name them i" 3.51. When do Common gcmler .' 316. Neuter gender ' we use a ? 87, 357. When an ? »U. 317. PARTS OF SPEECH. 100 LXIV. OF WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 650. That is a relative, When who or tcliich may bo substituted for it, aud make sense ; as, " The man that [who] arrived yesterday." 651. That is a demonstrative pronoun. When it is joined with a noun to point it out ; as, " That man is intelligent." 652. That is a conjunction, In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pro- noun ; as, " He studies tliat he may learn." 653. But is ?i preposition, When it has the sense of except ; as, " All but [except] John came." 654. But is an adverb, When it has the sense of only ; as, " This is but [only] doing our duty." 655. But is a conjunction. In all cases wlicn it is neither an adverb nor preposition ; as, " He called, but I refused to go." 656. As is a relcdive, When it fuUows many, such, or same ; as, " Let such as hoar take lieed." 657. As is an adverb, When it is joined to an adverb or adjective in the sense of 50 ; as, " He does as well as- he can." 658. As is a conjunction, In all cases except when it is an adverb or relative ; as, " He did as I directed him." 659. Either is a conjunction, When it corresponds to or ; as, " Either the one or the other." 660. Either is a distributive pronotm, When it means "one of the two;" as, "You can take either road.'^ 661. Both is a conjunction. When it is followed by and; as, " We assisted him both for his sake a,nd our own." How may nouns, naturally neuter, be noun ? 651. Give an example. When a converted into the masculine or feminine conjunction ? 652. Give an example. •jender ? 318. Wlicn is but a preposition ? 653. Give Wliat is the feminine corresponding to an example. When an adverb .' 654. bachelor 1 319. How is the feminine Give an example. When a conjunction ? hero formed ? 655. Give an example. Will you spel! the feminine corres- When is as a relative.' 656. Give an poi.ding to lad ? king 1 benefactor ? 319. example. When an adverb ? 657. Give How is the feminine here formed? an example. When a conjunction .' 658. Will you spell the feminine corres- Give an example, ponding \o baron 7 poet 1 priest 1 Jew 7 When is either a conjunction ? 659. totaryl tutor 7 hero 7 duke7 instructer 7 Give an example. When a distributive jjg, pronoun ? 660. Give an example. LXIV. When is tftat a relative ? 650. When i^tot/j a conjunction ' 661. Give Give an example. A demonstrative pro- an example. When an adjective pronoun? 662. Give an example. 10 110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 662. Both is an adjective pronoun. When it means " the two ;" as, " Both the men are guilty.'' 603. Yet is a conjunction, When it follows though; as, "Though he re{,roves me, yet 1 esteem him." In all other cases, it is a.\\ adcerb ; as, " That event has yet to come." 664. For is a coiij unction, When it means the same as because ; as, " He trusted him, for he knew that he would not deceive him." 665. For is a preposition. In all instances except when it is a conjunction ; as, " He works for me." 666. What is a compouncl relative, •!• When it stands for " that which ;" as, " I will take what [that which] you send me." 667. What is an interrogative relative pronoun. When used in asking questions ; as, " What do you want .'" 668. What is an adjective pronoun. When joined with a noun ; as, " What strange things he said !" 669. What is a compound adjective pronoun. When joined with nouns, and has the sense of two or more words; as, " In what manner he succeeded, is unknown to me ;" that is, " The manner in lohich he succeeded, is unknown to me." 670. What is an interjection, When used to express wonder ; as, " What ! take my money ?" 671. Then is a conjunction, When it has the sense of therefore ; as, " If he has commanded it, then I must obey." 672. Then is an adverb. When it refers to time ; as, " Did you hear it thunder then ?" 673. Much is a noun. When it stands for quantity ; as, " Where much is given, much will be required." 674. Much is an adjective, Wh^n it is joined to nouns ; as, " Much labor fatigues us." 675. Much is an adverb. When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does ; as, " Thou art much mightier than I." 676. More is a noun. When it implies quantity ; as, " The more we have, the more we want.' When is yet a conjunction .' GG3. Give VVlien an interjection .' 670. Give an ex- (in example. Wlien an adverb ' 663. ample. . , ^,, _,. Give an example WI.en is then a conjunction.' 671. Give When is /(//-a conjunction .' 604. Give an example. When an adverb.' b7Z ane.xainple When a preposition ' 665 Give ujj example. Give an example VVhen isviuck «. noun .' 673 Give ao When is what a compound relative ' example. Wlicn an adjective .' 674. Give 666 Give an example. When an inter- an example. When an adverb .' 675. rogative relative pronoun ' Gi;7 Give an Give an example. , „„ ^. example When an adjective pronoun .' VVhen is JHore a noun ? 676. Give an 668 Give an example. When a com- exampl* pound 'ironoun 669 Give an examole EXERCISES. Ill 677. More and most are adjectives. When they qualify a noun ; as, " Tlie more joy I have, the more sorrow 1 expect ;" " Most men are mistaken in their jmrsuit of hap- piness." 678. MoRK and most are adverbs, When used in comparisons ; as, " This boy is more obedient than thatj" " The soil of Cuba is most fertile." G79. PROMISCUOUS EXE " They perfume their garments." " A perfume is a swoet odor." " They rise early in tlie morn- ing." " A rise sometimes signifies the beginning." " Rufus speaks the language of truth." " James performed his part well." " A well is a fountain of water." " A well man is one who enjoys his health." " We frequently walk in the gar- den." " The Jews fast often." " He walks very fast." " The refuse signifies the worth- less remains." " Desert not a friend." " Joseph's brethren came and bowed down before him." " William went after his slate." " The man that I saw, was ex- ecuted." " That man that you met yester- day in the street, was taken and sent to Boston, that he might have an impartial trial." " We assisted him both for your sake and our own." RCISES IN SYNTAX. " His elder brethren came before Benjamin did." " Jolin left after William came." " Evil communications corrupt good manners." " Corrupt conversation is very foolish." " A walk in the fields in the sum- mer season is delightful." " A true fast is abstaining from iniquity." " Sin is a moral evil, and the cause of natural evils." " Protest not rashly, lest thou have to repent of it." " A protest is a solemn declara- tion against a thing." " Do notliing rashly, lest thou precipitate thyself into inex- tricable difficulty." " Hasty promises are seldom kept." " Did you hear the report of the cannon then ?" " Where much is given, much will be required. ' " Future time is yet to come." " He trusted him, for he knew that he would not deceive him." When are more and most adjectives .'' 677. Give e.xamples of each. \Vhen ad- verbs .'' G78. Give e.xamplps of euch. What is number ? 5. What does the singular number denote .' 8. What the plural .' in. Wliat nouns have the sino^ular form on- ly .' 3-24. What the plural .> S'lr,. What are the same in both numbers .' 32f). How is the plural number of nouns gen- erally formed ? 327. V\'hen r.juns end in ck, sh, &c., how do they form the plural ? 328. How do those ending in /or /<; ? 329. How is the plural formed, when the sin- gular ends in i/, with no other vowel in the same syllable .' 330. What is case ? 333. The nominative cage ? 335. Possessive case .' 337. How formed .' 338. How formed when the gin- gular ends in Si' ? 341. What does the objective case expresg ? 343. Will you decline man ? book ? 345 chair ? 34.5. Will you parse the promiscuous exer- cises ! What is an adjective .' 363. What does the positive state express ? 365. (.'omprirative .' 366. Superlative .' 367. How is the comparative formed in mono- svllables .' 3(>9. How in .more syllables tiian one ? 370. How do you compare the following ad- jectives .' — good ? bad ? wise ? liUte J small ? virtuous 1 many 1 old ? 115. When does an adjectivo become a noun in parsing i 378 112 ENGLISH GRAMJIAR. '* Botli the men are guilty." " Although he reproves me, yet I esteem him." '' All but John came." " This is but doing our duty." " He called me, but 1 refused to 0"O." ' Let such as hear take heed." " He did as I directed him." ' You may take either the one or the other." " Either road will conduct you to the right place." ' If he has commanded it, then I must obe}^." *' Susan is determined to learn." ' By framing excuses he prolong- ed his stay." ' The man who is faithfully at- tached to religion may be re- lied on with confidence." " James, do visit itie." 3. He works for me." He refused what wis sent hitn." What strange things lie saw !' In what manner he succeeded is unknown to me." What ! will you take my life ?" The more we have, the more we wtmt." The more joy I have, the more sorrow I expect." The most dutiful children are the happiest children." Much labor fatigues me." Thou art much mightier than I um." ' Virtue and vice are opposites." When John's father asked him that question, he heard him but reiused to answer him." The wall is sixty ftet high." ' To meet our friends after a long absence affords tlfe much joy.' LXV. CONTRACTIONS. GSO. Of the Auxiliuiy Have, also of Had. They've forsaken him.' " I've satisfied myself. " I'd gone when you came." " They'd determined to let hira •' They'd just returned from go." town." 681. Of Will and Would. " I'll finish ray work first." " He is Still determined that he'll " They'd sing songs till midnight, not forbear." if tJiey were urged." He'll at last mind me." Will )0u inline a few adjectives which havo in t lioinselvcs a superlative sigiiilica- lion ? 37 !. What is a pronoun ? 381. A personal pronoun ? ^8:2. Why callsJ personal ? 382. Ilow many persons liavo pronouns in each ninnber .' 33'J. How many num- bers .' 38 1. To which of the pronouns is gender ap- plied ? 382. How many cases have pronouns .' 384. \Vill you decline / ? thou 7 he ? she 1 U 7 127. What kind of a pronoun is myself 7 386. How formed .' 38G. What is a relative pronoun .' 409. Why called relative .' 408. What is said of tlie relative what 7 429. flow ought who to be applied .' 412. How which 7 413. How may that be used ? 415. When are pronouns called interroga- tive .' 431. Wliat are adjective pronouns ? 390. How many kinds of adjective pronouns are there .' 391. Which are the demonstrative .' 398. Wliy so called ? 398. The distributive ? 39;f. Why so called .' 393. The indefi- nite .' 402. Why so called .' 401. To what do Viis and that refer .' 400. ^V^iU you decline one 7 404. other ? 403. What is tlie rule by which prononni agree with their antecedents ? V. Which words in sentences are antece dents .' 420. What are subaequents ? 431. Will you paiae the exeicires marked 9 CONTRACTIONS 113 682. Of Am and Is. " That man's rich." " 'Tis strange that she will not " 'Tis true she's dead." regarii the kind assistance of " I'm sorry that you have mis- her friend." spent your time." 683. O/* Cannot and Will not. " He can't endure such afflic- " He won't disobey mp." tions." " You won't mistake the direc- *' You can't be absent at sucli tion." times." 684. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Interrogative Sentence. •' Who will assist me .'" " John" " What will make me respectable [will assist me]. and happy ?" " Virtue." "What sent our forefathers to "Who taught him grammar.'" this country ?" " The love of " Mr. Williams." liberty." 685. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Auxilianj. " Stephen will go if John will' " He received me in the same [o-o]. manner that I would you." " Susan shall walk, but John " I will do it as soon as I can." shall not." " The work is not completed, but " I have recited ; have you .'" soon will be." 686. Omissions of the Principal Verb after Than and As. " Thomas is a better scholar than " Jolinson is richer than James." William" [is]. " Susan is not so beautiful as " He was more beloved than Cin- Mary." thia, but not so much ad- " She is more playful than hei mired." brother." 687. Omissions of the verb To be. "Sweet the pleasure, rich the " Delightful task, to rear the ten- treasure." der thought, " A child of freedom thou." To teach the young idea how to " Sweet the nmsic of birds." shoot." " Dear the sclioolboy's sport." What is a verb ? 438. live.' 472. Subjunctive.' 456. Infini AVhat is an active verb .' 439. live ? 479. When is an active verb transitive.' 440. What are participles .' 49S. How may When intransitive .' 441. tlie paiticii)lus in ing he distinguished What is a passive verb .' 444. How from otiitr words of like termination i formed .' .510. 500. How may a transitive verb be known .' How many, and which are the partici jg4 pies ?J Wliat does the present express ? How an intransitive .' 154. 500. Perfect .' 502. Compound perfect .' W'hat is a neuter verb .' 450. 504. Will you next take the exercises mark- LXV. Will you next parse the con- gj 3 ) tractions .' tTSO. Wiiat belong to verbs .'* What is tense .' 494. What is the pres- How many numbers have they .' How ent used for .' 4S'2. The perfect .' Imper- manv persons.'! feet .' 4S8. Pluperfect .' 491. First fu- Whal is mood .' 451. How many arc tnre .' 492. Second future i 49J. there.' 481. Will you name them .' Under what circumstances do we Use What is the indicative mood used for .' the present tense to denoto the relative 452. The potential ? 453. The impera- time of a future action ? 484. • Mood, tense, Bumber and person. t Threp, } Three— the present, perfect, and compound perfeel 10* H4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 688. Omissions o/Mat, Might, Could, Would, and Sboula, " He might not we*p, nor laugit, nor sing.'" " Should 1 forgive you, and allow you to depart, you would hot reform." " Live long and be happy." " Who will entreat the Lord that he spare our lives .''" " I could not think, nor speak, nor hear." 689. Omissions of the Conjunction before the Verb tVi the Sub- junctive Mood. Had I improved my time as 1 ought to have done, I should have been well qualified for business." Were there no alternative, I would not do that." " If he will repent and reibrm, I will assist him." " Unless good order be restored, and the former officers be re- elected, there will be an end to the administration of jus- tice." 690. Omissions of For after Verbs implying the idea of serving, " Make me a pen." " Bring me some water." " Order me a carriage." " Purchase him a knife." 69L Omissions of the Inteijection. " Sweet child ! lovely child ! thy " Thou Preserver and Creator ot parents are no mo)-e." all mankind." " Sweet blossom I precious to my " My beloved Ulrica ! hast thou, heart." too, forgotten me .''" 692. Omissio7i3 of the Relative. "Several men are there come <• I trust that he I desire to see so from Europe." v.v cli, will speedily return." LXVI. INVERTED SENTENCES. 693. The JS/ominalive Case placed after the Verb. "Smack went the whip, round guished for his learning and went the wheels ; politeness." Were ever folks so glad ? ' " There goes a man alike distin- And in sfft ringlets waved her golden hair." In what sort of ilcscriptions do wo uso the present for tl'.e past tense .' 48fi. Wliat is tl>e conjugation of a verb? 531. What is the conjugation of an aclivo verb styled .' 532. A passive verli.' 532. How many tcn«es has the inslicalive .' 525. Potential.^ 527. Suhjunctive.' 52i). fmpnrativo .'' ."JiO. Inlinitive .'' 523. What is tlie sijjn of the piosent indica- tive i 519. 'I'he inriporfect .' 520. Ter- fbct .' 521. I'luperfact .' 522. First fu- ture ? 523. Pecond future .' 524. Tlio potential mood ^ 515. Inlinitive f 517, Subjunctive .' 510. How many persons nas the imperative? 518. How n;any lenses .'' 529. How many fornis 1ms the subjiusctive muod .' 4t)l. In what do they Jiflcr >. 461. Will you now parse the omissions ? Co'l, &c. How is the passive verb formed .'' 510. Will you decline love in the indicative present, passive.-' and the verb to be in the imperfect? Pertirt ? riuperftot ? First future ? Second future r Present poten- tial ? Imperfect,? Perfect? Pluperfect? Present subjunctive, conmion form ? Im- perfect ? Pe'rfftCt ? Pluperfect? First fu- ture ? Second future ? In what voice, mood, tense, number and person, is " I love" ? " Wo love" ? " Thoy are loved" ? " You ale" ? " I did learn" ? Molm instriicted" ? He 'They have returned"? "Have thoy gone?" "They have been' I had (sad" ? " Thoy had been distinguished" ^ SENTENCES TKANSPOSED. 115 694. Tlie Objective Case before the Verb. " Tyrants no more tlieir savage " Me glory srinirnons to the raar- uature kept, tial scene." And foes to virtue wondered how " The rolls of fame I will not now they wept." explore." 693. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Will you compose a sentence exemplifyino- Rule VIII. .' One, Rule IX..' X? XL? Xn.? XIII..' XIV..? Will you compose a sentence on the use of the dog ? One, on the clouds? One, on night ? One, on wind? One, on snoio ? One, on hail? One, on ice? One, on skating? One, on fishing ? One , on cotirage ? One , on cowardice? One, on filial duty ? One, on indolence ? One, on schools ? 696. SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. " Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown." Ti-ansposed. " A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, rests here his head upon tlie lap of earth." " When, young, life's journey I began. The glittering prospect charmed my eyes ; I saw along the extended plam, Joy after joy successive rise : But soon I tbund 'twas all a dream. And learned the fond pursuit to shun. Where few can roach the purposed aim. And liiousands daily are undone." Trayisposed. '• I began life's journey when young, and the glittering prospect charmed my eyes ; I saw joy after joy successive rise, along the ex- tended plain : but soon I found it was all a dream ; and learned to shun tlie fond pursuit, where few can reach the purposed aim, and thousands are daily undone." " " Needful austerities our wills restrain. As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm." Ti-ansposed. " Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the ten- der plant from iiarm." "Tliou had^t been"? " Yoti sliall be Will you give the synopsis oC desire in taugiit" .' " Slinll 1 bo punisliotl .'" "He the active voice, with tho participles.' shall have boon".' Of tho satnc in ti-.e pas.sive .' Of do in the LXVI. Will you parse tlic iiiveiteil active ? In the passive ? sentences? 693, &c. When is a verb called regnkir .' 533 In what voice, mood, tense, numbor and When irregular ? 534. person, is " Love thou" ! " I may go" ? Will you repeat tho present and iinper- "Yuumaybe rea^arded".' " Vou might feet tenses, also tlie perfect partieii)lo, be rejoiced" ? " She. may have been re- of am ? see 7 hear 1 dol weep ? gink ' fused" ? " We should have been" .' " If swim 1 I have" .' " If thou have" .' " If thou Will you next take tho sentences to be hast" ? " To have" .' " To have been".' written .' Will you give the synopsis of learn. What are auxiliary verbs .' 511. through all the moods, tenses, &;c., in the How many and which are they ? S13. first person, including the participle .' What are defective verbs .' 579. Ltarn, in like manner, in the passive.' What is an adverb .' 588. Why so call Tho verb to be iu the same manner .' ed .' 283 ' 116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " On some fond breast the parting soul relies, Some pious drops the closing eye requires ; E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries, E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires." Transposed. " The parting soul relies on some fond breast ; the closing eye requires some pious drops ; the voice of nature cries, even from the tomb; and their wonted fires live even in our ashes." " From lofty themes, from thoughts that soared on high, And opened wondrous scenes above the sky, My Muse ! descend ; indulge my fond desire * With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire And smooth my numbers to a female's praise A partial world will listen to my lays, While Anna reigns, and sets a female name Unrivalled in tlie glorious lists of fame." Transposed. " Omy Muse ! descend thou from lofl}' tliemes, and from thoughts that soared on high, and opened wondrous scenes above the sky; imhilge thou my fond desire ; and do tJiou inspire my melting soul with softer thoughts, and smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; a partial world will listen to my lays, while Anna reigns, and sets a female name unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." In what manner are adverbs compared ? 23(i, 2.^4. \Vh;it are the phrases whicli do the of- fice of adverbs called ? 589. Will you name a few .' 559. What is a preposition .' .595. Will you repeat the list of prepositions .' S47. What is a conjunction .' (^12. Con- junction copulative .' 2o5. Wliy so call- ed ? 2(>4. ('onj\inction disjunctive.' 274. Why so called .' 271. Will you repeat the list of copulative conjunctions.' 2o6. Of disjunctive con- junctions .' 275. What is an interjection .' 607. Why FO called .' 28.'?. Meluion a few .' 285. What is syntax .' 296. What is a sen- tence .' 252. A simple sentence..' 253. What is the rule for the agreement of nouns.' XV. Articles? II., III. Ad- jectives.' [V. Pronouns.' V. Verbs.' VII. Participles .' XIII. Agreement of a verb plural with two nouns singular .' XVIIl. Adjective pronouns and numer- als .' Note I. What is the rule by which a verb agrees with a noun of multitude, or collective noun .' Note XVI. Rule for the objective case after a transitive verb .' Vlll. What is the ruin for the objective case after a preposition .' X. After a partici- ple .' XIV. Rule for the adverb.' IX. Rule respecting the interjections O! oh! all .' &c. .' Note X. Will you parse the sentences marked transposed .' GENERAL OBSERVATIOIVS. SYNTAX That part of Grammar which treats of tlie formation and sound oF the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and syl- lables into words, is called Orthography. That part which treats of the diflerent sorts of words, their various changes and their derivations, is called Etymology. That part which treats of the union and right order of words in the formation of sentences, is called Syntax. Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, Universal and Particular. Universal Grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages. Particular Grammar applies those principles to a particular language, modi- fying tliem according to the genius of that tongue, and the established practice of the best writers and speakers by whom it is used. Language, in the proper sense of the word, signifies the ex- pression of our ideas, and their various relations, by certain ar ticulate sounds, whicli are used as the signs of those ideas and relations. An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech. Lettkrs are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, the elements of the language. The letters of the English Language, called the English Al- phabet, are twenty-six in number, each of which constitutes the first principle, or least part of a word. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. A votv'^el is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. I'he vowels are a, e, i, o, it, and sometimes lo and y. W and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; but in eve- ry other situation they are vowels. A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded with- out the aid of a vowel ; as, h, d, f, I. All letters except the vowels are consonants. Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vow- el. They are frj p, t, d, k, and c and g- hard. 118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are f, I, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids, because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, into their sounds. A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a sin- gle impulse of the voice ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner ; as, eau in beau, iew in vieiv. A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in eagle, oa in boat. A Syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, uttered by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part of a wurd ; as, a, an, ant. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a Trisyl- lable ; a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent as signs of our ideas. Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in the language ; as, man, good. A derivative word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word ; as, inanfid, goodness. The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, pro- duce a syllable ; syllables, pro])erly combined, produce a word ; words, duly combined, produce a sentence ; and sentences, prop- erly combined, produce an oration, or discourse. A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming complete sense. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite* verb ; as, " Life is short." A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences connected together ; as, " Life is short, and art is long." As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so the members of sentences may he divided likewise into simple and compound members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become memliers of other sentences, by means of some additional connection ; as in the following example : " The ox knoweth his o^^Tler, and the ass his master's crib ; but Israel dolh not know, my people doth not consider." This sentence consists of two compounded members, each of which is subdivided into two siitiple members, which are properl)' called clauses. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sen- tence. The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject, the attribute, and the object. * Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in the infinitive mood have no respect to number and person SYNTAX. JJ9 The subject is the tiling cliielly spoken of; tlio attribute is tlie thing or action aifirined or denietl of it ; and the object is the thing affected by such action. The nominative case denotes the subject ; and usually goes before the verb or attribute ; and the word or j)hras(? denoting the object, follows the verb ; as, " A wise man governs his p;is- eions." Here a loise man is the subject ; governs, the attribute or thing affirmed ; and his passions, the obj>'ct. Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord iirul Govern- ment. Concord is the agreement which one word iias with another in gender, number, case, or person. Government is tliat power which one part of speech has over another, in directinjj its mood, tense, or case. What is Orthography? Etymolog'y ? Syntax? How many kiiuls of erammar are there ? VVliat are tliej' ? What is iuii\ers;il graiiiiiiar ? ]*iir- ticuiar grammar ? What is language ? Wliat is an arliciilale sound .' What are letters 7 What are the letters of the Englisli lan;Tuago called ? What does each constitute ? How aie letters divided ? What is a vowel .' Which are they ? How many do the^' make ? When are w and ;/ consonants ? when vowels ? What is a consonant ? Give an exaniple. Which letters are consonants ? TIow are the consonants divided ? What is a mute ! Which are they ? What is a semi-vowel ? Which are they ? Which of the semi- vowels are called liquids, and why ? What is a diphthong ? (iive an exam- ple. What is a triphthong ? Give an example. What is a proper diphthong? Give an- example. Wiiat is an improper di|)hthong ? Ciive an example. What is a syllable ? monosyllable ? dissyllalile ? trisyllable ? pol_\s3llable ? What are words ? Of how man}' sorts are they ? What is a primitive word ? Give an example. What is a derivative wonl ? Give an example. Wiia< does an elementary soinul protluce ? What do syllables produce .' W^ords ? Sentences ? W^hat is a sentence ? How are sentences divided ? What is a simple sentence ? Compound sentence ? Give an example of each. How are the members of sentences divided ? Ciive an example. W lial is a phrase ? What are the principal parts of a simple sentence ? What is the subject ? tiie attribute ? the object ? What does I he nominative case denote ? anil wliere IS it usually placed in a sentence ? Give an example. Of how manv parts does Syntax consist ? What are they ? What is concord ? Government ? The right construction of sentences may perhaps be best learned by correcting examples of wrong con- struction. Exercises in false syntax for tiie pujt.l, as- sisted by rules and notes to parse and correct, will therefore now be given. The following contain all the notes and observations in Murray's large Grammar, together with all liis ex- ercises in false syntax. RULE ■VII. Corresponding with Murray's Griinimar, RULE I. A verb must azfee with its nominative case in number and person. The following are a few instances of the violation of tliis rule : " What sig- nifies good opinions, when our practice is bad 1" " what sig7ti/y." " There^s 120 ENGLISH GRAADIAR. l«'o or three of us, \\lio h.ave seen the work ;" " there are." " We may sup- pose there was more impostors than one ;" " there ivere more." " I have con- sidered wliat have been said on botli sides in this controversy ;'' " what luis been said." " If thou would be healtiiy, live temperately ;" " if thou wouldst." " Thou sees how litllc has been done ;" " thou seest." " Though thou Ccumot do much for the cause, thou may and should do something 5" " canst not^ mayst, and shouldst." " Full many a flower are bom to blush unseen 5" "is born." " A conformity of inclinations and qualities prepare us for friend- ship ;" " prepares us." " A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us;" " /ia« been." '• In piety and virtue consist the happiness of map ;" '^ con- sists." " To these precepts are subjoined a copious selection of mles ajjici maxims ;" "is subjoined." " If thou would be healthy, live temperately." Which word is wrong in this e.vample 1 In what particular, wrong ? Why ? What is the Rule for it ? How, then, would you correct the e.xample ? — " There was more equivo- eators." Which word is wrong here ? What correction shodd be made 1 Why? lO' ^'« pupil is Jirst to ansiver the questions on each Rule or Note, then to correct and parse Ike subsequent exercises. It is suggested to the teaclier, tliat tfie pupils slionld direct tJieir attention Jirst to the Kules aiid exercises vnder them, exclusicehj , omitting the Notes, ^'C, for a review, wh^n all may be taker, in course. " Disappointments sinks tlie heart of man ; but the renewal of hope give consolation." " The smiles that (1.) encourage severity of judgment hides malice and insincerity." " He dure not act (2.) contrary (3.) to his instructions." " Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour." " The mechanism of clocks and v/atches were totally un- known (4.) a few centuries ago." (5.) " The number of inhabitants in Great Uritain and Ireland, do not exceed si.xteen millions." " Nothing ((J.) but vain and fool- ish pursuits (7.) delight some persons." " A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye." "So (8.) much(i).) both (10.) of ability and merit HI.) are sel- dom (12.) found.' " In the conduct of Parmenio a nii.xture of wisdom and folly (11.) were very (f;.) conspicu- ous." "He is an author (13.) of more credit than Plutarch, (14.) or any other (15.) that (11.) write lives too (12.) hastily." " The inquisitive (IG.) and cu- rious (11.) is generally talka- tive." (17.) " Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties." " The sincere (16.) is always es- teemed." " Has the goods been sold to ad vantage.? and did thou em brace the proper season ?" " There is many occasions (6.) in life, in which silence and simplicity (11.) is true wis- dom." " The generous (16.) never re- counts minutely the actions they have done ; nor the pru- dent, (7.) those (15.) they will do." " He need not proceed (2.) in such haste." " The business that (I.) related to ecclesiastical meetings, mat- tors (11.) and persons, (11.) were to be ordered accord- ing (18.) to the king's direc- tion." (1.1 Sec 650. (9.) Apply Rule XU. See 480. (3.) Adjective. (4.) Riilo till. (5.) Jl fftc centuries ago — -iiii adverhial phrase, 589 ; ov apply Note XVIlf., 648, to ceiatLrie.-!',ii.aA Rule IX. ton^o. (G.) Rule VI. (7.) Rule Xt. (8.) 239. - in \ cm l^^ \ i>.,i„ vr /lO i A.lTro-Ii n-x \ »..!,. VV Rl'i (9.)'6T3. (10.) 661 (14.) " Plutarch is." IV. (18.) 217. (11.) Ilulo XI." (12.) Adverb.' ' (13.) Rule XV. 613. (15.) Notol. 405, and Rule Xf. (16.) 378. (17.) Rule SYNTAX. 121 " In him were Iiapjiily blended When om- alxiiulance makes us true dignity with soilness of wish (12.) for more." manners." " Tliou shalt love thy neiglibor "The supportof so (1.) many (2.) as (115.) sincerelyas (14.) thou of his relations, weri^ a heavy lovos thyself." tax (Li.) upon his indiuitry ; " Has thou no better reason for but thou know^3 he paid it censurinjf (15.) thy friend and cheerfully." companion .''" (16.) " What (4.) avails the best .senti- " Thou, who art the Author (17.) ments (5.) if persons do not and Bestower (IG.) of liie,cnn live suitably to tiiem.^" doubtless restore it also : but " Not one ((J.) of them whom thou whether thou will please to Bees clothed (7.) in purple, restore it, or not, that thou are completely happy." only knows." " And the fame of this person, " O thou my voice (18.) inspire, and of his wonderful actions, Who touched (19.) Isaiah's hal were diffused (8.) throughout lowed lips with fire." the countiy." " Accept (20.) tliese grateful tears " The variety of the productions for thee they flow ; of genius, like (9.) that (10.) For thee, that ever felt (21.) anoth of the operations of nature, er's wo." are without limit." " Just to thy word, in every " In vain (11.) ourflocksand fields thought sincere ; increase our store, Who knew (22.) no wish but wnat the world might hear." 1. The infinitive mood, or pari of a sentence, is sometimes put as the nom- inative case to the verb ; as, " To see the son (.5 pleasant ;" " 'I'o l)c good is to be ha|ipy ;" " A desire to e.Kcel others in learning; and virtue is commenda- ble ;" " That warm climates sliould accelerate the growth of the human bod}', and siiorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe ;'' " To be temperate in eating and drinking', to use exercise in open air, and to pre.serve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best preservatives of health." '^' To sec the sun are pleasant." Which word is wronsf in this example ? In what particular, wrong ? What is p/fasant ? What, tlien, is the nomina- tive case to is ? Is there one thing, or more than one, here spoken of, as being pleasant ? Why, then, should we use is in preference to are ? What is the Rule for is 1 (2j.) Kule for " To see," or " To see the sun" 7 (SI.) 5^5* Wlien exainples arc referred to irilhout being qiwledj the teacher may read them to the pupil. "To be temperate in eating," &c. How many things are here spoken of as being the best preservatives ? SiiouKl we, then, use llic singular or pturai verb ? Rule for it ? (25.) 1. " To do unto all men, as we " From a fear of the world's cen- would th