ESSENTIAL 
 
 OGRAP 
 
 BRIGHAMAND M'EARLAKE 
 
 FIRST BOOK 
 
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 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
 
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 ESSENTIALS of 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 FIRST BOOK 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM A.M., Sc.D., L.H.D. 
 
 l^ROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY, COLGATE UNIVERSITY 
 HAMILTON. N. Y. 
 
 AND 
 
 CHARLES T. McFARLANE, Pd.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, TEACHERS COLLEGE 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK 
 
 REVISED EDITION 
 
 4 r Q 4 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO BOSTON ATLANTA
 
 Copyright, 1916, 1920, by 
 ALBERT PERRY BRTGHAM anu CHARLES T. McFAKLANE. 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 ESSENTIALS OF GEOGRArHV, FIRST BOOK 
 
 ^. P. •.■,<;,
 
 a- 
 
 -I 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 In an elementary textbook of geojirapliv, 
 three things are of prinie importance, tliat 
 the facts and principles selected shall be the 
 essentials of our knowledge of the earth, that 
 they be within the understanding of the 
 young, and that they be set forth in an in- 
 teresting manner. 
 
 To secure these ends a large section of this 
 book is devoted at the outset to the ways of 
 living and working, which ditter iii form but 
 agree in principle among all men. 1 his Hrst 
 ., section includes matter of the kind often 
 ^ called "home geography"; but that caption 
 is not used here, because real home geogra- 
 phy must be developed by the teacher, who 
 can readily apply to any particular locality 
 the principles unfolded on pages i to 54. 
 These first lessons of geography, telling 
 J, how men work and live, are not only an es- 
 ^ sential part of the study, but they are de- 
 ^' signed to secure the pupil's interest in the 
 lessons that follow. The child gains new 
 appreciation of what he does and of what is 
 being done around him wlien he learns that 
 similar things are done in remote lands, and 
 , he takes in the facts of distant countries and 
 \ of the earth as a whole because they appeal 
 ^ to his human interest. 
 
 In treating the earth as a whole (pages 55- 
 69) the three aims above stated have been 
 ^ carefully kept in view. The conceptions of 
 ^0 size and movement of the earth here inv'olved 
 are essential to the pupil's knowledge of geog- 
 raphy. The facts of the earth's size, shape, 
 and motions, and the subjects of direction, 
 latitude, longitude, and seasons are presented 
 in clear and simple statements and with 
 ample illustrations. Unusual atiention is 
 also given to the meaning and use of maps. 
 
 Men are related to the earth and to each 
 other largely through the products of the 
 earth and their exchange. Both books of 
 this series lay great emphasis upon production, 
 manufacture, and trade. Not only in the 
 introductory sections of the First Book, but 
 also throughout the regional chapters, the 
 subjects of agriculture, ()uarrying, mining, 
 fishing, lumbering, manufacturing industries, 
 transportation routes, and commercial ex- 
 changes receive much attention. Here again 
 the facts and principles are essential, compre- 
 
 hensible, and interesting. The subject matter 
 is carefully graded in reference to the fuller 
 and more elaborate treatment in the Second 
 Book of the scries. 
 
 The derangement of industry caused by the 
 recent war, great though it is, must be re- 
 garded as a temporary interruption of normal 
 conditions. It is therefore thought best, in 
 describing the industries of each country, 
 to emphasize conditions as they are in normal 
 times. The aim is to present matters of 
 permanent importance rather than those of 
 passing interest. 
 
 In the division of the United States into 
 groups of states, the books conform to the 
 arrangement of the United States Census. 
 This grouping has the .soundest geographical, 
 economic, and historical basis; and is in 
 harmony with current usage in newspapers 
 and periodicals. 
 
 Since maps are among the vital materials 
 of study, special attention has been given to 
 this feature of the series. No effort has 
 been spared to make the maps efficient in 
 expression of land forms, accurate in detail, 
 harmonious in color, clear and easily read. 
 
 The pictorial illustrations in both books 
 of the series represent large collections of 
 recent photographs from all parts of the world, 
 and have been selected for their value as 
 teaching material. Every picture has its 
 definite purpose, which in nearly all cases 
 is marked by a reference in the text. The 
 colored views are not introduced as orna- 
 ments to the page; like the other pictures, 
 they bear a close relation to the text. Color 
 has been adopted only where it would es- 
 pecially contribute to vivid representation. 
 
 Obligations for assistance in providing 
 illustrations and in perfecting the text are 
 so numerous as to make personal mention 
 impracticable. The authors are, however, 
 especially grateful to those expert students 
 and teachers of geography who have criticized 
 the text in plan and detail, and who have in 
 manv cases been instrumental in securing 
 a local accuracy and color which could not 
 otherwise have been attained. 
 
 Albert Perry Brigham 
 Charles T. McFarlane
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 How People Work and Live 
 
 
 
 Food, Clothing, and Shelter 
 
 I 
 
 Agriculture .... 
 
 
 9 
 
 Dairying and Grazing 
 
 
 i8 
 
 Lumbering .... 
 
 
 21 
 
 Quarrying and Mining 
 
 
 24 
 
 The Waters of the Earth, and the F 
 
 shing 
 
 
 Industry .... 
 
 
 27 
 
 Manufacturing 
 
 
 34 
 
 Commerce .... 
 
 
 37 
 
 The .'\tmosphere 
 
 
 46 
 
 Government .... 
 
 
 50 
 
 The Earth as a Whole 
 
 Form and Rotation of the Earth; Find 
 
 ing Directions .... 
 Land and Climate .... 
 Maps 
 
 North America 
 
 The Continent .... 
 
 The United States 
 Our Country as a Whole 
 The New England States 
 The Middle .Atlantic States 
 The South Atlantic States 
 The South Central States 
 The North Central States 
 The Plateau States . 
 The Pacific States 
 
 Outlying Possessions of the United 
 States . . . . . . 
 
 55 
 61 
 66 
 
 71 
 
 81 
 
 91 
 
 99 
 
 109 
 
 IIS 
 
 123 
 
 13s 
 141 
 
 147 
 
 The Northern Countriks of North America 
 The Dominion of Canada . . . 155 
 
 Newfoundland and Greenland . . -157 
 
 The Southern Countries of North America 
 Mexico ....... 159 
 
 Central America and the West Indies 161 
 
 South America 
 
 The Land 165 
 
 People, Animals, and Plants . . . 169 
 
 Countries ...... 171 
 
 Europe 
 
 The Continent 179 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland . . . 185 
 
 Germany ...... 190 
 
 Other Countries on the North and Baltic 
 
 Seas ....... 192 
 
 France 197 
 
 Spain and Portugal .... 199 
 Switzerland . . . . . .201 
 
 Italy 203 
 
 Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia . 205 
 
 The Balkan Countries .... 208 
 
 Eastern Europe 2io 
 
 Asia 
 
 The Continent . . . . -213 
 
 Countries of Southwestern Asia . . 219 
 
 Countries of Southi-astern Asia . . 223 
 
 The Chinese Republic .... 227 
 
 The Empire of Japan .... 231 
 
 Asiatic Russia 233 
 
 Africa 
 
 The Continent 23 S 
 
 Countries of Africa 241 
 
 Australia and the Islands of the Pacific 
 
 Ocean 247 
 
 Commerce of Our Country . . -253 
 
 Appendlx 
 
 A Short List of Useful References . . 257 
 
 Tables of Area, Population, etc. . . 259 
 
 Index ;iiul Pronunciations . . . 263
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 1. The Study of Geography. — This book 
 tells about the earth on which we live. 
 It tells many things about the land and 
 water, but more about the people of 
 the earth. In studying this book you 
 w ill learn where people live and how they 
 live. You will learn also about the things 
 that men grow in the fields, dig from 
 mines, catch in the water, or make in 
 factories. 
 
 We have many kinds of food to eat, 
 clothes to wear, and buildings in which 
 to live and work. How do we come to 
 have such things ? It is because many 
 people have worked to provide them. 
 
 Geography is the 
 study of the earth, 
 and of the way men 
 work and live. 
 
 2. The Work that 
 People Do. — Near- 
 ly every one does 
 some kind of work. 
 Farmers grow vege- 
 tables, fruit, and 
 grain for food ; and 
 they raise cattle, 
 
 Fig. 3. Factories where many people work 
 
 hogs, sheep, and poultry. The cows give 
 milk, the sheep furnish wool, the hens 
 lay eggs, and the flesh of cattle, hogs, 
 sheep, and poultry is used for food. 
 Miners dig coal, iron, and other minerals 
 from the earth. Workers in mills and 
 factories make cloth, clothing, shoes, flour, 
 machines, and many other useful things. 
 
 The farmer raises more vegetables than 
 he can eat. The miner digs more coal 
 than he needs to burn. The man who 
 works in a factory helps to make more 
 goods than all the factory hands together 
 can use. 
 
 What becomes of the vegetables that 
 the farmers do not 
 eat, and of the coal 
 that the miners do 
 not burn .'' They 
 are sold to people 
 who do other kinds 
 of work. 
 
 Most workers pro- 
 duce more than they 
 can use. What they 
 do not use is sold to 
 other workers.
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 t:^. -T rvLicliiius lisllI in making; tlour 
 
 I-"l'„. Ii. H.iuhii^; -,11-, 11 lints t.) tlK- Ku'liMV 
 
 3. Our Food. — We eat our meals with- 
 out thinking very much about our food. 
 Let us tind out where some of it comes 
 from. 
 
 Bread is made from flour that can 
 be bought at a grocery. But where does 
 the grocer get the flour .? Most of it is 
 made from wheat. 
 
 Wheat is planted some weeks before 
 winter begins, or soon after winter is 
 over. When the wheat begins to grow, it 
 looks like a coarse grass. In the summer 
 the stalks grow tall, and a number of 
 seeds form a head at the top. These seeds 
 are the grains of wheat 
 from which flour is 
 made. 
 
 When the wheat is 
 ready to harvest, it is 
 cut and threshed, and 
 the grain is sent to 
 flour mills. There it is 
 crushed between heavy 
 rollers (Fig. 4), and the 
 fine white flour is sepa- 
 rated from the coarser 
 parts by sifting. 
 
 Sometimes it is a 
 long distance from the 
 fields where the wheat 
 
 Fig. 5. Milkiiin Willi I 1' ' 1 M^ machines. Tl 
 work is KiiK-rnlly doiu- by liainl 
 
 grows, to the mills where it is made into 
 flour. Even after the flour is ready for 
 use, it must be shipped from the mills to 
 difterent parts of the country, where it 
 is sold in the stores. Both the grain and 
 the flour must be handled several times, 
 and much work must be done by many 
 people, before we can have our bread. 
 
 In order that we may have butter, 
 the cows on many farms must be fed, 
 cared for, and milked (Fig. 5). The 
 cream is separated from the milk, usu- 
 ally by machinery, either at the farm 
 or at a creamery or butter factory. The 
 butter is made from the 
 cream and is sent to 
 stores or markets to 
 be sold. 
 
 Our sugar may be 
 made from beets (Fig. 
 6) that grow in one 
 |)art of the country, or 
 from sugar cane that 
 grows in another part. 
 The juice from these 
 plants is boiled and 
 purifled to produce the 
 white sugar that is used 
 to sweeten tea and 
 K)llee.
 
 FOOD AND ClXXrHING 
 
 *-5"- 
 
 
 ,*.*^*- 
 
 Tea is made fidm 
 the leaves ut a small 
 shrub or bush that 
 grows in a distant 
 part of the world 
 (Fig. 7). Cortee is 
 made from the seeds 
 of a small tree grow- 
 ing in hot countries. 
 The leaves of the tea 
 plant and the berries 
 of the coffee plant, 
 after being picked, 
 must be carefully pre- 
 pared for use. Many 
 people work upon 
 them before they 
 reach our tables. 
 
 So it is with nearly everything we eat. 
 
 A great many people are at zvork raising 
 articles of food. Some of these can be used 
 without change. Some 7nust first be cleaned 
 and cooked, and some must be prepared ifi 
 other zvays. 
 
 4. Our Clothing. — Some of our clothing 
 is made from wool clipped from sheep. 
 Sheep are usually raised in great flocks 
 (Fig. 8). When their wool has grown 
 
 .■i.;ii^ii».<y 
 
 «•* 
 
 Fig. 7. Picking tea 
 
 long, they aresheared. 
 The wool is then sent 
 to mills where it is 
 cleaned and made in- 
 to yarn, from which 
 cloth is woven. The 
 cloth is finally sold, 
 to be cut up and 
 made into clothing. 
 
 Cotton clothing is 
 made from the lint, 
 or fiber, from the 
 bolls of the cotton 
 plant. This plant is 
 grown in the southern 
 j)art of our country. 
 The picture (Fig. 9) 
 shows a cotton field 
 with many little white bolls of cotton 
 fibers. After the cotton has been picked, 
 it is first separated from the seed to which 
 it clings. It is then spun into thread, 
 and woven into cloth, and much of the 
 cloth is made into clothing. Most of the 
 spinning and weaving is now done in 
 great mills (Fig. 3). 
 
 Silk is made from fine threads spun by 
 silkworms. The worms are small and 
 
 »-■- ^ ■■^t^sii 
 
 L' . .■>', l)'P<iTttnint of AqtIcuUutc, Frirat Sirrtcc 
 
 Fig. 8. It is wool from sheep like these that is used in 
 making woolen cloth 
 
 U. .b'. Dt partincnl of Aoriculnnc 
 
 Fig. 9. Cotton cloth is made from the bolls of fiber 
 borne by cotton plants
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 must be very carefully 
 tended. They are fed up- 
 on the leaves of the mul- 
 berry tree. When they 
 begin spinning the thread, 
 they wind it around their 
 bodies, covering them- 
 selves with many layers 
 and thus forming a cocoon 
 (Fig. lo). 
 
 In making silk cloth the 
 fine thread that forms the 
 cocoon is first carefully 
 unwound. Several such 
 threads are then twisted together to form 
 a stronger thread, which is usually colored 
 before it is finally woven into cloth. 
 
 Wool, cotton, and silk are the most im- 
 portant of all the materials used in mak- 
 ing cloth for clothing. Our shoes and 
 most of our gloves are made from the 
 skins of animals. Our rubbers are made 
 from a sticky gum obtained from trees 
 that grow in warm coun- 
 tries. 
 
 People do not all wear 
 the same kind or amount 
 of clothing. In hot 
 countries the clothing 
 is thin and light, and 
 many of the people wear 
 only the simplest gar- 
 ments. In countries 
 where it is nearly always 
 very cold the peo[)lc 
 cover their bodies with 
 clothing made of furs. 
 In countries where the 
 summers are warm and 
 the winters cold the 
 summer clothing is usu- 
 ally light and the winter 
 clothing much heavier. 
 
 Fig. 10. Silkworms and cocoon 
 
 The making of our cloth- 
 ing requires the work of 
 many people. Some of the 
 materials used come from 
 distant lands. 
 
 5. Our Shelter.— The 
 buildings in which we live 
 and work are made of 
 wood, metals, brick, stone, 
 and cement. 
 
 There are many different 
 kinds of wood. Some kinds 
 come from trees that grow 
 in our own country. Other 
 kinds come from distant parts of the 
 world and are brought hundreds of miles 
 over land and sea. The trees of the forest 
 are cut down, the branches trimmed off, 
 and the trunks cut into logs (Fig. 11). 
 The logs are then taken to mills where 
 they are sawed into lumber. 
 
 The metals are found in ores that are 
 dug from the earth. Before they can be 
 used in making the bars, 
 beams, pipes, screws, 
 nails, and other metal 
 articles used in building, 
 all impurities must be 
 removed. This is usu- 
 ally done by melting the 
 ore in great furnaces. 
 The furnaces are ar- 
 ranged so that at the 
 proper time the pure 
 metal is allowed to run 
 out and the impurities 
 arc left behind. The 
 pure metal is tlicn made 
 into useful or beautiful 
 articles. 
 
 Most bricks are made 
 of clay. They arc first 
 molded in small boxes 
 
 t'. .S. DrpI of A(/., Fari.sl .Service 
 Fig. 1 1 . These logs will be sawed into 
 lumber for use in building
 
 SHELTER; LIFE IN (JOLD COUNTRIES 
 
 of the proper shape, 
 and then burnt until 
 they are hard (Fig. 
 12). At hrst the 
 common red chiy 
 brick was ahnost the 
 only kind that was 
 made ; but we now 
 have bricks of many 
 kinds and colors. 
 
 Where a good 
 building stone is 
 found, the surface 
 earth is cleared away, and the solid rock 
 is cut or broken into blocks. These are 
 then shaped and sent away to be used 
 by the builders. 
 
 Cement is a powder made from a burnt 
 mixture of lime and clay. It is generally 
 used in making concrete, an artificial stone 
 composed of cement, water, sand, and 
 gravel or broken stone. 
 
 In making buildings men use the trees of 
 the forest, and the metals, clay, and rocks of 
 the earth. 
 
 6. The Work of People in Other Lands. 
 — There are many, many millions of peo- 
 ple in the world. They do not all look or 
 dress alike, nor do they all speak the same 
 language. If you were 
 to travel to the homes 
 of some foreign people 
 and watch them at 
 their work, you might 
 think that even their 
 work is different from 
 anything you have 
 ever seen. The chief 
 difference, however, is 
 in the way in which 
 they do the work. 
 There is little differ- 
 ence in the work itself. 
 
 Fig. 12. Here the bricks have been put in piles so that 
 fires may be built under them 
 
 Fig. 13. Making Chinese matting 
 
 You would see 
 some of them cul- 
 tivating the soil, or 
 planting fruit trees 
 or vines, or raising 
 grain and vege- 
 tables. Some would 
 be tending cattle, 
 sheep, or horses. 
 Some would be dig- 
 ging valuable min- 
 erals from the earth, 
 cutting down trees 
 for lumber, or catching fish for food. 
 Others would be making things to eat or 
 to wear, or for use in houses (Fig. 13). 
 
 Everywhere people are at zvork so that 
 it may be possible to have good food, com- 
 fortable clothing, afid safe and convenient 
 places in which to live. 
 
 7. Life in Cold Countries. — In thecolder 
 northern parts of the world there are no 
 trees, and much of the time the ground is 
 covered with snow. The people who live 
 the farthest north are Eskimos. As they 
 have no railroads and no steamships, they 
 cannot get their food and clothing from 
 other countries. They depend upon what 
 they find in their own country. 
 
 For their food they 
 use the fish that they 
 catch, and the bears, 
 seals, and other ani- 
 mals that they kill. 
 Most of their clothing 
 is made of the skins of 
 the animals that they 
 kill for food. This 
 clothing is simple. It 
 usually consists of two 
 garments. One is like 
 a coat that has both 
 gloves and a hood.
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 The other is a combination of trousers 
 and boots. 
 
 The men and women wear clothing so 
 similar that they look very much alike. 
 During the coldest weather an Eskimo 
 often wears two suits. One is worn next 
 to the body, with the fur inside, while 
 the outer suit is worn with the fur out- 
 side. In the warmer weather only one 
 suit is used, with the fur on the outside. 
 
 During the colder part of the year, 
 when the ground is covered deeply with 
 snow, temporary houses are built of snow 
 blocks. A snow tunnel is built in tront 
 of the door, and in going into the house, 
 or out, it is necessary to crawl through 
 this tunnel. The tunnel is closed by a 
 block of snow. A bank of snow is left 
 along one side of the room, and furs are 
 thrown over it. This is used both for 
 seats and for beds. 
 During the summer tlic 
 Eskimos often live in 
 tents made of skins. 
 Their permanent win- 
 ter homes are huts 
 made of stones and 
 sods, or of wood wluii 
 it can be secured. 
 
 Eskimos cook tlicir 
 food over a lamp in 
 
 FiK- IS- The polar bear furnislics the Eskimo 
 with botli food and clothing 
 
 w hich they burn the fat, or blubber, taken 
 from animals they have killed. When for 
 any reason the meat cannot be cooked, it 
 is eaten raw. 
 
 The Eskimos of the farthest north 
 show great skill in making the tools and 
 other things that they need. Their ar- 
 rows, spearheads, fishhooks, and needles 
 are made of single bones. Their bows, 
 spear handles, and the framework of their 
 sledges and canoes are made of driftwood 
 picked up on the coast, or of a number of 
 bones tied together. The canoe and 
 sledge frames are covered with skins. 
 
 The Eskimos and other peoples of the 
 far north train dogs to draw sledges over 
 the frozen and snow-covered land (Fig. 14). 
 In some cold northern regions reindeer also 
 are used for this purpose. Reindeer may 
 be killed for food and their skins used to 
 make tents and cloth- 
 ing. Stripsof skin serve 
 for cords and ropes and 
 are used in making 
 harness. 
 
 Lijc in cold countries 
 is very dijferent from that 
 i)i our 0:01. I (1 11 J. The 
 people of cold countries 
 work very hard to get 
 enough to keep them alive.
 
 LIFE IN HOT COUNTRIES 
 
 
 Fig. 16. A cara\'an on the Sahara, or Great Desert 
 
 8. Life in Hot Countries. — In those 
 parts of the earth where the weather is 
 hot every day in the year, the people need 
 very httle clothinj^ except to protect their 
 bodies from the burning sun. 
 
 Some of these hot regions are very 
 rainy, and have a great variety and 
 abundance of food phints. Bananas and 
 other fruits, with the vegetables that are 
 sometimes planted, furnish plenty of food. 
 All that the people need to do is to pick 
 the fruit or gather the vegetables. Little 
 meat is needed, but there is usually plenty 
 of game. When this fails, sheep, goats, 
 and cattle can be kept without much 
 trouble. There is always enough food 
 for them, and they do -not need shelter. 
 
 Even the houses in such countries are 
 very simple. The framework is usually 
 of poles, and is covered with grass. Many 
 houses are built in trees, for protection 
 against enemies. 
 
 In other hot countries there is little 
 rain. Generally such regions are barren 
 wastes, or deserts, with a few stunted 
 plants scattered over large areas. Life in 
 the desert is very different from that in 
 rainy regions. But here also the people 
 must have food, clothing, and shelter. 
 
 One of the great deserts of the world is 
 the Sahara in the northern part of Africa 
 
 (Fig. i6). The desert is bordered by re- 
 gions where there is enough moisture for 
 a little grass to grow. In such regions 
 the people keep cattle, sheep, camels, and 
 goats. These they drive from one feeding 
 place to another. The meat and milk 
 from these animals furnish most of the 
 food of the people. Much of their 
 clothing is made of wool. 
 
 For shelter they use tents, which are 
 easily put up and taken down. It is very 
 important to have this kind of shelter, for 
 when the flocks have eaten the grass of one 
 pasture they must be driven to another, 
 and the people move with them. During 
 the day the tents furnish protection from 
 the sun. During the night, when it grows 
 very cool on the desert, they are needed 
 for warmth. 
 
 Some of the wandering people of the 
 Sahara, as well as of other deserts, carry 
 on trade with countries on opposite sides 
 of the desert. In this way they are able 
 to get food and clothing from other parts 
 of the world. In crossing the desert they 
 make use of the camel (Fig. i6), an animal 
 that can live for many days without drink- 
 ing. Usually several traders, each hav- 
 ing a number of camels, travel together, 
 forming a carava?!. They do this to protect 
 themselves and their goods from robbers.
 
 8 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 In some deserts there are a few springs, 
 with fields of grass and groves of date 
 palms around them. Such fertile areas 
 are called oases (Fig. 17). The grass fur- 
 nishes pasture for cattle, sheep, camels, 
 and goats. A little wheat is raised, and 
 on the date palms grow great bunches of 
 dates. The principal caravan routes 
 across the desert lead from one oasis to 
 another. Both men and animals can thus 
 get food and water for the journey. 
 
 As it is so hot, the 
 people of the desert 
 wear loose garments. 
 They also wind a strip 
 of cloth about the head 
 to protect themselves 
 from the heat and the 
 blowing sand of the 
 desert (Fig. 16). 
 
 Life in the rainy 
 parts of hot countries 
 is easy. The people 
 need only the simplest 
 clothing and shelter, 
 and they can get food 
 without much work. 
 
 In desert regions most of the people live 
 a wandering life and depend upon their 
 herds for food and clothing. 
 
 9. Life in Temperate Regions. — Those 
 parts of the world which are neither very 
 cold nor very hot are called the temperate 
 regions. In most of them the summers 
 are warm and the winters cool. During 
 the warmer part of the year crops are 
 grown. Mining and manufacturing are 
 carried on the year round. 
 
 The clothing for summer is light, and 
 that for winter usu;ill\ niiuli warmer. 
 Where the winters arc cold, houses and 
 factories are built so they can be heated 
 during the winter. 
 
 Fig. 17. Date palms in an oasis of the Sahara 
 
 It is in the temperate parts of the world 
 that most of the people live. The great- 
 est countries of the world, including our 
 own, are in the temperate regions. It is 
 to the study of these countries, and the life 
 and industries of their inhabitants, that 
 the larger part of this book is devoted. 
 
 Review of Sections i to 9. — i. What do we 
 
 learn about in geography ? 
 
 2. What are some of the things that farmers 
 
 raise .^ 3. What does the miner do? 4. What 
 is done with the food raised 
 by the farmer, beyond his 
 own needs .? 
 
 5. How does the wheat 
 that the farmer raises finally 
 become bread t 6. From 
 what is butter made ? 
 7. From what two plants is 
 sugar made .? 8. From 
 what is tea made ? Coffee ? 
 9. Where does wool, 
 from which some of our 
 clothing is made, come 
 from .? Cotton .? Silk ? 
 10. From what are our 
 shoes and most of our 
 gloves made ? Our rub- 
 bers .' II. Why do not all 
 people wear the same kind 
 of clothing .'' 
 12. Of what are buildings made.? 13. Where 
 does the wood come from .' 14. Where do the 
 metals come from ? i v 1 low are they prepared for 
 use.? 16. How are bricks and stones obtained? 
 17. In what way does the work of people in 
 other lands differ from that in our own country? 
 iS. Where do some of the Kskimos live? 
 19. Upon what do the Eskimos of the farthest 
 north depend for food ? 20. Out of what do they 
 make their clothing? Shelter? Fools, sleds, and 
 boats? 21. How docs tlieir summer shelter differ 
 from their winter homes ? 
 
 22. What kinds of food do the people have 
 who live in hot, moist countries? 23. What 
 sort of iiouscs do they build ? 24. How do the 
 desert people live ? 25. What sort of homes do 
 they have ? What kind of clothing ? 26. What 
 are oases ? 27. What are caravans ? 
 
 28. In what parts of the world are the greatest 
 
 countries 
 
 ?
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 18. A rich agricultural region of small farms and well-cultivated fields 
 
 © Underwood A Undt-ruood 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 10. The Greatest Industry. — We have 
 learned that most people work, or, as we 
 say, they are engaged in some industry. 
 The most important of all industries is 
 farming, or agriculture, which is carried on 
 in many parts of the world. 
 
 In some farming regions the houses of 
 the people are close to one another, the 
 land is divided into small farms, and much 
 of the work is done by hand labor. Here, 
 as in village gardens, many kinds of vege- 
 tables and other crops are grown. 
 
 In other farming regions there are fewer 
 people, the farms and the fields are large, 
 and big machines are used in doing a great 
 deal of the work. Such farms are devoted 
 almost entirely to a few^ crops. This kind 
 of farming is seen in the great wheat farms 
 and cotton plantations of our country. 
 
 In most farming regions, cattle, hogs, 
 sheep, and horses are raised. This part of 
 the farming industry is called stock raising. 
 
 Agriculture includes the growing of crops 
 and the raising of domestic animals. It is 
 the most important of the great industries. 
 
 11. The Importance of Moisture and 
 Warmth. — A list of the useful plants 
 raised in different parts of the world would 
 be very long. 
 
 In such a list we should find some kinds 
 of grass and grain that will thrive in 
 regions of scanty rainfall ; while other 
 kinds, such as rice, require much moisture. 
 
 The list would include many plants that 
 grow only where it is warm, and others, 
 such as oats and barley, that will thrive 
 in cool regions. 
 
 Cotton needs a long growing season, 
 while many garden vegetables mature in 
 a short time. 
 
 Some plants need more warmth, or more 
 tnoisture, or a longer growing season than 
 is necessary for other plants. 
 
 12. Importance of the SoiL — The soil, 
 which is often called dirt, is so common 
 that we do not usually think of it as being 
 important. From it, however, nearly all 
 plants get a part of their food. This 
 plant food is dissolved in the water of the 
 soil and is taken up into the plant through 
 its roots. Many different plants are 
 eaten by men. Animals also eat plants;
 
 10 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Fig. 19. Stonework 
 heating and cooling. 
 
 and the flesh of many 
 animals is used for food 
 by men. 
 
 The soil supplies neces- 
 sary food for plants, and 
 through them for animals 
 and men. 
 
 13. How Soils are 
 Formed. — When you ex- 
 amine carefully a pinch 
 of soil, you will nearly 
 always find that some 
 particles are larger and 
 harder than the others. 
 If you pick these out and wash them, you 
 will notice that they look like small pieces 
 of stone or rock. That is \\ hat they are. 
 Usually the soil contains vegetable matter 
 composed of bits of the rotten leaves, 
 stems, and roots of trees or other plants. 
 In some soils there is very little vegetable 
 matter, and in (^ther soils there is a large 
 amount. 
 
 Soils are usually formed of fine pieces 
 of rock and decayed vegetable matter mixed 
 together. Such soils are better for growing 
 plants than soil made up of rock particles 
 only. 
 
 14. How Rocks are Broken up to Form 
 Soil. — There are several ways in which 
 rocks are broken up to form soil. 
 
 broken by sudden 
 Notice the pieces 
 
 ^ ^% 
 
 Fig. 20. DiaKrani of soil formation 
 
 When a bare rock sur- 
 face is heated by the sun 
 during the day, and cools 
 quickly at night, little 
 pieces often chip off and 
 help to form a thin layer 
 ot soil. Such chipping 
 may be seen when the 
 stone walls or columns of 
 a building are heated by a 
 fire and then suddenly 
 cooled by the stream of 
 cold water from the fire 
 engine (Fig. 19). 
 Some rocks, such as sandstone, are 
 composed of small, hard particles held 
 together by a natural cement. This 
 cement may be dissolved by water, and 
 the rock will then crumble into small 
 pieces. 
 
 Most rocks have tiny spaces between 
 the particles of which they are made, and 
 water gets into these spaces. Put a -dry 
 piece of sandstone, or a dry red clay 
 brick, into water and see how much it 
 will take up. Water tliat gets into the 
 tiny spaces, or into the larger cracks, and 
 then freezes, will break off pieces of the 
 rock. 
 
 The roots of trees, and even of such 
 small plants as mosses, find their way 
 into small openings in rocks, and then 
 grow until the rock is split apart or pieces 
 are broken off. 
 
 Rock may be broken up even when al- 
 ready covered with a surface of soil. It 
 is sometimes ])ossible to see where this 
 has happened. It may be seen where a 
 cellar has been dug or where a road has 
 hvvn cut through a hill. At the surface 
 there is a layer of fint' soil (Fig. 20). 
 Underneath this the stone is broken 
 very small and mixed with soil. Still
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 II 
 
 lower there are larger pieces of rock, 
 and finally solid rock. Usually the 
 rock breaks first into large pieces, and 
 these into smaller and still smaller pieces, 
 until they are finally changed into fine 
 dirt. 
 
 In all streams where tiie water Hows 
 rapidly, as it does in the stream pictured 
 on this page (Fig. 21), the smaller stones 
 in its bed are tumbled about and rubbed 
 against one another. 
 
 This process wears 
 tlie stone away, as 
 you may prove by 
 rubbing two wet 
 stones together until 
 you see that a fine 
 mud is formed. 
 
 At times of flood 
 the stones may be 
 bumped together so 
 hard that small bits 
 are chipped off, or 
 they are broken into 
 pieces. These smaller pieces are also 
 rubbed together and worn away. 
 
 Look at the stones in the bed of some 
 swift stream near your home. You will 
 see that many stones, of all sizes, are 
 smooth and round. They have been worn 
 into this shape by being rubbed and 
 bumped together by the moving water, 
 especially at times when the stream is 
 larger and swifter than usual. 
 
 What becomes of the fine rock particles 
 that are worn away from the stones ? 
 They may be carried along in the water 
 for a great distance, but finally, when the 
 water moves very slowly, they will settle 
 and help to build up the bed or banks 
 of the stream ; or they may even be 
 swept into some lake or ocean, and come 
 to rest on the bottom near the shore. 
 
 Soil is formed chicHy from broken rock. 
 Rocks may be broken by quick changes 
 in temperature^ by the dissolving of natural 
 cement, by water free7.ing in them, by the 
 grozvth of the roots of plants, and by the 
 bumping together of stones in the moving 
 zvater of streams. 
 
 15. The Soils of Flood Plains and 
 Deltas. — When soil has been formed by 
 the breaking up of rocks, some of it stays 
 
 where it was made, 
 and some does not. 
 There are several 
 ways in which it 
 may be carried to 
 some other place. 
 The most common 
 and important of 
 these is by running 
 water. 
 
 Soil made by the 
 rubbing and bump- 
 ing together of the 
 stones in a stream 
 is only a small part of the soil that 
 streams carry away from the places 
 where it is formed. 
 
 Put a little soil into a bottle of water. 
 Cork the bottle and shake it. You will 
 notice that the water becomes muddy. 
 Let the bottle stand for a while, and the 
 water will become clearer and clearer 
 as the particles of soil settle to the bottom. 
 The largest pieces settle first, and the 
 finest soil will be on top. If the bottle is 
 again shaken, the water once more be- 
 comes muddy. As long as the water is in 
 motion, it remains muddy. This will 
 help us to understand how streams carry 
 soil particles from one place to another. 
 
 During a heavy rainstorm the rain 
 washes the fine soil from the surface of 
 roads and fields, and fills the gutters and 
 
 f S GeolO\jiC'tl Sumy 
 
 Fig. 21. Rounded stones in the bed of a rapid stream
 
 12 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Fig. 22. The level land along the river is part of a. flood plain, and is a rich farming country 
 
 roadside ditches with muddy water. Tiny 
 streams of muddy water are formed in the 
 fields. These run together and form hirger 
 and larger streams until they flow into 
 some brook or river. Even these large 
 streams are filled with muddy water. 
 This means that they are all carrying 
 much fine soil along with them. Some- 
 times a stream flowing in a broad valley 
 is so swollen that it overflows the border- 
 ing lowlands. When the flood water dis- 
 appears, it leaves a layer of fine soil spread 
 over tlie land. This is called sediment. 
 In time such overflows build up a strij) ot 
 level land, called a flood plain (Fig. 22). 
 
 Whenever a river moves slowly and 
 particles settle to the bottom, the coarser 
 particles settle first, as they did in the 
 bottle when it was no longer shaken. 
 The finest material 
 will be carried the 
 farthest, much of it 
 by streams that do 
 not appear to be 
 moving swiftly. 
 
 A part of the fin- 
 est soil is c;irri((l hv 
 some rivers until 
 they enter a large 
 body of still water. 
 The water liom the 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 rivers then moves so slowly that even the 
 finest material is dropped, thus building 
 up the bottom near the shore. In time a 
 low plain is built up, like a flood plain. 
 As it increases in size, the river divides 
 and flows through it in several channels. 
 Such a plain at the mouth of a river is 
 called a delta (Fig. 23). 
 
 Where a stream is rapid it is able to 
 carry the soil swept iyito it by rains and 
 by smaller streams. As it becomes less 
 rapid in its lower course it finally drops 
 the soil, thus forming flood plains and 
 deltas. 
 
 16. The Making of a Valley. — What 
 happens where streams are breaking up 
 and wearing away the stones in their 
 beds .? What would happen if you should 
 take a stick, draw a long mark in the 
 
 dirt, and then scrape 
 and scrape along 
 that mark .'' You 
 would dig a little 
 ditch. As the ditch 
 deepened it would 
 also widen, and the 
 more ol the dirt 
 you scraped away, 
 the deeper and the 
 wider your ditch 
 would be. 
 
 U . S. (iioloi/lcul Survri/ 
 
 The delta of a small stream
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 13 
 
 Fig. 24. The length and height of the bridge show 
 that this stream has cut a deep valley 
 
 Fig. 26. A divide in a hilly district. Notice also the 
 low divides between the little streams 
 
 That is what the streams are doing. 
 They are cutting big ditches, which we 
 call valleys (Fig. 24). The more the 
 streams cut, the deeper the valleys be- 
 come. Of course this work goes on very 
 slowly and we see but little of it. 
 
 A valley widens as the banks of the 
 stream are worn away by the water, 
 and as the surface soil is washed into the 
 stream by the rains. The stream may 
 be bordered by flood plains that are 
 nearly flat (Fig. 22), or the valley walls 
 may be very steep (Fig. 25). 
 
 The elevation 
 that separates 
 streams flowing 
 in one direction 
 from those flow- 
 ing in an oppo- 
 site direction is a 
 divide (Fig. 26). 
 A divide may be 
 the sharp ridge of 
 a hill or moun- 
 tain, or it may be 
 an irregular line 
 winding across 
 nearly level land. 
 
 Valleys are cut 
 by the action of 
 running water. 
 
 17. Thin Soils and Deep Soils. — Much 
 of the soil formed on the steep valley 
 slopes is easily swept away by rain and 
 running water. The steepest slopes have 
 no soil at all (Fig. 25). Where the slopes 
 are not very steep the soil is usually coarse 
 and thin. In the lower parts of the valley, 
 where the slopes are very gentle, and in 
 the flood plains and deltas, the soil is fine 
 and deep. 
 
 On the great plains of the world much 
 of the soil remains where it was formed. 
 The land is nearly level, and the rain that 
 
 falls on it cannot 
 form into rapid 
 streams, as in 
 countries where 
 there are hills 
 and valleys. But 
 fine particles may 
 be carried by the 
 wind. 
 
 On steep slopes 
 the soils are thin- 
 ner and coarser 
 than on gentle 
 slopes. The deep- 
 est and finest soils 
 are on plains, 
 especially flood 
 plains and deltas.
 
 14 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Fig. 27. A valley with fine, rich soil and large crops 
 
 i8. Fertile Soils. — You have already 
 learned that plants get some of their food 
 from the soil (Sec. 12). Soils that contain 
 much plant food are called fertile. The 
 plant food in the finer soils is more easily 
 dissolved than that in coarse soils, and 
 the finer soils are usually more fertile. 
 Each plant takes from the soil the food 
 that it needs. 
 
 Rocks are not all made of the same 
 material. Different rocks, therefore, con- 
 tain difi^erent kinds of plant food. For 
 this reason some plants will grow well 
 on the soil formed from one kind of rock, 
 and not at all well on the soil formed 
 from another kind of rock. The best soil 
 usually contains a mixture of rock ma- 
 terials, as well as some vegetable matter. 
 The fine soils of river flood plains and 
 deltas are niixtiircs of tiiis kind. The 
 soil has come trom many i)arts of the 
 river basin and is made up of particles of 
 many different kinds of rock. i)\ course 
 the largest crops are raised on the most 
 fertile soils. 
 
 The richest farming regions are regions 
 where the soils are deep and fine and con- 
 tain many different kinds of rock particles. 
 
 19. How to Keep 
 Soils Fertile. ~ All 
 growing plants take 
 some food from the 
 soil ; therefore when 
 vegetables are gath- 
 ered from the garden, 
 or grain from the 
 fields, the soil loses a 
 part of the food that 
 is needed by such 
 plants. The growing 
 of the same crop year 
 after year robs the 
 soil of one kind of 
 plant food. If this is done for a long 
 time, so much of this particular kind of 
 plant food will be taken away that the 
 soil will no longer grow that crop well. 
 Sometimes, also, plants leave poisons in 
 the soil that for a time destroy its fertility 
 for certain crops. 
 
 The kind and amount of plant food 
 taken from the soil is not the same for all 
 jilants. Because of this, many farmers 
 plant different crops each year. This 
 is called the rotation of crops. Even 
 when this care is taken, the soil may 
 need fertilizers, such as phosphate rock 
 or barnyard manure. These restore to 
 the soil plant food taken out by crops. 
 
 Soils may be kept fertile by the rotation 
 of crops and by the use of fertilizers. 
 
 20. Farming in Densely Settled Coun- 
 tries. —In densely settled countries there 
 are many people to be fed. The land is 
 valuable and the farms are small. The 
 ground is fertilized and the crops are 
 watered and tended with the greatest 
 care, so they will yield the largest return 
 possible for each acre. 
 
 In some countries where there is not 
 enough level ground to be cultivated,
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 IS 
 
 the people have built terraces on the sides pulled up or cut down. The soil must 
 
 of hills and mountains (I'ig. 28). in some be loosened around the growing plants, 
 
 regions they have carried soil from the as this helps to keep the ground moist, 
 
 plains and valleys and have built stone If the weather is too hot and dry while 
 
 wails to hold it in position. In a few the plants are still growing, they must 
 
 densely settled countries, people have be watered. Care must also be taken to 
 
 even built rafts on the rivers and covered kill injurious insects. 
 
 them with soil for their gardens. In villages many people supply them- 
 
 Where there are many people much food selves with jresh vegetables from their own 
 
 is needed, and the soil is carefully used. gardens. 
 
 21. Village Gardens. — In large cities 22. Truck Farming. — In cities, fresh 
 
 the land is so valuable that it is used only vegetables are bought at the stores or 
 
 for streets, buildings, and a few parks and markets. But where does the storekeeper 
 
 playgrounds. In villages the land is not 
 so valuable. The houses are farther apart, 
 and near each house there is usually a 
 garden. It may not be large enough to 
 raise all that is needed by the family, but 
 if carefully cultivated it furnishes many 
 fresh vegetables and small fruits. 
 
 When the right season of the year comes, 
 the soil is prepared for the seed and the 
 
 get them .? A little trip to the country 
 will help us to answer this question. 
 Near the city we shall find a large number 
 of truck farms, as they are called, and 
 many gardeners busy raising vegetables 
 and fruits for the city markets. A large 
 part of the work is done by hand. 
 
 Many of the truck farmers bring their 
 vegetables to the city in wagons, and either 
 
 plants. It is first broken w ith the plow sell them on the streets or stop at some 
 
 or spade, and then 
 
 made finer with a 
 
 harrow or a hand 
 
 rake. If the soil 
 
 lacks the necessar}- 
 
 plant food, some 
 
 fertilizer is usually 
 
 mixed with it. 
 
 As soon as the 
 ground is ready, it 
 is marked off into 
 regular spaces. The 
 seeds and plants are 
 then put into the 
 ground far enough 
 apart for them to 
 grow well. When 
 they begin to grow, 
 they must be cared 
 for. Weeds must be 
 
 Fig. 28. Terraces on a hill beside the river Rhine
 
 i6 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Fig. 29. Truck farmers selling produce in a city market 
 
 
 f^msswK^. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 31. A grain drill pi ,ntir 
 
 public market, where people may go and 
 buy them (Fig. 29). But some of the 
 truck farms are a long distance away. To 
 bring the products of these farms quickly 
 to the city, there are fast trains, of special 
 cars, ventilated and supplied with ice, so 
 that the fruits and vegetables will not spoil. 
 
 I\la7iy of the fresh vegetables used by city 
 residents are raised on truck farms where 
 rmich hand labor is necessary. 
 
 23. Farming with Big Machines. — Among 
 the largest and most beautiful farms in the 
 world are those in the great wheat-growing 
 regions of our own country. Much of the 
 land is nearly level. The soil is fine, deep, 
 and rich. There is the right amount of 
 heat and moisture for growing wheat. 
 Most of the work is done by machinery. 
 The plowing is done with a gang plow. 
 
 which turns several furrows at a time 
 (Fig. 30). The grain is put into the 
 ground with drills (Fig. 31). In cutting 
 or harvesting the grain two kinds of ma- 
 chines are used. 
 
 The machine shown at the left in 
 Figure 33 is the reaper and binder. This 
 cuts the grain, gathers and ties it into 
 bundles, and drops a number of them 
 in one place. The bundles are afterwards 
 taken to a thresher, where the grain is 
 separated from the straw (Fig. 32). 
 
 The other kind of harvesting machine, 
 called the header, cuts the wheat heads 
 from the standing straw, and threshes 
 and sacks the wheat as the machine 
 moves along. 
 
 On many large farms machinery is used 
 to do most of the work.
 
 J3 
 
 O 
 C 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 J3 
 X! 
 
 •a 
 
 n 
 
 a 
 '5. 
 
 C5 J3 
 
 <U 
 
 as 
 
 O. t; 
 
 ■a 5 
 
 c 
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 •o 
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 3 
 
 bl 
 
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 X 

 
 i8 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Review of Sections lo to 23. — i. What is 
 agriculture? 2. Name two things that are neces- 
 sar\- tor the growth of plants. 3. What do plants 
 get from the soil r How- r 4. How do men and 
 animals get food from the soil ? 
 
 5. Of what is soil made? 6. Where does the 
 decajed vegetable matter come from ? 7. In 
 what ways ma}' rocks be broken up ? 8. What 
 happens to the stones in the bed of a switt 
 stream ? 
 
 9. What makes w ater muddy ? 10. How do 
 rainstorms make a stream muddy? 11. What 
 finally becomes of the fine soil that the muddy 
 streams are carr\ing ? 12. What is a flood plain ? 
 13. What is a delta? 14. Where and how are 
 deltas formed ? 
 
 15. How are valleys formed ? 16. How do 
 valleys grow wider? 17. What is a divide? 
 
 18. Where do we find fine, deep soils ? 
 
 19. Where are the soils coarse and thin ? 
 
 20. What kind of soil is called fertile? 21. How- 
 may soils be kept fertile ? 
 
 22. Wh}' do people in some countries build 
 terraces on mountain slopes? 23. What use is 
 made of gardens in villages? 24. What are truck 
 farms? 25. What is done with the vegetables 
 and fruits raised on these farms ? 
 
 26. In the great wheat-growing regions ot our 
 couiitrv, how is the plowing done? How is 
 the planting done? The harvesting? The 
 threshing ? 
 
 DAIRYING AND GRAZING 
 
 24. Dairying in Hilly Countries. — As we 
 have learned, the richest and best ap;ri- 
 cultural soils are found in the tlood plains 
 and deltas of rivers. 
 These soils are fine 
 and easily worked. 
 The plant food in 
 them is quickly dis- 
 solved. The soil 
 particles have come 
 from many differ- 
 ent kinds of rock in 
 many parts of the 
 valley and furnish 
 food for a ^reat vari- 
 ety of plants. Other 
 
 soils, almost as good, are found in level 
 regions and on gentle slopes where they 
 were formed. 
 
 On the upper slopes of hills the soil is 
 usually thin, and crops cannot be success- 
 fully cultivated. Such places, if not given 
 up to forests, are generall}- used as pas- 
 ture lands for cattle, sheep, and horses. 
 In many parts of the world the people who 
 live in hilly lands keep cows for milk and 
 spend much of their time in taking care 
 of their herds. This kind of work is 
 called dairying. Figure 34 shows a herd 
 of cows on a dairy farm. 
 
 So great is the demand for fresh milk 
 in cities that many farmers near them 
 engage in the dairying industry. A very 
 large city needs a great quantity of milk ; 
 and part of the supply is brought by fast 
 trains (Fig. 35) from the more distant 
 dairying districts of hilly regions. In 
 dairying districts from which the milk is 
 not sent to cities, it is condensed and 
 canned, or made into butter and cheese. 
 
 The dairy farmer was at one time care- 
 ful to keep no more cattle than his pastures 
 would feed. Now he sometimes finds it 
 profitable to buy feed and keep a larger 
 number. The chief product of a dairy 
 farm is milk, although some of the cattle 
 
 are sold for beef. 
 
 Large crops can- 
 not be grown on the 
 thin soils in hilly re- 
 gions ; but such land 
 makes good pasture 
 for cattle and sheep. 
 The cattle are kept 
 mainly for their 
 milk. The sheep 
 are raised mainly 
 for their wool, and 
 for mutton.
 
 DAIRYING AND GRAZING 
 
 »9 
 
 25. Mountains and Mountain Pastures. — when there are several ranges lying side 
 
 Figure 34, on the opposite page, shows a by side. When people have found it 
 
 dairying district in a land of hills and necessary to cross a mountain range, they 
 
 valleys. The valleys are broad and open, have searched out the low places, or 
 
 the slopes are gentle, and the hills not passes; and through some of the passes 
 
 very high. A man can easily climb from wagon roads or railroads have been built. 
 
 the bottom of the 
 deepest valley to the 
 top of the highest hill 
 in less than an hour. 
 
 Some hills are 
 much lower than the 
 ones shown in this 
 picture, while others 
 are much higher. 
 The highest ones are 
 usually called not 
 hills, but mountains. 
 There is little differ- 
 ence between high 
 hills and low moun- 
 tains. Some moun- 
 tains are so high that 
 their tops, or peaks, 
 are often hidden by 
 the clouds. 
 
 A few mountains 
 rise above the sur- 
 rounding plain as 
 
 V . S. Geolofficfil .s'ur/'Ci/ 
 Fig. 36. One of the beautiful snow-covered moun- 
 tain peaks in the western part of our country 
 
 Every one who 
 climbs a high moun- 
 tain notices that it 
 is cooler at the top 
 than at the bottom. 
 The higher the moun- 
 tain, the greater the 
 difference. On the 
 upper slopes of the 
 highest mountains, 
 even in warm coun- 
 tries, snow falls in- 
 steadofrain. During 
 the winter this snow 
 covering may reach a 
 long way down the 
 mountain side. As 
 summer comes on, 
 the snows on the 
 lower slopes melt, 
 but the upper slopes 
 are covered with 
 snow throughout the 
 
 single peaks. Most mountains, however, year (Fig. 36). In these regions of per- 
 
 stretch across the country for a long dis- petual snow nothing grows. Fields of 
 
 tance and form a mountain range. Such snow and ice, and bare, wind-swept rocks, 
 
 mountains are difificult to cross, especially are all that can be seen.
 
 20 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 In mountain regions some slopes are are driven slowly down the mountains, 
 
 almost vertical. They form great cliffs feeding as they go. Winter finds them 
 
 of bare rock. Many of the cliffs are once more in the sheds and barns at 
 
 where rivers have cut deep, narrow val- home. 
 
 leys called canyons (Fig. 25). On the The cattle and sheep are kept out of 
 
 steeper slopes of hills and mountains some fields, and the grass there is cut and 
 
 most of the soil has been carried away by carried home to be fed as hay during the 
 
 the wind, rain, streams, and melting winter. On the mountain dairy farms 
 
 snow. In the valleys, however, on the much butter and cheese are made, 
 
 gentler slopes, and in hollows among Excellent pasture lands are found on the 
 
 the rocks, some soil is found. During higher slopes and in the valleys of some 
 
 the summer these places are covered mountain districts. Here the people are 
 with grass and make 
 
 excellent pastures. 
 
 In some countries 
 the mountain people 
 keep herds of cattle 
 and sheep. During 
 the winter the ani- 
 mals are kept under 
 shelter. At the be- 
 ginning of summer 
 they are turned our 
 to pasture. As the 
 snow melts, the 
 herds are driven up 
 the innimiain side to 
 the higher pastures. 
 When it begins to 
 grow cold again, they 
 
 Fig. 38. Stockyards wlirrc i::itllc ,iic siiil to Ik siiUi 
 to the meal packers 
 
 engaged mainly in the 
 dairying industry. 
 
 26. Grazing on 
 Great Plains. — In 
 some parts of the 
 world are great plains 
 where the soil is rich 
 enough to be culti- 
 vated, but where 
 there is not enough 
 rain for the growth of 
 (.•roj)s. In such re- 
 gions, where there is 
 enough rain lor grass, 
 the |)eoi)le keep great 
 herds of cattle, sheep, 
 and horses. These 
 are grazing regions.
 
 DAIRYING AND GRAZING 
 
 21 
 
 The herds roam over 
 the country in search 
 of grass ami u.itcr. 
 They are carelully 
 watched and cared 
 for by men on horse- 
 back. In the sum- 
 mer time these men 
 often sleep out of 
 doors, wrapped in 
 blankets. 
 
 In grazing coun- 
 tries, cattle are raised for their meat 
 and for tiieir hides. When they are old 
 enough, they are fattened at some farm 
 or ranch and rlu-n st-nt hy rail to a city 
 where there are stockyards (Fig. 38). 
 After they have been killed, the meat 
 is cut up (Fig. 39) and sent in cars or in 
 ships (Fig. 40) to distant places for sale. 
 Every part of the animal is used. The 
 hide is made into leather, some of the bones 
 are made into buttons and knife handles, 
 and other bones, with meat scraps, are 
 made into fertilizer. Even the hoofs are 
 used in making gelatin and glue. 
 
 Formerly, in some parts of the world 
 where sheep were not 
 needed for food, they 
 were raised chiefly 
 for their wool and 
 skins, and the flesh 
 was of little value. 
 That was because 
 the wool and the 
 skins could be sent 
 long distances with- 
 out spoiling, but 
 the meat could not. 
 Now, by the use of 
 refrigerator cars and 
 ships, it is possible to 
 freeze or chill meat 
 
 Fig. 39. Cut iiiij; up siilLS of beef for the markets 
 
 — either mutton or 
 beef — and keep it 
 fresh while it is sent 
 to distant markets. 
 
 Great plains that 
 are too dry for most 
 crops are used as 
 grazing regions. Here 
 the cattle are raised 
 chiefly for their meat 
 and hides, and the 
 sheep for their wool, 
 
 meat, and skins. Meat may be chilled and 
 
 thus kept fresh for a long time. 
 
 Review of Sections 24 to 26. — i. What is dairy- 
 ing ? 2. Where are there many dairy farms? 
 3. What is done with the milk .^ 
 
 4. W hat are moimtains .? 5. Why does snow 
 often fall instead of rain on high mountains ? 
 Where is there perpetual snow ? 6. Why do 
 we not expect to find much soil on the higher 
 mountain slopes .? 7. Where on mountains is 
 there some soil, and what grows there ? 8. For 
 what are these fields used ? 
 
 9. What kind of land is a grazing region .'' 
 
 10. How is the grazing industry carried on? 
 
 11. For what are the cattle raised ? 12. Where 
 are the cattle killed, and what becomes of the meat ? 
 The hides ? The bones ? 13. How is fresh meat 
 carried long distances without spoiling ? 
 
 LUMBERING 
 
 27. Forests of the 
 Early Days. — Many 
 years ago, when 
 settlers first came to 
 our country, they 
 found most of the 
 land covered with 
 trees. The forests 
 stretched over the 
 hills and valleys and 
 high up the moun- 
 tain sides. As much 
 food was needed.
 
 22 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 L.s. D,ii:. <//.!, ./v.*; .51 
 Fig. 41. It was in log houses like this that the 
 early settlers lived 
 
 the early settlers began at once to clear 
 land for cultivation. Trees were cut 
 down and used for building log houses 
 (Fig. 41), split into rails for fences, or 
 burned to get them out of the way. 
 
 As more people came to our country, 
 the forests were cut down very raj)idly. 
 Sawmills were built to cut the logs into 
 lumber. Forest fires also destroyed many 
 trees (Fig. 42). Nearly all the forests on 
 the river flood plains and on the lower 
 slopes of hills have now been cut down. 
 
 At o?ie time there were very large forests in 
 our country. In the early days many of 
 the trees were destroyed because they were 
 in the way. Later, the forests 
 were cut dozvn for timber. 
 
 28. Forests of the Pres- 
 ent Day. — Only a few large 
 forests are still standing in 
 our country. Some of them 
 are at a long distance from 
 the great lumber markets, 
 and in regions where it is 
 difficult and expensive to get 
 out the trees. For this 
 reason lumber is constantly 
 increasing in price. 
 
 The forests are now more 
 
 carefully protected and cared for than 
 formerly. Our government has set aside 
 some large tracts of land for the growth 
 of forests. Such forest tracts are called 
 National Forests. Men are employed to 
 watch them to prevent fires and the steal- 
 ing of timber, and to plant young trees 
 where the old ones have been cut off^. 
 
 Lumber is still largely used in building, 
 except in the parts of large cities where 
 there is much danger of fire. There 
 buildings must now be constructed of 
 stone, brick, steel, and concrete, but lum- 
 ber is used for finishing and for furniture. 
 Much wood is used also for making paper. 
 
 There are at the present time few great 
 forests in otir country, and lumber has 
 become very valuable. 
 
 29. From the Forest to the SawmilL — 
 You have already learned how trees are 
 cut into logs in the forest (Sec. 5). In 
 the northern part of our country this 
 logging is usually done in the winter, 
 after the snow has fallen. It is then 
 easy to haul the logs on big sleds over 
 the icy roads. Many of the logs are 
 hauled to streams, where they remain 
 until the ice and snow melt. They are 
 then floated downstream to mills. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 '.-■^im.jawii. 
 
 Fir. 42. A forest lire. Much vakuiblc limber has been ruined in this way
 
 LUMBERING 
 
 23 
 
 In the mountains lumbermen often shoot 
 the logs down sHdes built on the moun- 
 tain side, and they sometimes use wire 
 cables pulled by engines to draw the logs 
 to the level ground. Logging trains 
 (Fig. 43) then carry them to sawmills. 
 At the mills (Fig. 44) the logs are sawed 
 into various kinds of lumber, to be used 
 for buildings, furniture, and other things. 
 
 The trees are cut into logs in the forest and 
 sent to the sazcmills to be sazved into lumber. 
 
 30. Forests and Floods. — Forests on 
 hillsides and mountain slopes help to pre- 
 vent floods. The rain that falls in forest 
 regions does not run off the surface or 
 collect in streams so rapidly as it does in 
 regions that are under cultivation. A 
 
 Fig. 44. A sawmill. The band saw runs around two wheels 
 
 part of the rain in each storm is used by 
 the plants, some of it runs slowly down the 
 tree trunks, and much is caught in little 
 hollows or held back by the dead leaves 
 and mosses on the ground. The snow 
 that falls on forest-covered slopes is so 
 sheltered by the trees that it melts slowly 
 when the weather becomes warmer. 
 
 In hilly regions where forests have 
 been cut away, the water from rains and 
 melting snow may run rapidly over the 
 fields, carry away the surface soil, and cut 
 gullies. It may also gather quickly into the 
 streams and cause floods, resulting in the 
 destruction of property and the loss of life. 
 
 Forests help to prevent floods. When for- 
 ests have been cut in hilly countries, the soil 
 may be washed away. 
 
 Review of Sections 27 to 30. — 
 
 1. Where were there forests when the 
 first settlers came to this country ? 
 
 2. Why were the trees cut down ? 
 
 3. Which forests were destroyed first.' 
 4. What forests are left.'' 5. What 
 
 has our government done to help save 
 the forests .? 6. Where have people 
 stopped using wood for buildings ? 
 7. Why has lumber become valuable ? 
 
 8. What is done to the trees in the 
 forest after the)' have been cut down ? 
 9. How do the logs reach the sawmills ? 
 
 10. What disasters sometimes hap- 
 pen in countries where the forests 
 have been cut away .''
 
 24 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 that the builders want. Most of the 
 QUARRYING AND MINING ^^.^^^^ j^ ^^^.^^ 1^^ machinery. 
 
 31. Useful Materials from the Ground. From quarries men get many kinds of 
 — The soil made up of broken rock is building stone. 
 
 valuable (Sec. 12). But many of the 33. Coal and the Ores. — The work of 
 rocks that are not yet broken up are also getting coal and the ores of iron, copper, 
 useful. Some of the finer and harder kinds gold, silver, and the other metals from the 
 of rock are used in building. One of these ground is mining. Some gold, silver, and 
 is slate, which splits into thin sheets and copper are found nearly pure, that is, not 
 
 is used on the roofs mixed with rock. 
 
 of buildings and for ^!^^s^?-^^^^^~^' ■- -r^ "Sl^^T^''' ^ Generally, however, 
 
 school slates and r^^F - ■ ' '^. these and the other 
 
 blackboards. Gran- Ll^r3 'dH I"/" metals are contained 
 
 ite and marble are b^ i^ , ^ in ores, and need to 
 
 much used in build- ^r'^~im^S->rZ ._ be separated from 
 
 ing where a durable ■'^^^iSC^^'^^^^ ™^'^ ^'^ other im- 
 
 stone is needed. \'" ^^ ""' 'itt purities. The sepa- 
 
 Some large build- .^^1t(jf^%<. a ***- rating is done in 
 
 ings are made of '^' '^^^^^ "i -M>t4 ^ ^ furnaces called jw^'/i- 
 
 white marble, but ^^J^ ax -'^ ^'■^' ^^^^^''"h are built 
 
 thc'best white marble rM^^i '• i ^^ jp(PI?5^ Jli "^^'" mining regions, 
 
 is used for statues. ^- ^'^^Bj j^i-i.S. . - ' .^fe "*" ''J Our most impor- 
 
 Large quantities of mBP^^'c''^ ,«r3ik.v' _ .^Wi _ tant mineral is coal, 
 
 sand, broken stone. Fig. 45. a granite quany which is much used 
 
 and cement (Sec. 5) as a fuel. It is found 
 
 are used in making concrete buildings, in many different places, and usually be- 
 bridges, and roads. Many rocks, called tween layers of rock. In some places 
 ores, contain metals such as iron copper, both rock and coal layers are bent and 
 lead, gold, and silver. broken, and the coal may show on the 
 
 The rocks of the earth supply building surface of the ground. In other places 
 stone and the ores of valuable metals. the layers are nearly level, as may be 
 
 32. Quarrying the Stone. — The work seen along the sides of river valleys where 
 of getting stone, other than ores, out of the streams have cut through both rock 
 the ground, is called quarrying. There are and coal. 
 
 many kinds of building stone. Most of Most of the valuable ores, such as iron, 
 
 the quarries that are worked are near the copper, gold, and silver, are buried among 
 
 places where the stone is to be used. Stone the rocks of the earth. Some ores are 
 
 is so heavy and its transportation is so ex- found in the cracks of rocks and show only 
 
 pensive that only the best kinds are sent a little at the surface. In order to reach 
 
 long distances. Figure 45 shows a quarry the more valuable ores it is usually neces- 
 
 from which great blocksof beautiful granite sary to dig decj) Iioles, or shafts ; and from 
 
 are taken. These blocks arc lifted to the each shaft tin- miners dig tunnels, or 
 
 surface, where they are cut into tin' loinis drifts, into the masses of ore.
 
 QUARRYING AND MINING 
 
 25 
 
 Fig. 46. An electric engine hauling a train of loaded coal cars from a nunc 
 
 Much ore is found in mountainous coun- 
 tries, because there the rocks have been 
 bent and broken, and the cracks in the 
 rocks have been filled with minerals. 
 Where these rocks are not covered with 
 soil, the ores niaj' easily be found. In 
 plains, the rocks contain less ore, and are 
 hidden by the deep soil. 
 
 In one part of our own country there 
 are large masses of iron ore lying near the 
 surface. The ore crumbles to pieces 
 easily. It is so easy to handle that it is 
 taken up in scoops worked by machinery 
 (Fig. 48), and loaded at once on cars. 
 
 Frovi mines men get coal and the ores oj 
 metals. In some places these viinerals show 
 at the surface, but generally it is necessary 
 to dig shafts and tunnels to reach them. 
 
 34. Mines in the Higher Mountains. — 
 Many deposits of ore have been found 
 among mountains where mines have never 
 been opened because it would cost too 
 much to get the ore to a smelter. Only 
 the most valuable of the mines in the 
 higher mountains can be worked. In 
 some places it is impossible to reach the 
 mine except by a dangerous narrow path, 
 winding up the side of the mountain. 
 
 Fig. 47. In the interior of a coal mine 
 
 Fig. 48. Mining iron ore in an open pit ^in Minnesota)
 
 26 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Sure-footed donkeys, or burros, may be We step into the man car, and it begins 
 used to bring down the ore and to carrj^ to descend. Deeper and deeper into the 
 the food, tools, and other supphes for the earth it goes. 
 miners. Where there are 
 many mines, or where they 
 
 are very valuable, engineers 
 have found ways of building 
 railroads into the mining 
 region. 
 
 The ores in high mountains 
 are difficult to reach. Many 
 mineral deposits have been 
 found that are not rich enough 
 to pay for working. 
 
 35. A Visit to a Copper 
 Mine. — A trip into a mine 
 is very interesting. Let us 
 visit one of the deep copper 
 
 Cj Detroit Publisliing Co 
 
 Fig. 49. A man car 
 
 Much of the shaft is dark, 
 but as we drop lower and 
 lower we may get glimpses of 
 lights as we go b}^ the ends 
 ot drifts that lead away 
 into the earth. Finally, 
 after passing several of 
 these openings, the car 
 stops, and we step out. 
 In front of us is a long 
 drift. Along its floor runs 
 a narrow railway track, and 
 in the distance we can hear 
 the miners at their work. 
 
 We follow our guide, who 
 points out to us the copper 
 
 mines in the northern part of our country, ore in the rock, and we watch the miners 
 Wear your old clothes and, if possible, at work. In order to loosen the ore it 
 rubber boots and a rubber coat and hat. is necessary to drill holes into the rock. 
 The water in the ground makes its way These holes are filled with dynamite, and 
 into the mine, and it sometimes drips from when this is exploded, several tons of ore 
 the roofs and sides of the tunnels. fall to the floor of the drift. Usually the 
 
 Over the top of the sliafr is a house con- ore is so broken up that it is only neces- 
 
 taining the machin- sary to shovel it into 
 
 cry used in lowering ^l^ fv^^^iiiMPR' ^^^^ which stand on 
 
 the miners to their ^j ^^fZ^f^^^ ^^^^ track. When a 
 
 work and in lifting '*^'r-' l<'^0r^''** § • '"'^'^ '^ filled, it is 
 
 out the ore. The '\ .Jii#i|flP^ 1 1 • * * moved away, and an 
 
 miners are lowered IteMPi* m '''^■"""'^^^^^^^B empty one takes its 
 
 Buckets called skips 1 .; " Loadinp; copper on a lake steamer lifted tO tllC SUtfaCC 
 
 are used in taking and sent to the 
 
 out the ore. A bucket of ore is lifted smelter. There the ore is crushed, the 
 
 very quickly, but the machinery can be impurities removed, and the copper run 
 
 controlled easily, and the man car does into bars. Figure 50 shows some of the 
 
 not make the trip so rapidly. copper as it comes from the smelter.
 
 THE WATERS OF THE EARTH, AND THE FISHING INDUSTRY 27 
 
 In busy times the mining goes on both 
 day and night. As soon as one shift of 
 men stop work another shift come to take 
 their places. 
 
 The copper mine that we are visiting is 
 lighted by the himps and candles of the 
 miners, but many mines are now lighted 
 by electricity. 
 
 We notice with surprise that there is 
 fresh air even in the deepest part of the 
 mine. Our guide tells us that it is forced 
 into the mine through pipes by powerful 
 machinery. The wa- 
 ter that drops from 
 the walls and from 
 the roofs of the tun- 
 nels runs into a hole 
 orwell and is pumped 
 to the surface. 
 
 Perhaps it will be 
 possible for your 
 teacher to take you 
 on a trip to see a 
 mine or a quarry 
 near your home. 
 Frequent excursions 
 should be taken to study geography out 
 of doors. In this way you will learn 
 many interesting things about the plains, 
 valleys, and streams, and about the work 
 that men are doing. 
 
 Review of Sections 31 to 35. — i. For what are 
 rocks useful ? 2. For what is slate used ? Mar- 
 ble .? Granite.'' 3. What are ores ? 
 
 4. What is quarr3'ing .^ 5. How is the stone 
 taken out ? 6. What is done with it before it is 
 sent to the builder? 7. Why do builders gener- 
 ally use stone from quarries near at hand ? 
 
 8. What is mining ? 9. What metals are some- 
 times found nearly pure ? 10. What is done with 
 ores? II. WTiy are mines more easily found in 
 mountainous countries than in plains ? 
 
 12. How are mmes supplied with fresh air? 
 13. How are the mines kept from filling with 
 water? 14. How are miners lowered to their 
 work ? 15. What are shafts ? Drifts ? 
 
 THE WATERS OF THE EARTH, AND 
 THE FISHING INDUSTRY 
 
 36. How Rivers Begin. — Some streams 
 flow out of swamps or lakes. Others have 
 their sources among the melting snows 
 and ice of high mountains. Most streams, 
 however, start in a difi^erent way. 
 
 The next time it rains watch what be- 
 comes of the water that falls to the ground. 
 You "will notice that a part of it begins to 
 gather at once into little hollows. As 
 
 soon as these hol- 
 lows are full the 
 water overflows and 
 forms tiny streams 
 that run over the 
 surface. Most of 
 them dry up soon 
 after the storm is 
 over. 
 
 You cannot see, 
 however, what be- 
 comes of all of the 
 rain water, for some 
 of it sinks into 
 the ground. This is called ground water. 
 It makes its way through the soil, and 
 furnishes the supply of water needed by 
 growing plants. At some distance under 
 the surface the ground is soaked with this 
 water. That is why a deep hole will fill 
 with ground water and become a well. In 
 many places, too, in valleys and low spots, 
 the ground water of the higher land comes 
 out to the surface, forming a spring. 
 
 Many streams have their sources in 
 springs. These spring-fed streams may 
 be at first so small that they are almost 
 lost in the grass which covers their banks. 
 They grow larger as the waters of other 
 springs flow into them, and as they are 
 joined by other streams (Fig. 51). 
 
 Where one stream is joined by another
 
 28 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 The beginning of a 
 stream is called its 
 source. Streams may 
 have their sources m 
 the melting snow and 
 ice of mountains, in 
 swamps or lakes, or in 
 springs. 
 
 37. Rivers and 
 River Systems. — The 
 rivers of a country, 
 seen from a high place, 
 look like wide and nar- 
 row ribbons of silver 
 winding among the hills and through the 
 fields. In each group of streams there is 
 one stream that is larger and usually 
 longer than all the others. This is the 
 main stream. The streams that flow into 
 it are called its tributaries. The main 
 stream, with all its tributaries, is called a 
 river system. The land drained by a river 
 system is a river basin. 
 
 In Figure 52 point out a tributary. 
 Lay thin paper over the figure, and draw 
 your pencil around the river basin. Fig- 
 ure 52 shows the Mississippi river system, 
 the largest river system in our country 
 and one of the largest in the world. The 
 river basin is very large, and a wide strip 
 from north to south through its central 
 part is a region of great plains. The main 
 stream has its source in a small lake on the 
 plain marked s ; but many of the tribu- 
 taries have their sources among the moun- 
 tains which border the great plain on the 
 east and on the west. Here the slopes are 
 steep and the rivers rapid. Even small 
 streams have cut deep, narrow valleys into 
 the rock (Sec. 16). 
 
 At the bottom of such a narrow gorge, 
 or canyon, the stream often i)lunges over 
 a rocky ledge in a waterfall (Fig. 53). 
 
 Fig. 52. The Mississippi river system 
 
 Where several little 
 falls follow close to- 
 gether, they form a 
 cascade. In places 
 where there are no 
 tails but where the 
 water moves very 
 swiftly down an in- 
 cline, it forms rapids. 
 Several of the trib- 
 utaries of the Mis- 
 sissippi system are 
 themselves large and 
 important rivers with 
 many smaller tributaries flowing into 
 them. Find the longest tributary of 
 the Mississippi and trace it back to 
 its source. It rises among the moun- 
 tains, and during the first part of its 
 journey it flows swiftly through narrow, 
 steep-sided gorges. As one tributary 
 after another joins it, the river grows 
 rapidly larger. Its valley becomes more 
 open. The hills along its banks are 
 lower and- have gentler slopes. Finally 
 it leaves the highland region altogether 
 and flows across great plains toward the 
 main stream. 
 
 Several of the tributaries of the Missis- 
 sippi arc like this longest one. One after 
 another they join the main stream, which 
 finally becomes one of the largest rivers 
 of the world. In its lower course it is 
 bordered by broad flood plains built of 
 the sediiiunr that has been brought to it 
 by its tributaries (Sec. 15). It carries 
 much of the finer material until its waters 
 flow into the (lulf of Mexico. Here, at 
 its mouth, c\cn the finer sediments are 
 deposited, and of these a large delta has 
 been formed (Sec. 15). Across the delta 
 the river finds its way to the (Julf through 
 several mouths. Not all rivers build such
 
 Fig. 53. Great Falls and Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River 
 
 29
 
 30 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 deltas. Some widen at their mouths and 
 end in great bays, where their waters are 
 lost in those of the ocean. 
 
 A journey through the region drained 
 
 see if 3^ou can find a main stream and a 
 tributary ; a waterfall, cascade, or rapid ; 
 a bay, a delta. 
 
 Mmiy rivers flow at first swiftly in nar- 
 
 by the Mississippi xWtv system would row valleys ; are made larger by tributaries ; 
 show many of the industries about which flow slowly through flood plains in their 
 you have been studying. On farms and lower courses; and end i^i a bay or in 
 plantations you would see great fields of several mouths crossing a delta. 
 wheat, corn, and cotton. Among the hills 38. Fishing in Rivers. — Agriculture, 
 and mountains and on the plains you including dairying and grazing, is the 
 would find many dairy farms and large most important of all industries because 
 numbers of cattle and sheep. In some we depend upon it for so much of our 
 parts of this drainage basin large forests food. Another industry, however, from 
 are still standing. You could follow the which we get a part of our food, h fishing. 
 trees from the rime they are cut until they In the clear, cold waters of many 
 are sawed into lumber. Mining also is brooks and mountain streams are brook 
 carried on in this river basin. In dif- trout and other fine fish. They are difti- 
 ferent parts ot it there are large mines of cult to catch, and men w ho love the sport 
 coal, iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, and often travel long distances to have a day 
 zinc. of fishing (Fig. 54). 
 
 In visiting the streams near your home In many of the larger rivers there are, 
 
 at certain seasons 
 of the year, great 
 numbers of fish. 
 During a part of the 
 year the fish are 
 protected by law, 
 but at other times 
 they may be caught. 
 Nets, tra|is, and fish 
 wheels are used. In 
 tlie rivers in the 
 ndrthwcstcrn part of 
 our country there 
 are at times so many 
 salmon that they 
 crowd one another 
 in the water. Large- 
 numbers of these 
 lisli are canned and 
 sent to distant parts 
 of the world to be 
 sold. 
 
 FiK. S.). 
 
 FishipK in the clear, cold woU-rs of a mountain stream
 
 TllK WAIERS OF THE EAKIll. AND THE FISHING INDUSFRY 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 55. Where the ocean beats against the edge of the land 
 
 Fish are tised as food. The most impor- 
 tant food fish taken i?i rivers is the salmon. 
 
 39. Swamps, Lakes, and Ponds. — 
 There are many springs in upland pastures 
 and in forests. Where the land is nearly 
 level or has such a gentle slope tliat the 
 water does not easily run ofif, the springs 
 make the ground wet and thus form a 
 szvamp. Swamps are found also in poorly 
 drained lowlands. 
 
 Where there is a basin or hollow in the 
 land the water from springs may collect 
 and form a lake or pond. 
 
 A lake or pond may also be formed by 
 the waters of a river held back by some 
 natural or artificial dam. The stream 
 that flows into a lake and forms its inlet 
 is constantly bringing in sediment to fill 
 the hollow in which the lake rests. The 
 stream that flows from the lake and forms 
 its outlet is as steadily cutting its valley 
 deeper, and in time may cut dee[) enough 
 to drain the lake entirely. 
 
 In many lakes fish abound, and on large 
 lakes fishing is an important industry. 
 
 Some swamps and lakes are formed by 
 springs on nearly level land. Others are 
 made by natural or artificial dams. 
 
 40. The Ocean. — What becomes of the 
 water that flows day after day in the 
 small streams and in the great rivers of 
 the world .? Most of it finally reaches the 
 ocean. The ocean is a very large body of 
 salt water that has gathered in the great 
 hollows and low places of the earth. The 
 land upon which people live is the part of 
 the earth that is not covered by the waters 
 of the ocean. If you should start from 
 home and travel straight ahead in any 
 direction, you would finally reach the edge 
 of the land. Beyond it you would see 
 the ocean (Fig. 55). 
 
 The ocean covers nearly three fourths 
 of the earth's surface. From the land you 
 can get no idea of its size. You could 
 get a much better idea by traveling over 
 the ocean. Even the fast steamers that 
 make trips between our country and the 
 nearer countries on the other side of the 
 ocean, are out of sight of land for several 
 days. On longer trips to more distant 
 countries the sailors may not see land for 
 several weeks. 
 
 The land is bordered on every side by the 
 ocean. Ships crossing the ocean may be out 
 of sight of land for days or weeks at a tiyne.
 
 32 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 41. Waves and Currents. — When the 
 wind is blowing, the surface of the ocean 
 is nearly always rising and falling in waves. 
 Along the shore the \\ater that forms the 
 waves moves forward a little. It tfows 
 forsvard and back on the low sandy 
 beaches, and dashes against the higher 
 rocky shores. Out in the open ocean the 
 movement of the water in waves is chiefly 
 up and down. One can see how this is 
 by shaking a large piece of cloth up and 
 down. Its surface will form waves that 
 appear to move across the cloth ; but it is 
 plain that the cloth itself does not move 
 forsvard. It moves only up and down. 
 
 
 ♦ : 
 
 Fig. 58. This s.iii'iy licirh is \i';(<t iDr .lUlomobilc races 
 
 The size ot waves depends upon the 
 strength of the wind. Gentle winds make 
 small waVes, but during great storms the 
 ocean waves are so high that they sweep 
 over the largest ships. 
 
 In some parts of the ocean the surface 
 waters have a slow, steady, forward move- 
 ment. These moving masses of surface 
 waters are called currents. They are 
 formed where the winds blow for a long 
 time in the same direction. The forward 
 movement of the water cannot be seen. 
 Men found out about these currents by 
 studying the direction taken by objects 
 floating in the water. One may see how 
 such currents are formed by 
 blowing slowly and steadily 
 along the surface of a basin 
 of water (Fig. 56). 
 
 JJ'aves and ocean currents 
 are caused by the winds. 
 In waves the zvater rises and 
 falls. In currents it moves 
 slowly fnrzvard. 
 
 42. Shore Forms of Land 
 and Water. The shore line 
 where the land and water 
 meet is usually irregular. 
 In some places there are 
 high, rocky cliffs (Kig. 57). 
 
 * 
 
 J
 
 FORMS OF LAND AND WATER 
 
 33 
 
 
 Fig. 59. Islands 
 
 Fig. 60. Peninsulas 
 
 Fig. 61. Isthmuses 
 
 Fig. 62. Capes 
 
 many thousands oi islands 
 in the world. 
 
 A body of land that reaches 
 out into the water and is 
 almost surrounded by the 
 
 In others the slope of the land is very water is called a peninsula, a name that 
 
 gentle, and here long, smooth, gently slop- means " almost an island " (Fig. 6o). 
 
 ing beaches are formed. Many of the A narrow neck of land connecting two 
 
 beaches are sandy and are fine places for larger land masses is called an isthmus 
 
 bathing. Along some of them summer (Fig. 6i). 
 
 resorts have grow n up. One of the most A point of land extending into the 
 
 famous winter resorts in our country is water is a cape (Fig. 62). 
 
 near the beach shown in Figure 58. A body of water connected with a larger 
 
 The small drawings on this page and the body of water, but partly shut off by land, 
 
 next show some of the forms of land and is called, in some cases, a sea (Fig. 63) ; 
 
 water found along the ocean 
 
 shores in different parts of 
 
 the world. The shaded parts 
 
 are land and the white parts 
 
 are water. 
 
 Seven of the largest land 
 
 masses in the world are so 
 
 very large that they are 
 
 called continents. Smaller 
 
 bodies of land that are sur- 
 rounded by water are called 
 
 islands (Fig. 59). Some is- 
 lands are much smaller than 
 
 others. Many islands arc 
 
 near the large land masses, 
 
 but there are also many 
 
 others in different parts of 
 
 the ocean. There are many, 
 
 r^ 
 
 ->^^' 
 
 
 5 
 
 Fig. 63. Seas
 
 34 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 r. 
 
 1 
 
 
 L 
 
 __ )t 
 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 I V : V 
 
 
 Fig. 64. Bays and Gulfs 
 
 Ocean 
 
 \ e a C 
 
 Fig. 65. Straits 
 
 in Other cases a gulf ; and in others a bay 
 (Fig. 64). 
 
 A narrow passageway of water that 
 connects two larger bodies of water is 
 called a strait (Fig. 65). 
 
 Visit the shore of the largest body of 
 water near your home. See if you can 
 find an island, a peninsula, an isthmus, 
 and a cape. Perhaps you can find a place 
 where the shore bends inward to form a 
 small gulf or bay. Model these forms in 
 sand in a sliallow basin which you can 
 partly fill with water. 
 
 43. Fishing in Ocean Waters. — In the 
 shallow ocean w aters that border the con- 
 tinents there are large numbers of fish. 
 Among the most important fishing grounds 
 are the cod fisheries off the northeastern 
 coast of our own country. When the sea- 
 son opens, the fishermen go out in small 
 ships to the fishing grounds and stay there 
 until their ships are loaded, or until the 
 fishing season is over. If the boats re- 
 main away from port a long time, the fish 
 are cleaned and salted. When the boat 
 returns to port the salted fish are usually 
 dried on racks in the open air. Other im- 
 portant food fish found in the ocean are 
 the mackerel, the halibut, the salmon, the 
 herring, and the sardine. Oysters, clams, 
 and lobsters are found in the shallower 
 waters along the shore of the ocean. 
 
 Many fish are found in the shallow ocean 
 waters. Jmong them are cod, mackerel, 
 halibut, and herring. 
 
 Review of Sections 36 to 43. — 1. In what 
 ways do rivers begin ? 2. What is ground 
 water.? 3. How are wells made.? 4. What are 
 
 springs 
 
 5. What is a river sj-stem ? 6. What is a main 
 stream .? 7. What are tributaries ? 8. Where 
 do streams flow rapidly and cut deep, narrow 
 valleys .? 9. What is the difference between a 
 waterfall and a cascade ? What are rapids f 
 
 10. What food do we sometimes get from rivers ? 
 
 11. Where are salmon caught? 
 
 12. What is a swamp? 13. How is a lake 
 formed ? How may a lake basin become dry land r 
 
 14. How much of the earth's surface is covered 
 by the ocean ? 15. How may we get an idea of its 
 size? 16. How are waves formed? Currents? 
 17. What is an island? Peninsula? Cape? 
 Isthmus? Sea? Gulf? Bay? Strait? 18. In 
 what parts of the ocean are many fish caught ? 
 
 19. Name some important kinds of fish. 
 
 20. Where are oysters and clams found ? 
 
 MANUFACTURING 
 
 44. The Changing of Raw Materials. — 
 The industries that we have been study- 
 ing are those by which we get most of 
 the things or materials that we use for 
 food, clothing, and shelter. A few of 
 these different materials can be used in 
 the form in which we find them. Most 
 of them, however, i^iust first be prepared 
 in some way before they are used. 
 
 Wheat is crushed into flour, and the 
 flour baked into bread. The wool cut 
 from sheep is cleaned, spun into yarn, 
 woven into cloth, cut into ])roper shape, 
 and made into clothing. Iron ore dug 
 from the ground is smelted in a furnace, 
 and the iron is made into stoves, beams.
 
 i'lg. 66. In a steel mill. A ladle of molten stctl is being run into forms to cool. Steel is a kind of iron 
 
 35
 
 36 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 bars, or nails. The 
 logs cut from forest 
 trees are taken to 
 the mills and sawed 
 into lumber, \\hich 
 is dried and finally 
 made into articles 
 that people need. 
 The wheat, the 
 wool, the iron ore, 
 and the timber are 
 raw materials. The 
 process by which 
 
 must be thought of 
 when factory sites 
 are chosen. 
 
 A factory must 
 have power, or a 
 force to make its ma- 
 chinery go. Wheels 
 turned by falling 
 water give enough 
 power to run the 
 machinery of a small 
 factory or mill. In 
 large factories, such 
 
 raw materials are made into things that as the one shown in Figure 3, where many 
 
 people want is called manufacturing. men and women work, the power is fur- 
 
 The first settlers in this country made nished by large waterfalls or by great 
 
 in their own homes most of the things that steam engines run by burning coal. The 
 
 they needed. Now the farmer gives his location of many factories has been chosen 
 
 time to farming, the miner to mining, the because of a waterfall or a coal mine near 
 
 lumberman to lumbering, and the manu- at hand to furnish the power. But by 
 
 facturer makes things for them all. In the use of electricity, power can be 
 
 order to do this he must obtain a large carried and used many miles from the 
 
 amount of necessary raw material. The place where it is developed, 
 
 milk from many farms is needed to make Not only must a factory have the raw 
 
 enough butter or cheese for our people, material to manufacture, and the power to 
 
 The wool from very many sliecp is needed run the machinery, but it must also have 
 
 to make the yarn that is woven into people to do the work. Manufacturing 
 
 cloth. is carried on best where there are many 
 
 The products of agriculture, mining, and people who have learned how to use 
 
 lumbering are raw materials which must machinery. 
 
 generally go through the process of maniifac- After the raw materials have been 
 
 taring before they are ready for man''s use. changed by manufacture into useful or 
 
 A'ot many years ago much manufacturing beautiful things, the manufactured goods 
 
 was carried on in each home. Now most must be sold. When possible, factories 
 
 people give all of their time to their special are located iirar the |)C()pIe who will use 
 
 work. the goods made, for the goods will then 
 
 45. Locating Factories. — Most manu- not have to be carried a long distance to 
 
 facturing is carried on in large factories their market. 
 
 where the greater part of thr work is done 
 by machinery fKig. 67). Many factories 
 are located near the raw materials that 
 they use, but this is not true of all of 
 
 them. There are other things also that tured goods. 
 
 In deciding where to build a factory the 
 manufacturer must think of where he is to 
 get his raw material, his power, and his 
 labor, and where he can sell the manufac-
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 37 
 
 Review of Sections 44 and 45.— I. What inilus- rivers, and manufacturing in their fac- 
 er cs tumi.sh tiu- m.ucnals ustd for food, clothin!., t.jries. We liiui in our stores (Fig. 68) 
 ami shelter ? 2. Are we able to use many of these 1 ■ 1 1 c c 
 materials In the condition >n which we Hnd them ? '"'^"y ^h'^S^ that have come from far- 
 3. Name a few raw materials. 4. What do we away countries. How do they come to be 
 call the process by which they are prepared for here ? Of course some one bought them 
 use .' S- Where did the early settlers in this 
 
 country get the things they needed ? 6. Where 
 are such things maile now ? 
 
 7. What is a factor}- ? 8. What must a 
 factorv have ? 9. How may this be furnished ? 
 lo. Why are factories located where tiicre are 
 many people ? 
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 in the country from which they came, and 
 sent them to our country. They were 
 probably bought and sold several times 
 before they reached the store where we 
 found them. 
 
 The traders that we know best are the 
 men who keep the stores, but there are 
 many others whom we do not know. 
 Some of them travel to distant parts of 
 tlie world to buy things that cannot be 
 found nearer home. 
 
 Trade and transportation make com- 
 merce. Men travel to all parts of the world 
 to buy goods, which finally reach the stores 
 where we buy them. 
 
 47. Transportation in Cities. — In great 
 cities many goods have to be transported, 
 and thousands of people must walk or ride 
 from one part of the city to another (Fig. 
 69). For this reason many wide streets 
 are necessary. The streets of a large city 
 may cover an eighth, or even a fourth, 
 of the whole surface. They divide the 
 city into blocks, on which are the houses 
 and other buildings. 
 
 46. Trade. — Two important industries 
 have not yet been studied. They are 
 trade, or the buying and selling of goods, 
 and transportation, or the carrying of goods 
 and people from one place to another. 
 Together they are called commerce. 
 
 In other parts of the world, people are 
 at work as we are in our own country 
 (Sec. 6). They are raising food in their 
 fields, digging coal and ores from their 
 mines, catching fish in their lakes and 
 
 tRHfU 
 
 ^p A^P^EJal 
 
 h 
 
 
 s 
 
 m 
 
 
 Fig. 69. A crowded city street
 
 38 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 In the business districts 
 the larger buildings are 
 many stories high (Fig. 
 70), and hundreds of 
 people are at work in 
 them. Even in parts of 
 a city where people have 
 their homes, the buildings 
 are large and crowded close 
 together, and many people 
 live in a small space. 
 
 Most of the workers in 
 the business districts live 
 in other parts of the city, 
 and thousands ride to 
 and from their places of 
 business. In some streets 
 there are tracks in the 
 center for street cars, and 
 spaces on each side for 
 wagons and automobiles. 
 In front of the houses and 
 business places there are 
 wide sidewalks. 
 
 In very large cities some 
 of the streets are not wide 
 enough for all the traffic. 
 Elevated railways have been 
 built above them (Fig. 71), 
 and subways for electric rail 
 been dug underneath them (F 
 
 Most city streets are 
 paved. If this were not 
 done, they would be very 
 dusty when the weather is 
 dry, and muddy when it is 
 wet. In paving a street, 
 a layer of broken stone or 
 gravel mixed with cement 
 is first put in as a founda- 
 tion. On top of it blocks 
 of wood, stone, or brick are 
 laid for a pavement. The 
 top layer is sometimes 
 made of asphalt (Fig. loi), 
 a thick, gummy substance 
 that hardens \Ahen cold. 
 
 In the smaller cities and 
 country villages not all of 
 the streets are paved, and 
 there are few street cars. 
 The sidewalks are nar- 
 rower. The houses are 
 not so close to each other 
 as in a great city, so that 
 there is more open space. 
 
 In cities the buildings are 
 i)i blocks, with streets be- 
 tzveen. Most of the streets 
 are paved, and on some oj 
 roads have them are street car tracks. A few large cities 
 
 Fig. 70. A higli olTice building, oi 
 Broadway, New York 
 
 ig- 72). 
 
 have also elevated railways and subways. 
 
 w 
 
 ■ V i*f| 
 
 --'^*!^ 
 
 ■;■:.*' 
 
 '1 
 
 Kig. 71. An elevated railroad 
 
 Kig. 72. Subway train and station platform
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 t' S l>' I'lrmii'it of AgnctiuUTL 
 
 Fig. 73. An unimproved country road 
 
 Fig. 74. A good road. Notice the large londs 
 
 48. Transportation in the Country. — In 
 the country there are fewer peojile and 
 not so many goods to be transported. 
 Paved streets and broad sidewalks are not 
 needed. Roads are necessary, for the 
 products of the farm must be taken to 
 market, and the farmers must be able to 
 get their supphes. But in the country the 
 roads occupy only a small part of the land. 
 
 Some years ago most of our country 
 roads were poor. They were muddy when 
 it rained, and dusty when it was dry. 
 Now good roads are being built in country 
 districts. Usually the surface dirt is re- 
 moved and the slope, or grade, made easier 
 by cutting away the tops of hills and 
 filling the deeper hollows. A new surface 
 is then made of concrete, brick, broken 
 stone, or gravel. Roads made from 
 broken stone or gravel are packed and 
 leveled by heavy rollers, and tar or a 
 cheap black oil is sometimes added to 
 keep down the dust. On such good roads 
 automobiles and trucks may be easily 
 used. Horses can also draw much heavier 
 loads than on poor roads (Figs. 73, 74). 
 
 In mountain regions, in swamps, and in 
 great forests, travel and the transportation 
 of goods are always difficult and often 
 dangerous. On many of the steep moun- 
 tain slopes, only narrow paths, or trails, 
 have been constructed. Over these trails 
 
 everything must be carried on men's 
 backs, or by sure-footed donkeys or 
 other animals that have been trained for 
 the work. 
 
 Not so many roads are needed in the 
 country as in the city. Many of the old dirt 
 roads have been improved by making the 
 grades easy and putting down a hard sur- 
 face. On the trails in mountain regions or 
 dense forests, goods must he carried on the 
 backs of men or animals. 
 
 49. Transportation by Rail. — The most 
 important of all the ways in which people 
 travel and goods are transported on land, 
 is by the railroad. 
 
 In some parts of the country electric 
 railway lines are used to transport both 
 passen-gers and goods. More and more 
 of these are built each year, especially in 
 rich farming and suburban districts where 
 it pays to run the cars frequently. 
 
 The steam railroads in our country are 
 the longest and best in the world. By 
 traveling several days and nights a person 
 can go entirely across the country with 
 but a single change of cars. On some 
 trains there are " sleeping cars " in w hich 
 the seats used during the day are made 
 up into beds at night. There is also 
 a dining car in which meals are cooked 
 and served. Such trains stop only at the 
 most important places. They are called
 
 40 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 ■--» 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 1km 
 
 .._, 
 
 ■ 
 
 .-^ifc,/* 
 
 
 "1 
 
 i ^mB 
 
 g^>;' 
 
 ^^^HBHHH 
 
 S5 
 
 ^'■^'^^' 
 
 m 
 
 r'^Ti ■■ '•*' 
 
 MWHML^ gldi^'"-^**»;r%--B*^^<^Sgi 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
 75. 
 
 A fast express 
 
 train 
 
 on one of the 
 
 great railroads in the eastern part of our 
 
 country 
 
 express trains, while those that stop at the 
 smaller stations are called local trains. 
 
 The transportation of goods, or freight, 
 IS a very large part of the railroad busi- 
 ness. So important has the carrying 
 of freight become that a variety of special 
 cars have been built, such as those used 
 to carry coal, petroleum, live cattle, 
 meat, fish, and fruit. 
 
 In order that trains may be hauled 
 easily, it is necessary to make the tracks 
 as nearly level as possible. lor this 
 reason most railroads have been built 
 through river valleys and on river flood 
 plains. In the more open areas of the 
 great plains, railroads are built in nearly 
 straight lines. Even here, however, 
 some curves are made 
 in order to reach the 
 rivers at the best i^laces 
 for building bridges. 
 In the mountains only 
 a few valleys can be 
 used, and the tracks are 
 therefore very winding. 
 The grades are steep 
 and the trains wind 
 slowly up the moun- 
 tains. In (limbing a 
 mountain, a heavy train 
 may be divided into 
 two parts, each pulled 
 by two heavy engines. 
 
 r 
 
 Fig. 76. An airplane, the " NC4," which llcw 
 across the Atlantic Ocean in 1919 
 
 In some mountain regions, sheds have 
 been built over the tracks to protect 
 them from falling or sliding snow, and 
 tunnels have been dug to avoid a part 
 of the climb. 
 
 Passengers and freight are carried rap- 
 idly on land by the railroads. On the best 
 trains passengers can travel long distances 
 zvithout changing cars; they eat and sleep 
 on the train. Trains are most easily 
 hauled over level tracks. 
 
 50. Transportation through the Air. — 
 Two kinds of flying machines are in use. 
 One, the airplane (Fig. 76), is heavier 
 than the air. It rises from the ground 
 only when its machinery is in motion. 
 Most airplanes carry only one or two 
 passengers, although 
 many larger ones have 
 been built. They are 
 used for pleasure fly- 
 ing and for speedy 
 transportation of mail, 
 Ireiglit, and passengers. 
 Another kind of air- 
 ship is lighter than tiie 
 air, like a balloon. It 
 is called a dirigible be- 
 cause it has machinery 
 iiy w hich it can be made 
 to go wherethe ojierator 
 wishes. Dirigibles like 
 the one shown in
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 41 
 
 Figure 77 carry n number of 
 passengers and stay in the air 
 for several days at a time. Under 
 the long gas container that sup- 
 ports the dirigible are cabins with 
 seats for the passengers. 
 
 In recent wars some dirigibles 
 and very many airplanes have 
 been used for scouting, bombing, 
 and fighting. 
 
 Flying machines are expensive. 
 Their use in commerce is small but 
 increasing. 
 
 SI. Transportation by Water. — One 
 of the easiest and cheapest ways of 
 transporting goods is by water. Boats 
 do not move so rapidly as trains, but one 
 large boat can carry as much freight as 
 several trains. Wherever transportation 
 by water is possible it is the first method 
 to be used in a new country, because 
 rafts and boats can be built more easily 
 than roads. Steamships (Figs, i, 81) 
 carrying both passengers and freight are 
 in use on the ocean and on many great 
 rivers and lakes. 
 
 In some rivers, however, there are 
 waterfalls or rapids over which vessels 
 cannot go. Broad and deep ditches, or 
 canals, have been 
 dug around many 
 of these, with locks 
 to raise and lower 
 the boats from one 
 level to another. 
 The water in the 
 upper level is held 
 back by the gates 
 at both ends of the 
 lock. One gate or 
 the other is always 
 closed. A boat on 
 the lower level en- 
 
 Fig. 78. A lock on the Panama ship canal 
 
 ters the lock, the lower gate is closed 
 behind it, and the water is admitted to 
 the lock (Fig. 78), lifting the boat to the 
 upper level. Then the upper gate is 
 opened and the boat moves on. Many 
 rivers have been deepened and improved 
 in other ways so that boats can be 
 used on them. 
 
 Long canals have been dug across the 
 land so that loaded boats or ships can 
 pass from one river, lake, or other body 
 of water to another. As the water in 
 canals must be kept nearly level, it is 
 necessary in some places to cut through 
 small hills or to build high banks. 
 
 On the smaller canals, boats are pulled, 
 or towed, by horses 
 or mules walking on 
 a road, or tow path, 
 on one side of the 
 canal. Other canals 
 have been made so 
 wide and deep that 
 good-sized steam- 
 boats can be used 
 on them. A few 
 canals are large 
 enough for large 
 steamers ; they are 
 called ship canals.
 
 42 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 up in places where the water near the 
 shore is deep enough to float the ocean 
 steamships. They are at or near the 
 mouths of great rivers, or where a bend 
 in the coast has partly surrounded some 
 deep water to form a bay. Such river 
 mouths and bays are safe harbors because 
 the ocean waves are shut out and the 
 ships find good places in which to anchor 
 and load or unload goods. 
 
 Where there is no good natural protec- 
 tion for ships, a shallow harbor may be 
 Transportation on rivers, lakes, and deepened, or an artificial harbor may be 
 oceans is usually cheaper, though slower, made by building stone walls, or break- 
 than transportation by rail. Many canals waters (Fig. 79). In most harbors, piers 
 have been constructed around the falls and or wharves have been built where ships 
 rapids of rivers, and across country to receive and land their passengers, and load 
 connect rivers, lakes, and oceans. and unload their freight (Figs, i, 80). 
 
 52. Ocean Commerce and Seaports. In every large harbor there are many 
 
 — The greatest of all the world's high- powerful little tugboats, which help large 
 ways is the ocean. In the far north and steamers to enter and leave their docks, 
 the far south its waters are frozen, but as the space between the wharves is 
 over the rest of its surface great ships called. In some harbors many of the 
 can safely come and go. Every year, boats to be seen are wide, clumsy-looking 
 thousands of people go back and forth be- ferryboats, used in carrying passengers, 
 tween our own country and the lands wagons, automobiles, and even railroad 
 beyond the ocean. W^hen the ships leave trains across a wide river or bay. 
 our shores, they carry 
 goods that we are sending 
 to other countries. When 
 they return, they carry 
 goods that other coun- 
 tries are sending to us. 
 There is so much travel 
 and trade that there are 
 always thousands of ships 
 moving across the ocean 
 or along the coasts. 
 
 Much of the ocean trade 
 is carried on by a few 
 important countries and 
 through a few seaport 
 cities. These have grown 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 tc. Dilroii I'hoiovruiii. 
 
 Some of Ihc wharves of tlic liai bor of New York
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 43 
 
 ill I 
 
 Fig. 81. A large ocean steamer, 882 feet long 
 
 Many ot the largest cities of the world 
 have grown up where there are tine har- 
 bors on the seashore, or where deep 
 rivers enable ocean steamers to reach 
 their wharves. All the important sea- 
 ports are located so that freight and 
 passengers can be easily transported to 
 and from the interior of the country. 
 
 Only a very few ports have water deep 
 enough for such large ocean steamers 
 as the one shown in Figure 8i. Nine 
 hundred men are needed to do the work 
 on this ship. It carries more than two 
 thousand passengers, and it requires many 
 trainloads of coal on every trip to drive 
 it across the ocean. It moves through 
 the water at the rate of twenty-five miles 
 an hour. Not all of the ocean-going ships 
 are large, and not all of them are steam- 
 ships. A few great sailing ships are still 
 in use, but the larger sailing ships have 
 engines that they can use when the wind 
 is not blowing. The small ships make 
 only short journeys along the coast. 
 
 Much of the commerce of the important 
 countries of the world is carried on across 
 the ocean. Large cities have grown up at 
 the ports where goods are transferred from 
 cars to ships. 
 
 53. Protection against 
 Dangers to Navigation. — 
 On the oi)en ocean there 
 is little danger to ships 
 except from fogs and from 
 violent storms. During 
 such storms great waves 
 toss the smaller ships 
 about, sweep over them, 
 and sometimes wreck 
 them. During a fog, if 
 the sailors are not careful, 
 even the largest vessels 
 may be wrecked by col- 
 lision with another ship or with an iceberg. 
 Navigation along the coast is much 
 more dangerous than on the open ocean. 
 There are hidden rocks and reefs, as well 
 as shallow places, that ships must avoid. 
 In fair weather, with clear skies, the 
 officers of a ship can tell, by means of in- 
 truments, just where they are, from the 
 position of the sun or stars. It is then 
 easy to follow certain ocean routes. Dur- 
 ing fogs and storms, ships may drift, or 
 be driven, far out of their courses. In 
 most countries, to guard against dangers 
 along the coast, lighthouses (Fig. 82) 
 are built on capes 
 or islands. The 
 lights in the light- 
 houses are of dif- 
 ferent colors, or 
 the light is made 
 to flash in differ- 
 ent ways, so that 
 the officer of a 
 ship, as soon as 
 he sees a light, 
 can tell where his 
 vessel is, and 
 what danger he 
 must avoid.
 
 44 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 In some dangerous shal- p I Dangerous places along the 
 
 low places, where it has not „M^ coast are ^narked by light- 
 
 been possible to build light- ^^ houses or lightships. 7 he 
 
 houses, lightships are an- ^^ channels that lead into har- 
 
 chored. They have tall masts ^M bors are shown by buoys. 
 
 on which lights are hung. iS^^ ff hen necessary, harbors and 
 
 In order to avoid sand bars '^Hfr*^ channels are dredged to keep 
 
 or rocks, most of the great Fig. 83. Beii buoy them fro^n filling with sedi- 
 
 harbors of the world must be ment or sand. 
 
 entered through narrow channels. Low 54. Aids to Commerce. — Among the 
 iron buoys, similar to the one shown in important aids to commerce are the 
 Figure 83, are placed along eachsideof such mails, the telephone, and the telegraph. 
 
 The mails are carried on the fastest 
 trains and the swiftest steamships. As 
 soon as the mail is put on board, clerks 
 begin to sort it (Fig. 84) and put it into 
 bags, so that it can be left at the proper 
 stations or ports. Letters that do not 
 weigh more than one ounce are carried 
 anyuhere in our country for two cents, 
 and between our country and other 
 countries for two cents or five cents. It 
 is possible also to send parcels by mail 
 (Fig. 85). This part of the postal serv- 
 ice is called the parcel post. Messages 
 sent by mail are slower than those sent 
 by telephone or telegraph, but the cost 
 of sendinLT them is much less. 
 
 U. S. I'osI Ollla 
 
 Fig. 84. Sorting mail in a mail car 
 
 channels. These buoys are firmly anchored 
 to the bottom, and many of them carry 
 lights that can be seen at night. Others 
 are so constructed that they whistle or 
 ring a bell as the waves move them. 
 
 Many harbors at the mouths of rivers 
 must be dredged frequently in order to 
 take OUT rlu- sediment that is hiini4 
 deposited. .At the entrance to a harbor 
 the waves sometimes shift tiie sand bars 
 about .ind obstruct the channel, which 
 must then i)e cleared again. 
 
 In the more important harbors, only 
 pilots whc) know its channels are allowed 
 to steer ships in and out
 
 CUM MERGE 
 
 45 
 
 By means of the 
 telephone one can 
 talk with another 
 person at a distance 
 almost as well as if 
 both were in tlie 
 same room. For this 
 reason telepiiones 
 are in use in busi- 
 ness places and in 
 many homes. 
 
 Messages can al- 
 so be sent quickly 
 by telegraph. The 
 message is sent from one telegraph office 
 to another, and is then delivered to the 
 person to whom it is addressed, either by 
 telephone or by messenger. 
 
 Most telegraph and telephone messages 
 are sent by means of wires, which stretch 
 across the country on poles or are hidden 
 under city streets in pipes or conduits. 
 By means of cables, also, we can telegraph 
 across the ocean. These submarine cables 
 are made of a number of wires twisted 
 together. They rest on the bottom of 
 the ocean, to which they are lowered 
 from ships. 
 
 Some telegraph and telephone instru- 
 ments work without connecting wires 
 (Fig. 86). By their use messages are sent 
 through the air, over land, across the 
 ocean, between ships at sea, and between 
 ships and the land. Ships meeting with 
 accidents at sea send wireless messages to 
 other ships asking help to save the lives 
 of their passengers and crews. 
 
 hi commerce it is necessary for people 
 to send frequent messages to one another. 
 The mails will carry a message iji a few 
 hours or days or weeks; but to those who 
 can be reached by telephone or telegraph, 
 a message can be sent in a few minutes. 
 
 Fig. 86. Wireless telegraph station. Part of Uiu appa 
 ratus needs to be high in the air 
 
 Review of Sections 
 46 to 54. — I. Wli;it is 
 commerce? 2. Name 
 some persons you know 
 who are engafjed in 
 trade. 3. What is 
 transportation ? 
 
 4. How are buildings 
 and streets arranged in 
 a city ? 5. For what 
 are city streets used f 
 
 6. Why is it necessary 
 for many people to ride 
 to and from their work ? 
 
 7. How are they carried r 
 
 8. What is done to pre- 
 vent dust and mud in 
 city streets ? 
 
 9. What kinds of roads do we find in the 
 country ? 10. How are good country roads 
 made? 11. Why are they better than dirt 
 roads? 12. How are goods transported along 
 mountain trails ? 
 
 13. Name two kinds of railways. 14. What are 
 sleeping cars? Dining cars? 15. Where are 
 they used ? 16. What are express trains ? Local 
 trains? 17. What special kinds of freight cars 
 do you know about ? 18. Why are railroad tracks 
 made as nearly level as possible ? 19. Why are 
 tunnels built ? Snowsheds ? 
 
 20. What two kinds of machines are used for 
 transportation through the air? 
 
 21. What method of transportation is cheaper 
 than by rail ? Why ? 22. How do boats pass 
 waterfalls and rapids in rivers? 23. Where are 
 long canals dug ? 24. How are canal boats 
 moved ? 25. What are locks, and how are they 
 used ? 26. What are ship canals ? 
 
 27. What is the greatest of all the world's 
 highways ? 28. Where have the great seaports 
 grown up ? 29. What are harbors ? 30. How 
 are they sometimes made? 31. How large are 
 the great ocean steamers? 32. How fast can 
 they go ? 
 
 33. What are the dangers to navigation along 
 seacoasts ? 34. How are ships' officers warned 
 of such dangers? 35. Where are lighthouses 
 usually built? 36. Where are lightships an- 
 chored ? 37. What are buoj's, and how are they 
 used ? 38. When harbors are made too shallow 
 by sediment from rivers, what is done ? 
 39. Where are pilots employed, and what do 
 they do ? 
 
 40. Name three aids to commerce.
 
 46 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Fig. 87. The wind is blowi 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE 
 
 55. The Air Supports Life. — Surround- 
 ing the earth on wliich we live, and ex- 
 
 from the streets, and 
 leaves and lighter 
 seeds from plants in 
 the fields. It moves 
 sailboats (Fig. 87). 
 It sets the branches 
 of trees in motion, 
 and carries av^ay the 
 smoke that rises from 
 chimneys (Fig. 88). 
 
 When it moves 
 very rapidly, it may 
 tear up trees and 
 overturn and destroy buildings. Some- 
 times whole villages have been destroyed 
 in this way. 
 Air moving so rapidly that it can be 
 
 tending many miles above us, is a great felt, is called wind. 
 
 body of air, called the atmosphere 
 
 The wind does much important work. 
 
 Plants and animals cannot live without On lakes and on the ocean it blows against 
 
 air. We breathe it all the time, even the sails of ships and drives them along 
 
 when we are asleep. In breathing, the (Fig. 87). It turns the great arms of 
 
 air is drawn into our lungs, where part of windmills, which many farmers use to 
 
 it is taken into the blood. Plants and pump water from wells (Fig. 89). It 
 
 animals that do not have plenty of good air blows the impure air out of the rooms 
 
 soon sicken and die. Human beings can where people live and work, and leaves 
 
 live only a verj' few minutes without air. fresh, ])ure air in its place. It carries 
 
 The earth is surrounded 
 by the atmosphere. /lir is 
 necessary to life. 
 
 56. The Wind and its 
 Uses. — When the air is not 
 moving, we do not often 
 think of it, in spite of its 
 importance. If we run, 
 however, it seems to blow 
 against our hands and faces 
 and t(j brush the iiair back 
 from our foreheads. 
 
 When the air is moving, 
 we can sec the effects of 
 its movement. It i)i(ks 
 up dust and bits ol paj)cr 
 
 Im('»- H'J. Windmill 
 
 away the smoke and dust 
 of cities, and leaves behind 
 clean air that is much 
 better for the people to 
 breathe. 
 
 As we have already 
 learned, the wind causes 
 waves and ocean currents 
 (Sec. 41). 
 
 Tlie air cannot be seen, 
 but when it is in motion, we 
 see and feel its effects. The 
 wind turns windmills, moves 
 sailing vessels, and brings 
 frrsh air to houses and 
 workshops.
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE 
 
 47 
 
 57. Cause of the 
 Winds. — When any 
 part of the atmos- 
 phere is warmed 
 it becomes hght- 
 er. The colder and 
 heavier air w ill then 
 move under the 
 warm air and push 
 it up. On a still, 
 cold day this can be 
 shown by the move- 
 ment of the air in a 
 warm room when a 
 window is opened at top and bottom. 
 The cold air comes into the room through 
 the lower opening and pushes under the 
 warm air. The warmer air in the upper 
 part of the room flows out through the 
 upper opening (Fig. 90). The direction 
 in w hich the air moves can be shown by 
 holding a light handkerchief in front of 
 the w indow openings. At the lower open- 
 ing the handkerchief will blow into the 
 room. At the upper opening it will blow 
 out of the room. 
 
 The air outdoors is warmed or cooled 
 by the surface of the earth, which receives 
 heat from the sun. Some parts of the 
 earth are warmer than other parts ; and 
 the uneven warming of the atmosphere 
 causes winds that blow over the earth's 
 surface from the colder to the warmer 
 regions. The land is often warmer than 
 the ocean during the day, and the winds 
 move in from the ocean over the land. 
 The land is usually cooler than the ocean 
 during the night, and the wind then 
 moves the other way. The great winds 
 of the world, however, blow long distances, 
 and in directions that are influenced by 
 several other causes besides the uneven 
 warming of the earth's surface. 
 
 The moving air blows the handkerchiefs 
 
 As warm air is 
 light, and cool air is 
 heavy, winds move 
 over the surface oj 
 the earth, from cooler 
 to zvarjuer regions. 
 
 58. Water Vapor 
 and the Moisture 
 in the Air. — When 
 clothes that have 
 just been washed 
 and are still wet. 
 are hung out ot 
 doors on a bright 
 day, they soon dry. When a basin of 
 water is left uncovered and undisturbed 
 for a few days, the water disappears. 
 What becomes of it .? In very small 
 particles, so small that they cannot be 
 seen, the water passes into the air and 
 becomes a part of it. This change goes 
 on more or less rapidly wherever the sur- 
 face of the earth is damp, but especially 
 from bodies of water. Water in the form 
 of separate particles so small that they 
 cannot be seen, like air, is called water 
 vapor. Such particles may unite to form 
 tiny drops of water that can be seen, but 
 are still so very small that they float in the 
 air, forming clouds, fog, or mist. Most of 
 the water vapor in the air comes from the 
 ocean. Such vapor may move, in winds, 
 far over the land. 
 
 Heat causes water to become water 
 vapor. When water is boiled, it changes 
 to vapor rapidly. If a teakettle contain- 
 ing water is left over the fire until the 
 water boils, a cloud of "steam" will be 
 seen coming from the spout of the kettle. 
 The " steam" that can be seen, however, 
 is a cloud of tiny drops of water : it is not 
 the water vapor of which we have been 
 speaking, for water vapor cannot be seen.
 
 48 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Look closely at the end of the 
 spout. Between the end of the 
 spout and the cloud of " steam" 
 there is a clear space where 
 nothing can be seen. The water 
 vapor or steam is really passing 
 through this space, but it is in- 
 visible. As it cools it changes 
 into a visible cloud of " steam." 
 Later this disappears because it 
 
 the air. It comes from 
 the evaporation of water 
 from the soil and from 
 zvater surfaces. Most 
 of it rises from the 
 ocean. Much vapor 
 from the ocean is swept 
 over the land by the 
 winds. 
 
 59. The Forms in 
 
 mixes with the air and becomes water which Moisture Condenses. — You have 
 vapor again. already learned that mountain tops are 
 
 Warm air can contain more water vapor colder than their lower slopes (Sec. 25). 
 than cold air. Anything that warms the When the warm air from the surface of 
 air makes it possible for it to contain more the earth is pushed up to higher levels it 
 water vapor. When water is changed becomes cooler. The vapor it contains 
 into vapor, we say that it has been evap- is condensed and begins to form clouds, 
 orated. Anything that cools the air may At first these may look like great white 
 cause it to lose some of its moisture, mountains (Fig. 92), but with further con- 
 When vapor changes to water again, we densation they grow black and heavy, and 
 say that it has been condensed. There rain begins to fall. Some of the vapor 
 is moisture in our breath, and if we rising from the ocean condenses and falls 
 breathe against a cold window pane, a back into the ocean. That which falls on 
 thin coating of moisture is condensed on the land may be evaporated again, or it 
 the glass. When the air is warm and may be used by plants and animals, or it 
 damp, or muggy, the moisture in it will may sink into the ground, or run over the 
 condense on the side of a glass or pitcher surface in brooks and rivers, 
 containing ice water. All lite depends upon the presence of 
 
 There is much invisible water vapor in moisture on the surface of the earth. 
 
 Where there is no moisture, 
 there can be no plant life, and 
 w ithout plant life no animals 
 or human beings can live. 
 
 Sometimes the warm air 
 of the plains is forced up 
 the sides of mountains ; as 
 it becomes cooler, the vapor 
 is condensed as rain or snow. 
 The side of a mountain 
 against which the wind 
 blows, or tin- -windward 
 side, is the side that gets 
 the moisture. The opposite. 
 
 Fig. 92. Clouds, formtil of sinnll particles of moisture
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE 
 
 49 
 
 ii(i. y.;. Clearing the snow drifts from a railroad track 
 
 or lee, side of the mountain is often left 
 almost without moisture. 
 
 Moisture condensing close to the surface 
 of the earth forms fog. Fogs over the 
 ocean make navigation dangerous (Sec. 53). 
 Water vapor at the surface of the earth 
 often condenses during the night into 
 drops of dezv and makes the grass wet. 
 If much moisture is condensed in the air 
 when the temperature is below freezing, 
 it falls as sjiozv (Fig. 93). If moisture is 
 condensed at this temperature at the sur- 
 face of the earth, it becomes frost. 
 
 Moisture may be condensed as clouds, 
 fog, rain, snozv, dezv, or frost. 
 
 60. The Weather. — When we speak of 
 the zveather, we mean the condition of the 
 atmosphere at the time as warm or cold, 
 wet or dry, clear or cloudy, w indy or still. 
 People learn a great deal about the 
 weather of the place where 
 they live. They know which 
 winds bring rain and which 
 winds bring fair weather. 
 They learn when to expect 
 the warm days and when to 
 expect the cold. Persons who 
 work out of doors pay much 
 attention to the weatlier. 
 Farmers wait for good weather 
 
 before planting or harvesting their crops. 
 Wlien a dangerous storm is expected small 
 ships do not leave port. 
 
 The weather is so important to farmers, 
 sailors, and many others that our govern- 
 ment sends out weather reports every 
 day, telling what the weather is likely to 
 be the next day (Fig. 94). 
 
 Notice the weather for a few days and 
 tell whether it is wet or dry ; hot, warm, 
 cool, or cold. Read the weather reports 
 if you can get them. 
 
 Review of Sections 55 to 60. — i. What is 
 the atmosphere .'' 2. How great is its extent ? 
 3. What would happen to plants, animals, and 
 human beings if there were no air.'' 
 
 4. How can we prove that there is air when 
 it is not moving ? 5. When air is moving what 
 are some of its effects .' 6. What work does the 
 wind do ? 7. What causes winds .'' 
 
 8. How do we know that air takes up water 
 vapor? 9. What is evaporation? 10. Which 
 takes up more vapor, warm air or cold air ? 
 II. What happens when warm air containing 
 much vapor is cooled ? 12. How does it happen 
 that vapor evaporated from the ocean is con- 
 densed over the land ? 
 
 13. When condensation begins at some dis- 
 tance above the ground, what form does the 
 water vapor first take ? 14. What happens if 
 condensation continues? 15. W'here does the 
 rain fall? 16. What causes snow? 17. How 
 do mountains get their moisture? 18. Which 
 will be the dry side and which the rainy side 
 of mountains ? 19. What causes fog ? Dew ? 
 Frost ? 
 
 20. W' hat is meant by weather ? 21. Why does 
 our government send out daily weather reports? 
 
 U. S Department of Affriculture. Weather Bureau 
 
 .IM V. I*t( LMIltk 
 
 H<tbM< |vM*nla> 
 
 FOR NEW YORK CITV ANp VICINITY Lo»mi Uit Disbl. 2V 
 
 Unsettled to-night and Friday, probably snow flurries. Probably colder 
 Friday. Moderate winds mostly northerly. Minimunv temperature to-night 
 about "16 degrees. 
 
 Easlem A'cir Ymk: Snow to-night and probably Fnday. Moderate variable winds. 
 
 Eastern Pmnnyliiima and Sew Jersey. Unsettled to-night and Kri<iay. probably rain or snow. Mod- 
 prate variable winds. 
 
 ('Lmntdicul: Cloudy to-night and Fnday. probably snow. Fre'h northeast winds. 
 
 Slramrrs departing to-<iay for European ports wdl have fresh east winds and overcast weather and 
 snow and rain to the Grand Banks. 
 
 j\WtkrQst fUTm irarnrigf are displayed on the New England coast from Boston lo Block Island 
 
 Fig. 94. Weather report, in card form
 
 so 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 GO\'ERNMENT 
 
 6i. The Need of Government. — 
 Wherever people live or work near one 
 another, it is necessary to have rules, 
 or lazvs, so that each person may' know 
 what is right for him to do and what is 
 wrong. That is the reason why, in your 
 home, you have fixed hours tor meals, 
 for bedtime, and for getting up in the 
 morning. In school also there must be 
 rules. They tell what time to begin 
 work in the morning and when to close 
 in the afternoon ; and there are rules 
 about being tardy, about learning les- 
 sons, about recess, and about many 
 other things. 
 
 At home your parents make the 
 rules and see that you obey them. At 
 school it is the teacher who tells you 
 what the rules are and what you are 
 to do. 
 
 There are also many rules or laws that 
 must be obeyed by your parents, your 
 
 • n It rr rt rt ir 
 
 iiiilii iiiilii iiiiiii 
 ■ iiiiii IIIIIII IIIIIII 
 
 iiitni IIIIIII IIIIIII 
 IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII 
 
 Fig. O.S. One corner of a city park 
 
 teachers, and all other people. For ex- 
 ample, when two persons meet in walk- 
 ing or riding or driving, each must, if 
 necessary, turn out to the right. Another 
 rule forbids anybody to drive an auto- 
 mobile too rapidly through a city street. 
 Stealing is forbidden as a crime, for 
 which one may be sent to prison or to a 
 reformatory. 
 
 Who makes such laws as these, which 
 must be obeyed by all the people ^. In 
 our country they are made and enforced 
 by many officers who are elected by the 
 people. Some elected officers appoint 
 other officers to help them. All the 
 officers together are sometimes called 
 the government. The same word, gov- 
 ernment, may mean also the work done ; 
 that is, it may mean the making and 
 enforcing of laws. 
 
 A govcrnmeni is needed to make and 
 enforce laws, and thus to prevent one person 
 from injuring another. In our country 
 the government is controlled by the people. 
 
 62. Local and State 
 
 Government. — The 
 officers of a city make 
 some rules that must 
 be obeyed in that 
 city, and they also do 
 much important work 
 for the benefit of all. 
 They lay out new 
 streets and parks (Fig. 
 95), and attend to 
 sucli things as light- 
 ing the streets, pro- 
 viding a city water 
 supjily, and building 
 schoolhouses. 
 
 The chief officer of 
 a city is called the 
 mayor.
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 51 
 
 Our country is divided into forty- 
 eight parts called states, and each state 
 has a government made up of many 
 officers. It is this state government 
 that makes most of the laws which 
 must be obeyed by all the people of the 
 state. 
 
 This government divides the state into 
 counties and other districts, and decides 
 what officers shall be elected in each of 
 them, and what work they shall do. It 
 makes general rules for the control of 
 city governments. It decides how the 
 schools shall be managed, and how long 
 they must be open each year ; and it 
 provides for the restraint of criminals 
 and for the care of the deaf, blind, and 
 insane. 
 
 The laws in each state are usually 
 made by men elected for that purpose 
 and called the legislature of the state. In 
 some states, however, the people them- 
 
 selves can make laws, by proposing them 
 and voting for them at elections. The 
 chief officer of the state, who sees that 
 the laws are enforced, is called the 
 governor. Officers who try criminals and 
 decide disputes are called judges. 
 
 The legislature meets in a city, called 
 the capital, which usually can be reached 
 easily from all parts of the state. In this 
 city is erected a fine building called the 
 state capital (Fig. 96), in which the legis- 
 lature meets, and in which other state 
 officers have their offices. 
 
 What is the name of the state in which 
 you live ? Who is now the governor of 
 your state ? What city is the capital ? 
 
 Most of our laws are made by the state 
 legislatures. County, city, and other local 
 officers do much of the work of govern- 
 ment, but they are controlled by the state. 
 The most important state officer is the 
 governor.
 
 52 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Fig. 97. The United States Congress. The President is reading a message to Congress 
 
 63. The United States Government. — 
 Representatives are sent from the dif- 
 ferent states to the city of Washington, 
 which is the national capital, to form a 
 national Congress that makes laws for 
 the whole country (Fig. 97). The high- 
 est officer of the national government is 
 the President, who is elected every four 
 years. It is his duty to see that the laws 
 of the nation are enforced, and he ap- 
 points many officers to help him in his 
 work. 
 
 The United States government cares 
 for matters that are of importance to 
 
 the people of the whole country. It 
 carries on war when necessary (Fig. 98). 
 It sees that mail is carried from place to 
 place, that harbors and rivers are im- 
 proved, that lighthouses are built, and 
 dangerous rocks and shoals located and 
 marked (Sec. 53). The government also 
 gathers information about the weather 
 and sends it out to the people. It coins 
 or prints money, and regulates commerce 
 between the states. 
 
 The states in our country are united 
 to form the national government, or the 
 government of the United States. The 
 
 L 
 
 Fig. 98. United Stales soldiers (artillery; on parade 
 
 r S W<ir It, p
 
 GOVERN MEN' 
 
 53 
 
 Fig. 99. Police on parade 
 
 I'"it-'. lit]- Paving a city stret t wiili ^r^iiiialt 
 
 chief officer is the President. The Presi- 
 dent lives in JJ'ashington, and Congress 
 meets there. The national government 
 issues money, carries the mail, and does 
 other things to help industry. It takes 
 charge of many matters of interest to the 
 people of the zvhole country. 
 
 64. The Influence of Government on 
 Industry. — In the country districts, 
 there are officers who protect the lives 
 and property of the people. Other offi- 
 cers have charge of the roads. Others 
 see to it that the people fence their pas- 
 tures to keep their 
 animals from doing 
 damage to the prop- 
 erty of other people. 
 
 In cities, the 
 homes and stores 
 are protected from 
 thieves by police- 
 men (Fig. 99), and 
 from fire by firemen 
 (Fig. 100). The 
 streets are paved 
 (Fig. loi), lighted, 
 and cleaned. Fresli, 
 pure water is carried 
 through pipes under 
 the streets to the 
 
 houses and factories, and waste is carried 
 away in sewers. All of this work is done 
 under the direction of the city government 
 In the state, the laws set the time when 
 fish and wild animals may be caught or 
 hunted. Many states have laws requir- 
 ing that milk, butter, eggs, meat, and 
 other foods be clean and of good qual- 
 ity. Other laws control the work and 
 the charges of railroad, telephone, and 
 lighting companies. Some states have 
 constructed canals and state roads to 
 aid and cheapen transportation. 
 
 Some of the ways 
 in which the na- 
 tional government 
 aids business have 
 already been men- 
 tioned (Sec. 63). It 
 has also helped in 
 the building of rail- 
 roads, and has given 
 away much public 
 land to settlers. 
 
 Large sums of 
 money have to be 
 spent every year in 
 doing the work of 
 local, state, and na- 
 tional governments.
 
 54 
 
 HOW PEOPLE WORK AND LIVE 
 
 Salaries must be paid to officers, and the 
 governments must buy many things. 
 
 The money is raised by taxes. That 
 is, persons are required by hiw to pay 
 to the government certain sums of 
 money. The amount that each must 
 pay depends upon 
 what his business is, 
 and upon how much 
 property and how 
 much income he has. 
 
 In country dis- 
 tricts, as well as in 
 cities, states, and the 
 nation, the govern- 
 ment does many 
 things to help people 
 in their work. 
 
 65. Government 
 in Other Countries. 
 — In some of the 
 other countries of 
 theworld, as in ours, 
 the chief officers of the government are 
 chosen by the people, at elections. Such 
 a country is called a republic. 
 
 A kingdom is a country whose highest 
 officer is a king. He holds his place as 
 long as he lives. When he dies, the 
 people do not elect a new king. In- 
 stead, the office belongs to the king's 
 oldest son, or other near relative. 
 , An empire is formed by uniting sev- 
 eral countries under one ruler, whose 
 office descends from father to son like 
 that of a king. The ruler is often, 
 although not always, called an emjieror. 
 
 A monarchy is any government under 
 a king, emperor, or other ruler who 
 holds his office by right of birth. Kings 
 and emperf)rs at one time had much 
 more power than they have now. They 
 made the laws, appointed the other 
 
 Fig. 102. Meeting place of the lawmakers of Great 
 Britain, a limited monarchy 
 
 officers, and governed as they pleased. 
 Such a government is called an absolute 
 monarchy. 
 
 In nearly all monarchies at present 
 the people have a share in the govern- 
 ment, especially in electing lawmakers. 
 
 Such a government 
 is called a limited 
 monarchy, because 
 the ruler's powers 
 are limited. 
 
 A republic is a 
 country governed by 
 officers who are elected 
 by the people. A 
 monarchy is under a 
 king or emperor who 
 inherits his office and 
 rules for life. In 
 a limited monarchy, 
 however, the people 
 have a share in the 
 government. 
 Review of Sections 61 to 65. — i . Why is it nec- 
 essary to have rules or laws ? 2. What rules do 
 we have at home .^ In school? 3. Who sees to 
 it that we obey the home rules .^ The school 
 rules ? 4. What is meant hy government ? 
 5. How are officers chosen in our country ? 
 
 6. What kind of work is done hy a city govern- 
 ment ? 7. How many states are there in our 
 country ? 8. What does a state government 
 do ? q. Where does a state legislature meet ? 
 10. Wiiat is the chief officer of a state called ? 
 
 II. What is the name of the national capital? 
 12. What is the name of the national body of 
 lawmakers? 13. Who is our President now? 
 
 14. What does the United States government 
 do ? 
 
 15. How do the laws help tin- people and their 
 industries in the country? In the city? In the 
 state? In the nation? 16. Why is money 
 needed in order to carry on any goveriuncnt ? 
 17. How is it raised ? 
 
 iS. What is a republic? .\ kingdom? An 
 emjiire ? A monarchy ? 19. What is the dif- 
 ference between a limited and an absolute mon- 
 archy ?
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 Fig. 103. The horizon, where the sky and sea siem to meet 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 (If required by the local course oj study Sections 66-Sj should be deferred lilt the time prescribed in the course.) 
 
 FORM AND ROTATION OF THE 
 EARTH; FINDING DIRECTIONS 
 
 66. What we See of the Earth.— Wher- 
 ever we may hapi^cii to be, we can see 
 only a small part of the land and water 
 that make up the surface of the earth. 
 
 From the shore of the ocean or of a 
 great lake, we can look far over the sur- 
 face of the water to where the sky seems 
 to bend down to meet it. The surface of 
 the water seems almost level, and the sky 
 looks like the inside of a great bowl that 
 has been turned over it. The line where 
 the earth and sky seem to meet, surrounds 
 us in a great circle and is called the 
 horizon (Fig. 103). 
 
 In a country where there are no hills 
 or mountains, the land seems to stretch 
 away to the horizon as a level i)lain. 
 
 In a hilly or mountainous country, when 
 we stand on a high hill we can see much 
 further than we can from a plain. Even 
 then the horizon always surrounds us. 
 
 We can see only a small part of the earth 
 at a time. The earth and sky seem to ineet 
 at the horizon. 
 
 67. The Size of the Earth. — A great 
 many persons have traveled over the sur- 
 face of the earth, and from them we have 
 learned many things about it. We know 
 that it is made up of land and water, and 
 that there is much more water than land. 
 There are many islands in the great ocean, 
 but most of the land surface is in seven 
 great masses called continents. 
 
 The continents are very large, so large 
 that at their broadest parts it would 
 take a man many weeks to walk across 
 them. If a man could walk all the way 
 around the earth at the rate of thirty 
 miles a day, the journey would take 
 more than two years. 
 
 The earth is nearly 25,000 miles around. 
 Almost three fourths of its surface is made 
 up of the waters of the great ocean. The 
 rest is land, and most of the land is in 
 seven continents. 
 
 68. The Form of the Earth. — Although 
 the earth is very large and only a small 
 part of it can be seen at a time, people 
 have learned its shape. It is round like 
 a ball. We may take a ball, or sphere, 
 to represent the earth, and on it we may 
 
 55
 
 56 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 
 ^S^ A o (■ i: A -v .^--^l^k .'•:■ 
 
 Fig. 104. Western Hemisphere 
 
 '^5y - ^^'« ©cj'i-' 
 
 AM.AUl 
 
 Fig. 105. Eastern Hemisphere 
 
 mark the parts of the earth's surface that 
 are land. Figures 104 and 105 show 
 opposite sides of a ball, or globe, marked 
 in this \va3^ Notice how much more 
 water there is than land. Ask your teacher 
 to show you, on your schoolroom globe, 
 the spot that represents the place where 
 you live. Put your linger there, and then 
 move it around the globe. You see how 
 people may travel "around the world." 
 
 Five hundred years ago most people 
 knew only a small part of the earth, and 
 believed it to be flat. One of the men who 
 helped to explore the 
 other parts of the earth 
 was Christopher Colum- 
 bus (Fig. 106). He be- 
 lieved he could reach 
 India by sailing toward 
 the west ; and in 1492 
 he persuaded the queen 
 of Spain to help him. 
 Locate Spain and India 
 on the gloi)e. Columbus 
 sailed from Spqin across 
 
 the ocean about where the broken line is 
 drawn in Figures 104 and 105. He believed 
 the earth to be round, but he thought the 
 distance to India much shorter than it 
 really is, in the direction he traveled. 
 Why did he not reach India .? What body 
 of land did he come to instead .'' Colum- 
 bus never got beyond the land which 
 people later called America, or the New 
 World, but he died believing that he had 
 reached a land near India. 
 
 Another man who helped to prove that 
 the earth is round was Magellan (Fig. 107). 
 Trace the route followed 
 by his ships as shown by 
 the arrows in Figures 
 104 and 105. One of his 
 ships finally came again 
 to the port from which 
 it started. 
 
 77/r earth is round like 
 a ha//. On a g/ohe the 
 /and and water can be 
 shown . People can travel 
 around the world.
 
 THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH 
 
 57 
 
 69. The Rotation of the Earth. — Al- 
 thoui^h tlic earth seems to us to stand still, 
 it really is in motion. It whirls around, 
 or rotates, like a basehall thiown with a 
 spinning motion. The line around which 
 it turns, called its axis, runs throu_u;h the 
 center. In a globe there is a wire in place 
 of the axis, but the axis of the earth is 
 like that of a baseball turning in the air. 
 The points on the surface of the earth at 
 the ends of the axis are called poles. 
 There are two poles, the North Pole and 
 the South Pole. Find the 
 poles on a globe and in 
 Figures no and in. It 
 takes twenty-four hours 
 for the earth to make one 
 turn on its axis. 
 
 The sun is a white-hot 
 mass a million times as 
 large as the earth. From 
 the sun the earth receives 
 its light and heat. The 
 part of the earth turned 
 toward the sun has light, 
 or day. The part turned 
 away from the sun has darkness, or night. 
 You can see why this is by turning the 
 globe in front of a light in a room from 
 which the sunlight has been shut out. 
 Only one half of the globe is lighted at a 
 time ; the other half is in darkness. 
 
 Notice on the globe the spot that repre- 
 sents the place where you live. Place the 
 globe so that this spot is away from the 
 light, and then turn the globe slowly in 
 the direction opposite to the motion of 
 the hands of a watch. When the light 
 first touches the spot, it shines there 
 just as the sun shines on your home in 
 the morning. As you continue to turn 
 the globe, point out the positions that 
 represent noon, sunset, and midnight. 
 
 The earth turns around, or rotates, on its 
 axis. This rotation fixes the position of the 
 North and South Poles. It also causes day 
 ami night. 
 
 70. Direction on the Earth. — When 
 persons travel toward the North Pole from 
 any i)lace on the earth, they are going 
 north. If they travel toward the South 
 Pole, they are going south. From the 
 North Pole all places on the earth are 
 south. From the South Pole all places are 
 north. The shortest possible lines from 
 
 Fig. 108. Meridians and parallels; 
 North Pole at top of the diagram 
 
 Fig. 109. Meridians and parallels; 
 North Pole turned forward 
 
 one pole to the other, on the surface of the 
 earth, are north and south lines, and are 
 called ?neridtans. 
 
 The direction in which the earth rotates 
 is east, and the opposite direction is zvest. 
 Every east and west line crosses the merid- 
 ians at right angles. The east and west 
 line around the earth halfway between the 
 poles is the Equator. Many other east 
 and west lines may be drawn on a globe. 
 On any east and west line all points are 
 at the same distance from the Equator. 
 That is, every such line is parallel to the 
 Equator, and all east and west lines are 
 called parallels. Find meridians and par- 
 allels on your globe and in Figures 108 
 and 109.
 
 58 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 
 
 . s -v^y 
 
 * I! I ' 
 
 Fig. 110. Northern Hemisphere 
 
 Fig. 111. Southern Hemisphere 
 
 If the earth were cut into two parts 
 along the Equator, it would be divided 
 into two half spheres, or hemispheres. 
 One of these is called the Northern 
 Hemisphere (Fig. no), and the other the 
 Southern Hemisphere (Fig. in). The 
 earth may be divided also by meridians 
 into so-called Eastern and Western Hemi- 
 spheres (Figs. 104, 105). 
 
 Tozvard the North Pole is north. Toward 
 the South Pole is south. Meridians are lines 
 running north and 
 south. The direction 
 in which the earth 
 rotates is east. The 
 Equator and other 
 parallels are lines 
 running east and 
 west. 
 
 71. Easy Ways of 
 Finding Direction. 
 — On March 21 and 
 on September 22 the 
 sun rises in the 
 morning almost cx- 
 
 tions by the i isiii^ buu 
 
 actly in the east. If at sunrise on those 
 days you stretch out your arms (Fig. 112), 
 and stand with your right hand toward the 
 sun, your left hand w ill he i)ointing west. 
 You will be facing toward the north, and 
 your back will be turned toward the south. 
 If you watch the shadows of objects on 
 a bright, sunny day, you will notice that 
 they are long in the early morning and 
 late evening, and shortest at noon. The 
 shortest shadow of the day lies in a 
 
 north and south di- 
 rection. By means 
 of this shadow a 
 north and south 
 line can be drawn 
 (Fig. 113). If you 
 stand on such a line 
 and face toward the 
 north, your right 
 hand will be toward 
 the east, your left 
 hand toward the 
 west, and your back 
 toward the south. 
 
 1 ;. 1 1 ; !■ iiicliii;; direc- 
 tions by a shadow at noon
 
 DIRECTIONS 
 
 59 
 
 An easy way of 
 finding direction on 
 a clear, starry night 
 is to look for the 
 North Star. Any 
 one walking toward 
 this star is going 
 north. The star is 
 near the Big Dipper 
 (Fig. 114). See if 
 you can find it on 
 some clear night. 
 
 72. How to Locate 
 Places on the Earth. 
 — It you wish to 
 direct a stranger to 
 some place in a city 
 or village, you will 
 give him the names 
 of the streets which 
 cross each other near 
 it. For example, 
 you may say: "The 
 place is near State 
 
 After the North Star has been found, how Street and Randolph Street." It is easy 
 
 would you locate east, south, and west ^ to locate places that are near the crossing 
 
 A long time ago some one discovered of streets and roads, 
 
 that it is possible to find direction by using The meridians and parallels about which 
 
 an instrument called a compass (Fig. 115). you have been studying are lines crossing 
 
 The important part of this instrument is a at right angles, like many city streets, 
 
 special kind of small steel bar called a mag- It is possible to show some of them on a 
 
 netic needle, so hung that it can swing globe and by their help to locate any place 
 
 easily. The needle points 
 nearly toward the north in 
 most parts of the world, and 
 is used by sailors in guiding 
 their ships and by persons 
 traveling in the woods. 
 
 The four directions north, 
 east, south, and west are the 
 principal, or cardinal, points. 
 The direction halfway be- 
 tween east and south is 
 
 on the earth. The meridians 
 and parallels are, of course, 
 not actual marks on the sur- 
 face of the earth, any more 
 than are the boundary lines 
 between many city or village 
 lots. 
 
 It is, however, always pos- 
 sible to find the boundary 
 lines by measuring, and men 
 have also learned how to find 
 
 southeast; halfway between south and the Equator and to tell how far any place 
 
 west is southzvest; halfway between west is north or south of it. By selecting one of 
 
 and north is northwest; and halfway be- the meridians as a line from which to start, 
 
 tween north and east is northeast. they can also tell how far a place is east or 
 
 In what direction is your home from the west of this first or prime meridian, 
 
 school? See if you can point in all of the The prime meridian generally used 
 
 directions shown in Figure 115. 
 
 Direction may be found by noticing where 
 the sun rises or sets on March 21 or Septem- 
 ber 22, by finding the direction of the short- 
 
 passes through the great city of London. 
 Find this meridian on your globe. 
 
 As parallels are circles, and meridians 
 are half circles, we must know how to find 
 
 est shadow, by locating the North Star, and particular points on a circle. For meas- 
 ly using the compass. urement every circle is divided into 360
 
 6o 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 equal parts, called de- 
 grees. In circles of 
 different sizes, the de- 
 grees of one circle are 
 longer or shorter than 
 those of another, but a 
 degree is always just 
 3^ of its own circle 
 (Fig. 1 1 6). Find on a 
 globe the parallel which 
 has the longest degrees. 
 As meridians are all of 
 the same size, the de- 
 grees on the meridians 
 are of equal length. 
 
 Any place can be located as a certain 
 number of degrees north or south of the 
 Equator. This we call the latitude of the 
 place. Every place is a certain number 
 of degrees east or west of the prime 
 meridian. This we call its longitude. 
 
 Places on the earth are located as a cer- 
 tain number of degrees {or parts of degrees) 
 north or south of the Equator, and east or 
 west of the prime meridian. 
 
 Fig. 116. Divisions of circles 
 
 Review of Sections 66 to 
 
 72. — I. How much of the 
 earth's surface can you see 
 at a time ? 2. What do we 
 call the line where the earth 
 and sky seem to meet ? 
 
 3. Is there more land or 
 water on the earth's sur- 
 face.' 4. Into how many 
 large masses is most of the 
 land divided ? 
 
 5. What is the form of 
 the earth f 6. What voyage 
 did Christopher Columbus 
 take, and what did he find ? 
 7. What journe\' did the 
 men with Magellan make .i* 
 8. What is the axis of 
 the earth ? 9. Where are 
 10. How long does it take the 
 earth to turn once on its axis? 11. When do 
 we have da^' ? When do we have night.' 
 
 12. What direction is north ? South.' 13. What 
 direction is east ? West .' 14. What are me- 
 ridians .' What are parallels? 15. What is the 
 Equator? 16. What is the Northern Hemi- 
 sphere ? The Southern Hemisphere ? 
 
 17. How ma}- the direction north be found? 
 18. How may the other directions be found ? 
 19. How may the earth be represented ? 
 
 20. How do we locate places on the globe ? 
 
 21. What is a degree? 
 
 the two poles ? 
 
 ; ""^ '-■ 
 
 Fig. 1 1 / . /\ii.iiiiic Ocean 
 
 Fig. 118. Pacific Ocean
 
 LAND AND CLIMATE 
 
 6i 
 
 LAND AND 
 CLIMATE 
 
 73. The Conti- 
 nents and Oceans. 
 
 — Figure 104 sliows 
 the Western Hemi- 
 sphere. In this 
 hemisphere is the 
 New World which 
 Columbus discov- 
 ered. The north- 
 ern mass of land is 
 the continent of 
 North America, of 
 which our own 
 country, the United 
 States, is a part. 
 
 The southern land mass is the continent 
 of South America. The portion of the 
 great ocean east of America is called the 
 Atlantic Ocean, and that on the west is 
 the Pacific Ocean (Figs. 117 and 118). 
 
 Figure 105 shows the other half of the 
 globe, the Eastern Hemisphere, or, as it 
 is often called, the Old World. At the 
 north (Fig. 119) are the two continents of 
 Europe and Asia. Asia is the largest of 
 all the continents. South of Europe and 
 southwest of Asia is the continent of 
 Africa. In the eastern part of the hemi- 
 sphere and south of the Equator is the 
 continent of Australia, the smallest of the 
 continents. South of Asia, and between 
 Africa and Australia, is the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Figure no shows the Northern Hemi- 
 sphere. In this hemisphere is the greater 
 ])art of the land surface of the earth. It 
 contains all of North America, Europe, 
 and Asia, and parts of South America and 
 Africa. The ocean about the North Pole 
 is called the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 The Southern Hemisphere is shown 
 
 in Figure in. It 
 contains Australia, 
 the larger part 
 of South America, 
 and a part of Afri- 
 ca, but most of its 
 surface is water. 
 Explorers have re- 
 cently found that 
 there is a large land 
 mass, the Antarctic 
 Continent, around 
 the South Pole, but 
 this land is covered 
 with ice and is 
 surrounded by the 
 cold waters of the 
 Antarctic Ocean. 
 Locate the seven continents and five 
 oceans on the globe. 
 
 Of the continents Asia is the largest; 
 Africa is next in size; then come North 
 uimerica, South America, the Antarctic 
 Co7itinent, Europe, and Australia. The 
 ocean is really all one, but its parts have 
 been given different names. The largest 
 part is the Pacific Ocean; then, in order of 
 size, come the Atlantic, the Indian, the 
 Arctic, and the Antarctic. 
 
 74. The Distribution of Population. — 
 The polar regions are so cold that not 
 many people can live there. The regions 
 near the Equator are much warmer, and 
 people can live there without much work. 
 In some rainy regions near the Equator 
 trees and other plants grow so close to- 
 gether that they form a dense forest, or 
 jungle, in which only a few people can 
 live. In the very dry regions called 
 deserts, not many plants will grow, except 
 where water can be brought in or where 
 there are oases. Consequently the deserts 
 are inhabited by only a few people.
 
 62 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 
 Fig. 120. Winter 
 
 
 1 
 
 S^-" "^^ •'-'--"- -^'* 
 
 
 
 Fig. 121. Summer 
 
 Find the hot and the cold regions on 
 your globe. 
 
 Between the cold polar regions and the 
 hot equatorial regions, there are regions 
 that are moderately warm, or that are 
 cold in the winter (Fig. 120) and warm in 
 the summer (Fig. 121). These are the 
 temperate regions, where most of tlie 
 people of the world live. It is in these 
 temperate regions that most of the agri- 
 culture, lumbering, mining, fishing, and 
 manufacturing of the world are carried on. 
 
 The temperate regions of the continent 
 of North America are occupied by the 
 United States, the southern part of 
 Canada, and the northern part of Mexico. 
 Why are we interested in this part of the 
 world ? Find these countries on the globe. 
 Nearly all of Europe and most of Asia are 
 included in the temperate regions. The 
 temperate part of the Southern Hemi- 
 sphere includes the southern parts of 
 South America, Africa, and Australia. 
 
 In the polar regions it is too cold for 
 people to live comjortahly. In many parts 
 of the equatorial regions, fetv people can 
 live because of wet jungles and dry deserts. 
 There are more people in the temperate 
 regions of the Northern Hemisphere than 
 in other parts of the world. 
 
 75. Why Some Regions are Hot, Some 
 Cold, and Others Temperate. — The earth 
 receives from the sun not only light (Sec. 
 69), but also heat. Notice how warm it 
 is at different times during the day. You 
 will find that the early morning, w'hen it is 
 just beginning to be light, is a cool part 
 of the day. During the morning it grows 
 warmer, and a little after noon it usually 
 becomes as warm as it will be during the 
 day. Later it grows cool again, and the 
 night is usually the coldest part of the 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 It is warmest about noon because the 
 sun is highest in the sky at that time. 
 The sun's rays of light and heat then 
 come from a direction most nearly over- 
 head. A ray from directly overhead is 
 called a vertical ray. Vertical rays warm 
 the earth's surface much more than the 
 slanting rays, such as we receive in the 
 morning and evening. 
 
 In the i)arts of the world near the Equa- 
 tor, the sun is directly overhead, or almost 
 directly overhead, during the middle of 
 every day in the year. That is why the 
 equatorial regions are hot. 
 
 The polar regions are cold because the 
 sun's rays there are very slanting, even at 
 noon in summer. Near the poles during
 
 LAND AND CLIMATE 
 
 63 
 
 the winter there is no sunshine at all for 
 several weeks or months, and it is then 
 intensely cold. 
 
 In the temperate regions the sun is 
 never directly overhead. It rises higher 
 in the sky during the long summer days 
 than it does during the short winter days. 
 It is for these reasons that the temperate 
 
 represent parallels of latitude on the 
 earth's surface, as in Figure 108. As 
 you look at each diagram, remember that 
 the earth is all the time turning on its 
 axis, one rotation in twenty-four hours. 
 
 On June 21 {A, Fig. 122) the North 
 Pole is turned toward the sun, and all the 
 earth north of the Arctic Circle is in sun- 
 
 regions are moderately warm, or are warm light during the whole day of twenty-four 
 
 in summer and cold in winter. 
 
 It is easy to remember that the sun rises 
 CO different heights in the sky in summer 
 and in winter, and also in the equatorial, 
 temperate, and polar regions ; but it is 
 
 hours, though the sun's rays are very 
 slanting. The region south of the Ant- 
 arctic Circle is in continuous darkness. 
 On December 21 (C, Fig. 122) the North 
 Pole is turned away from the sun ; the 
 
 hard to understand why the sun does this, region within the Arctic Circle is in dark- 
 
 There are two reasons: (i) Besides turn- 
 ing on its axis, the earth is steadily moving 
 forward in a yearly journey around the 
 sun. This motion is called its revolution. 
 The earth revolves around the sun once 
 in a year. (2) The earth's axis points 
 always in the same direction — namely, 
 toward the North Star. 
 
 In Figure 122 the earth is shown in four 
 positions in its orbit, or curved path 
 around the sun. The earth is shown 
 large so that we can see how it is lighted 
 at different seasons. In reality, the sun is 
 mucli larger than the earth, and is so far 
 away that the earth's 
 orbit is many thou- 
 sand times longer 
 than is shown on the 
 diagram. 
 
 The straight line 
 NS represents the 
 earth's axis ; notice 
 its position, always 
 pointing in the same 
 direction. Five oth- 
 er straight lines, on 
 each of the four dia- 
 grams of the earth, 
 
 ness, and that within the Antarctic Circle 
 is in light. These two regions are called the 
 Frigid Zones. Frigid means frozen. The 
 zone bounded by the Arctic Circle is the 
 North Frigid Zone, and the one bounded 
 by the Antarctic Circle Is the South Frigid 
 Zone. Find these two circles on the globe. 
 On June 21 the sun's vertical rays are 
 on the Tropic of Cancer, north of the 
 Equator {A, Fig. 122) ; and on Decem- 
 ber 21 they are on the Tropic of Capri- 
 corn (C, Fig. 122). On all other days of 
 the year the vertical rays are somewhere 
 between these two tropics, or circles. 
 
 March 21 
 
 °rth 
 
 VERTICAL RAYS 
 
 
 September 2 2 
 
 Fig. 122. Positions of the earth at different seasons
 
 64 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 i 
 
 Find the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic 
 of Capricorn on the globe. The region 
 between them is the Torrid Zone. Torrid 
 means hoi. 
 
 The region between the Arctic Circle 
 and the Tropic of Cancer is the North 
 Temperate Zotie. It is the zone in which 
 
 we live. Between the Tropic of Capri- 
 corn and the Antarctic Circle is the South 
 Temperate Zone. Temperate means mod- 
 erate; that is, not very hot and nol 
 very cold. But in the Temperate Zones 
 most of the land has warm summers and 
 cold winters. 
 
 Climatic 
 
 124 
 
 Regions 
 
 thu m.<n. workb.
 
 LAND AND CLIMAIE 
 
 65 
 
 On March 21 (Z), Fig. 122) and on 
 September 22 {B, Fig. 122) the vertical 
 rays of the sun are on the Equator, and 
 sunhght reaches as far as both poles. All 
 places on the earth arc in daylight twelve 
 hours and in darkness twelve hours. 
 
 Fr(Mn March 21 to September 22 the 
 Northern Hemisi)here has more sunlight 
 than the Southern Hemisphere ; the days 
 there are longer than the nights, while in 
 the Southern Hemisphere the nights are 
 longer than the days. 
 
 From September 22 to March 21 the 
 Southern Hemisphere has more sunlight 
 than the Northern ; the days in the 
 Southern Hemisphere are longer than the 
 nights, while the nights in the Northern 
 Hemisphere are longer than the days. 
 
 The longest day of the year is on June 
 21 (Northern Hemisphere) or on Decem- 
 ber 21 (Southern). The lengths of day 
 and night change slowly from day to day 
 as the earth moves forward in its ()rl)it. 
 
 y^t all places in the Torrid Zone the sun 
 is nearly overhead at noon, and sometime 
 during the year is directly overhead. In the 
 Temperate Zones the sun is never directly 
 overhead, but there is some daylight and some 
 darkness every twenty-four hours in the 
 year. In the Frigid Zones the suns rays 
 are very slanting, and there is a midsummer 
 period of coyitintious daylight, and a mid- 
 winter period of continuous darkness, last- 
 ing, at different places, two or more days, or 
 several weeks, or even several months. 
 
 76. The Climates of the Continents. — 
 At many places in our own and other 
 countries, the weather (Sec. 60) for each 
 day is observed, and a record is made of 
 the temperature and rainfall. When 
 these weather records have been made for 
 a long time they may be averaged to show 
 the average weather, or climate. If in any 
 
 region most of the days are cold and dry, 
 then we say that the climate of that place 
 is cold and dry. We can also study the 
 records for each month by themselves ; 
 and we find that the climate is different in 
 different parts of the year. 
 
 The two hemispheres in Figure 124 
 have been colored to show the average 
 temperatures of different regions of the 
 earth. The regions that are hot every 
 montli in the year arc heavy red. Regions 
 that are cold most of the time arc heavy 
 blue. The other parts of the world, marked 
 with the lighter colors, are temperate for 
 at least a part of the year. The light blue 
 regions, however, are cold for more than 
 half of the year, and the light red regions 
 are hot for more than half of the year. 
 
 Notice how crooked the lines are that 
 separate these different regions. Com- 
 pare them with the regular lines separating 
 the zones in Figure 123. There are two 
 reasons why the regions in Figure 124 are 
 of irregular shape: (i) In each continent 
 there are mountains and high plains, 
 where it is colder than on the lowlands 
 (Sec. 25). (2) Land masses are heated 
 and cooled more quickly than water 
 masses. Therefore the lines between dif- 
 ferent climatic regions are more irregular 
 on the continents than on the oceans. 
 
 In our own continent, we find that the 
 northern parts are in the cold region. The 
 temperate region extends farther north on 
 the west side of the continent than it does 
 on the east. The hot region includes the 
 southern part of the continent, especially 
 the lowlands near the coast. Compare 
 this with the Torrid Zone (Fig. 123). 
 Nearly all of Europe and most of Asia 
 are in the temperate regions, while large 
 parts of Africa, South America, and Aus- 
 tralia are in the hot region.
 
 66 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The climate of a place is its average 
 weather. Temperatures taken for a long 
 time in different parts of the zvorld, zvhen 
 averaged, show that the hot, temperate, and 
 cold regions are not exactly the same as the 
 zones. 
 
 'j'j. The Influence of Climate on Prod- 
 ucts. — You have learned that the growth 
 
 Fig. 125. Freight for foreign countries 
 
 of plants depends on temperature, mois- 
 ture, and soil (Sees, ii, 12). Both the 
 plants and the animals of one region 
 differ greatly from those of other regions 
 that are much warmer or colder. 
 
 As you study about the different coun- 
 tries of the world you w ill learn of their 
 products. From part of the world come 
 the fine furs from animals that live only 
 where it is very cold. From another 
 part of the world come fruits and spices 
 that can grow only where it is hot. The 
 people of some countries grow wheat for 
 their bread. In some other countries, too 
 warm or too wet lor wheat, the people 
 live mostly on rice. 
 
 People in all i)arts of the world exchange 
 with one another the siir|)lus |)roducts of 
 their own countries (Fig. 125). 
 
 The products of the different countries of 
 the world are not alike. Each country 
 raises the plants and animals that are best 
 
 suited to the climate. 
 
 Review of Sections 73 to 77. — i. Where is 
 North America .? South America .? The Atlantic 
 Ocean t The Pacific Ocean ? 2. Where is 
 Europe? Asia? The Arctic Ocean? 3. Where 
 
 is Africa ? Australia ? The 
 
 Indian Ocean ? 
 
 4. Where is the Antarctic 
 Continent ? The Antarctic 
 Ocean ? 
 
 5. Why do not many 
 people live in the polar re- 
 gions ? Why not in some of 
 the regions near the Equator r 
 6. Where do most of the 
 people of the world live ? 
 
 7. How is the earth 
 heated ? 8. Why are the 
 equatorial lowlands always 
 hot ? 9. Why are the polar re- 
 gions cold ? 10. What is 
 meant by the earth's revolu- 
 tion ? How long a time is re- 
 quired for one revolution ? 11. 
 In what part of the year is the 
 North Pole turned toward the sun ? Away from 
 the sun ? 1 2. In which zone do the sun's rays strike 
 the earth squarely? 13. In which zones are the 
 sun's ra\'s most slanting? 14. How does the sun 
 shine on the Temperate Zone ? 15. What are the 
 bountlarii-s of the North Temperate Zone? 
 
 16. What is weather? Climate? 17. Why 
 are some places colder or warmer than other 
 places in the same latitude ? 
 
 iS. Wh\' are not the same kinds of plants and 
 animals raised in all parts of the world ? 19. If 
 one country raises more wheat than it needs, what 
 is done with the surplus ? 
 
 MAPS 
 
 78. Representing Large Things by 
 Small Drawings. — Our earth is a sphere, 
 and is best represented by a globe. Large 
 globes are difficult to handle, yet even the 
 largest ones are much too small to show 
 well all the features of the earth's surface.
 
 MAPS 
 
 67 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 
 Fig. 126. Plan of a schoolroom; scale, 9 feet to 1 inch 
 
 Drawings such as Figures 59 to 65 are 
 used to show parts of the earth. 
 
 Some drawings of objects are made full 
 size ; that is, as large as the objects them- 
 selves. Usually, however, a drawing is 
 much smaller. A certain measure on the 
 drawing stands for a much larger one on 
 the object. One inch in the drawing may 
 stand for a foot, a yard, a mile, or any 
 other chosen length. When such a unit 
 of length is used for all parts of a drawing, 
 we say that the drawing is made to scale. 
 
 Drawings made to scale are used to 
 represent farts of the earth's surface. 
 
 79. Making a Plan of a Schoolroom. — 
 The drawings on this page (Figs. 126-12S) 
 are all of the same schoolroom, but are 
 made on different scales. They show the 
 outlines of the room, desks, and platform, 
 and are called plans. The scale used is 
 given below each plan. Measure the 
 drawings and see if you can tell how long 
 and how wide the room is. 
 
 Make a plan of your 
 own schoolroom. To do 
 so it. will be necessary to 
 measure its length and 
 width, and find the posi- 
 tion and size of each of 
 the doors and windows and 
 
 of the desks. Everything 
 must be drawn to the same 
 scale. Make your first plan 
 on the scale of two feet to an 
 inch ; that is, let one inch 
 represent two feet. Make 
 another plan on the scale of 
 four feet to one inch. 
 
 Choose another scale and 
 make a plan of your school 
 building, school yard, and the 
 near-by streets. 
 
 The same object may be 
 drawn to different scales. The size and de- 
 tail of the drawing depend on the scale chosen. 
 80. Choosing a Map Scale. — Drawings 
 of the earth's surface are called maps, and 
 are made on many different scales. The 
 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 127. Same schoolroom; scale, 12 feet to 1 inch 
 
 'D 
 
 
 Fig. 128. Scale, 18 feet to 1 inch 
 
 scale chosen is small for some maps be- 
 cause they are to be printed on the pages 
 of a certain book. For other maps the 
 scale may be larger, to show more details 
 than could be shown on a small map. 
 The scale used in the construction of a 
 map is usually shown some- 
 where on the map. Find 
 it in Figure 135, and Figure 
 147. This scale may be 
 shown by a line marked off 
 in lengths representing 10 
 miles, 100 miles, or the like 
 (Fig. 147) ; or it may be 
 
 T 
 
 n
 
 68 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 given as so many miles to one inch (Fig. 
 135). Figures 145, 147, 144, 150, show 
 maps of the same region on different scales. 
 The scale used in maps depends upon the 
 size of the paper on which the map is to be 
 printed, and upon the number of facts to he 
 shown. 
 
 81. Map Symbols. — In drawing the 
 plan (or map) of a schoolroom or other 
 small area, it is usually 
 enough to draw the out- 
 lines of the objects rep- 
 resented (see Fig. 126). 
 Sometimes, however, it 
 is necessary to show 
 which of the buildings 
 are churches or schools, 
 which streets have rail- 
 ways, and other facts. 
 For this purpose special 
 marks or symbols are 
 used. Churches may be 
 shown by a cross (>!<), 
 and railways by a line 
 
 ( ) or by a line 
 
 with short crossing 
 marks ( "" ' ). 
 
 To be able to tell just 
 what maps show, it is necessary to know 
 the meanings of the symbols. Turn to 
 Figure 134. Here color is used to show 
 height. Note the colors used for different 
 heights, and tell the heights of the land 
 at different points as shown by the 
 colors. 
 
 Objects are sometimes shown by their out- 
 lines, but on maps many facts may be 
 shown by special marks or symbols. 
 
 82. Direction on Maps. —How do you 
 find direction on the earth (Sec. 71) .^ 
 Wlu-n a ma|) is |)riiitfd in a book or hung 
 on the wall, it is usually so placed that the 
 part of the ma[) showing the north is to- 
 
 ^ ,SOUTH~~\ 
 
 ir~ 
 
 
 /^ NORTH 
 
 / r' 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 fc^^ 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 r4^ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 X 
 
 ^^ 1 
 
 
 
 tA 
 
 
 C 
 -1 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 
 Fig. 129. Directions on a map 
 
 ward the top. On maps showing a very 
 small part of the earth, north is usually 
 toward the top, east toward the right, 
 south toward the bottom, and west to- 
 ward the left of the map. But this is 
 not true of all maps. 
 
 The best way to find directions on maps 
 is by noticing the meridians and parallels 
 (Sec. 70), if they are shown. You re- 
 member that meridians 
 are north and south 
 lines drawn on the globe 
 from pole to pole, and 
 that the parallels are 
 east and west lines 
 crossing the meridians 
 at right angles. Nearly 
 all maps of large areas 
 show parts of the me- 
 ridians and parallels, 
 usually as curved lines. 
 On such maps north 
 and south will be along 
 the meridians, and east 
 and west along the 
 parallels (Fig. 129). 
 Find these four direc- 
 tions on different parts 
 of a large map of Asia. 
 
 Most maps show only a part of the 
 earth's surface, but all parts of the sur- 
 face are curved like a piece of orange peel 
 or a part of a rubber ball. If we try to 
 press the piece of orange peel out flat, it 
 w ill tear along the edge (Fig. 130). Even 
 the piece of rubber ball must stretch along 
 its outer edge when it is flattened. 
 
 As maps are printed on flat pieces of 
 paper, map makers have learned how to 
 draw the parallels and meridians so that 
 the continents and countries will look 
 very much as they do on the globe. But 
 this means that they are either stretched
 
 MAPS 
 
 69 
 
 Fig. 130. Orange peel pressed flat 
 
 on the edges or pressed 
 together near the center. 
 
 Dirt-ction is best s/iozvu 
 on maps by the use of me- 
 ridians and parallels. 
 
 83. Different Kinds of 
 Maps. — 1 ho two kinds of 
 maps most used are the 
 physical map and tlic 
 political map. Figure 134 
 is a physical map of North 
 America, and Figure 135 
 is a pohtical map of the 
 same continent. 
 
 Physical maps show what we call the 
 physical features of a country. These in- 
 clude the coast lines, lakes, and rivers, 
 the lowlands, and the highlands. From 
 such a map one can usually tell at once 
 whether the country shown is a plain or a 
 mountain region. If the country is moun- 
 tainous, the map shows which parts are 
 higher and which lower ; so that, from a 
 large-scale physical map, one could find 
 the passes through which roads and rail- 
 roads might most easily be built across the 
 mountains. Make a list of all the physi- 
 cal features that you can find on Figure 
 134, and describe the symbols by which 
 they are shown. 
 
 Political maps also show certain physi- 
 cal features, such as coast lines, lakes, 
 and rivers. They are used especially, 
 however, to show (i) the different coun- 
 tries and states into which the continents 
 are divided, with the boundary lines that 
 separate them ; and (2) the cities, roads, 
 railroads, canals, lighthouses, and other 
 things that people have built. 
 
 Most of these things are shown by sym- 
 bols. The symbol for a boundary, show- 
 ing where the land belonging to one coun- 
 try or state stops and that belonging to 
 
 another begins, is usually a 
 
 broken line ( 
 
 or ). Of 
 
 course there is no line 
 really drawn on the 
 ground, hut the two coun- 
 tries often j)ut up markers 
 (Fig. 131) at short dis- 
 tances from one another 
 to mark the position of 
 the boundary. The sym- 
 bol used for a city or vil- 
 lage is usually a dot (•), 
 a dot with a circle around 
 it, 0, or a star, *. 
 
 Review of Sections 78 to 83. — i. How is the 
 
 earth best represented .'' 2. Why do we not al- 
 ways use globes to show the different parts of the 
 earth's surface.'' 3. What is meant by a full-size 
 drawing ? 4. Why are drawings usually made to 
 scale ? 
 
 5. Why are not all maps drawn on the same 
 scale .? 6. In what ways may the scale of a map be 
 shown '^ 
 
 7. Name some symbols used in making maps, 
 and tell what they represent. 
 
 8 . How do you find direction on the earth ? 
 9. How is direction shown on maps ? 10. Why 
 are not the maps printed in books of the same 
 shape as those on the globe .'' 
 
 II. What do physical maps show? 12. What 
 do political maps show ? 
 
 *>'Sv- 
 
 5-^=^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 I' .*< (iiulu'jicnt Surrey 
 
 Fig. 131. A boundary marker
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 THE CONTINENT 
 
 84. Position. — We speak of the con- 
 tinent of North America as our continent 
 because it is the one on which we Hve. 
 For this reason it is the most interesting 
 to us and is the first of the great con- 
 tinents of the world that we shall study. 
 
 Look at North 
 America on your school 
 globe. Figure 133 is a 
 photograph of a globe 
 taken to show this conti- 
 nent and the oceans 
 and lands that are 
 near it. Study also 
 Figures 104, no, 132, 
 134, and 135. You will 
 notice that all of North 
 America is north of the 
 Equator, but even its 
 most northern island 
 does not reach to the 
 North Pole. What 
 ocean is west of North 
 America .'' What ocean is east of it I 
 What ocean is north of it .'' 
 
 85. Size. — North America, as we have 
 learned, is larger than any other continent 
 except Asia and Africa. It is so wide that 
 fast trains traveling day and night take 
 four days in going from the city of New 
 York on the Atlantic Ocean to San 
 Francisco on the Pacific Ocean. A very 
 fast walker once walked across the 
 United States from the Pacific to the 
 Atlantic in 91 days. This included, of 
 course, the time spent in eating and 
 sleeping. 
 
 Fig. 133. North AiiiLiicLi and the 
 bordering waters 
 
 86. Political Divisions. — The continent 
 is divided into different countries as 
 shown in Figure 135. Most of the 
 northern part is included in the Dominion 
 of Canada and belongs to Great Britain, 
 one of the countries of Europe. The 
 island of Newfoundland, off the eastern 
 coast, also belongs to Great Britain, 
 while the large island 
 of Gree7ila7id belongs 
 to Denmark, another 
 of the countries of 
 Europe. West of Can- 
 ada is Alaska, which 
 belongs to the United 
 States. 
 
 Tlie United States, 
 our own country, occu- 
 pies the central part of 
 the continent. South 
 of it is Mexico, a country 
 one fourth as large as 
 ours, and Central Ayner- 
 ica, a group of small 
 countries occupying the 
 most southern part of the continent. 
 One of these countries, named Pa7iama, 
 occupies the isthmus that connects North 
 America with South America. The 
 United States now controls a strip of 
 land, ten miles in width, across the 
 isthmus. A great canal, through which 
 the largest ships can pass from ocean to 
 ocean, has been constructed through this 
 strip by our government. Find it on the 
 map. 
 
 Southeast of the United States, and 
 east of Mexico and Central America, is a 
 group of islands known as the West Indies. 
 
 71
 
 ■(ORTM POLE 
 
 Physical 
 
 North America 
 
 ■00 IM IMO 
 
 ■ LCVATIONS IN FEET. Dfpths in Falhon», 
 
 i^M OVER eOOO r I OtnlOO 
 
 HB aOOO TO MOO r~ 1 too to 1000 
 
 [ I 10O0 TO 2000 r ' 1 tOOO to tOOO 
 
 {Z 1 TO 1000 f _" _ i »»#r tOOO 
 HE UNO tElOW MA LIVCl 
 
 t MArTHtWI*MC KTHflUf* WOilM) •UFPAtO. N. *. 
 
 ■rr'M
 
 SOUTH A^MERICA 
 
 >TTHeW8-N0ATHRUP WDHKB. BUFFALO. H. ' 
 
 73
 
 74 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Fig. 136. In the cold northern part of the continent 
 
 ing, and since the discovery 
 of gold in Alaska and north- 
 western Canada, many miners 
 have gone into those regions. 
 In southern Canada and 
 northern United States the 
 summers are warm and com- 
 fortable, and the winters cold. 
 Crops grow during the sum- 
 mer, and cattle graze freely 
 over the great pastures, or 
 ranges. This is the time 
 when most of the outdoor 
 work is done. During the 
 \\inter the ground is covered 
 with snow for many days or 
 Review of Sections 84 to 86.— I. Why is North for many weeks (Sec. 9). This part of 
 America called our continent.? 2. What large ^\-^q continent belongs to the temperate 
 bodies of water wash its shores? 3- To what ■ ^^^ j^^^ ^^^^^ ,g ^j^^^ 
 
 other continent is it joined : Hv what : f ' o\ 
 
 i,T, . 1 ' ^u M .1 Other part (ritr. 130). 
 
 4. What continents are larger than JNorth f \ t> j ^ 
 
 America? What continents are smaller? In the most southern parts of the 
 
 5. How long does it take a fast train to cross United States and of Mexico, and in the 
 
 from New York to San Francisco ? countries lying still farther south, the 
 
 6. Name the large countries into which the ^^,^^^]^^j. [^ ^o^ most or all of the time 
 continent is divided. 7. In which country do we s r^ • 11 r 1 
 
 live? 8. Where are the small countries of the (^'g- 1 24). Durmg several hours of the 
 
 continent? 9. To what country does Canada hot summer days the people can do but 
 belong? Alaska? Newfound- little work. Where there 
 
 land ? Greenland ? 10. Where , ^^ j^ ^j^^^,^,^ moisture, plants 
 
 87. The Cold and the ^^< ''^*'iBC3SR^ ^^^^ ^^ '^ "°^ always easy 
 
 Warm Regions. — From the ""■^■^ttC^Sli* '■'^ clear the fields. Even 
 
 position of North Amer- ^^^^^hPi "'^■Bn ^'^ter the fields have been 
 
 ica we should expect the /^nv^flA^BTBl cleared of wild growth, it 
 
 northern part of the con- ' ^aa, iLT^m il '^ often difficult to keep 
 
 tinent to be cold, the cen- 'S^- ^1^ dE« A«jm1i them clear, so that the 
 
 tral part warmer, and the ^M^. ^ ^Bmm tim \ plants that are needed can 
 
 southern part hot. And 3^ *\ ^HLjW Waim fC^ -2 be cultivated, 
 
 so they are. r^T TJ "^^^V^.vjWB " ^^i' Hie central part of 
 
 In the cold regions of the Jl f jL J Kr Mexico is a highland, or 
 
 north (Fig. 136) there is --f *._ ^'^l& -^ \f^:M plateau, that is much 
 
 little agriculture. A few . -^ ' AHfr-^SlL'^^'^^ka cooler than the rest of 
 
 Indi.ins and Kskimos live Fig. 137. in the warm .southern j]^^, country, and is the 
 
 part of the continent -' . , . , , 
 
 there by hunting and hsh- I I only part that is thickly 
 
 are the West Indies ?
 
 SURFACE, RAINFALL 
 
 75 
 
 ^_jMod«...ly dense 
 
 I I Spjrae 
 
 I I Little or no populatioo 
 
 Fig. 138. Density of population, North America 
 
 populated (Fig. 138). Farther north, in 
 the cooler parts of the United States and 
 Canada, there are fewer people in the 
 highlands than in the lowlands. 
 
 88. Surface. — Turn to the physical 
 map of North America (Fig. 134). Notice 
 carefully the colors of the map and the 
 meanings of these colors, as shown in the 
 lower 1-eft-hand corner. There are two 
 great highland areas. The higher and 
 longer highland is known as the Cordil- 
 leras. It is on the western side of the 
 continent and runs northwest and south- 
 east for nearly its entire length. Its 
 western edge is close to the Pacific Ocean, 
 especially at the north. It is broadest in 
 the United States, where it is about one 
 third the width of the continent. 
 
 The other highland area, called the 
 Appalachian Mountains, is in the eastern 
 part of the continent. It is not so long 
 or so broad or so high as the western 
 
 highland. It runs northeast and south- 
 west. For much of its length it is sepa- 
 rated from the ocean by a broad, gently 
 sloping plain. Both the Cordilleras and 
 the Appalachian Mountains are made up 
 of many different ranges, each of which 
 has its own name. 
 
 Between the highlands is a great cejitral 
 plain, which extends from the Arctic 
 Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. Find it 
 on the map. Find also the Great Lakes, 
 near the middle of the plain. North 
 and west of the Great Lakes is a slight 
 elevation that divides the great central 
 plain into two parts. The rivers of the 
 northern part flow into the Arctic Ocean 
 and Hudson Bay. The southern part is 
 drained southward into the Gulf of Mexico 
 and eastward through the Great Lakes 
 and the St. Lawrence River into the 
 Atlar.tic Ocean. 
 
 Review of Sections 87 and 88. — i. What parts 
 of North America are cold ? 2. What parts are 
 hot? 3. Where are the temperate regions? 
 4. Where do most of the people live ? 
 
 5. Name the two great highland regions of the 
 continent. 6. Which of them is the larger? 
 7. Where is the smaller ? 8. Where is the great 
 central plain ? 9. How is it divided into northern 
 and southern parts ? 
 
 89. RainfaU. — All the moisture that 
 falls to the earth is called rainfall, no 
 matter whether it falls as rain or as snow. 
 You have already learned that most of the 
 moisture in the air comes from the ocean 
 (Sec. 58). The rainfall of every con- 
 tinent depends on the winds that blow 
 over it from the ocean. The rain or snow 
 may fall on the sides of mountains against 
 which the winds blow, because the moun- 
 tains force the winds to higher levels 
 (Sec. 59). It may fall also on other parts 
 of the land, especially where the winds 
 move northward toward the colder regions.
 
 76 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 gradually packed 
 and frozen into ice. 
 Large masses ot such 
 ice, called glaciers 
 (Fig. 142) move 
 \ery, very slowly 
 down the slopes of 
 the land. 
 
 In the far north, 
 especially in Alaska 
 and Greenland, some 
 glaciers reach the 
 ocean. Immense 
 pieces called icebergs 
 (Fig. 141) break off 
 and ffoat away. The 
 largest icebergs may 
 
 Figure 139 shows the direction of the pre- drift a long distance before they are en- 
 vailing winds during the summer and tirely melted. They are greatly dreaded 
 during the winter ; and Figure 140 shows by sailors, for ships sometimes run into 
 the different parts of the continent that them in the fog or darkness. The glaciers 
 have heavy rainfall and light rainfall. on mountains far from the ocean move 
 
 Fig. 139. Prevailing winds of North America Fig. 140. Rainfall of North America 
 
 As winds blow from the Pacific Ocean 
 across the Cordilleras, much rain falls on 
 the western side of the mountains. Mois- 
 ture from the Ciulf of Mexico and the 
 Atlantic Ocean falls in the eastern part 
 
 slowly down the mountain valleys until 
 the ice is melted by the warmth of the 
 lower levels. Where such a glacier melts 
 it forms tlie source of a mountain stream, 
 go. Rivers and Lakes. — The Missis- 
 
 of the United States, with the heaviest sippi River flows from north to south 
 rains in the south. through the southern part of the great cen- 
 
 In the northern part of the continent, tral plain. Read again Section 37, where 
 and on the high mountains, a i)art of the the Mississippi river system is described, 
 moisture falls as snow. During the warm The largest of the western tributaries 
 
 months of the year, | 1 is the Missouri. If 
 
 most of this snow we take the Missouri 
 
 melts and flows awa\' River as the upper 
 
 in streams. *. part of the main 
 
 In the extreme J i^' ' stream, in place of 
 
 north and in the ,,„.^ JlJl^^lL^l,., _^^mm.mmm ^^^^' "PP"^'' Missis- 
 
 ^^^^^HH|^|^^H|^HHHI||^H the Missouri- 
 
 there on ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^S^^^^ Mississippi the 
 
 grf>un(l the year ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^SI^^Btaut-<.l!j| l<*i^g(^'''t the 
 
 (Fig. 14). In such E- ,^, A u .. .u world. The most 
 
 ^ ^ ^ Fig. 141. An iceberg m the northern ocean 
 
 regions the snow is I 1 1 imjjortant eastern
 
 RIVERS AND LAKES 
 
 77 
 
 tributary of the Mississippi is the Ohio. 
 Fiiul these rivers on your map. i'lie 
 Ohio River, and the Mississippi lor most 
 of its course, are deep enough for the use 
 of steamboats (Sec. 51). 
 
 In the northern part of the great central 
 plain there are several large rivers. For 
 the most part they follow the general 
 slope of the land, and flow from the 
 warmer southern to the colder northern 
 regions. During the 
 w inter they are usu- 
 ally frozen their entire 
 length. When spring 
 comes, they thaw out 
 first at the south. As 
 the water is not able 
 to escape through the 
 ice-choked channels 
 to the north, it spreads 
 out over the land in 
 great floods. 
 
 Most of the rivers 
 in the eastern part of 
 North America are 
 short, because the 
 mountains are so near 
 the ocean. A few of 
 them, such as the Hudson and the 
 Susquehanna, have cut deep valleys 
 through the mountains. Many of the 
 rivers have waterfalls and rapids which 
 furnish power for mills and factories. On 
 some of the rivers, boats carry freight 
 and passengers, and railroads have been 
 built through many of the valleys. 
 
 The largest and longest of the eastern 
 water routes extends through the St. 
 Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. 
 Ship canals (Sec. 51) have been dug 
 around the rapids of the St. Lawrence, 
 from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie past 
 Niagara Falls, through the shallow waters 
 
 connecting Lake Erie and Lake Huron, 
 and around the rapids connecting Lake 
 Huron and Lake Superior. Many ships 
 can now pass from the Atlantic Ocean to 
 distant points on Lake Superior and Lake 
 Michigan. 
 
 Two of the western rivers, the Colorado 
 and the Columbia, rise in the higher 
 eastern parts of the Cordilleras. For 
 much of the distance to the Pacific Ocean 
 
 they flow through the 
 deep canyons which 
 they have cut. Many 
 shorter streams flow 
 down the western 
 slopes of the moun- 
 tains into the Pacific 
 Ocean. On a few of 
 the western rivers, 
 boats carry freight 
 and passengers, and 
 through some of the 
 valleys railroads have 
 been built across the 
 western highlands. 
 
 Review of Sections 
 89 and 90. — I. Where- is 
 the rainfall heavy in 
 North America? 2. Where is it light.? 3. How 
 are glaciers formed ? 4. Where are they found ? 
 5. What are icebergs .' 6. Why are they danger- 
 ous to ships .'' 
 
 7. What river system drains the eastern Cor- 
 dilleras, the western Appalachians, and the 
 southern part of the great central plain .? 8. On 
 what river nearest your home do boats carry 
 passengers and freight ? 9. Why are there spring- 
 time floods in the far north .? 10. What use is 
 sometimes made of rapids and falls in streams ? 
 
 II. Why do railroads often follow river valleys 
 (Sec. 49) ? 12. For what reasons do people dig 
 canals (Sec. 51).' 13. How has a safe route for 
 ships been made through the Great Lakes and the 
 St. Lawrence River .'' 
 
 14. Where do the Colorado and Columbia 
 rivers rise? 15. What kind of valleys do they 
 have .''
 
 \' 
 
 -S^ U 
 
 \ V) Y 
 
 l\ 
 
 Fig. 143 
 Relief Map 
 
 United States 
 
 Scale of statute Mllca 
 
 aoo 3' 
 
 262 MILES TO one INCH 
 
 Location of Innd below sea level is shown 
 
 by arrows 
 Lowlands are shown in green 
 Higher lands are shown in yellow or buff 
 Great elevationc ere shown in purple 
 Snow-covered peaks and slopes are ancolored 
 Other mountain slopes are shaded 
 Water is shown io blue 
 
 COPYRIGHT, BY AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 
 
 **^*'>y "^ 
 
 l>«.«*TT-E*'i-'«0»rTwRu^ WOUKt, BUWAW, H. Yk 
 
 79
 
 8o
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 OUR COUNTRY 
 
 91. The Boundaries of the United 
 States. — The United States occupies the 
 central part of North America. It is 
 bordered on the east by the Athnitic 
 Ocean and on the west by the Pacific 
 Ocean. North of the United States is 
 Canada, and south of it is Mexico. 
 On Figures 135 and 150 trace the 
 boundaries of the United States. 
 
 Important land boundaries are 
 carefully located and marked by 
 monuments of stone or metal set up 
 at short distances along the line 
 (Fig. 131). Some boundary lines 
 are long and straight, or nearly 
 straight, like the one between 
 Canada and northwestern United 
 States, and like many of those be- 
 tween different states (Pig. 150). 
 Such lines cross mountains, valleys, plains, 
 and rivers. Other boundary lines may 
 follow the crest of a mountain range, 
 or the divide between rivers which flow 
 in opposite directions. Find such bound- 
 ary lines in Figure 150. 
 
 What water boundaries separate the 
 United States from Canada .'' From 
 Mexico ? Where two countries or states 
 are separated by a river the boundary 
 may follow one bank of the stream ; but 
 it is usually located in midstream. If 
 there are many islands, as in the St. 
 Lawrence River, the boundary winds in 
 and out so that some of them belong to 
 one country and some to the other. 
 
 Where large lakes lie between two 
 countries, as between the United States 
 and Canada, the line is generally drawn 
 so as to divide each lake equally between 
 the two countries. 
 
 Boundary markers are seldom set up 
 in lakes and rivers. Such boundaries are 
 marked only on maps (Fig. 150), but it is 
 always possible to find the boundary line 
 by measuring from the shore. 
 
 92. Industrial Regions. — Read again, 
 in Sections 87, 88, and 89, about the high- 
 lands and lowlands, and about the tem- 
 
 I I Little raiii ' ~' 
 
 1__ j Light raliia 
 
 Moderate raiD.i 
 Moderately beav; 
 Heavy raioa 
 
 Fig. 145. Rainfall of the United States 
 
 perature, winds, and rainfall of the United 
 States. 
 
 The crop that will grow best in any 
 place will depend chiefly upon the tem- 
 perature, the rainfall, and the soil of that 
 place. As our country is very large, and 
 as some parts are much higher than others, 
 the different sections have very different 
 temperatures. Figure 145 shows how 
 much the rainfall varies. As a result of 
 these differences of temperature and rain- 
 fall, many different crops are raised in 
 the United States. Our country pro- 
 duces each year more food than our own 
 people need. The surplus is sold in other 
 countries. 
 
 Figure 144 shows the chief industrial 
 regions of the United States. The names 
 of important crops raised in the different 
 parts of the country are printed on the 
 map. What are some of these ? 
 
 81
 
 S;
 
 83
 
 84 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Grass will grow in many places where 
 there is not enough rainfall for agricul- 
 ture, and also where the soil is thin or 
 difficult to cultivate. Such regions are 
 used for grazing. The chief grazing 
 regions of the United States are in the 
 western half of the country. 
 
 Scattered through the mountains and 
 in parts of the great plains are mines of 
 coal, iron, gold, copper, silver, zinc, lead, 
 and other minerals. These mining regions 
 are shown on the map by shaded spots, 
 or by the letters G, C, S, Z, L. The 
 coal and iron mines are the most impor- 
 tant. The coal is used to heat houses 
 and factories, to supply power for turn- 
 ing the machinery of mills, and for run- 
 ning railroad trains. The iron is used 
 to make all kinds of iron and steel 
 articles, from a needle to a plow or a 
 battleship. 
 
 Along the shores of both the Atlantic 
 and the Pacific oceans, along part of 
 the Gulf coast, and in the waters of 
 the Great Lakes, there are important 
 
 ^--X^ 
 
 •CALC or MIICS 
 
 IM MO IM 
 
 Fig. 147. Kuilrouds of the United Slates 
 
 fisheries. There are salmon fisheries in 
 the streams of the Pacific coast, and 
 sponge fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico 
 and the near-by waters. Large numbers 
 of oysters, clams, and lobsters also are 
 taken from the ocean waters. 
 
 One of the most important industries 
 in which the people of our country are 
 engaged is manufacturing. This indus- 
 try can be carried on only where there are 
 raw materials to manufacture, or where 
 they can be easily obtained. The fac- 
 tories are generally located near water- 
 falls, coal fields, or natural gas wells that 
 supply the power to drive the machinery. 
 Most of them are in cities (Sec. 45). 
 
 As much raw material is brought to fac- 
 tories from a distance, and as manufac- 
 tured goods are sent to distant markets, 
 some means tor carrying these things must 
 be provided. The great manufacturing 
 districts have many railroads to connect 
 the cities with the seaports and with the 
 other parts of the country (Fig. 147). 
 Figure 144 shows that the chief manu- 
 facturing district of 
 the United States is 
 in the northeast- 
 ern part. Here are 
 made cotton and 
 woolen goods, boots 
 and shoes, and 
 many articles of 
 wood, and of iron, 
 steel, and other 
 metals. Many 
 great manufactur- 
 ing cities, however, 
 are not included 
 in this region. 
 Some of these also 
 arc shown on the 
 map. 
 
 J 
 
 \ 
 
 -l 
 tx 
 
 ^.
 
 INDUSTRIAL REGIONS, HISTORY 
 
 85 
 
 Some raw materials, such as wool, 
 rubber, and hides, come from distant 
 parts of the world to the seaports of the 
 North Atlantic. From the same ports 
 the manufactured goods are sent out to 
 the people of other parts of the world. 
 This trade with other countries has 
 helped to make the northeastern part 
 of our country a great manufacturing 
 region. 
 
 Review of Sections 91 and 92. — i. What ocean 
 borders the United States on the east ? On the 
 west ? 2. What rivers and lakes form part of the 
 northern boundary of our country.? 3. What 
 river and gulf form a part of the southern 
 boundary ? 4. How are boundary lines marked ? 
 
 5. Why are different crops 
 raised in different parts of the 
 country .' 6. Name some of 
 the important crops and tell 
 where they are raised. 
 
 7. Where are the chief 
 grazing districts ? 8. Why are 
 such regions not used for agri- 
 culture ? 
 
 9. Where are some of the 
 important coal and iron mines 
 m our country ? 
 
 10. Where are the chief fish- 
 ing grounds ? 
 
 11. Where is the chief 
 manufacturing section of our 
 country ? 1 2. Why is it lo- 
 cated where it is? 13. Of 
 what use are the seaports ? 
 
 93. Our Early History. — The early white 
 settlers of both North and South America 
 found the country inhabited by people 
 who were very different from those living 
 in Europe. As these natives were first seen 
 by Columbus when he thought he was 
 near India, he called them Indians. They 
 have been known by this name ever since. 
 Usually a number of families lived 
 together as a tribe. In the hot countries 
 the Indians used little clothing, but in 
 the cold regions they wore clothing made 
 from the skins of animals. For food they 
 raised small crops of corn, beans, and 
 squashes ; they gathered wild berries, 
 nuts, and roots ; and they 
 hunted and rtshed. 
 
 Some of the Indians 
 lived mainly by hunting 
 and fishing, and they often 
 wandered from one hunt- 
 ing ground to another. 
 They made fishhooks out 
 of bones; and they hunted 
 with bows and arrows. 
 They lived in tents, called 
 tepees or wigwams, made 
 of skins placed over poles 
 (Fig. 149). Such homes 
 were easy to move. 
 
 HuTtnu of American EtUiioloOiJ 
 
 Fig. 149. Indian tepee
 
 100° Longltudo 
 
 86
 
 "m Gr»«nwich 
 
 87
 
 88 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Fig. 151. Pueblo 
 
 Burtajt of Amtrican El/inolosu 
 Fig. 152. Indian, or red man 
 
 Other tribes of Indians had learned to 
 depend more on farming than on hunting. 
 They built much better homes than the 
 wigwams of the wandering tribes. Some 
 made their houses of logs or bark, with 
 roofs of brush, grass, or sods. Some, in 
 the dry southwestern part of our coun- 
 try, lived in pueblos, or village houses, 
 built of bricks dried in the sun (Fig. 151). 
 In these dr}' regions the Indians had even 
 dug ditches to use in watering their crops. 
 
 The Indians were tall and erect, with 
 straight black hair and skin of reddish 
 brown. On account of the color of their 
 skin they were called red men. As the 
 people of the world are divided into large 
 groups, or races, and the races are named 
 by the color of the skin, the Indians are 
 called the red race. Most of the people 
 of Europe and of North America, as well 
 as many people in other ])arts of the world, 
 belong to the zchite race. 
 
 During the settlement of our country 
 there were frecjuent wars between the white 
 settlers and the Indians, and many cruel 
 deeds were done on both sides. The 
 white settlers soon outnumbered the 
 Indians and drove them farther and 
 farther west. In later years, our govern- 
 
 ment set aside lands, or reservations, on 
 which some of their descendants are now 
 living. The Indians of to-day have 
 learned the ways of white people, and 
 most of them live by farming or by rais- 
 ing cattle, sheep, and horses. 
 
 The early white settlers in our country 
 came from several different nations in 
 Europe. Most of them, however, came 
 from England ; and after several wars the 
 English conquered the settlements of 
 other nations in the eastern part of North 
 America. Each group of settlements with 
 a government of its own was called a 
 colony. All the colonies between the 
 Gulf of Mexico and Hudson Bay were 
 for a time under the control of Great 
 Britain, tiu- kingdom of which England 
 is a part. 
 
 In 1776 thirteen of the British colonies 
 combined and decided that they would 
 no longer he British colonies. They 
 wished to rule themselves and be inde- 
 pendent. There was a long war, and 
 when it was ended the colonies were in- 
 dependent. Each colony was formed into 
 a state, and these states were united 
 under one general government, which was 
 called the United States.
 
 [iisiom' 
 
 89 
 
 Fig. 153. White man 
 
 Fig. 154. Black man 
 
 .->! 
 
 Fig. 155. Yellow man 
 
 But not all the people of our country 
 are descended from these first early 
 settlers. Many Europeans have come 
 here since that time, and others are still 
 coming. Early in our history, also, 
 negroes, or people of the black race, were 
 brought here from Africa as laborers. 
 There are now many negroes in different 
 parts of the country, especially in the 
 South. People from China and Japan, in 
 Asia, who belong to the yellow race, also 
 came to our country. They are not now 
 allowed to come so freely as they once 
 were. 
 
 94. How Our Country has Grown. — 
 Much territory has been added, from 
 time to time, to the land included in the 
 thirteen original states. These additions 
 have made our country one of the largest 
 in the world. There are now forty-eight 
 states in the Union. In addition to 
 these, our country includes Alaska, and 
 controls the Canal Zone, in the continent 
 of North America. Many islands also 
 belong to the United States, including 
 Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands, the 
 Philippines, and others. 
 
 95. Groups of States. — We will now 
 turn our attention to the different parts of 
 
 our country. For this study we will di- 
 vide the United States and its possessions 
 into eight groups, as follows : i. The New 
 England States. 2. The Middle Atlantic 
 States. 3. The South Atlantic States. 
 4. The South Central States. 5. The 
 North Central States. 6. The Plateau 
 States. 7. The Pacific States. 8. The 
 Outlying Possessions of the United States. 
 
 Fig. 156. Groups of states 
 
 Review of Sections 93 to 95. — i. Who were 
 
 the first inhabit;ints of North America ? 2. Why 
 were they called Indians ? 3. What food did they 
 have 1 What kind of clothes ? What kinds of 
 houses ? 4. Name the four races of men. 
 
 5. Where did the white settlers of our country 
 come from .'' 6. What nation got possession of the 
 eastern part of North America ? 7. When the 
 United States became independent, how many 
 states were there ? 8. How many are there now .' 
 9. Into what groups are they divided .''
 
 ]CftCTiinco o K\\. 
 
 
 /•--rA \rr^i'W ST^^^."^"^ ( '-"—'■.J"'' 
 
 
 ^BrewerY' 
 
 to! Gari inerl^ 
 *,LLe» ieton 
 
 )ckland 
 
 V.'-^! 
 
 
 
 ^^, 
 
 -BrunawicKiS 
 
 ^&' 
 
 
 TYork 
 
 inchested !• >&G'mouth>,..«-.,.a ^ 
 
 <, ,1 iHavoB 
 Nashuv^ 
 
 T 
 
 V'Sprin^field 
 
 A r 
 
 L A N T 
 
 I o 
 
 o c E A y 
 
 Fig. 157 
 
 II ,ir|,,,,l 
 
 / 
 
 l/C T I cXt 
 
 Notwlch] 
 
 /• 
 
 Physical and Political 
 
 New England States 
 
 .r^' 
 
 •/U'tymouth 
 ^,«n..-k.l* Toiluton * 
 idenccJ^L.,,^ <l 
 
 I \ « ^ 
 
 X BLOCK I. 
 
 TM« M*TTMIW«-MOHtHWU«' WOIIX* , BUFfM-O, M.Y. ^_ 
 
 .Scale of SUituto Milca 
 
 10 90 30 40 DO 
 
 BB MILES TO ONC INCH 
 
 CnpitulH or St«U-a thuB: ® 
 ELEVATIONS IN FttT 
 
 Mononwy Pi. 
 
 I 1 BOO TO 1O0O 
 
 I I ae« LtVEL TO 600 
 
 OOl'YRtOHT, DV AMSniOAN UOOK OOMCANV 
 
 Loneltuda Woat 70" from arnonwrlch
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 
 
 91 
 
 Fig. 158. Mount Greylock, in the Berkshire Hills, the hi^ln 
 
 t inimiitain in Massachusetts 
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 
 
 96. Map Study. — If you will turn to 
 the political map of the United States 
 (Fig. 150), you will find in the north- 
 eastern part a group of six states. The 
 group is called New England, after Eng- 
 land in Europe. The states are Maine, 
 New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu- 
 setts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. The 
 map facing this page represents the same 
 group of states, drawn on a larger scale. 
 What is the scale used in this map .? 
 
 Using the scale of miles for Figure 157, 
 find the distance in miles between Boston 
 in Massachusetts and Augusta in Maine. 
 Turn again to Figure 150. Using the 
 scale for that map, find the distance 
 between the same two cities. How do the 
 two measurements compare ? The dis- 
 tance between any two places should 
 measure the same number of miles on all 
 maps. 
 
 In studying a map you should always 
 be careful to notice the scale of miles 
 
 before deciding that a region is large or 
 small, or that a distance is long or short. 
 
 What other state not in New England 
 is about the same size as Maine (Fig. 
 150)? Rhode Island? Massachusetts.'' 
 The area of Maine is half that of the New 
 England group. How many of the states 
 in the western part of our country are 
 larger than Maine ? 
 
 97. Surface, Drainage, and Soil. — 
 Along the coast and in the valleys of the 
 larger rivers, there are some small plains. 
 Most of New England is hilly, however, 
 and some parts are mountainous. The 
 greatest mountains of New England are 
 the White Mountains of New Hamp- 
 shire and the Green Mountains of Ver- 
 mont. The rugged highlands in west- 
 ern Massachusetts are known as the 
 Berkshire Hills. Because of the uneven 
 surface of the land, the New England 
 rivers have many rapids and waterfalls. 
 These falls furnish an abundance of 
 power which is used to turn the wheels 
 of mills and factories.
 
 92 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 17. 5. Geological Svrvu/ 
 Bowlder-Strewn hillside, in Massachusetts 
 
 Fig. 160. Conveying ice to a large ice house 
 
 Thousands of years ago a great glacier, 
 or immensely thick sheet of ice, spread 
 over New England from the north. It 
 swept the soil from many of the hills 
 and left the bare rocks exposed. In 
 other places the soil and broken rock 
 were spread over the land (Fig. 159). In 
 the thin soils of the upland regions, and 
 in the more stony glacial soils, the raising 
 of large crops is impossible, as there is too 
 little fine earth to furnish plant food. 
 
 98. The Climate of New England. — 
 The New England winters are usually 
 very cold, except on the southern sea- 
 coast. The snow is deep arid sometimes 
 piles in great drifts in the roads and fence 
 corners. During the winter, farmers take 
 care of their stock and cut their wood, 
 and lumhcrmen get out logs for the mills. 
 The rivers and lakes are frozen over, and 
 large quantities of ice are cut and stored 
 for summer use (Fig. 160). 
 
 A part of the summer is warm ; but it 
 is generally comfortable in the moun- 
 tains, in the woods of northern Maine, 
 and along the coast where cool winds blow 
 from the ocean. Crops seldom fail for 
 lack of moisture, as there is plenty of 
 rain during the growing season. 
 
 Review of Sections 96 to 98. -i. Nami- 1 In- 
 states in this niiHip. 2. Why was this Kriju|:) 
 named New Kngland .^ j. How do these states 
 
 compare in size with those in the southern and 
 western parts of our country ? 
 
 4. Where are the White Mountains .'' The 
 Green Mountauis ? The Berlcshire Hills ? 
 5. Why are there so many waterfalls in the New 
 England streams .'' 6. Of what use are they ? 
 7. What was the effect of the glacier upon the 
 soils of New England .? 
 
 8. In what parts of New England are the winters 
 cold ? 9. What farm work, is done in the winter 
 time ? 10. Where are the cool places during the 
 warm summer months .'' 
 
 99. Manufacturing. — In spite of its 
 small area and rugged surface. New Eng- 
 land is a very important part of our coun- 
 try. It belongs to the great manufactur- 
 ing region of the United States (Sec. 92), 
 and has a large population. Raw ma- 
 terials from distant places in our own 
 country, and from other parts of the world, 
 are brought to its mills and factories to be 
 inaiuifartured. 
 
 When manufacturing began in New 
 England, the waterfalls furnished the 
 power needed to run the mills and fac- 
 tories. As a result, many important 
 cities grew up around waterfalls. Now so 
 much manufacturing is done in New Eng- 
 land that coal is brought from other states 
 to furnish additional power. Also, the 
 power of many waterfalls is used to 
 develop electricity, which is sent over 
 wires to distant cities to furnish power, 
 heat, and light.
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 
 
 93 
 
 100. Cotton and Woolen Goods. — land forests. Now the industry is so 
 Chief among the manufactures of New large that hides and leather are brought 
 England are cotton and woolen goods, from the western states, and from Europe, 
 
 Most of the cotton comes from the 
 southern states. The wool comes chiclly 
 from the western states and from Aus- 
 tralia and South America. Cotton goods 
 are manufactured 
 at Fall River, Nezv 
 Bedford, and Lozvell 
 in Massachusetts, 
 Pazvtucket in Rhode 
 Island, and in many 
 other cities. In 
 some of these cities 
 woolen goods also 
 are made ; but Lazv- 
 rence in Massachu- 
 setts and Providence 
 in Rhode Island are 
 the most important 
 centers for woolen manufacture (Fig. l6i) 
 
 Fig. 161. Weaving woolen cloth, Lawrence, Mass 
 
 Asia, Australia, and South America. 
 Boston is the great leather market, and 
 
 Lynn, Brockton, and Haverhill in eastern 
 
 Massachusetts are the chief centers for 
 
 the manufacture of 
 boots and shoes 
 (Fig. 162). There 
 are also large shoe 
 factories in Man- 
 chester, New Hamp- 
 shire. 
 
 102. Manufac- 
 tures in Metal. — Al- 
 though there is but 
 little mining in New 
 England, many arti- 
 cles made of metal 
 are manufactured in 
 
 its factories. Most of these articles gain 
 
 loi. Leather Goods. — Another great much of their value from the skillful work 
 
 industry is the manufacture of leather done on them. 
 
 goods, especially boots and shoes. In The center of jewelry manufacture is 
 
 the early days of the industry the hides Providence, Rhode Island. Cutlery and 
 
 used came from the animals raised in silverware are made at Meriden and 
 
 New England, or in the near-by states; Bridgeport, Connecticut, and watches at 
 
 and they were made into leather in tan- Ifallham, Massachusetts, and at JVater- 
 
 neries that used bark from the New Eng- bury, Connecticut. Other metal goods 
 
 Fig. 162. Finishing shoes in a New England shoe factory 
 
 Fig. 163. Making brass castings in a Connecticut foundry
 
 94 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 boiled to a pulp. The pulp is then freed 
 from impurities and made into paper, 
 which is wound into large rolls (Fig. 165). 
 
 Review of Sections 99 to 103. — i. What is the 
 
 leading industry of New England .'' 2. What 
 power was first used for it? 3. What additional 
 power is now used, and where does it come from ? 
 4. Where are the large cotton factories ? Woolen 
 factories ? Boot and shoe factories ? 5. Where 
 do the raw materials used in the leather industries 
 come from ? The cotton ? The wool ? 6. What 
 are some of the metal manufactures ? 7. Where 
 are they made ? 8. From what is paper made } 
 
 manufactured in New England include 104. Farming. — Although there are 
 
 hardware of all kinds, wire, brass goods, many farms in New England, it is, as a 
 
 firearms, and machinery. The manu- whole, not a good farming country. Much 
 
 facture of metal goods is especially im- of the soil is too thin or stony to be cul- 
 
 portant in AVct; Haven, 
 Bridgeport, and Hart- 
 ford, Connecticut, and 
 in JVorcester and Spring- 
 field, Massachusetts. 
 
 103. Paper. — Many 
 years ago paper was 
 usually made from rags. 
 These were collected 
 by men who traveled 
 through the country 
 with big wagons, going 
 from village to village 
 and from house to 
 house. The rags were 
 cleaned and sorted, and 
 some of them were made 
 
 tivated, and there are 
 hills whose sides are so 
 steep that they cannot 
 be plowed. In river 
 valleys, however, the 
 soil is deep, fine, and 
 rich, and there is much 
 good soil also on ridges 
 and hills of low eleva- 
 tion. The population 
 of New England is so 
 large, and there is so 
 much need of food, both 
 for men and for beasts, 
 that even some of the 
 poorer soil is cultivated. 
 Large crops of hay 
 
 into paper. The best grades of paper are are raised in all the states. Potatoes are 
 
 still made from rags, especially in the raised, especially in Maine, and tobacco is 
 
 mills at Ilolyoke, Massachusetts. cultivated in the Connecticut Valley, both 
 
 Most of the paper used for newspapers, in Connecticut and in Massachusetts. The 
 
 magazines, books, and other purposes is New England orchards produce an abun- 
 
 now made from wood. For this use a dance of apples and other fruits. Near 
 
 soft wood, like spruce, is needed. The the larger cities there are many small farms 
 
 spruce forests of Maine, New Hampshire, devoted to market gardening. They fur- 
 
 and Vermont funiish many trees to the nish jieas, sweet corn, beans, squashes, 
 
 paper mills. The wood is ground or tomatoes, onions, and other vegetables,
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 
 
 95 
 
 teiu 
 
 IP'^^SB 
 
 I^4wm|13 
 
 !l'\*''IS^^^IVi^^MHbP 1 
 
 WmkfOcfi'Xlt 
 
 • "jfc- f]^^ k t, ^ " (■ . ■fWmi 
 
 l^gB^I; 
 
 
 i) ^^ 
 
 
 ' MkA 
 
 ■y*^ 
 
 -v(v 't^^wMKBifaH^^I 
 
 Fig. loD. "Sugaring off," the last process in 
 making maple sugar, Vermont 
 
 as well as small fruits, to the people of 
 the cities. 
 
 On nearly all New England farms there 
 is some dairying, for much of the land that 
 cannot be cultivated is used for pastures. 
 The milk is sent either to factories to 
 be made into butter and cheese, or to 
 the city and sold. Many horses, sheep, 
 hogs, and fowls are raised. 
 
 105. The Forests and Lumbering.— 
 Patches of woods are scattered over the 
 higher and rougher parts of New England, 
 and nearly every farm has 
 a wood lot. Large forests 
 are found only in Maine and 
 in the mountain regions of 
 New Hampshire and Ver- 
 mont. Every year many 
 of these trees are cut down 
 and taken to mills to be 
 made into pulp for paper, 
 sawed into boards, or manu- 
 factured into wooden articles 
 of various kinds. Bangor 
 and Portland are the leading 
 lumber markets in Maine, 
 but factories for the manu- 
 facture of wooden ware are 
 scattered over the state. 
 
 Throughout New Eng- 
 
 land, but especially in Vermont, there are 
 maple trees in the woodlands. Each spring 
 these trees are tapped for the sweet juice, 
 or sap, which then begins to come up into 
 the trees from their roots. The tapping 
 is done by boring a small hole a little 
 way into the tree and putting in a spout, 
 from which the sap drops into a bucket. 
 The sap is usually gathered twice a day, 
 and it is boiled until most of the water 
 in it is evaporated. As it boils it grows 
 thicker and sweeter, and finally becomes 
 sirup. When the sirup is thick it is al- 
 lowed to cool. If thick enough, it cools 
 into maple sugar (Fig. 166). 
 
 106. Quarrying. — The rocks of New 
 England furnish much valuable building 
 stone. Fine, hard, gray granite (Fig. 167) 
 is quarried in every state. It is used for 
 buildings, monuments, curbstones, and 
 pavements. An excellent quality of mar- 
 ble is found in Vermont, western Massa- 
 chusetts, and Connecticut. Proctor and 
 Rutland, Vermont, are great marble cen- 
 ters. Marble is much used in building. 
 
 1^1 ''^^^^^R^k.- 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 ^r* 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^"J63 
 
 IH^M 
 
 
 -- -^^^smmim 
 
 
 ^^^ ' '-■ jfm^-'^^.m 
 
 
 ^^SHHBBPNIfc'?^ ' ^^^^^^^tg^:-" 
 
 H^^u 
 
 ■i ' 
 
 lAi.. 
 
 m,r'- 
 
 jim M^4. 
 
 i 
 
 '3-g^ 
 
 Ik^ > ' 
 
 ^mut Ji 
 
 ■l:-" 
 
 Fig. 167. Granite quarry, Wnuuut
 
 96 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 <^^^ltTffi 
 
 'l,f: '4 
 
 Fig. 168. Slate quarry, and piles ot the tliin 
 slate used for roofing 
 
 Some of the marble is used tor the outer 
 walls, but more of it for interior work ; 
 it is used also for monuments 
 and statues. Slate, a fine- 
 grained rock that can be cut 
 into large slabs or split into 
 thin sheets (Fig. i68), is 
 used in building. Slabs are 
 used for school blackboards, 
 and thin sheets are cut to a 
 uniform size and used for 
 roofing. 
 
 107. Fishing. — Intheclear, 
 cold waters off the coast of 
 New England, and in the 
 shallow waters near New- 
 foundland, there are great 
 numbers of fish that furnish 
 excellent food. For years 
 fishing has been followed as 
 a business by men of the 
 seacoast towns and cities, 
 especially in Gloucester and 
 Boston, Massachusc-rt'^, and 
 Portland, Maine. 
 
 Cod and halibut are found 
 on the Banks of Newfound- 
 land, as the shallows south 
 of that island have been 
 
 named. These fishing grounds are 
 several hundred miles from home ports. 
 Mackerel, herring, and bluefish are 
 caught along the coast, and many oysters, 
 clams, and lobsters are found near the 
 shore. 
 
 When the fishing vessels (Fig. 169) re- 
 turn to port, some of the catch is sold 
 fresh, and the rest is canned, dried 
 (Fig. 170), or salted. 
 
 108. Country Homes and Summer Re- 
 sorts. — In parts of New England the 
 upland farms were deserted years ago 
 because it was hard work to cultivate 
 them. During the last few years city 
 people have been buying such farms for 
 country homes, where 
 they may spend the 
 hot summer months. 
 
 In many places, both 
 on the coast and in 
 the interior, summer 
 hotels have been built. 
 During the summer 
 many thousands of 
 people visit these re- 
 sorts for rest and pleas- 
 ure. Some of them 
 are in the mountains, 
 where one finds cool air 
 and attractive scenery. 
 
 1(59. Fishing boats, Clouccste' •'
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND SIAIES 
 
 97 
 
 Fig. 171. Tremont Street, Boston. State House beyond the Common 
 
 Some are in the woods and on the shores 
 of lakes, where there are hunting and 
 fishing. Others are on the seashore, 
 where there are great rocks and dashing 
 waves, or fine sandy beaches for bathers, 
 and quiet protected waters for boating. 
 
 109. Commerce and the Cities. — 
 Much of the material used by the New 
 England factories is brought in from other 
 parts of the world. Large quantities of 
 manufactured goods are sent to distant 
 points to be sold. A part of this trade 
 is with countries across the ocean. More 
 of it is with other parts of our own coun- 
 try and with Canada. All the larger 
 places are connected with one another 
 and with the seaports by railroads. On 
 the map (Fig. 147), point out the rail- 
 roads of New England. 
 
 From our own country the people of 
 New England get food, cotton, some wool 
 and hides, coal, iron, and other metals for 
 use in manufacturing. From other parts 
 of the world they get more wool and hides, 
 and many other things. The trade with 
 our own country and with Canada is 
 carried on in coasting vessels and by rail. 
 The trade with most foreign countries is 
 carried on in great steamships. 
 
 Boston, the capital of 
 Massachusetts, is the 
 largest city and the great- 
 est seaport of New Eng- 
 land (Fig. 171). Through 
 this port an enormous 
 amount of commerce is 
 carried on. The Cape 
 Cod Canal (Figs. 157, 172) 
 has shortened the route 
 of ships plying between 
 Boston and ports to the 
 south. Providence, the 
 capital of Rhode Island, 
 
 is the second largest city of New England. 
 
 Portland, in Maine, is another important 
 
 seaport. 
 
 Review of Sections 104 to 109. — i. What 
 
 makes farming in New England difficult .'' 2. What 
 crops are raised ? 3. Why are poor soils some- 
 times cultivated ? 4. Where are the farms devoted 
 to market gardening? 5. Where is dairying 
 carried on .? 6. What is done with the milk ? 
 
 7. Where are the forests ? 8. For what are the 
 trees used ^ 9. How are maple trees tapped ? 
 10. What is done with the sap .'' 
 
 II. Where is granite quarried? Marble? 
 12. For what are they used? 13. For what is 
 slate used ? 
 
 14. Name three cities that have many fishermen. 
 15. What fish are caught ? Where? 
 
 16. Where are the summer resorts ? Why ? 
 
 17. How is the trade of New England with 
 other lands carried on ? 
 
 Fig. 172. Cape Cod Canal
 
 THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC S1ATES 
 THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 99 
 
 no. Size and Position. — The Middle 
 Atlantic States are .W'zv York, Nezv 
 Jersey, and Pennsylvania. New York 
 and Pennsylvania are each larger than 
 any two of the New England States, but 
 New Jersey is only about as large as 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 equal height, with narrow valleys be- 
 tween the ridges (Fig. 173). In these 
 mountains large beds of hard coal, or 
 anthracitr, have been found. 
 
 On Figure 146 find the region known 
 as the Appalachian Plateau. The word 
 plateau means a broad highland region 
 where the surface is nearly level. The 
 rock layers under the surface of the 
 
 The Middle .Atlantic group lies between Appalachian Plateau are nearly level, but 
 the Atlantic Ocean on the southeast and the rivers have cut deep valleys, thus 
 two of the Great Lakes and the St. Law- making the whole region hilly. In east- 
 rence River on the north (Fig. 173). ern New York this plateau reaches almost 
 Which states are bordered by the Atlantic to the Hudson R^ver, and is known as the 
 Ocean .? Which states are bordered by Catskill Mountains. From the Hudson 
 Lake Erie .? What states 
 border New York on the 
 east ? 
 
 III. Surface. — South- 
 ern New Jersey is a part 
 of the low, flat, sandy 
 coastal plain that borders 
 much of the Atlantic coast 
 of the United States. 
 Long Island, a part of 
 New York state, may 
 also be included in this 
 plain, although its surface 
 is somewhat rough where 
 the ancient glacier left 
 ridges and hills of clay, 
 sand, and gravel. In 
 southeastern New York, 
 northeastern New Jersey, 
 and southeastern Penn- 
 sylvania the land is low 
 but hilly. 
 
 West of the hilly low- 
 land is the northern part 
 of the Appalachian Moun- 
 taiyis. In eastern Penn- 
 sylvania the mountains 
 are low ridges of nearly 
 
 hi^. 174. 
 
 A small part of the city of New York. In the foreground are the 
 Post Office and the Pennsylvania Railroad Station
 
 lOO 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 four/csy of Frant M. WtUiavts. .V. 1'. Stall t'nijinicr 
 Fig. 175. A lock on the Erie Barge Canal 
 
 the plateau stretches across southern New 
 York and western Pennsylvania. In 
 Pennsylvania this region contains great 
 quantities of coal and iron ore. 
 
 In the w estern part of New York, north 
 of the plateau and bordering Lake Erie 
 and Lake Ontario, are the Lake Plains. 
 This region is nearly level and very fertile. 
 It is connected with the Hudson Valley 
 on the east by the narrow valley of the 
 Mohawk River. Across the plains and 
 through the Mohawk Valley, a canal con- 
 nects the Great Lakes with the Hudson 
 River (Fig. 175). 
 
 North of the Mohawk Valley is the 
 mountain group known as the 
 Adirondacks. It is a region of 
 forests and beautiful lakes. East 
 of the Hudson the land is rough 
 where the Berkshire Hills extend 
 into New York from New England. 
 
 112. Climate and Drainage. 
 As the Middle Allantic States lie 
 a little farther south, their climate 
 Is somewhat milder tli.m that of 
 New England. The winters are 
 cold and there is nuich snow, 
 especially in the highlands. In 
 the lowlands, the summers are 
 
 often very warm, but it is 
 usually cool in the mountains 
 and at the seashore. 
 
 During the winter the 
 snow gathers in the forests 
 w hich cover the slopes of the 
 northern Appalachians, es- 
 IK-cially in the Adirondacks 
 and in the higher hills of the 
 plateau. When the warmer 
 weather comes, the snow 
 melts slowly and helps to 
 keep the streams full for a 
 long time. Many of the 
 streams have waterfalls. 
 
 The streams have worn deep valleys 
 across the Appalachian Plateau, and have 
 cut its surface into hills. In the moun- 
 tain section east of the plateau, the 
 streams have worn away the soft rocks 
 and left hard layers standing as mountain 
 ridges. Some of the streams, while wear- 
 ing down the land, flowed across the hard 
 layers and cut narrow valleys, or water 
 gaps, across them (Fig. 176). 
 
 The most inii)()rtant rivers of this region 
 are the Hudson and its chief tributary, 
 the Mohawk. They are important be- 
 cause the valleys through which they
 
 THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 lOI 
 
 flow form a low pass across 
 the Appalachian region. 
 The Delaware and Suscjue- 
 hanna rivers also are im- 
 portant because they cut 
 through the mountains, and 
 their tributaries reach far 
 back into the plateau (Fig. 
 173). In western Pennsyl- 
 vania there is another great 
 river, the Ohio. Its tribu- 
 taries flow down the west- 
 ern side of the plateau. 
 
 The early settlers used these valleys in 
 making their way inland. Now great rail- 
 way lines have been built through them. 
 These railroads join those in the east with 
 those of the Mississippi Valley and connect 
 with other lines to form through routes 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 
 
 The Adirondack region drains into the 
 Hudson and Mohawk on the south and 
 the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence on the 
 north. The Lake Plains drain into the 
 Great Lakes. 
 
 Review of Sections 110 to 112. — i. Name the 
 states in the Middle Atlantic group. 
 
 2. Which part of New Jersey is in the coastal 
 plain ? 
 
 3. Where are the Appalachian Mountains .'' 
 What mineral is found in them ? 4. Where is the 
 Appalachian Plateau ? Why is it so hilly ? 
 J. Of what region are the Catskill Mountains a 
 part ? 6. What part of New York state is occupied 
 by this plateau ? What part of Pennsylvania .' 
 
 7. Where are the Lake Plains ? What kind of 
 land is that region ? 8. How are the Lake Plains 
 connected with the Hudson Valley.' 
 
 9. Where are the Adirondack Mountains ? 
 10. What group of hills is east of the Hudson 
 River ? 
 
 II. How does the climate of these states differ 
 from that of New England ? 
 
 11. Where have the streams cut water gaps? 
 13. Why is the Hudson-Mohawk Valley im- 
 portant.' 14. What are the other important 
 rivers? 15. For what are the river valleys used ? 
 
 rn;. 177. Truck farming m New Jersey 
 
 113. The Soils, Agriculture, and Dairy- 
 ing. — The soils on the lower hillsides, in 
 the valleys, and on the Lake Plains are 
 fine and deep. 
 
 Most of New York and a part of north- 
 ern Pennsylvania and New Jersey were 
 once covered by a great ice sheet or glacier. 
 In its movement (Sec. 97) the glacier 
 ground up rocks, and when it finally melted 
 it left a sheet of stony soil in many places. 
 In places that were never covered by the 
 glacier, the soils have been brought by 
 rivers, or formed by the breaking up of 
 the rocks underneath (Sec. 14). 
 
 Both agriculture and dairying are im- 
 portant industries in the Middle Atlantic 
 States. Wheat, corn, barley, oats, and 
 potatoes are raised on the farms, and New 
 York ranks as the second state in the 
 Union in fruit raising. Apples, grapes, 
 peaches, and other fruits are raised in the 
 Hudson Valley, along the shores of the 
 Great Lakes, and around the lakes in cen- 
 tral and western New York. New Jersey 
 and Pennsylvania also raise much fruit. 
 
 Truck farming, or market gardening, is 
 carried on near all the larger cities, es- 
 pecially in New Jersey (Fig. 177), in 
 southeastern Pennsylvania, and on Long 
 Island.
 
 ro2 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 There are many dairy farms near the 
 large cities and in the highland regions 
 where the soil is poor and thin. The 
 railroads in dairying districts have special 
 trains to carry the milk to the cities. 
 There are also many creameries and fac- 
 tories where butter and cheese are made 
 (Fig. 178). 
 
 114. Mineral Wealth.— The Middle 
 Atlantic States are rich in minerals. In 
 Pennsylvania there are large deposits of 
 coal. Nearly all the hard coal, or anthra- 
 cite, of the country is found in eastern 
 Pennsylvania. Much of the soft, or bitu- 
 minous, coal is found in the southwestern 
 part of the state, near Pittsburgh (Fig. 
 
 179). It burns more rapidly and with 
 more smoke and gas than the anthracite, 
 and is not so good a fuel. Railroads 
 connect the coal fields with the other 
 parts of the country and carry the coal 
 to distant markets (Fig. 180). 
 
 Petroleum, or " rock oil," and natural" 
 gas are found in western Pennsylvania 
 and southwestern New York. They are 
 obtained by drilling wells into the rock. 
 The oil is pumped to the surface, and is 
 forced through great pipes (Fig. 181) to 
 refineries, where kerosene, gasoline, and 
 other products are made from it. The 
 natural gas is piped into houses and 
 factories and used for light and fuel. 
 
 I'lji. 180. Coal 111 (irtal heaps ready lo be sjiil to market
 
 TIIF MIODIK ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 lO^ 
 
 Iron ore is mined at several places in 
 the Middle Atlantic States, chiefly in 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Limestone and clays of Pennsylvania 
 and New York are used in making ce- 
 ment, brick (Fig. 182), and tile. The 
 sandstone and marble of New York, and 
 the slate of Pennsylvania, are used in 
 building. 
 
 There are large salt deposits in western 
 New York. The salt is dissolved in water, 
 which is then pumped into vats to evap- 
 orate. 
 
 115. Forests. — ^The great forests that 
 once covered this part of our country have 
 been cut away. The 
 Adirondack region, 
 however, is still well 
 covered (Fig. 183), and 
 there is much woodland 
 in other parts of the 
 Appalachian Moun- 
 tains and on the Appa- 
 lachian Plateau. The 
 timber supply is de- 
 creasing, but lumbering 
 and the manufacture 
 of wood pulp and paper 
 are still carried on. 
 
 Fig. 182. Brick-making machinery 
 
 116. Manufacturing. — Many conditions 
 have combined to make the Middle 
 Atlantic States one of the chief manufac- 
 turing regions of our country. The 
 products that we have so far studied are 
 the raw materials from which many ar- 
 ticles are made. Ocean-going vessels can 
 reach both Philadelphia and New York. 
 Railroads through the river valleys con- 
 nect the cities of the great central plain 
 with these two ports. A 
 water route that includes 
 the Hudson River, the 
 Eric Barge Canal, and 
 the Great Lakes, con- 
 nects the interior ol 
 the country with the 
 portof New York. Ovei 
 these routes raw ma- 
 terials can be brought 
 to the mills and fac- 
 tories, and manufac- 
 tured goods can be sent 
 to all parts of the world.
 
 I04 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 c E A y 
 
 SanJu BMk \\$andt/ SCALE 3F milES 
 
 .\X, t.\Hook " i '" 
 Ali;m.;^-O0 Railways 
 
 Fig. 184. The city of New York and viciniiy 
 
 Review of Sections 113 to 116. — 1. What dif- 
 ferent kinds of soil do we find in the Middle 
 Atlantic States ? 2. What crop.s are raised ^ 
 3. Where are the dairj'ing regions.' 4. How 
 is milk taken to the cities .' 
 
 5. W here is hard coal found .' 6. Why arc these 
 deposits so important ? 7. Where is soft coal 
 found .'' 8. Where is petroleum found in the 
 Middle Atlantic States .' 9. How is it sent to the re- 
 fineries ? 10. Into what is it made .'' 11. Where are 
 cement and bricks made ? 12. Where is salt found ? 
 
 13. What use is made of the forests ? 14. What 
 are some of the causes that have helped to make 
 the Middle Atlantic States a great manufacturing 
 
 region 
 
 ? 
 
 117. City of New York. — The city of 
 
 New York, at the mouth of the Hudson 
 River, has a beautiful harbor and is the 
 largest city in the New World. Many 
 great railway lines center there, and to 
 its docks come ships from every sea. 
 Many people who work in this city live 
 in the cities and smaller places on Long 
 Island, in New Jersey, in Connecticut, 
 and in the mainland of New York 
 state, especially along the Hudson. The 
 city of New York, sometimes called 
 Greater New York, now includes five 
 boroughs : Manhattan, Brooklyn, the 
 Bronx, Queens, and Richmond (Fig. 184).' 
 The piers around the lower end of 
 Manhattan Island do not provide room 
 enough for all the ships that come to this 
 port. Other piers have therefore been 
 built on the Long Island and New Jersey 
 shores. Railroads from the north and 
 northeast cross from the mainland on 
 bridges. Some railroads enter Man- 
 hattan through tunnels from Long Island 
 and from New Jersey (Fig. 185). Others 
 from the south and west end on the New 
 
 i'lH. IK.S. Train ciiUrint! a tnnnc-l in New Jersey, to pass under the Hudson River lo New York
 
 TIIK MIDDT.K ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 105 
 
 r-.g. 180. Shirt factory, Troy 
 
 Fig. 187. Making typewriters, Syracuse 
 
 Jersey side of the Hudson River and use 
 ferries for both passengers and freight. 
 About one half of the foreign trade of the 
 United States passes through the port of 
 New York. 
 
 Street cars, elevated trains, and trains 
 in underground tunnels, or subways, are 
 all used to carry people from one part of 
 the city to another. 
 
 New York is not only the greatest com- 
 mercial city, but also the greatest manu- 
 facturing city, in America. It leads espe- 
 cially in the manufacture of clothing, and 
 in the printing of books and magazines. 
 It also carries on an enormous number 
 of other industries on a large scale. In 
 Brooklyn there are several sugar refineries. 
 
 118. Other Cities of New York State. 
 —From New York there are several 
 routes that lead to the west, and along 
 each of them are large cities with im- 
 portant industries. One of these routes 
 leads up the Hudson and west through 
 the valley of the Mohawk River and 
 across the Lake Plains to Lake Erie. 
 
 Near the mouth of the Mohawk River 
 are J/bany, the state capital, and Troy, 
 a city noted for the manufacture of collars, 
 cuffs, and shirts (Fig. 186). 
 
 West of Albany is Schenectady, where 
 much electrical machinery is made. 
 
 Farther west is Utica, an important rail- 
 road center and the center of a rich farm- 
 ing region. Utica also has large cotton 
 mills. Still farther west is Syracuse. 
 This city is located where several railroads 
 meet, and it carries on much trade with all 
 the surrounding region. It has large 
 factories where automobiles and type- 
 writers are made (Fig. 187). 
 
 West of Syracuse is Rochester. This 
 city is the third in size in the state, and 
 it has large factories. Its chief industry 
 is the making of clothing. Rochester is 
 also especially noted for its manufacture 
 of photographic supplies, and for its 
 nurseries where fine trees and plants are 
 grown (Fig. 188). 
 
 Fig. 188 Nursery at Rochester
 
 io6 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Buffalo, the second 
 city of the state in popu- 
 lation, is important both 
 as a commercial and as 
 a manufacturing city. 
 Much of the trade on 
 the Great Lakes centers 
 here, as does also the 
 trade that passes over 
 the Erie Barge Canal. 
 Buffalo handles grain, 
 live stock, and lumber 
 from the West. One of 
 the largest steel plants 
 in the world is located 
 near this city. Part of 
 the electricity used in 
 Buffalo, and in a nuni- 
 ber of other cities in 
 western New "\'ork, is produced at the 
 Niagara Falls, where the waters of the 
 Niagara River plunge over a cliff i6o 
 feet high and ncarK' a mile wide (Fig. 
 189). 
 
 119. Cities of Pennsylvania and New 
 Jersey. — Another important route from 
 New York leads southwest and then west- 
 ward across New Jersey and Pennsylvania 
 to the Ohio River (Fig. 173). 
 
 Fig. 189. Niagara Falls 
 
 The greatest city along this route is 
 Philadelphia, in eastern Pennsylvania. 
 It is third in size among the cities of the 
 United States, and is imi)ortant as a 
 center both of trade and of manufacture. 
 Its chief industries are ship building, the 
 refining of sugar and of i)etroleum, and 
 the manufacture of woolen, cotton, leather, 
 iron, and steel goods (Fig. 190). 
 
 West oi' Philadelphia, on the Susque-
 
 THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 107 
 
 hanna River, is Ilarrisburg, the capital 
 of Pennsylvania, with large steel mills. 
 
 Pittsburgh, on the Ohio River, and the 
 group of smaller cities around it, are 
 engaged in the manufacture of iron and 
 steel goods and glass. The fuel for the 
 furnaces comes from the coal fields and 
 natural gas wells, and large quantities of 
 iron ore are shipped in from mines in 
 the Lake Superior region. 
 
 Scranton is a large city 
 in the hard coal district 
 of Pennsylvania. Reading, 
 near that district, has large 
 steel mills. Erie, a port on 
 Lake Erie, has flour mills 
 and iron and steel manu- 
 factures. 
 
 In New Jersey, Pater son 
 has large silk mills ; Trenton, 
 the ca|)ital, is noted for its 
 manufacture of pottery ; 
 Camden has a talking ma- 
 chine factory (Fig. 192) ; 
 
 and Newark, the largest 
 city of the state, has a 
 variety of manufacturing 
 industries, including the 
 refming of copper and 
 the making of electrical 
 machinery. 
 
 120. Summer Resorts. 
 — At many of the shore 
 resorts of Long Island 
 and New Jersey there 
 is excellent sea bathing, 
 with cool winds from the 
 ocean during the hot sum- 
 mer days. The moun- 
 tain resorts also are pop- 
 ular, especially during the 
 season for hunting and 
 fishing. 
 
 Review of Sections 117 to 120. — i. Why is 
 
 the city of New York so important as a trade 
 center ? 2. What are its leading manufactures .'' 
 
 3. Name the chief cities along the Hudson and 
 Mohawk. Valley and Lake Plains route to Buffalo. 
 4. Why is Buffalo important .'' 5. Where are the 
 Niagara Falls.'' Why are they important.? 
 
 6. What are the chief manufacturing industries 
 of Philadelphia .? 7. For what industries is Pitts- 
 burgh noted .? Paterson .? Trenton ? Newark .? 
 
 8. Where are the summer resorts .? 
 
 big. ly.:. Testing talking machines, Camden

 
 THK SOUTH ATLANTIC STATP:S 
 
 109 
 
 V . S. £Jtpt. of Au . f'uTt^l . 
 
 Fig. 194. Foothills of the Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina 
 
 THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 121. Position and Coast Line. — The 
 South Atlantic States are the eight states 
 south of Pennsylvania ; namely, Dela- 
 ware, Maryland, Virginia, JFest Vir- 
 ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 Georgia, and Florida (Fig. 193). Which 
 one has the longest coast line ? Which 
 one has no seacoast .'' Which si.x are 
 partly in the Appalachian Mountains ? 
 
 At the north, large bays indent the 
 coast and furnish good harbors. On 
 these bays and the large rivers that flow 
 into them boats can be used for a long 
 distance inland. Farther south the coast 
 is more regular, and there are not so 
 many good harbors. A little distance off 
 the shore there are long, sandy beaches, 
 many miles in length. They are called 
 barrier beaches because they shut off the 
 quiet waters behind them from the ocean 
 
 in front. In the quiet, protected waters 
 behind the barrier beaches boats make 
 long voyages in safety, even during storms 
 that would make an ocean voyage unsafe. 
 
 122. Surface. — Name the seven South 
 Atlantic states that border on the At- 
 lantic Ocean. A large part of the land 
 in this group lies in the coastal plain. 
 
 West of the coastal plain is a region of 
 older and harder rocks. It is known as the 
 Piedmont Plateau; "Piedmont" means 
 " foot of the mountain." Its surface is 
 more uneven than that of the coastal 
 plain, and it lies somewhat higher. 
 
 Find the rivers that flow across these 
 two regions on their way to the ocean 
 (Fig. 146). Where they descend from 
 the Piedmont to the coastal plain there 
 are rapids or falls that furnish water 
 power for many factories. Because of 
 these waterfalls, the eastern edge of the 
 Piedmont is known as the Fall Line.
 
 no 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 West of the Piedmont region are 
 the Appalachian Mountains (Fig. 
 194). The eastern range is the Bkie 
 Ridge. It was so named by the 
 early settlers, who saw it first at a 
 distance, when it seemed to be blue. 
 Beyond the Blue Ridge is a long, 
 broad valley, called the Great Ap- 
 palachian Valley ; and still farther 
 west are several other mountain 
 ranges. 
 
 123. Climate. — In the northern 
 part of this group of states the 
 winters are cool, but there is seldom 
 much snow on the ground. In southern 
 Florida, even in the winter, it is usu- 
 ally warm and pleasant. The summers 
 throughout the region are warm, although 
 it is cooler in the mountains than on the 
 coastal plain. The yearly rainfall is 
 heavy (Fig. 145), as the winds from the 
 ocean and from the Gulf of Mexico bring 
 much moisture with them. 
 
 Review of Sections 121 to 123. — i. Name the 
 seven South Atlantic states that are partly or 
 entirely within the coastal plain. 2. Which South 
 Atlantic state does not touch the coastal plain ? 
 
 3. Which states have many good harbors ? 
 
 4. Where are there barrier beaches ? 
 
 5. Where is the Piedmont region ? 6. What 
 is the Fall Line .'' 7. Where are the Appalachians, 
 in this group of states ? 
 
 8. Which are the 
 cooler parts of the 
 South Atlantic region 
 in sunnner."* 9. What 
 kind of winters does 
 Morida have.' 
 
 124. Agriculture. 
 — In these states 
 agriculture is the 
 leading industry. 
 Three important 
 crops are tobacco, 
 corn, and cotton. 
 
 
 Fig. 195. Tobacco field, Virginia 
 
 Tobacco was first cultivated in Vir- 
 ginia, and it is now raised in all the 
 South Atlantic States, — especially North 
 Carolina and Virginia, — as well as in 
 many other parts of the country. 
 
 Corn is the chief grain crop in every 
 South Atlantic state, but wheat also is 
 grown in the northern states of the group. 
 Cotton is by far the most important 
 crop in North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 and Georgia (Fig. 196). In many sections 
 nearly all the farms or plantations are de- 
 voted to this one crop. The cotton plant 
 grows about three or four feet high, and 
 bears many seed pods, or bolls. When ripe, 
 the bolls burst, and the masses of lint or 
 
 white fibers that 
 they contain are 
 gathered by the 
 pickers (Fig. 197). 
 The seeds are re- 
 moved by machin- 
 ery, and the lint is 
 then jMessed into 
 bales and sent to 
 the mills (Fig. 208), 
 where it is made 
 into thread and 
 cloth (Fig. 201).
 
 THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 III 
 
 In Georgia, South Caro- 
 lina, and Florida, cotton is 
 grown both on the islands 
 near the coast and on the 
 mainland. That grown on 
 the islands and near the sea, 
 known as sea island cotton, 
 has especially long, fine 
 fibers. It is more valuable 
 than the coarse, short- 
 fibered upland cottons be- 
 cause finer and stronger 
 goods can be made from it. 
 
 Many of the southern negroes find 125. Forests and Minerals. — The pine 
 
 work in the cotton fields. Their an- forests of the coastal states are tapped 
 cestors came from a hot country, and for their sap, which is made into turpen- 
 the negroes are able to do hard work tine and rosin (Fig. 199). Georgia and 
 out of doors even during the hottest Florida lead in this industry. There 
 weather. are great hard-pine forests in several 
 
 On the truck farms of the soutliern states. This Georgia pine, as it is called, 
 part of the coastal plain, vegetables and is much used for interior woodwork and 
 berries are raised even in winter. There for flooring. Such hardwood trees as the 
 are large orange and grapefruit groves in oak and maple grow chiefly in the moun- 
 Florida, and pineapples also are raised in tains and at the north, 
 that state (Fig. 198). Vegetables and In West Virginia are found soft coal, 
 fruits from the South are carried by fast petroleum, and natural gas. There is 
 trains and steamships to the northern also coal in Virginia and western Mary- 
 markets, land. Florida has valuable deposits of 
 
 Large crops of peanuts are grown in phosphate rock, which is mined and sold 
 Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, for use in making fertilizer. 
 
 Fig. 198. A pineapple field in Florida 
 
 Fig. 199. Turpentine distillery. South Carolina
 
 112 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 126. Oyster Fish- 
 eries. — The most ex- 
 tensive oyster beds 
 in the United States 
 are in the Chesa- 
 peake Bay. Young 
 " seed oysters " can 
 move about in the 
 water, but they soon 
 fasten themselves to 
 some pebble or old 
 oyster shell. A few 
 oysters are still taken 
 from natural beds as 
 they have been for many years. Most 
 of them are now raised in beds made 
 by covering the sea bottom with oyster 
 shells or gravel. The oystermen go out 
 in small boats to gather the oysters 
 with long-handled tongs (Fig. 200). 
 Some of the oysters are taken from the 
 shells and canned ; others are packed in 
 ice and shipped fresh even to distant 
 cities. Baltimore is the center of the 
 oyster industry of this group of states. 
 
 Fig. 200. Gathering oysters, Chesapeake Bay 
 
 Review of Sections 
 124 to 126. — I. Name 
 three important crops 
 of this group of states. 
 2. Where is wheat 
 grown? Corn.'' 3. Name 
 two states that grow 
 much tobacco; three 
 that grow much cotton. 
 4. Tell about the 
 growth of the cotton 
 plant. 5. What is done 
 with the cotton lint 
 after it is picked r 
 6. Where is sea-island 
 cotton grown ? 7. Why 
 is it more valuable than 
 upland cotton ? ' 
 
 8. Where are there truck farms in this group 
 of states .f" 9. What fruits are raised in Florida ' 
 10. Where do some southern fruits and vegetables 
 find a market.' II. How are they taken to this 
 market .' 
 
 12. What is made from the pitch of the pine 
 tree? 13. What states lead in the industry? 
 14. Of what use is the hard southern or Georgia 
 pine? 15. Where are the hardwood forests of 
 the South Atlantic States ? The coal fields ? 
 Petroleum and natural gas ? Phosphate rock ? 
 
 16. Where are oysters found ? How are they 
 gatheretl ? What is done with them ? 17. What 
 city IS the center of the industry ? 
 
 127. Manufacturing. — Until a few 
 years ago, most of the cotton raised in 
 the southern states was sent to the north- 
 ern states or to Europe to be manufac- 
 tured. This was because the southern 
 people had not learned how to do the 
 work, and because they thought that it 
 could be done better in a cooler climate. 
 
 Now, however, more cotton is manu- 
 factured in the South than in the North. 
 Power U) run the southern cotton mills 
 is furnished by the falls and rapids along 
 the Fall Line, and by coal from the mines 
 not far away. Nearly all the south- 
 ern states are engaged in this industry, 
 but the greatest mills are in North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
 
 THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 113 
 
 128. Trade and the 
 Cities. — For many years 
 nearly all the trade of the 
 southern states, not only 
 with European countries, 
 but also with the North, 
 was carried on through its 
 seaports. Since railroads 
 were built, nuich of the 
 trade with the North has 
 been carried on over them. 
 
 The seaports are among 
 the largest and most im- 
 portant of the southern 
 cities. Tampa, in south- 
 western Florida, on the 
 Gulf of Mexico, has a large trade with 
 the West Indies. Jacksonville, Florida, 
 ships fruit, lumber, and garden truck. 
 Savannah, Georgia, Charleston, South 
 Carolina, and IJ'ilmington, North Caro- 
 lina, ship much cotton and lumber. 
 Norfolk, Virginia, ships cotton, lumber, 
 and garden truck. 
 
 Baltimore is the chief seaport and the 
 largest city in the South Atlantic group, 
 and one of the seven largest cities of the 
 country. It is near the coal fields of 
 eastern Pennsylvania, and has great can- 
 ning factories and manufactures of iron 
 and steel goods, tobacco, and clothing. 
 
 In Wilmingto7x, Delaware, ships and 
 cars are built and powder is manufac- 
 tured. This city contains nearly half 
 of the population of the state, and is 
 only a few miles from Philadelphia. In 
 what state is there another city named 
 Wilmington ^. 
 
 JVheeling, in W^est Virginia, is on the 
 Ohio River, not very far from Pittsburgh. 
 Its chief manufactures are iron and steel. 
 Richmond, the capital and chief city 
 of Virginia, is a famous market for 
 
 tobacco, and has many factories for its 
 manufacture. 
 
 The rapid development of manufac- 
 turing in the South has led to the growth 
 of inland towns and cities located near 
 coal deposits or water power. Of these 
 the greatest is Atlanta,'m northern Georgia, 
 at the southern end of the Appalachian 
 Mountains. It is an important railroad 
 center. Some large cotton mills and many 
 other manufactories are located here. 
 
 The coast cities of Florida are popular 
 as winter resorts for northern people who 
 dislike the cold northern winters. 
 
 Fig. 203. Railroad crossings in Richmond
 
 114 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 129. The District of Columbia and the Washington is a city of hotels and 
 
 National Capital. — For many years the homes. It has few manufactures and 
 
 offices of the national government have little trade. Many of the government 
 
 been located in Washington, a city that officers live here during their terms of 
 
 was named after the first President of office. Because so many people have 
 
 the United States. The District of Co- business with our government, and be- 
 
 lumbia is a tract of land on the north side cause of the interesting things to see in 
 
 of the Potomac River (Fig. 193) between Washington, thousands of people visit the 
 
 Maryland and Virginia. Here the na- city every year. 
 
 tional capital, Washington, has grown to ^^^.^^ ^^ g^^^.^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^_^ ^^^^^ 
 
 be a large and splendid city. It COntams did the southern people formerly send their cotton 
 
 many public buildings. In the Capitol, for manufacture ? 2. Where havfe new mills been 
 
 Congress meets each year. The White bu'lt? 
 
 House is the home of the President. 
 The Congressional Library is one of the 
 most beautiful buildings in our country 
 (Fig. 204). 
 
 3. Name some southern seaports and tell 
 where they are situated. 4. Which is the largest 
 city in the South Atlantic group .? What work is 
 done there ? 5. What city is near Philadelphia .' 
 For what is it noted ^ 
 
 6. Where is Wheeling .? What are its chief 
 
 One department whose work is espe- industries? 7. What city is the capital of Vir- 
 
 cially interesting to us all is the Depart- ginia .? For what is it noted .? 8. What large 
 
 ment of Agriculture. Here are officers inland city has grown up in northern Georgia? 
 
 who test foods to see if they are pure, ^^^^ If,,'' important? 
 
 -^ r > fj Where is our national capital? lO. After 
 
 and help farmers to find out what crops ^^,h,„„ ^^^^s our capital city named? n. Name 
 
 can best be grown in any place. some of the public buildings located there. 
 
 Fig. 204. Airplane view of Wushiiinton. The Capitnl li.i . i Iuri dome, and the Congressional Library a small dome. 
 The other two I.irnc biiildinKS eontain the office rooms of members of Congress
 
 THE SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 "5 
 
 THE SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 130. Position. — There are eight South 
 Central States : Kentucky, Tennessee, 
 Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisi- 
 ana, Oklahoma, and Texas (Fig. 206). 
 
 Which of these states border on the 
 Gulf of Mexico ? Which states are en- 
 tirely east of the Mississippi and border 
 on that river ? Which states are west of 
 the Mississippi River ? Which state in 
 this group extends farthest north ? The 
 northern boundary of Kentucky is formed 
 by the northern bank of the Ohio River. 
 Into what river does the Ohio flow ? 
 
 131. Surface and Drainage. — The Ap- 
 palachian Mountains border Tennessee 
 on the east and extend into northern 
 Alabama. West of the mountains is a 
 part of the Great Appalachian Valley. 
 It is broad and fertile. 
 
 West of the Great Appalachian Valley, 
 in eastern Kentucky, central Tennessee, 
 and northern Alabama, is the southern 
 part of the Appalachian Plateau, here 
 
 known as the Cumberland Plateau. The 
 edge toward the Great Valley is steep, 
 and the plateau surface has been much 
 cut up by rivers. On the west, however, 
 the plateau slopes gently down to the 
 plains of the Mississippi River. 
 
 There is another highland region in 
 western Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma 
 (Fig. 206). In western Texas there are 
 great plateaus and the highest mountains 
 in this group of states. 
 
 Highlands, however, form only a small 
 part of the surface of the South Central 
 States. The larger part consists of plains. 
 Those in southern Alabama, in a part of 
 Mississippi, and along the coast of Texas 
 are coastal plains. They are known as the 
 Gulf Plains because they border on the 
 Gulf of Mexico. Many of the other 
 plains of the region are flood plains or 
 delta plains that have been formed by 
 the Mississippi River and its tributaries. 
 Eastern Arkansas, Louisiana, and much 
 of Mississippi are lands that were formed 
 in this way.
 
 no
 
 Innatl^ 
 
 "7
 
 Ii8 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Mtssisslppi tiiar Cp 
 
 Fig. 207. Levee on the Mississippi River, in the state of Mississippi. In the distance is a river steamboat. 
 Notice that the water in the river is higher than the road beside the levee 
 
 Flood plains and deltas have been built 
 up out of sediment deposited by the 
 rivers, and the soils are fine, deep, and 
 very rich. Much sediment has been 
 deposited along the lower course of the 
 Mississippi near the stream banks. In 
 some places the banks have been built 
 higher than the bordering plains. In 
 places also the sediment deposited has 
 built up the river bed so that the river 
 is now above the level of the surrounding 
 country (Fig. 207). For long distances 
 it has been necessary to build banks, or 
 levees, to hold the river in its channel. 
 When a levee is broken in time of flood, 
 the water spreads over the low plains 
 and does great damage. 
 
 Most of the drainage of this group of 
 states reaches the Gulf through the 
 Mississippi River. East of this river, 
 however, there are a few streams that 
 flow from the southern end of the Ap[)a- 
 lachian Mountains to the Ciilf. West of 
 the Mississippi also there are a number 
 of streams that flow directly into the 
 Gulf. Some of them are quite long, but 
 they arc not oi mm li importance because 
 
 during the dry season there is little water 
 in them. 
 
 132. Climate. — The map (Fig. 145) 
 shows that the eastern and southern 
 parts of this group of states have a heavy 
 rainfall. Toward the north the rainfall 
 is somewhat less, and it decreases rapidly 
 toward the far west. It is on account of 
 the small rainfall in western Texas that 
 some of its rivers have so little water in 
 them. 
 
 Where the rainfall is very light, crops 
 can be grown with the aid of water from 
 wells or rivers. The water is stored in 
 reservoirs and spread over the fields by 
 means of ditches. This is irrigation. 
 There are, however, large grassy plains 
 whit h cannot be irrigated, but are excel- 
 lent for grazing. 
 
 The temperature in the southern part 
 of the group does not change greatly with 
 the seasons, and there are few frosts. 
 In the northern part there is a marked 
 dilTcrcnce in temperature between winter 
 and summer, with snow and ice in the 
 winter. The highlands are, of course, 
 cooler than the lowlands.
 
 THE SOUTH CEN'IRAL STATES 
 
 119 
 
 Review of Sections 130 to 132. 
 
 — I. N.iiiu- tlu- states ill the 
 South Central group. 2. Which 
 border on the Gulf of Mexico? 
 3. Which one is the largest (Fig. 
 206) ? 4. Which one has the 
 Ohio River for much of its north- 
 ern boundary ? 5. Where is 
 Oklahoma .' 
 
 6. Where are the .Appalach- 
 ian Mountains in this group .'' 
 7. Where is the Great Appa- 
 lachian Valley ? The Cumberland 
 Plateau ? 8. Where do the Appa- 
 lachian Mountains end ? 9. Where 
 is the Ozark Plateau ? 
 
 10. Which states have Gulf 
 Plains? II. W'hat kind of plains 
 are there in Arkansas, Louisiana, 
 and a part of Mississippi? 12. Why is the lower 
 course of the Mississippi above the level of the 
 surrounding country? 13. How are the near-by 
 lowlands protected ? 14. How are the states of 
 this group drained ? 
 
 15. Where is the heavy rainfall of the South 
 Central States ? The light rainfall ? 16. Why is 
 the water often low in the rivers of western Texas ? 
 
 133- Agriculture. — -With plenty of 
 moisture, tew frosts, and a fine, rich 
 soil, this is a wonderful agricultural 
 region. Of the many crops raised, cot- 
 
 Kig. JU8. Traiiiload of cotton on its way to Mobile, Alabama 
 
 ton, sugar, rice, and corn are especially 
 important. 
 
 Cotton is the chief crop of the South 
 Central States, as large amounts of it 
 are raised in every state in the group ex- 
 cept Kentucky. There the summers are 
 hardly long enough for a full crop to ripen. 
 Texas is the leading cotton state. It 
 holds this position in part because of its 
 great size ; it is by far the largest state in 
 the Union. When the cotton is ready to 
 pick, thousands of men 
 and women can be seen 
 at work in the fields. 
 Each one picks from two 
 rows and puts the lint 
 into a long bag fastened 
 to the back. 
 
 Most of the sugar cane 
 raised in our country is 
 grown in Louisiana. The 
 cane grows to a height 
 of from ten to fifteen 
 feet (Fig. 209). When 
 it is crushed, it yields 
 the sweetish juice from 
 which sugar and molasses 
 are made.
 
 I20 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Rice is a plant that looks much like 
 wheat, and produces a head of many little 
 grains as the wheat plant does. It needs 
 a great deal of water, and the best rice 
 is grown on fields that can be flooded at 
 the time of planting and at other times 
 during the growing season. Louisiana, 
 Texas, and Arkansas are great rice- 
 growing states. The crop is cultivated 
 chiefly in level lowlands where the fields 
 can be irrigated (Fig. 210). The plow- 
 ing, har\^esting, and threshing are done 
 in much the same way as on the great 
 wheat farms (Sec. 23). 
 
 Kentucky raises more tobacco than 
 any other state (Fig. 211). Louisville, 
 the chief city of 
 Kentucky, is a great 
 market and manu- 
 facturing center 
 for tobacco. Cov- 
 ington, connected 
 by several bridges 
 across the Ohio 
 River with the 
 great city of Cin- 
 cinnati in southern 
 Ohio, also has large tobacco factories. 
 
 Corn is an important crop in every 
 state of the group, and much wheat is 
 
 £%;£ 
 
 i 
 
 Fi^. 212. Cattle in the grazing region ot Texas 
 
 Fig. 210. A rice field in the South 
 
 Kig. 211. Piles ol lobiKCO in u wiirehouse, Kentucky 
 
 raised in Oklahoma, Texas, Tennessee. 
 and Kentucky. 
 
 134. Grazing. — In western Texas and 
 Oklahoma there is not enough rainfall 
 
 for agriculture, al- 
 though there is 
 enough for grass. 
 In parts of this 
 grazing region the 
 cattle farms or 
 ranches are fenced. 
 Over the larger 
 pastures or ranges 
 of the great western 
 plains, cattle be- 
 longing to many owners roam together 
 (Fig. 212). They are watched and cared 
 for by men, called cozvhoys, who live out 
 of doors and spend much of their time on 
 horseback. 
 
 Kvery cattle owner has his own mark 
 with which he brands his young cattle 
 each year. This is usually done at the 
 round-up, when the cattle are all driven 
 together. The unbranded calves are 
 caught, and a red-hot iron is used to burn 
 the brand into the skin. One of the 
 chief trade centers for the cattle country 
 is ^an Jiitovio, the largest city of Texas. 
 Kacli year the cattle that are ready for 
 the market are sent to some large city
 
 TIIK SOUTH CEN'IRAL STATES 
 
 121 
 
 to be slaughtered. Among the cities of 
 the South Central States engaged in this 
 industry are Dallas and Fort Jf'orth, 
 lexas, and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. 
 Slaughtering is also an important industry 
 in a number of cities in the North Central 
 States. 
 
 135. Mining, Lumbering, and Manu- 
 facturing. — Coal and iron are found in 
 nearly every state in this group. The large 
 beds of coal in eastern Kentucky, in Ten- 
 nessee, and in northern Alabama belong 
 to the Appalachian coal field (Fig. 179). 
 The coal field in western Kentucky, how- 
 ever, furnishes more 
 than half of the coal 
 mined in that state. 
 There are large iron 
 mines in Tennessee 
 and Alabama. 
 
 Birmingham, Ala- 
 bama, is situated 
 w here both coal and 
 iron can be easily 
 obtained, and it has 
 become the chief 
 iron and steel center 
 of the South. Chattanooga and Knoxville 
 in Tennessee are also near the iron and 
 coal fields, and manufacture iron and steel. 
 
 1 i;; J 1 5. Lumber yard, Chattanooga, Tennessee 
 
 Fig. 213. Oil wells, Oklahoma 
 
 Fig. 214. Loading Freeport Eulphur Company's steamer with 
 sulphur for foreign markets, Freeport, Texas 
 
 There are many petroleum wells in 
 Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma, and the 
 
 output is very large 
 (Fig. 213). Louisi- 
 ana and Texas pro- 
 duce most of the 
 world's supply of 
 sulphur (Fig. 214). 
 There are cy- 
 press forests in the 
 swampy lowlands, 
 pine forests in the 
 sandy plains and 
 uplands, and hard- 
 wood forests in the 
 highlands. Lumbering is a leading in- 
 dustry in the South Central States (Fig. 
 215). Memphis, in Tennessee, is one of 
 the large lumber markets 
 of the country. Nashville, 
 the capital of Tennessee, 
 and Shreveport, Louisiana, 
 are also important lumber 
 markets. 
 
 Cotton seed was at one 
 time thought to have very 
 little value. After the seed 
 had been separated from 
 the lint by the gin, the 
 planter saved enough seed 
 for his new crop and threw
 
 122 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the rest away. The seed is now saved 
 for the oil that it contains ; and when the 
 oil has been pressed out, the cake that is 
 left is fed to stock or used in the manu- 
 facture of fertilizer. Mills for the manu- 
 facture of cottonseed oil are found through- 
 out the cotton-growing regions. 
 
 136. Cities and Commerce. — New 
 Or/^an5, Louisiana (Fig. 20^), Galveston and 
 Houston, Texas, and Mobile, Alabama, are 
 the principal seaports of the South Cen- 
 tral States. All of them export cotton. 
 
 New Orleans is about one hundred miles 
 from the mouth of the Mississippi (Fig. 
 2o6). The river channel is deep enough 
 for large ocean steamships to reach its 
 wharves. The smaller river boats carry 
 passengers and freight between New Or- 
 leans and cities as far away as Pittsburgh, 
 Kansas City, and St. Paul. Trace the 
 routes to these cities on the map (Fig. 
 150). In Figure 147 notice the railroads 
 leading to New Orleans. 
 
 Galveston ships more cotton than any 
 other port in the world, and has also an 
 extensive foreign trade in grain, hides, 
 lumber, and cattle. 
 
 The government has deepened and 
 straightened the channel from Houston 
 to the Gulf of Mexico ; the city has built 
 wharves, and has become an important 
 
 port. It has a large trade in cotton and 
 rice. 
 
 Little Rock, the capital and largest city 
 of Arkansas, is a trade center and manu- 
 factures cottonseed oil and lumber. 
 
 Meridian, in Mississippi, is a cotton 
 market, and the chief manufacturing city 
 of the state. 
 
 Review of Sections 133 to 136. — i. What 
 are the four important crops of the South Central 
 States ? 2. Which state raises the most cotton .? 
 3. Which state raises little cotton.? Why? 
 
 4. Where is sugar cane raised .'' 5. Where is 
 rice grown t On what kind of land is it grown .' 
 
 6. Where is corn grown in this group of states ? 
 Wheat .? 
 
 7. For what crop is Kentucky noted .? 8. What 
 large city is noted as a market and manufac- 
 turmg center for this crop .'' 
 
 9. Where are the grazing regions of Texas and 
 Oklahoma .'' Why are they used for grazing .? 
 10. How are the cattle cared for on the unfenced 
 ranges.'' 11. How does each owner know his 
 own cattle.? 12. What is done with the cattle 
 when they are ready for market ? 
 
 13. Where are the coal beds in this group of 
 states ? The iron mines ? 14. What city in 
 this group of states leads in the manufacture of 
 iron and steel? 15. Name two other cities that 
 are engaged in this industry. 
 
 16. Where is petroleum f und ? Sulphur? 
 17. Where are the forests? 18. Vhat cities are 
 engaged in the manufacture of kuii' 'r? 
 
 19. Name four imjiortant C'lulf ports. 20. How 
 is it possible for ocean steamers to reach New 
 Orleans ? 21. Name an important city in Missis- 
 sippi; in Oklahoma; in Arkansas. 
 
 Fig. 216. Sea wall at Galveston
 
 THE NORTFI CENTRAL STATES 
 
 Fi^ - 1 7. A cornfield in Ohio. The com has been cut and gathered in shocks 
 
 J 
 
 THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 137. Map Study. — The group of twelve 
 North Central States is more than eleven 
 times as large as New England. 
 
 Five states are east of the Mississippi. 
 They are Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Alichi- 
 gan, and Jf'isconsiji. Six states — Iowa, 
 Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, South Da- 
 kota, and North Dakota — are west of the 
 Mississippi. Minnesota is the only state 
 in the group lying on both sides of the 
 river. On the map (Fig. 218) show where 
 the Mississippi has its source. 
 
 Which states are bordered by one or 
 more of the Great Lakes ? Which states 
 are bordered by the Ohio River .^ By the 
 Mississippi River ? Which are bordered 
 or crossed by the Missouri River ? 
 
 138. Surface and Drainage. — Most of 
 this part of our country is a region of 
 
 plains which are almost level or gently 
 rolling. In the far west, where they 
 meet the foothills of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, they reach a much greater eleva- 
 tion than in the eastern part of the 
 group. 
 
 There are, however, some highland 
 areas in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, 
 and Minnesota. The southeastern part 
 of Ohio is hilly where the Appalachian 
 Plateau reaches into that state. There 
 are some rugged mountains, known as 
 the Black Hills, in the western part of 
 South Dakota ; and a highland, known as 
 the Ozark Plateau, in southern Mis- 
 souri (Fig. 218), 
 
 On the plains the soil is usually fine, 
 deep, and fertile. It is especially fine 
 in the river flood plains, and in regions 
 where the soil was formed by the break- 
 ing up of the rocks beneath (Sec. 14).
 
 Fig. 218 
 Physical and Political 
 
 North Central States 
 
 Scale of Statute Miles 
 
 IW eoo 
 
 114 MILES TO ONE INCH 
 
 Capitals of States thus; ® 
 
 ELEVATIONS IN fEET L 
 
 1000 TO 20O0 
 000 TO 1000
 
 126 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 In regions once covered by the great 
 glacier that spread over the northern 
 part of our country many thousands of 
 years ago, the soil was mixed with bro- 
 ken and ground-up rock. In some places, 
 when the ice finally melted, heaps and 
 ridges of earth and broken stone were 
 left (Fig. 219). During the thousands 
 of years that passed after the glacier 
 melted and before settlers came, the 
 decaying leaves and grass added to the 
 fertility of the soil. 
 
 Nearly all this region belongs to the 
 basin of the Mississippi, and most of the 
 large streams flow directly into that 
 river or into one of its great tributaries, 
 the Ohio and the Missouri. There is a 
 small area that drains northward to 
 Hudson Bay, and anotlier area tliat 
 drains to the Great Lakes (Fig. 135). 
 
 The Mississippi with its tributaries 
 furnishes a convenient water route to the 
 Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. 
 The Great Lakes are connected with the 
 north y\tlaiitic, l)()rh through tlie St. 
 Lawrence Ri\(T .ind through tiie Frie 
 Barge Can. 1 1 .ind \\\v lludson River. 
 
 Goods that are to go by canal .iiid the 
 Hudson to New York are transferred 
 from ships to canal barges at Miiffaio. 
 
 If they are to go to 
 Europe, they must be 
 once more shifted into 
 large ships at New York. 
 139. Climate and Agri- 
 culture. — In every region 
 as large as this, there are 
 differences in the temper- 
 ature and rainfall of its 
 various parts. Through- 
 out this whole region the 
 summers are hot and the 
 winters are cold ; but 
 the winters are colder and last longer in 
 the northern part than in the southern. 
 The rainfall is greater in the southern part 
 than in the northern, and much greater 
 in the eastern part than in the western 
 
 (Fig- 145)- 
 
 Several causes unite to make this one 
 of the greatest agricultural regions in 
 the world : (i) The fields are nearly 
 level, and most of the soil is fine and 
 easily cultivated. (2) The soil is deep 
 and rich. (3) The summers are long 
 enough and warm enough for the growth 
 of crops. (4) Except in the far western 
 part there is rainfall enough and at the 
 right time in the year for the growth 
 of crops. (5) There is a market for all 
 the food products that can possibly 
 be raised. (6) Two great water routes 
 reach into the very heart of this region, 
 so that the products can be shipped 
 easily and cheaply to the people who 
 need them. 
 
 Corn is the most valuable single crop 
 raised in the United States. For its 
 most successful growth it needs heavy 
 rains from time to time during the grow- 
 ing season, and w ,mn sunny days between. 
 Some corn is grown in every group of 
 states. The great corn states of the
 
 THE NORTfl CENTRAL STATES 
 
 127 
 
 Fig. 220. Corn-growing regions of the United States 
 
 Fig. 221. Wheat-growing regions of the United States 
 
 country, however, are Iowa, Illinois, Mis- 
 souri, Indiana, Ohio, Nehraska, and Kan- 
 sas, all in the North Central group (Figs. 
 217, 220). These seven states alone raise 
 more than half of all the corn grown in 
 the United States. 
 
 Wheat is grown in many parts of our 
 country, but chieHy where there is a good 
 soil and where it is not too warm. Among 
 the great wheat states are North Dakota, 
 Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Da- 
 kota, and Illinois. Wheat is grown in 
 all the other North Central states also. 
 This group of states produces two thirds 
 of all the wheat grown in the United 
 States. In the wheat regions, much of 
 the planting and harvesting is done by 
 machinery (Sec. 23). Minneapolis in 
 Minnesota is the greatest flour-manu- 
 facturing center. Much wheat and flour 
 are sent to eastern markets through 
 Chicago, Illinois, Duluth, Minnesota, Su- 
 perior, Wisconsin, and Toledo, Ohio. 
 
 Among the other crops of importance 
 are hay and oats, needed for the cattle 
 and horses ; and vegetables and fruits, 
 grown chiefly for home use and for city 
 markets. Beets used in the manufac- 
 ture of sugar are grown in Michigan, 
 especially in the region around the city 
 
 of Saginaw. They are also grown in 
 some of the other states of the group. 
 Tobacco is grown in Ohio. In the two 
 Dakotas and in Minnesota a large amount 
 of flax is grown for the seed, which is 
 used in making linseed oil. 
 
 Review of Sections 137 to 139. — i. How many 
 states are in the North Central group ? 2. Name 
 those that are east of the Mississippi. Those 
 that are west. 3. Which states border on the 
 Great Lakes .? On the Ohio River ? 
 
 4. Describe the surface of this region. 
 5. Where are the highlands ? 6. What kind 
 of soil is found on the plams ? 
 
 7. To what great river basin does most of this 
 region belong .'' S. What part drains into the 
 Great Lakes.? Into Hudson Bay.? 9. What 
 great water routes connect this region with the 
 Atlantic ? 10. On the route to New York, where 
 are goods changed from one boat to another.? 
 
 II. Where is the rainfall heavy.? Light? 
 12. Where are the coldest winters ? 
 
 13. What are the causes that help to make this 
 a great agricultural region .? 14. What does corn 
 need for the best growth.? 15. Which states 
 grow much corn? Much wheat? 16. Name 
 some other crops of importance. 17. Name a 
 great flour-manufacturing city. 
 
 140. Cattle Raising and Meat Packing. 
 — Many farmers in the North Central 
 States keep dairy cows. There are cities 
 to be supplied with milk, and this region 
 produces also much butter and cheese.
 
 128 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 In the far western part of this group 
 there are extensive grazing regions, with 
 great herds of cattle and sheep. Many 
 of the pastures are fenced. There is 
 not much snow in the grazing region, 
 and sometimes the cattle are left out of 
 doors during the winter to feed upon the 
 grass, which dries like hay without being 
 cut. In most cases, however, it has been 
 found more profitable to provide shelter 
 for the stock and to feed them regularly. 
 
 The farmers find that it often pays 
 better to feed their corn to stock than 
 to sell it. For this reason many hogs 
 and cattle are fattened on the farms. 
 Thcv are then sent either to some neigh- 
 boring city to be slaughtered for meat, 
 or are shipped alive (on the hoof) to 
 eastern markets. Much of the fresh 
 meat prepared in the packing 
 houses of Chicago, Omaha, 
 Kansas City, and St. Louis is 
 sent to eastern markets in 
 refrigerator cars. 
 
 The meat packers have 
 found some use for every 
 part of the slaughtered ani- 
 mal. The hides are made into 
 leather, and even rlie bones 
 and bristles are valuable. 
 
 141. Forests and the Man- 
 ufactures of Wood. — In Ohio 
 and Indiana most of the land 
 was once covered with trees. 
 There, as in the East, the early 
 settlers found it necessary to 
 clear away the forests before they 
 could cultivate the land. The 
 trees were in the way and many 
 were burned. 
 
 Beyond Indiana the settlers 
 tound a country of broad grassy 
 plains, or prairies, with few 
 forests except along the streams and on 
 the uplands. At first they did not think 
 that the prairie soil was fit for cultiva- 
 tion, and they settled in the timbered 
 lands along the streams. Then they 
 learned that the prairie land was very 
 fertile, and the remaining forests were 
 for a time undisturbed. In recent years 
 there has been a great demand for lumber. 
 Much of the timber has been cut away, 
 and the small forests that are left in 
 the North Central States have become 
 very valuable. Lumbering is still an 
 important industry. In many of the 
 cities of this group there are large lumber 
 mills and factories manufacturing articles 
 of wood. Grand Rapids, in western Mich- 
 igan, is especially noted for its manu- 
 facture of furniture. 
 
 ^k.'ii'-^Sj 
 
 Fig. 223. Log jam in a Wisconsin river
 
 THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 129 
 
 
 Fig. 224. Loading iron ore at a Minnesota port 
 
 
 142. Mines and Manufactures 
 of Metal. — 1 he iron mines in the 
 Lake Superior district of Michi- 
 gan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota 
 are tlie hirgest and most produc- 
 tive in our country. A part of 
 the ore is dug from deep mines ; 
 but much is scooped up from the 
 surface of the earth with big steam 
 shovels. The ore from tliis region 
 is sent east from Duluth and Su- 
 perior and from several other 
 cities on the shore of Lake Su- 
 perior. At these ports the ore 
 is loaded on boats (Fig. 224) and 
 sent to Cleveland, Ohio, or some other sorts. The wooden parts of the agricul- 
 city on or near the lakes (Fig. 225), to be tural implements may be made in the 
 
 same factories as the iron and steel parts, 
 or they may be made in other factories 
 that make things of wood only (Sec. 141). 
 Northern Michigan is one of the great 
 copper-producing sections of the world. 
 This metal is used in hundreds of ways, 
 but especially for all kinds of electrical 
 machinery, and for telegraph, telephone, 
 and trolley wires. 
 
 Coal is found in many of these states, 
 but the chief coal beds are 
 in the southern part of the 
 group (Fig. 179). Evans- 
 ville, Indiana, Springfield, 
 Illinois, and Des Moines, 
 Iowa, are three of the 
 cities that are situated in 
 coal-mining regions. Illi- 
 nois, Kansas, Ohio, and 
 Indiana have many pe- 
 troleum wells and wells 
 yielding natural gas. 
 Coal, petroleum, and gas 
 are used as fuel, and 
 the gas is also used for 
 lighting. 
 
 LJiiiAui hm 
 
 r'-j!l5r_ 
 
 Fig. 225. Unloading ore by machinery at Cleveland 
 
 smelted. Much of the 
 iron ore unloaded at Lake 
 Erie ports is sent inland 
 by rail to Yoiingstozvn or 
 to Pittsburgh (Sec. 119). 
 
 After the ore has been 
 smelted (Fig. 226), the 
 iron is used in the manu- 
 facture of a great many 
 articles. Among them are 
 locomotives, steel rails, 
 steel cars, iron ships, au- 
 tomobiles, and the iron 
 and steel parts of farming 
 tools and machinery of all 
 
 Fig. 226. Blast furnace
 
 130 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Gold is mined in the Black Hills 
 of South Dakota, lead in Missouri, 
 and zinc in Missouri and Wisconsin. 
 Michigan produces more salt than 
 any other state in the Union. Lime- 
 stone and clay, used in making 
 cement, and finer clays, suitable for 
 making pottery and tiles, are found 
 in many places. Ohio is the lead- 
 ing state in the Union in the pro- 
 duction of ])ottery. 
 
 Review of Sections 140 to 142. — i. What 
 products coini; from dairying regions? 
 2. Where are the grazing regions of the 
 North Centra! group ? 3. How are hogs 
 and cattle fattened ? 4. What is then 
 done with them ? -^711 
 
 5- Where did the early settlers of the North M3- Manufacturing. — You have al- 
 
 Central region find forests ? 6. Why did they ready studied some of the kinds of manu- 
 cut down some of them ? Why not all ? 7. What facturing that are carried on in the North 
 
 is now being done with the forests of this /^ ^ 1 • t^i • i 1 
 
 5 o 1,7, , r- 1 D J 5 Central region. 1 here is an abundance 
 
 region i^ 8. What is made at (jrand Rapids.'^ " 
 
 In which states are the great iron mines.? ot raw material in the products of the 
 
 Power 
 
 41^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 SBsKJ^^^^K 
 
 J 
 
 u 
 
 -T» 
 
 i 
 
 v^^^^^^^2H|| 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 j^ 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 s^-.:.. ^S///m 
 
 ^^^n 
 
 M 
 
 
 B 
 
 •^ iJNH^^^^^^^H 
 
 1^ 
 
 F 
 
 !! 
 
 w 
 
 
 Fig. 227. Flour mills at Minneapolis 
 
 regi 
 
 9. in wnicn states are the great iron mines 
 How is the iron mined ? 10. Where is the ore fields, the forests, and the mines 
 taken to be smelted.? 11 Name some large jg furnished by waterfalls and by coal, 
 
 articles made from iron and steel. , , , , 
 
 crude petroleum, and natural gas 
 
 12. Where are the copper mines.? For what is 
 copper used .? 
 
 13. Where are the important coal fields .? 
 
 14. What other fuels are found in these 
 states .? 
 
 15. Where is gold mined.? Lead.? Zinc? 
 
 16. What uses arc mat 
 
 There 
 is a large population to do the work of 
 manufacturing and to make use of the 
 manufactured articles ; and there are 
 good water routes and plenty of railroads 
 le of days .? Limestone.? for sending the manufactured goods to 
 
 distant markets. 
 
 The wheat, corn, 
 and other grains 
 furnish the raw ma- 
 terial for use in the 
 Hour mills (Fig. 227) 
 nnd breakfast food 
 factories. The rais- 
 ing of orchard fruits, 
 vegetables, and ber- 
 ries has led to the 
 growth of an exten- 
 sive canning industry 
 (Fig. 228). 
 
 Fig. 228. FilliiiK unci capping cans in a canning factory, Indinna
 
 THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 131 
 
 Some of the wool from the sheep 
 ranches is made into cloth, and the hides 
 of the cattle and sheep are made into 
 shoes and other kinds of leather goods. 
 The dairying, meat-packing, and iron- 
 manufacturing industries have already 
 been studied (^Secs. 140, 142). 
 ' In this great farming section many 
 agricultural tools and machines are 
 needed, and the wood and iron necessary 
 for their manufacture are close at hand. 
 Ihe articles made include plows, har- 
 rows, reaping machines, threshing ma- first importance in Michigan. Detroit 
 chines, carriages, and wagons. Among has grown to be the largest automobile- 
 the cities where this industry is carried on manufacturing center in the world (Fig. 
 are Columbus and Dayton in Ohio ; Evans- 230). Flint and La)ising in Michigan, 
 
 ville, Indianapolis, Fort Ji'ayne, and South 
 Brnd in Indiana ; and Chicago, Peoria, 
 and Springfield in Illinois (Fig. 229). 
 
 The forests also furnish lumber for 
 all kinds of building, and for the manu- 
 facture of pulp and paper. 
 
 One of the newer industries in this 
 
 Fndianapolis and South Bend in Indiana, 
 as well as Toledo in Ohio and many other 
 cities, are engaged in this industry. Ak- 
 ron. Ohio, is an important center for the 
 manufacture of automobile tires. 
 
 144. Routes of Trade and the Cities. — 
 In addition to the natural trade routes 
 
 group of states is the manufacture of offered by the Mississippi and its tribu- 
 automobiles. This industry has reached taries, and the Great Lakes with their 
 
 eastern connections, there are many 
 railroads. The map (Fig. 147) 
 shows that the railroads are as 
 close together here as in any part 
 of the country. 
 
 Chic'ago, the second city in size 
 in the United States, is located near 
 the southern end of Lake Mich- 
 igan. Through the Great Lakes 
 it is connected not only with the 
 city of New York but, by way of 
 the St. Lawrence, with all the sea- 
 ports of the world. A small river 
 that enters the lake at Chicago 
 has been deepened for a harbor 
 and connected by a canal with the 
 Illinois River, and so with the 
 Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Fig. 229. Casting mower wheels, harvester works, Chicago
 
 132 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 iri DtlroU Puhliilnnu ti 
 
 Fig. 231. State Street, Chicago 
 
 On the Ohio River, 
 the great eastern tribu- 
 tary of the Mississippi, 
 the chief city of the 
 North Central group is 
 Cincinnati. It is a 
 center for the manu- 
 facture of clothing, 
 shoes, pottery, tobacco, 
 iron, and steel. 
 
 Some distance north 
 of the junction of the 
 Mississippi and Ohio 
 rivers, on the west bank 
 of the Mississippi, is 
 St. Louis. Only a few 
 miles north of St. Louis 
 
 Railway lines from 
 all parts of the country 
 enter Chicago. Its lo- 
 cation has made it the 
 chief city in the central 
 part of the country. 
 Cattle, sheep, and hogs 
 are sent to its stock- 
 yards in vast numbers, 
 and it has become the 
 chief meat-packing cen- 
 ter of the world. Its 
 manufactures include 
 agricultural tools, cars, 
 and clothing, and its 
 elevators handle an 
 enormous amount of 
 grain on its way to the flour mills or to the Mississippi is joined by its great west- 
 eastern markets. ern tributary, the NJissouri. St. Louis 
 Farther north, on the western side of is therefore in a position to carry on trade 
 the lake, is Milwaukee, the chief city of with the cities and towns along the banks 
 Wisconsin. Here are extensive manufac- o\ both rivers. 
 
 tures of leather and flour, and also brew- Added importance has been given to 
 eries and packing houses. Other lake its location by the building of great 
 ports include Diduth and Superior (Sees, bridges across the Mississippi (Fig. 232). 
 139, 142), Detroit (Sec. 143), Toledo (Sees. Over them the railroads from eastern 
 139, 143), and Cleveland (Sec. 142). As points cross, and connect with those 
 Cleveland is easily supplied with both from the west, northwest, and south- 
 coal and iron, it has become an important west. 
 
 city for the manufacture of iron and steel. St. Louis has naturally become a grain 
 
 and meat-packing cen- 
 ter. It also has large 
 manufacturing indus- 
 tries, including the 
 maiuifacture of shoes, 
 tobacco, street cars, 
 and railroad cars. 
 East St. Louis, across 
 the river in Illinois, is 
 a great railroad center, 
 and has large stock- 
 yards and meat-pack- 
 ing establishments. 
 
 
 t 
 
 *i(4}"" ' 
 
 Fig. 232. Slcumlxxil unci l>riclgc al St. Louis
 
 THE NOR 111 CKNTRAL STATES 
 
 133 
 
 Fig. 233. Stockyards at Omaha, Nebraska 
 
 At Kfokiik, Iowa, a great dam has 
 been built across the Mississippi River. 
 The falling water is used to develop elec- 
 trical energy which is carried by wires to 
 St. Louis and other cities to furnish light 
 and power. 
 
 On the Mississippi farther north are 
 the " Twin Cities " of Minnesota, Minne- 
 apolis (Sec. 139) and St. Paul. They are 
 important trading centers for a large 
 surrounding country. The Falls of St. 
 Anthony, in the river at this point (Fig. 
 234), furnish an abundance of power for 
 manufacturing uses. St. Paul is the cap- 
 ital of Minnesota and has long been a 
 center of trade with the Northwest. 
 
 On the Missouri River there are several 
 important cities. They include the two 
 cities, each called Kansas City, one in 
 Missouri and the other in Kansas ; St. 
 Joseph, Missouri, 
 Omaha, Nebraska, 
 and Sionx City, 
 Iowa. All these cit- 
 ies are in or near 
 the regions where 
 cattle are raised and 
 fattened, and arc- 
 engaged largely in 
 meat packing (Fig. 
 233), and in trade 
 with the surround- 
 ing agricultural re- 
 
 gion. Sio7ix Falls, South Dakota, and 
 Fargo, North Dakota, are in the wheat- 
 growing region and have large flour mills. 
 
 Review of Sections 143 and 144. — i. What 
 conditions help to make the North Central 
 States a manufacturing region ? 2. What are the 
 manufactures from the products of the fields ? 
 
 3. Why is the manufacture of agricultural tools 
 and machines in this region so important ? Name 
 three cities where they are made. 4. Where are 
 automobiles made r 
 
 5. What routes of trade other than waterways 
 has this region ? 
 
 6. How has the location of Chicago helped its 
 growth ? 7. Name some of its important indus- 
 tries. 
 
 8. What are some of the manufactures of Mil- 
 waukee ? 9. Name some other ports on the Great 
 Lakes. 10. In what manufacturing industry 
 does Detroit take first rank .^ II. Why did 
 Cleveland take up the manufacture of iron and 
 steel goods ? 
 
 12. Locate Cincinnati. 13. What are some of 
 
 Its 
 
 idustr 
 
 14. 
 
 Fig. 234. Falls of St. Anthony, Minneapohs 
 
 Where is St. Louis ? 
 15. What are some of 
 the advantages of its 
 position ? 16. Name 
 two of its important 
 industries. 
 
 17. Where are St. 
 Paul and Minneapolis? 
 18. For what industry 
 is Minneapolis noted? 
 What advantages does 
 the city have for that 
 industry ? 
 
 19. Name four meat- 
 packing centers on the 
 Missouri River. In what 
 state is each?
 
 Fit'. 23S V \ 
 Phyaicai and Political 
 
 Plateau States 
 
 ScaU of BUOuto im«n ^ 
 
 l*> HJLU to DMf IMON 
 O^tal of ttU*M Ihu: a^ 
 
 II'' Iy>n(c<tuil< 
 
 Cfpnwlrh 1 1ll" 
 
 >34
 
 THE PLATEAU STATES 
 
 135 
 
 Fig. 236. Railroad crossing a range of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado 
 
 THE PLATEAU STATES 
 
 145. Position. — The states of the 
 Plateau group (Fig. 235) stretch in a 
 broad belt from the northern to the south- 
 ern boundary of the United States. Four 
 of them — Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, 
 and Xrzv Mexico — lie partly in the basin 
 of the Mississippi River. The other four 
 — Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona — 
 lie entirely in the Cordilleran region. 
 
 How do these states compare in size 
 with the state in which you live } 
 
 146. Surface and Drainage. — The 
 plains of the Mississippi Valley gradually 
 increase in height toward the west until 
 they reach the foot of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. The eastern border of the Plateau 
 States is included in the Great Plains. 
 West of these plains, and extending across 
 the Plateau States in a northwest and 
 southeast direction, are the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, forming the eastern part of the 
 
 Cordilleras. They are not one single 
 range, but are made up of several ranges. 
 There are many passes, or low places, in 
 these mountain ranges. Through some 
 of them, railroads have been built, to join 
 the eastern and western parts of the 
 country (Fig. 236). 
 
 West of the Rocky Mountains there 
 are high plateaus in Idaho, Colorado, 
 Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. 
 The plateaus in many places are higher 
 than any of the .Appalachian ranges, and 
 the ranges and peaks rise several thou- 
 sand feet above the plateaus. 
 
 A part of the drainage of the Plateau 
 States reaches the Gulf of Mexico through 
 the Mississippi River and through the 
 Rio Grande. Another part reaches the 
 Pacific Ocean through the Columbia 
 River in the north, and through the 
 Colorado River and the Gulf of Cali- 
 fornia in the south. Find these rivers 
 on the map (Fig. 150).
 
 136 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 r 
 
 Fig. 237. Great Salt Lake 
 
 ' In Nevada and Utah is a region called 
 the Great Basin. Its drainage has no 
 outlet to the sea. The rainfall is light. 
 The evaporation from the water surfaces 
 is very rapid, and some of the streams 
 gradually dry up or end in swampy 
 places called sinks. Other streams flow 
 into lakes that have no outlet. In these 
 lakes the water that evaporates from 
 year to year about balances the amount 
 brought in by the streams. 
 
 Such lakes are salt. The water that 
 flows into the lake has a little salt dis- 
 solved in it, and as it evaporates the salt 
 is left behind. Therefore the water of the 
 lake gradually becomes very salt. The 
 largest lake of the Great Basin is the 
 Great Salt Lake (Fig. 237). 
 
 It is interesting to watch people bath- 
 ing in this lake. The water is so heavy 
 with salt that they cannot sink. Even 
 those who do not swim are in no danger. 
 
 147. Climate. — Most of the Plateau 
 region is so high that even in midsummer 
 there is snow on the higher peaks ;nui 
 mountain slopes as far south as Colorado. 
 Farther north, the winters are extremely 
 cold, and where there is suflficient mois- 
 ture the whole country is snow-covered 
 for several inoinlis each year. In the 
 southern part it is much warmer even 
 in the winter, and in the lowhinds of 
 Arizona snow is unknown. 
 
 The rainfall over most 
 of the region is light (P ig. 
 145). The winds from the 
 Pacific Ocean (Fig. 139) 
 are the ones we should 
 expect to bring rain, but 
 they have left most of 
 their moisture on the 
 western slopes of the 
 mountains farther west. 
 This is because the wind from the ocean 
 is forced to great heights in crossing 
 the mountains. As it goes higher it 
 becomes colder and the moisture in the 
 air condenses and falls as rain or snow. 
 After the wind has crossed such a high- 
 land and begins to descend to lower levels 
 it becomes warmer. Such winds are 
 usually dry and bring but little rain. 
 This is the reason why there is so little 
 rainfall in the Great Basin, on the eastern 
 mountain slopes, and on the plains east of 
 the Cordilleras. 
 
 On the higher western slopes and in the 
 high valleys there is usually enough rainfall 
 during the year for the growth of forests. 
 Many of the highest peaks are so cold that 
 trees will not grow on them. Some of the 
 forest regions have been set aside by our 
 government as forest reserves (Fig. 238).
 
 THE PLATEAU STATES 
 
 137 
 
 Southwestern Arizona is 
 part of a true desert that 
 reaches into southern Cali- 
 fornia. It is the driest and 
 hottest part of the United 
 States. 
 
 148. Agriculture.' — For a 
 time it was supposed that 
 the rainfall in the Plateau 
 region was too li,uht for 
 agriculture. But men have now learned 
 how to raise some good crops in regions 
 of light rainfall. This industry is called 
 dry farmijig. In some parts of the Plateau 
 States there is enough rain for many crops. 
 
 Smaller areas also have been made to 
 produce large crops by means of irriga- 
 tion. There are valleys in which big 
 dams have been built to hold back the 
 rivers fed by the rain and melting snow. 
 The water from these reservoirs is car- 
 ried in ditches to the fields and used 
 to water growing crops. Water from 
 wells is also used for irrigation. From 
 some wells the water is pumped by 
 windmills or engines (Fig. 240) and in 
 other wells it rises to the surface without 
 being pumped. There are many such 
 irrigated districts, but taken together they 
 form only a small part of the whole area. 
 
 iJi sirt iMhiifuliifi/ of Ihi (.'UTh 
 
 Fig, 239. In the desert region of New Mexico 
 
 \^ t?A 5 $tn^ X 
 
 Fig. 240. Pumping water for irrigation. New Mexico 
 
 In both the dry farming and the irri- 
 gated regions more and more farms are 
 being developed. Among the most valu- 
 able crops are wheat, oats, barley, alfalfa, 
 sugar beets, and potatoes and other vege- 
 tables. Pruit raising is also a very 
 profitable industry in the irrigated regions. 
 Many beet sugar factories have been built 
 in Colorado and other states, and sugar 
 making has come to be one of the great 
 manufacturing iiiihistries of this region. 
 
 149. Grazing. There are large areas 
 of grassland in the Plateau region where 
 grazing is more j^rofitable than agricul- 
 ture. The grasslands of the forest re- 
 serves (Fig. 238) are used for pasture by 
 permission of the government. Great 
 flocks of sheep and herds of cattle are 
 raised. 
 
 Montana and Wyoming lead all other 
 states in sheep raising, 
 and the industry is im- 
 portant in all the Pla- 
 teau States. Here, as 
 in the Dakotas, grass 
 left uncut cures as it 
 stands (Sec. 140"), and 
 furnishes excellent win- 
 ter pasture except where 
 the snow is deep. The 
 wool and the sheep and 
 lambs find a ready mar- 
 ket farther east.
 
 138 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 h^ 
 
 
 ^S^k; 
 
 fe:A^^:•'^-vri^-•^^ 
 
 Fig. 241. Copper mine and smelter, Arizona 
 
 Review of Sections 145 to 149. — i. Name the 
 states of the Plateau group. 2. What mountains 
 cross this region .'' 3. Of what mountain group are 
 they a part .'' 4. Where are the high plateaus ? 
 
 5. How does drainage from these states reach 
 the Gulf of Mexico ? The Pacific Ocean ? 
 6. Where is the Great Basin ? 7. What becomes 
 of its drainage.'' 8. Why are the lakes of the 
 Great Basin salt ? 
 
 9. Where in this region does the snow stay on 
 the ground even in mulsummer.'' 10. Where is 
 snow unknown.'' 11. Where are the forests.'' 
 Why ? 12. Where is there a true desert .'' 
 
 13. What two kinds of farming are carried on .'' 
 14. What are some of the crops raised ? i 5. Name 
 an important manufacture of Colorado. 16. What 
 kinds of animals are raised in the grazing regions 
 of the Plateau States ? 
 
 150. Mining. — The industry for which 
 the Plateau States are best known is 
 mining. There are mines of gold, silver, 
 Cf)pper, lead, and zinc, as well as coal and 
 iron. Gold and silver are called prrcious 
 metals. It was in 1848 that gold was 
 first loiind in Californi;i. .At that time 
 there were very few settlers in the whole 
 western country. .As soon as it was 
 known that gc^ld had been discovered, 
 
 many men started 
 for the gold fields. 
 Later, men search- 
 ing for gold traveled 
 through the moun- 
 tains and located 
 valuable mines of 
 all the metals. 
 
 In this group of 
 states Colorado and 
 Nevada are now 
 the chief gold pro- 
 ducers. The' lead- 
 ing states in the 
 mining of silver 
 are Montana and 
 Utah. There are 
 large silver mines 
 also ill Nevada, Idaho, and Colorado. 
 
 Arizona, Montana, and Utah are the 
 chief copper-producing states. The pro- 
 duction of copper is also very large in 
 New Mexico and Nevada. The copper- 
 mining center of Montana is Butte. 
 
 Lead is found in Idaho, Utah, and 
 Colorado. Leadville in Colorado is famous 
 more for its silver than for its lead. 
 Colorado and Montana produce zinc ore. 
 The leading Plateau States in the min- 
 ing of coal are Colorado and Wyoming, 
 and the ([uantity of coal produced is in- 
 creasing as the industries that need fuel 
 continue to grow. 
 
 riie chief manufacturing industries of 
 the Plateau States are closely connected 
 with mining. There are stamp mills 
 where tiie ore is crushed, and smelters 
 where it is melted to remove impurities. 
 There are smelters at Denver and Pueblo 
 in Colorado, near Salt Lake City in Utah, 
 at Reno in Nevada, and at many other 
 cities. At Pueblo there are iron and 
 steel works.
 
 illK IM.ATKAU STATES 
 
 139 
 
 151. Transportation. 
 — There are not so many 
 railroads in this group of 
 states as in the states 
 farther east (Fig. 147). 
 Several lines have been 
 built across the Plateau 
 region to connect the 
 eastern and western parts 
 of the country. These 
 transcontinental (across 
 the continent) lines are 
 great trunk railroads, 
 and have many branches 
 built to reach the mines 
 and the agricultural dis- 
 
 r 
 
 i 
 
 ■ 'i:icn' .sttnrt/ 
 
 Fig. 242. A gtysii in iiupnoii, Yellow- 
 stone National Park 
 
 the ground it cools, and 
 some of the material is 
 deposited in a coating 
 of beautiful and brilliant 
 colors. 
 
 The geysers hurl col- 
 umns of hot water and 
 steam high into the air 
 (Fig. 242). Some spout 
 at regular intervals, and 
 some spout irregularly. 
 With some the spouting 
 is every few minutes, but 
 with others the period of^ 
 rest is much longer. 
 f In the Glacier National 
 Park in Montana there 
 
 tricts. 
 
 152. Scenery. — For any one who loves are many glaciers as well as noble moun- 
 
 the mountains or cares for the works of tains and beautiful lakes (Fig. 243)^ 
 
 nature on a grand scale, this part of our Another wonderful natural feature of 
 
 country is wonderfully attractive In 
 northwestern Wyoming the government 
 has set aside the wonderland known as 
 the Yellowstone National 
 Park. Here the Yel- 
 lowstone River has cut 
 a deep, narrow gorge, 
 or canyon. The falls 
 of the Yellowstone are 
 very high, and the walls 
 of the gorge show beau- 
 tiful colors. 
 
 It is, however, the hot 
 springs and the geysers 
 that are most interest- 
 ing. In hundreds of 
 places there are springs 
 where hot water bub- 
 bles up from the ground. 
 The hot water contams 
 mineral matter that it 
 has dissolved out of the 
 rocks. As it flows over L 
 
 the West is the Grand Canyon of the Col- 
 orado, in northwestern Arizona. Here, in 
 the high plateaus, the river has cut a 
 
 Fig. 243. McDonald Valley. Glacier National Park, Montana
 
 I40 
 
 canyon which in places 
 is more than a mile in 
 depth. Its walls are 
 very picturesque, and the 
 rocks are most wonder- 
 fully colored. 
 
 153. Health Resorts. 
 — The dry air in certain 
 regions in the Plateau 
 States is helpful in curing 
 diseases of the lungs. 
 Many invalids have re- 
 covered their health in 
 this sunny region of dry 
 and bracing air. Colorado 
 Springs, near Denver, 
 and Phoenix, Arizona, are 
 among the more famous 
 of the resorts. 
 
 Review of Sections 150 to 
 153. — I. What metals areV' 
 found in the Plateau States ? 
 2. Which are the precious 
 metals .'' 3. How were tlie 
 mines in the mountains lo- 
 cated .? 4. Which states pro- 
 duce the most gold ? The 
 most silver } 5. Where are 
 the great copper mines .'' 
 6. Where are the lead mines .'' 
 The zinc mines .? 7. Name 
 another mineral found in this 
 region. 
 
 8. What manufacturing in- 
 dustries are found in the Pla- 
 teau States ? 9. How is trade 
 with the rest of the world car- 
 ried on ? 
 
 10. Why is this an interest- 
 ing region for the traveler to 
 visit .^ II. Where is the Yel- 
 lowstone National Paik ^ 
 
 12. What are the ge\sers .'' 
 
 13. W^here is the Glacier Na- 
 tional Park .' 14. Where is the 
 Grand Canyon of the Col- 
 oradf> .'' Descrihe it. 15. Why 
 are some parts of this region 
 good health resorts .'
 
 THE PACIFIC STATES 
 
 141 
 
 THE PACIFIC STATES 
 
 154. Position and Coast Line. — There 
 are only three states in the Paciiic group : 
 California, Oregon, and fVashington (Fig. 
 244). California is larger than any other 
 state in the Union except Texas. 
 
 Although all three states border on the 
 Pacific Ocean, with a coast line that 
 reaches from Canada to Mexico, there 
 are few good natural harbors. Among 
 them are several in Puget Sound and one 
 at San Francisco Bay, where the moun- 
 tain range along the coast is broken. 
 The Columbia River has cut a valley 
 across the mountains, and large ships can 
 steam a long distance up the river. 
 In what state is Puget Sound ? 
 San Francisco Baj^ } Where is 
 the Columbia River ? 
 
 155. Surface and Drainage. — 
 In the eastern part of California 
 is the mountain range called the 
 Sierra Nevada. This range rises 
 many thousand feet from the 
 great valley at its western base, 
 and is very steep on the east, 
 where it faces the Great Basin. 
 Toward the north, in its higher 
 valleys, there are a few small 
 glaciers, and snow fields that last 
 throughout the year. Mt. Shasta, 
 one of the most beautiful moun- 
 tain peaks of the West, is in the 
 northern part of the state. 
 
 The Cascade Range, which 
 crosses Oregon and Washington, 
 is really a continuation of the 
 Sierra Nevada under another 
 name. It is not so high as the 
 Sierra Nevada but is much 
 broader. The Cascade Range 
 was given its name because of the 
 
 cascades or waterfalls in the rivers that 
 tumble down its sides. Mt. Hood in 
 Oregon and Mt. Rainier in Washington 
 are among the highest of the great peaks. 
 West of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade 
 ranges are broad valleys, shut off from 
 the Pacific by the low Coast Ranges 
 which border that ocean. The Great 
 California Valley is one of these. It is 
 closed at the north by Mt. Shasta and 
 other mountains, and is drained by the 
 Sacramento and the San Joaquin rivers. 
 One of the branches of the San Joaquin is 
 the Merced River, which flows through the 
 Yosemite Valley, a region of majestic and 
 beautiful scenery (Fig. 245).
 
 142 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 
 hr-iitt 
 
 
 The Willamette Valley in Oregon is 
 similar to the Great California Valley. 
 It is named from the river that drains it 
 toward the north into the Columbia 
 River. In Washington the corresponding 
 valley opens on Puget Sound. 
 
 There are a number of short rivers on the 
 western slope of the Coast Ranges. One 
 large stream, the Columbia, with its chief 
 tributary, the Snake, crosses the whole 
 width of the Pacific region. It drains the 
 high plateaus east of the Cascade Range. 
 
 156. Climate. — In a region that 
 stretches for so great a distance north 
 and south, and that has such high moun- 
 tains, there are naturally great differences 
 in temperature. In the desert region of 
 southeastern California, it is hot even 
 during the winter. in wt-stcm Wash- 
 ington the tempcrarurc- is mild at all 
 seasons. The lowlands along the coast 
 are kept cool in summer and are some- 
 what warmed in winter by the winds 
 
 from the ocean. The 
 great vallej^s are 
 warmer in summer 
 and cooler in winter 
 than the coast re- 
 gions, and they are 
 always much warm- 
 er than the higher 
 mountain slopes. 
 
 In the rainfall also 
 there are great dif- 
 ferences. Much of 
 southern California 
 has very little rain. 
 The coast of Wash- 
 ington is the rainiest 
 region of the United 
 States. Most of the 
 rain in the Pacific 
 States falls in the 
 winter. The heaviest rainfall is on the 
 western slopes of the mountains because 
 the winds that bring the rains come from 
 the Pacific (Fig. 139). In the lowlands 
 there is never much snow, even as far 
 north as Washington, but in the high 
 mountains the moisture often falls as snow, 
 even in the summer. On some mountains, 
 where it is so cold that the snow remains 
 on the ground throughout the year, small 
 glaciers are formed (Fig. 246). 
 
 Review of Sections 154 to 156. — i. Name the 
 .states in the Pacific group. 2. Which of them 
 is next to Texas in size .? 
 
 3. Where is the Sierra Nevada .^ fhe Cas- 
 cade Range .' 4. What three great valleys are 
 west of these ranges ? 5. By what rivers is the 
 Great California Valley drained 1 6. Where is the 
 Yosemite Valley ? 7. What mountains horder the 
 Pacific coast ? 
 
 S. Where is the desert in California ? 9. How 
 is the temperature of the coast lowlands in- 
 fluenced by the ocean .'' 10. Where i.s there httle 
 rainfall? 11. Where is the rainfall heavy!* 
 12. Wiiere are there glaciers.?
 
 THE PACIFIC STATES 
 
 143 
 
 157. Agriculture. — The rainfall 
 in most (-)t \\ ashintiton, western 
 Oregon, and northern Cahtornia 
 is sufficient for agriculture without 
 irrigation. In the Puget Sound 
 and Willamette valleys, and in 
 the northern part of the California 
 Valley, fruit, vegetables, and grain 
 are raised, and there are many 
 dairy farms. In the southern 
 part of California there is so little 
 rain on the lowlands that crops 
 cannot be raised without irriga- 
 tion. Some crops also in eastern 
 Oregon and Washington are irri- 
 gated. The water for irrigation is 
 furnished by the streams resulting from 
 the heavy rainfall on the mountains. 
 
 California grows great quantities of 
 fruit, sugar beets, rice, and barley. 
 Among the fruits are grapes, oranges 
 (Fig. 247), lemons, figs, apples, peaches, 
 plums, and pears. Many of the grapes 
 are made into raisins. Wheat is raised 
 most extensively in eastern Washington 
 and eastern Oregon, by dry farming. 
 Many sheep and cattle are raised on the 
 grasslands of Oregon and California. 
 
 158. The Forests and Lumbering. — 
 
 The heavy rainfall in the mountains and 
 at the north has led to a wonderful growth 
 of forest trees. Those on the western 
 mountain slopes (Sec. 156) are the finest 
 in the United States. Lumbering is a 
 great industry in the Pacific States. 
 Washington now produces more lumber 
 than any other state in the country (Eig- 
 248). Seattle and Tacoma, on Puget 
 Sound, and Portland, on the Columbia 
 River, all ship large quantities of lumber.
 
 144 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 159. Mining. — Much gold is mined in 
 California, and some silver and copper. 
 It was the discovery of gold in California, 
 in the year 1848, that caused the first 
 great movement of people to the Pacific 
 coast. This state still produces more of 
 that precious metal than any other 
 state in the Union. The value of the 
 gold mined each year, however, is small 
 as compared with the value of the other 
 products of the state. 
 
 Petroleum is another product in which 
 California takes very high rank (Fig. 249). 
 Much of it is used as fuel just as it conies 
 from the ground. In this part of the 
 country many factories, railroad loco- 
 motives, and steamships use oil instead 
 of coal. 
 
 There are several large smelting works 
 on the Pacific coast for the treatment of 
 ores mined in these states and in Alaska. 
 
 The chief coal beds of the Pacific States 
 are in Washington. // 
 
 160. Fishing. — Along this part of the 
 Pacific coast there are valuable salmon 
 and halibut fisheries. The salmon live 
 in the ocean, but " spawn," or deposit 
 their eggs, in the fresh, cold waters of 
 mountain streams. Every year immense 
 numbers of salmon leave the ocean and 
 swim up the rivers of Washington and 
 Oregon to spawn. On their way tlicy 
 are caught in fish wheels, traps, and nets. 
 
 They are then canned 
 
 (Fig. 250), or are put 
 into refrigerator cars 
 and shipped to market 
 fresh. Halibut are 
 caught in large num- 
 bers along the coast 
 as far south as San 
 Francisco. 
 161. Manufacturing. 
 — There are now many great manufactur- 
 ing industries on the Pacific coast. They 
 include the sawing of lumber, the making 
 of flour, the smelting of ores, and the 
 canning of fruit, vegetables, and fish. 
 Shipbuilding is another industry that is 
 growing, because of our increasing trade 
 with Alaska, Asia, Australia, and the 
 islands of the Pacific. 
 
 162. Commerce and the Cities. — These 
 states face the Pacific Ocean. On the 
 opposite shore of the ocean live some of 
 the oldest nations of the world. In 
 recent years those ancient peoples have 
 been changing their habits of life and 
 adopting modern customs. Trade with 
 Japan and China and other countries of 
 the " Orient," as this part of the Old 
 World is called, is constantly increasing. 
 
 Fig. 250. Cleaning room of a salmon cannery, Oregon
 
 THE PACIFIC STATES 
 
 145 
 
 To the Orient we send 
 oil, r;n\ cotton, and goods 
 made in the factories ot 
 our country. From the 
 Orient we receive raw 
 silk, tea, chinaware, and 
 fine carvings, which are 
 sent to all parts of the 
 United States. Much of 
 this trade passes through 
 the ports in the Puget 
 Sound region or through 
 Portlayid, San Francisco, 
 Los Angeles, and San 
 Diego. These ports are 
 all located on fine har- 
 bors and are connected 
 with the East by great railways. Steam- 
 ship routes to Atlantic ports have been 
 greatly shortened by the Panama Canal. 
 
 Seattle and Tacoma are the chief cities 
 in the Puget Sound region. Seattle carries 
 on a large trade with Alaska and the 
 Orient, and manufactures lumber arid 
 furniture. Tacoma has, besides its trade, 
 large lumber and flour mills. Spokane 
 has great water power (Fig. 251) and has 
 become the trade center of a large inland 
 region called " the Inland Empire." 
 
 Portland, although more than a hundred 
 miles from the coast, is reached by ocean 
 steamers and has a thriving foreign trade. 
 
 San Francisco is the chief seaport on 
 the Pacific coast of America. Its beauti- 
 ful harbor (Fig. 252) is reached from the 
 ocean through a break in the Coast 
 Range. The city was partly destroyed 
 by a great fire in 1906, but was quickly 
 rebuilt and is one of the finest cities of 
 our country. Here are large sugar refin- 
 eries and other factories : the city is im- 
 portant for its manufactures as well as 
 for its great commerce. 
 
 Fig. 251. Mills at Spokane 
 
 Los Angeles is the 
 largest city in California, 
 and has an excellent 
 harbor. It is in the heart 
 of a wonderful fruit- 
 growing district, and ships 
 large quantities of fruit. 
 Some of this is ship[)ed 
 fresh, as the use of special 
 cars makes it possible to 
 send it to eastern markets 
 without spoiling. Some 
 of the fruit is canned and 
 much is dried. Sacra- 
 mento, the capital of Cali- 
 fornia, is an important 
 manufacturing city. 
 
 Review of Sections 157 to 162. — i. Where is 
 
 there sufficient rainfall for agriculture without 
 irrigation ? 2. What fruits are grown in Cali- 
 fornia .? 3. What states raise much wheat? 
 4. What grazing industry is carried on ? Where .? 
 
 5. Where are the forest regions ? 6. Which of 
 these states leads the country in the production 
 of lumber ? 7. Name three cities that are im- 
 portant lumber-shipping ports. 
 
 8. How did the mining of gold help the settle- 
 ment of the West .'' 9. Where is petroleum found ? 
 
 10. Where are the coal fields of the Pacific region ? 
 
 11. What fuel is much used in the Pacific States? 
 
 12. What important fishing industry is carried 
 on ? Where ? 
 
 13. Name some of the manufacturing industries 
 of the Pacific States. 14. Tell about the trade 
 between the United States and the Orient 
 15. Name the great ports of the Pacific coast. 
 
 Piers in San Francisco
 
 OUTLYING POSSESSIONS OK IHE UNITED STATES 
 
 M7 
 
 Fig. 254. The summit of Mount McKinley, the highest peak of Nortli America 
 
 OUTLYING POSSESSIONS OF THE 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 163. Position. — Two outlying regions 
 in the continent of North America are 
 under the government of the United 
 States. Alaslca in the northwest forms a 
 part of our country, and the Panama 
 Canal Zone in the south is under our 
 control. 
 
 In the Pacific Ocean the United States 
 includes the Hawaiian Islands, and owns 
 the Philippines and a number of small 
 islands. In the Atlantic Ocean our coun- 
 try owns the island of Porto Rico. 
 
 164. Alaska. — The territory of Alaska 
 is nearly nine times as large as New Eng- 
 land. Its northern shores are washed by 
 the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. On 
 the west it is separated from Asia by Be- 
 ring Strait, which connects the Arctic 
 Ocean with the Bering Sea. From the 
 southern shore a long peninsula extends 
 southwest into the Pacific, and from its 
 
 western end the Aleutian Islands reach 
 almost to the coast of Asia (Fig. 253). 
 
 The mountains on the southern coast 
 are high and rugged ; and about 100 
 miles back from the shore is the mountain 
 range that includes Mt. McKinley, the 
 highest peak on the continent (Fig. 254). 
 The region through which the Yukon 
 River flows is rough, but farther north 
 along the Arctic Ocean there is a low plain. 
 
 During the summer southern Alaska 
 is warm, but in the winter most of Alaska 
 is intensely cold, especially in the interior. 
 In the summer the warm winds from the 
 Pacific bring much moisture. Along the 
 coast this falls as rain, but in the moun- 
 tains nearly always as snow. In the 
 high valleys the snow has packed into 
 drifts year after year and slowly changed 
 to ice, forming great glaciers which move 
 very slowly down toward the sea. Some 
 of the glaciers reach the sea on the shores 
 of the long, narrow bays, ov fiords. There 
 the ice breaks off in large icebergs.
 
 148 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 The summer season is warm enough and 
 long enough to enable grass and a few 
 crops to grow. Large herds of reindeer 
 are kept in the territory. Forests are 
 found along the Yukon and in the south- 
 ern valleys. The great industries of 
 Alaska, however, are fishing and mining. 
 
 atlan'^ic ocean 
 
 CARIBBEAN „tSE, 
 
 7-oro .v-'' 
 
 1« MlUa 10 ONI. IHCH 
 ll>nn>M)B ihown Hhib: ^^^ 
 CLCVATIONft IN FCCT 
 I 1 OVEH 1000 
 
 I J BOO TO 1000 
 
 Cn AtA LtVCl TO MO 
 
 The fishing industry alone has yielded 
 many times the amount of money which 
 our government paid for Alaska. 
 
 Fur seals have been caught for many 
 years along the coast and on the Pribilof 
 Islands in the Bering Sea. The fur of 
 these animals is very fine and soft after 
 the long hairs have been pulled out. Seal- 
 skins are now very costly ; for, in spite of 
 the laws to protect the seals, their num- 
 ber is decreasing. 
 
 Great numbers of salmon are caught in 
 the streams of Alaska, so that the salmon 
 is even more important than the fur seal. 
 The value of the fish taken amounts to 
 several million dollars every year. 
 
 It was known for a long time that there 
 was gold in the Klondike district of 
 northwestern Canada, and in several 
 l)laces in Alaska, but it was not until 
 about 1900 that mining became a great 
 industry there. Now many million dol- 
 lars' worth of gold are mined in Alaska 
 each year. The chief mines are at Nome, 
 at Fairbanks, and near Juneau.
 
 OUTLYING POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 149 
 
 Travel in Alaska is difficult 
 at all times, and very dna- 
 gerous in the winter. A few 
 good roads and some short 
 railroad lines have been 
 built, but not very many for 
 so large a territory. The 
 Yukon River is a great 
 waterway for boats during 
 the summer. 
 
 165. The Panama Canal 
 Zone. — Many years ago 
 a French company was 
 formed to dig a ship canal 
 across the Isthmus of Panama. Only a 166. Porto Rico. — Southeast of Florida 
 small part of the work was done, however, and north and east of the Caribbean Sea 
 before the company failed. In 1903 our is a group of islands known as the West 
 government secured from the republic of Indies. One of these, Porto Rico, was 
 
 HHM' ' 
 Fig. 258 
 
 Jl Newman TrtiwUallui 
 Tobacco fields and drying slieels in Porto Rico. Some of the 
 fields are shaded with cotton cloth 
 
 Panama a strip of land ten miles in width 
 across the isthmus (Fig. 256). Many 
 men were employed and the work was 
 done so rapidly that the great canal was 
 completed in 1914. The use of the canal 
 (Fig. 257) greatly shortens the ocean 
 journey for ships sailing between our At- 
 lantic ports and our own Pacific ports, 
 as well as the ports of the west coast 
 
 ceded to our country by Spain, at the 
 close of the Spanish-American war in 
 1898. It is about twice as large as Long 
 Island. A low mountain range extends 
 through it from east to west (Fig. 255). 
 As most of the winds come from the north- 
 east, the heaviest rainfall is on the north- 
 ern side of the mountains. 
 
 The products of Porto Rico include 
 
 of South America and the east coast of oranges, pineapples, bananas, and other 
 Asia. It is used by many ships of all tropical fruits ; coffee ; tobacco (Fig. 
 nations. 25S) ; and sugar cane, from which great 
 
 quantities of sugar are made. Vegetables 
 also are grown for the winter markets of 
 our northern cities. 
 
 The chief cities and seaports are San 
 Juan and Ponce, and the trade is largely 
 with the United States. 
 
 About three fifths of the people of Porto 
 Rico are white, and two fifths are ne- 
 groes. 
 
 Not far east of Porto Rico are St. 
 Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix, small 
 islands bought by our country from Den- 
 mark in 1916. 
 
 Fig. 257. A ship in the Panama Canal
 
 OUTLMNC; POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 151 
 
 Review of Sections 163 to 166. i. N:imf tlu- 
 most imp()rt.iiu outls iiig possessions ot the Unitiil 
 States. 2. Which of these form part of our 
 continent ? 3. Which of the islands arc in the 
 Pacific ? In the Atlantic ? 
 
 4. How does Alaska compare in size with New 
 England? 5. What waters border it ? 6. Where 
 are the Aleutian Islands? 7. Where is Mt. 
 McKinlcy ? S. What is the nature of the country 
 along the southern coast ? Along the \ ukon 
 River ? On the northern coast ? 9. Where are 
 the Alaskan glaciers ? Why are they formed 
 there ? 
 
 10. What animals are kept in Alaska? Ii. 
 Where are the Alaskan forests? 12. What are 
 the important industries of Alaska ? 13. Where 
 is the fur seal caught? 14. Why is it valuable? 
 15. Where are salmon caught? 16. Where arc 
 the gold mines ? 
 
 17. Why is the Panama Canal of much impor- 
 tance ? 
 
 18. Where is Porto Rico? 19. How did the 
 United States gain possession of it ? 20. How 
 large is it? 21. Where is its heavy rainfall? 
 Why? 22. What are the leading products? 
 23. Where are St. Thomas and St. Croix? 
 
 167. The Hawaiian Islands. — The 
 Hawaiian Islands came into the possession 
 of the United States in 1898. They lie 
 about 2000 miles southwest of San Fran- 
 cisco. Hawaii, with an area a little greater 
 than that of Porto Rico, is by far the 
 largest island of the group. 
 
 rhere are t%\o active volcanoes on the 
 island of Hawaii. Here melted rock, or 
 lava, rises through openings in the earth's 
 crust, and flows out over the surface of 
 the land. Indeed, it is believed that all 
 these islands were formed in this way and 
 were built up from the bottom of the 
 ocean. Where the melted rock has cooled 
 around an opening in the crust it has 
 built a cone-shaped mountain with a kind 
 of chimney hole in the center. 
 
 In volcanoes like those in Hawaii, the 
 melted rock rises into the basin-like 
 crater (Fig. 260), at the top of the chim- 
 ney, until it overflows the rim or breaks 
 
 V . -S". (Jt:fjioijU<tl S/jrr: y 
 
 Fig. 260. Crater of an active volcano in Hawaii 
 
 through the side of the mountain. There 
 are many volcanoes in other parts of the 
 world. In most of them the lava contains 
 water which quickly changes to steam as 
 the lava rises to the surface of the earth. 
 The expansion of the steam blows the 
 melted rock into fine pieces high in the 
 air. When they fall to the earth again, 
 they look like ashes. Many of the parti- 
 cles are carried long distances by the 
 winds and fall in distant lands or seas. 
 The decks of ships at sea may be covered 
 with them. The heavier particles fall 
 around the opening and help to build the 
 volcanic cone higher. The highest vol- 
 canic cones or peaks are thousands of feet 
 above the level of the sea. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands are in about the 
 same latitude, — that is, at the same
 
 152 
 
 OUTLYING POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 i^^^iiflif^ 
 
 Fig. 261. Bleak leeward side of the island of Oahu, one of the Hawaiian Islands 
 
 . i^fOlogtcai Surrey 
 
 distance north of the Equator, — as 
 Porto Rico ; and their chmate and prod- 
 ucts are similar. The temperature is 
 warm and without great changes during 
 the year. The chief winds are from the 
 northeast, and the heavy rains are on that 
 side of the mountains. As in Porto Rico, 
 sugar cane is the chief crop. Most of 
 the raw sugar is sent to San Francisco to 
 be refined. Other crops include pine- 
 apples (Fig. 262), rice, and tobacco. 
 
 The chief city is Honolulu. Many 
 ships stop there on their way between the 
 ports of Asia and those of North America. 
 Most of the commerce is with the United 
 States. 
 
 People from China and Japan, as well as 
 from America, have settled in the Ha- 
 waiian Islands. 
 
 168. The Philippine Islands. — The 
 Philippine Islands, like Porto Rico, came 
 into the possession of the United States 
 as a result of the war with Spain. They 
 are a long distance west of Hawaii, and 
 a little farther south. They lie near the 
 coast of southeastern Asia. The area 
 of the whole group, which includes several 
 hundred islands, is nearly twice that of 
 New England. Two of the islands, Luzon 
 in the north and Mindanao in the south, 
 contain more than half of the total area. 
 The land is hilly and in many sections 
 mountainous. The temperature is warm, 
 and the rainfall heavy, most of the rain 
 coming in the summer. 
 
 The soil is rich and deep, and there are 
 dense forests of valuable woods. Rice 
 (Fig. 263), sugar, coconuts, and tobacco 
 arc raised. Another valuable crop is hemp,
 
 OUTLYING POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 153 
 
 the fiber of which is used for making the 
 excellent Manila rope. Rice is the most 
 important food of the native people, and in 
 addition to that raised, much is imported. 
 Most of the sugar is exported to the United 
 States to be refined. Coconuts are used 
 for food, or the meat is dried, making 
 copra. Copra and coconut oil, extracted 
 from copra, are exported to be used in the 
 manufacture of a nut butter and of soap. 
 It is known that the islands contain many 
 valuable mineral deposits, and consider- 
 able gold is mined. 
 
 The principal city, Manila, is on the 
 island of Luzon. 
 
 '' I ''■!■'""' 
 
 IK 
 
 p^^l^j 
 
 Fig. 264. Native house, Guam 
 
 l\tlippinf CommLsslon 
 Fig. 263. Irrigated rice terraces, Luzon. Philippine Islands 
 
 169. Other Islands. — There are several 
 other Pacific Islands that belong to the 
 United States (Fig. 259). Guam (Fig. 264) 
 and Tutuila are the largest. They are 
 chiefly important as coaling stations for 
 warships and other govern- 
 ment vessels that cross the 
 Pacific. Guam was taken 
 from Spain in 1898. Tu- 
 tuila, with a few neighbor- 
 ing islands, was acquired 
 in 1900. It possesses the 
 harbor of Pago Pago, the 
 finest in the Samoan group. 
 
 Review of Sections 167 to 
 169. — I. Wtiere are tfie Ha- 
 waiian Islands.^ 2. Which one 
 is the targest ? 3. How were 
 the islands formed ? 4. What is 
 lava ? 5. What are the leading 
 products of the Hawaiian Is- 
 lands ? 6. What is the chief 
 city? 7. Why is it important? 
 
 8. Where are the Philippine 
 Islands ? 9. Name the two 
 largest. 10. When did the 
 United States get possession of 
 them? II. What are the chief 
 products of the Philippines r 
 12. What has our country done 
 for the education of the people 
 there and in Porto Rico ? 
 
 13. Name two other islands 
 in the Pacific that are owned by 
 the United States. 14. For 
 what are they chiefly impor- 
 tant?
 
 Fig. 266. Lumber mill, British Columbia 
 
 THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA 
 
 170. Position, Surface, and Political 
 Divisions. — Canada, as Figure 265 shows, 
 occupies the greater part of the continent 
 of North America north of the United 
 States. What ocean is north of Canada ? 
 What ocean is east ? West ? What 
 lakes and river form a part of its southern 
 boundary ? 
 
 As in the United States, there is a great 
 central plain between high mountains on 
 the west and low mountains on the east. 
 The northern coast line is deeplj' indented 
 by Hudson Bay and by its southward 
 e.xtension, James Bay. Most of the 
 drainage is either into these bays or into 
 the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Canada is divided into provinces and 
 territories (Fig. 265) as our country is 
 
 divided into states. Its government is 
 much like that of the United States, but 
 the highest officer is appointed by the 
 government of Great Britain. 
 
 171. Agriculture, Dairying, and Forests. 
 — North of the Great Lakes is the prov- 
 ince of Ontario, the part of Canada that 
 reaches farther south than any other 
 part. Southern Ontario is one of the 
 best of the Canadian farming and dairy- 
 ing regions. Wheat and other grains 
 are raised, and the province is famous for 
 its fruits, including apples, grapes, and 
 peaches. The dairy farms produce large 
 amounts of butter and cheese for local use 
 and for shipment to England. 
 
 Farther east, there are many farms in 
 southern Quebec, and in the provinces of 
 New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince 
 Edward Island. 
 
 'SS
 
 156 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Fig. 2o7. Cutting grain in Saskatchewan 
 
 pecially on the Pa- 
 cific slope, there are 
 magnificent forests 
 of fir, spruce, and 
 cedar. Along the 
 northern edge of the 
 forest the trees are 
 small, and when cut 
 at all, are used for 
 wood pulp. 
 
 There are enor- 
 
 Farther west are the fine wheat lands of mous lumber mills at Ottazva, the capital 
 Manitoba, Saskatchewan (Fig. 267), and of Canada. St. John, Montreal, Toronto, 
 Alberta, which are like those of the ad- and J'ancouver are other points for manu- 
 joining parts of the United States. In facturing and shipping lumber, 
 recent years the wheat-raising region has 
 been rapidly extended. Enormous crops 
 are now raised, and Winnipeg, in the 
 southeastern part of this region, has 
 grown to be a large city. 
 
 Cattle and sheep are raised on the drier 
 plains of Alberta (Fig. 269), west of the 
 wheat belt, and in the mountain pastures. 
 General farming is beginning to develop 
 in the mountain valleys and ak)ng the 
 coast of British Columbia, as it has already 
 developed in the eastern provinces. 
 
 There are extensive forests in New 
 Brunswick. Quebec, and Ontario, stretch- 
 ing from the United States as far north as 
 Labrador and the southern part of Hudson in southern British Columbia, including 
 Bay. The forests extend west as far as Vancouver Island. Gold is found chiefly 
 the treeless plains around Winnii)eg. in the pro\incc of Ontario and in the 
 From there the forest reaches north and Klondike district, east of Alaska. Some 
 west in a narrow belt until it unites with gold has been mined in the mountains of 
 the great forests of the western moun- British Columbia. Silver, copper, and 
 tains. North of the forest belt are treeless lead deposits also have been found in 
 plains, cold in winter but in summer cov- these mountains. The chief silver and 
 ered "vvith grass and flowers. nickel mines are in Ontario, near the upper 
 
 The trees of the eastern provinces are Ottawa River. Large deposits have been 
 hardwoods, pines, and spruces. In the found and many of the mines are very 
 province of Ontario there are large pine valuable. The iron mines of Canada nrc 
 forests. In the western mountains, cs- not yet extensively worked. 
 
 Fig. 268. Grain elevators at a railroad station, 
 Saskatchewan 
 
 172. Mining. — ^khe chief coal-mining 
 regions of Canada are in Nova Scotia and
 
 CANADA, NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 157 
 
 173. Hunting and Fishing. 
 When the early settlers first 
 made their way into the Ca- 
 nadian wilderness, they found a 
 great many fur-bearing animals. 
 Fhese animals were killed in 
 large numbers and their skins 
 taken to some settlement and 
 traded for powder, shot, blan- 
 kets, and other articles. Under 
 English rule, a great company 
 called the Hudson's Bay Company was 
 formed to carry on the business of collect- 
 ing furs. It is still in the business and 
 employs many men. 
 
 Fig. 270. In the business section of Toronto 
 
 Fishing is an important industry along 
 the eastern coast of Canada, especially 
 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and on the 
 Banks of Newfoundland. Large fishing 
 fleets go out from Halifax and Yarmouth 
 in Nova Scotia. Salmon fishing is a large 
 industry in the rivers of the Pacific coast. 
 
 174. Trade Routes and Cities. — Can- 
 ada trades chiefly with European countries 
 and with the United States. Trade with 
 Japan and China is growing rapidly and is 
 carried on through Vancouver, the chief 
 Canadian port on the Pacific. The lead- 
 ing eastern seaports are Halifax, on the 
 Atlantic, and Quebec and Montreal, on the 
 
 St. Lawrence River. The cities on the 
 St. Lawrence, however, are only summer 
 ports, as the river freezes during the 
 winter time. Montreal and Toronto (Fig. 
 270) are the largest of the Canadian cities, 
 and have many factories.^ 
 
 Trade with the United States is carried 
 on by rail, and also by boat along the 
 coast and across the St. Lawrence and the 
 Great Lakes. The river and the lakes 
 furnish a route into the interior as impor- 
 tant for southern Canada as it is for 
 northern United States (Sec. 90). There 
 are also railroads across the continent and 
 many branch roads extending into all the 
 more densely settled parts of the country. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND AND GREENLAND 
 
 175. Newfoundland.— The island of 
 Newfoundland, with a part of the Labra- 
 dor coast which is under the same govern- 
 ment, is a colony of Great Britain, but 
 not a part of the Dominion of Canada. 
 It has a small population, whose chief 
 occupation is fishing. In parts of the 
 island there is a heavy growth of timber, 
 and some paper and pulp mills have 
 recently been built. 
 
 St. Johns, the capital, is in the south- 
 eastern part of the island. It is the only 
 large town in Newfoundland.
 
 GREENLAND, MEXICO 
 
 '59 
 
 176. Greenland. — Greenland belongs 
 to Denmark, one of the smaller countries 
 of Europe. It is the largest island in the 
 world. It is about one fourth the size of 
 the United States. Its surface is almost 
 entirely covered with a great sheet of ice. 
 As in Alaska, the ice reaches the sea in 
 many places. Huge icebergs are broken 
 off and are a constant source of danger 
 to ships in all waters into which they float. 
 Along the southwestern coast there are a 
 few inhabitants, most of them Danes 
 and Eskimos. 
 
 Review of Sections 170 to 176. — i. What part 
 of our continent does Canada occupy ? 2. Where 
 are its highlands ? Its lowlands ? 
 
 3. Which of the provinces reaches farthest 
 south ? 4. What are the chief industries of this 
 province ? 5. Where are the great Canadian 
 wheat fields ? 6. What important city has grown 
 
 up there ? 7. Where is the gr.izing region ? 
 8. What industry is being developed in British 
 Columbia .'' 
 
 9. Where are the Canadian forests? The 
 Barren Lands? 10. Of what use are the small 
 trees of the northern forest ? 
 
 11. Where are the great mines of gold? Oi 
 silver ? Of nickel ? Of coal ? 
 
 12. What is the Hudson's Bay Company? 
 13. Where are the chief fishing grounds? 14 
 Name two fishing ports. 
 
 15. With what countries does Canada trade' 
 16. Through what seaports is much of the Euro- 
 pean trade carried on? 17. Which ports arc not 
 used all the year ? Why ? 18. Name the leading 
 Canadian port on the Pacific. 19. How is trade 
 carried on with the United States ? 20. With the 
 interior of Canada ? 
 
 21. What other colony of Great Britain is near 
 Canada ? 22. What industries are carried on 
 there ? 23. What is the chief town ? 
 
 24. To what country does Greenland belong r 
 25. What part of it is inhabited ? 26. With what 
 is most of the island covered ? 
 
 THE SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 177. Size and Surface. — Mexico, like 
 Greenland, is about one fourth the size of 
 the United States. Its more favorable 
 climate, however, enables it to support a 
 large population. 
 
 The coast line is long and regular, with 
 few good harbors. What gulf is east of 
 Mexico ? What ocean is west ? 
 
 Excepting the lowlands along both 
 coasts, the northern and larger part of 
 Mexico is a high plateau bordered by still 
 higher mountain ranges. This plateau 
 with its bordering mountains is a part of 
 the Cordilleras of western North America. 
 It is broadest at the north, and narrows 
 rapidly toward the southeast. At the 
 southern end, the plateau is shut in by a 
 
 group of volcanic peaks. Some of them 
 are so high that even in midsummer their 
 higher slopes are covered with snow. 
 Southeast of the plateau region the sur- 
 face is very irregular, although there are 
 some broad lowlands. 
 
 178. Climate. — The eastern lowlands 
 and the lower mountain slopes are hot. 
 Tiic winds are from the Gulf, and over 
 parts of this region the rainfall is heavy. 
 The higher mountain slopes and the 
 plateau, which is about 6000 feet high, are 
 much cooler. On the higher parts of the 
 eastern mountain slopes, and over the 
 eastern part of the plateau, the rainfall is 
 usually sufficient for crops. The western 
 part of the plateau receives less rain and 
 is almost a desert in places. Here irri- 
 gation must be used if crops are grown.
 
 i6o 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 F:s. 
 
 Cattle ranch in northern Mexico 
 
 In the far south there are differences in 
 temperature owing to differences in alti- 
 tude, but the rainfall is heavy on both 
 highlands and lowlands. The west coast 
 and the peninsula of Lower California are 
 hot and dry. Most of the rivers are 
 mountain streams and are short and 
 rapid. 
 
 179. Industries. — The differences in 
 temperature and rainfall result in differ- 
 ences in the crops grown. The hot, moist 
 parts of the countn,- produce an abundance 
 of tropical fruits, and here also are great 
 rubber plantations. In the dense forests 
 of these regions are found such valuable 
 woods as mahogany, rosewood, and eb- 
 ony. In places where it is not too hot, 
 coffee, sugar cane, cotton, and tobacco 
 are raised. The higher, more temperate 
 
 regions produce corn and 
 wheat. Some parts of the 
 temperate region are irri- 
 gated. The dry plateau of 
 northwestern Mexico is good 
 only for pasture lands, and 
 many thousands of cattle, 
 sheep, and horses are raised 
 there (Fig. 272). 
 
 The Mexican gold and 
 silver mines are very rich. 
 They were worked by the native people 
 long before the New World was discovered 
 by Columbus, and are still producing great 
 quantities of these precious metals (Fig. 
 273). More silver is mined in Mexico 
 than in any other country except the 
 United States. Mexico also produces much 
 petroleum (Fig. 274), and has mines of 
 copper, lead, and precious stones. 
 
 180. Cities and Trade. — Mexico, the 
 largest city and the capital, is in the 
 southern part of the plateau. It is 
 connected by rail with the United States 
 and Central America, with the seaport of 
 Vera Cruz on the east coast, and with 
 smaller ports on the west. Most of the sea 
 trade with Mexico is carried on through 
 these ports. Tampico, on the east coast, 
 is near the petroleum districts.
 
 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA 
 
 i6i 
 
 Fig. 275. Ruins of an ancient Indian temple, Mexico 
 
 i8i. History and People. — When the 
 first white settlers from Euro])e reached 
 the New World, they found it inhahited 
 by Indians. Many of the Indian tribes 
 lived chiefly by hunting and fishing, and 
 wandered from place to place. 
 
 In Mexico, however, most of the In- 
 dians had learned to cultivate the fields, 
 and they depended chiefly upon agricul- 
 ture for their food. They made beautiful 
 articles of gold and silver. They built 
 large cities and temples, the ruins of 
 which may still be seen 
 (Fig. 27s). 
 
 The first w hite people 
 to visit Mexico did not 
 intend to live in that 
 country. All that they 
 wanted was the gold 
 and silver found there. 
 They conquered the 
 country and compelled 
 many of the native 
 Indians to work in the 
 mines. 
 
 The present popula- 
 tion is about one sev- 
 enth that of the United 
 States. Of the Mexi- 
 cans one fifth are white 
 people, two fifths are 
 
 Indians, and two fifths are of mixed blood. 
 Those of mixed blood have parents or 
 ancestors who are not of the same race. 
 
 For about three hundred years Mexico 
 was ruled by Spain, the country from 
 which the white settlers came. Then the 
 Mexicans set up for themselves a govern- 
 ment like that of the United States. But 
 their president often rules the country as 
 he pleases. 
 
 Review of Sections 177 to 181. — i. Where is 
 
 Mexico ? 2. How docs it compare with the 
 United States in size? 3. What part of Mexico 
 is a plateau ? 4. Where are the lowlands ? 
 
 5. What part of Mexico is hot ? Which part 
 is cool ? Why .'' 6. Where is the rainfall heavy ? 
 Where is it light ? 
 
 7. Where are the forests ? 8. What valuable 
 woods are found in the forests ? 9. What crops 
 are grown in the hot regions ? In the temperate 
 regions? 10. Where are the grazing lands? 
 II. What valuable products are taken from the 
 Mexican mines ? 
 
 12. Where is the city of Mexico? 13. Name 
 a seaport of Mexico. 
 
 14. Who were the early inliaiiitants of Mexico ? 
 15. What industry did they carry on ? 16. What 
 happened to these people ? 
 
 
 I 
 » 
 
 
 
 ^\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ( 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1 
 
 JB 
 
 ff 1 (1 f j 
 
 
 ^j 
 
 WH^s 
 
 ■ Strl 1 
 
 tVklF 
 
 ^st 
 
 l^s> 
 
 ■*aS^B 
 
 MB% 
 
 ijttn 
 
 Et- 
 
 
 ca^ 
 
 tlg^nm 
 
 SIm 
 
 JklB 
 
 nB 
 
 ^^^^Kil 
 
 
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 1 
 
 Fig. 276. Cathedral, Mexico city 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA 
 AND THE WEST 
 INDIES 
 
 182. Central America. 
 — The part of North 
 America southeast of 
 Mexico has for many 
 years borne the name 
 of Central America. It 
 now includes a British 
 colon}' called British 
 Honduras, and six re- 
 publics, — Guatemala, 
 Honduras, Salvador, 
 Xicaragua, Costa Rica, 
 and Panama.
 
 iSz 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Fig. 277. A banana plant 
 
 Fig. 278. Young coconut palms, Cuba 
 
 The surface of the region is irregular. 
 There are lowlands along the east coast, 
 and some mountains and hills in the west 
 and southwest. The winds are from the 
 northeast, and the heaviest rainfall is 
 upon the eastern lowlands and mountain 
 slopes. They are regions of dense forests, 
 but with few inhabitants, as these lands 
 are unhealthful. The southern and 
 western mountain slopes are somewhat 
 drier and cooler, and support a greater 
 number of people. 
 
 The population is made up chiefly of 
 Indians, half-breeds, and negroes. Most 
 of them do not have to work hard for 
 a living, and wars are frequent. Tropical 
 fruits (Fig. 277), coffee, and sugar are 
 the chief crops. The forests yield rubber 
 and valuable woods. 
 
 Guatemala is the largest city in Central 
 America. Colon is at the north end, and 
 Panama at the south end, of the canal 
 across the isthmus. 
 
 183. The West Indies. — The long chain 
 of islands that shuts in the Caribbean Sea 
 from the Atlantic Ocean is made up of 
 two groups. One of them is known as 
 the Greater Antilles and consists of four 
 
 large islands, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and 
 Porto Rico. The other group, called the 
 Lesser Antilles, is made up of many 
 islands which are much smaller. They 
 lie in a curve from a point near the eastern 
 end of Porto Rico almost to the northern 
 coast of South America. North of Cuba 
 and Haiti, and east of Florida, is another 
 group of small islands, called the Bahamas. 
 
 Of the larger islands, Porto Rico be- 
 longs to the United States (Sec. 166). 
 The West Indies are in about the same 
 latitude as the Hawaiian Islands. The 
 climate and products are also much alike. 
 Most of the time the winds come from 
 the northeast, and the heaviest rainfall 
 is on the northern and eastern sides of 
 the islands. Sometimes violent whirling 
 storms called hurricanes sweep over the 
 West Indies, wrecking buildings, destroy- 
 ing crops, and killing i)eople. 
 
 The leading industry is agriculture, and 
 the chief crops are sugar and tobacco. 
 Coffee, spices, bananas, oranges, and other 
 tropical fruits are grown (Fig. 278). An- 
 other jiroduct is cacao beans, from which 
 ciiocolate is made. In the forests many 
 valuable trees are found.
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. WEST INDIES 
 
 163 
 
 The products of the Bahamas 
 arc Hkc those ot tlic other is- 
 lands ; but in addition to these, 
 sponges are taken from the warm 
 waters which surround the is- 
 lands (Fig. 279). These animals 
 are like masses of jelly when hrst 
 brought to the surface. After 
 the jelly-like substance is re- 
 moved, a soft skeleton is left. 
 This is the sponge that we use. 
 
 Cuba, the largest of the West 
 Indies, is now a republic under 
 the protection of the United 
 States. For many years it be- 
 longed to Spain, but the Cubans 
 
 gained their freedom by a war in 1898 in The Lesser Antilles? 10. Where are the Ha- 
 
 which they had the hel]) of the peoi)le hanias.? 11. What islands on the Pacific are in 
 
 f . ahoiit the same latitude as the West Indies.? 
 
 or our country. ,,,, \. u ■ • r n 5 wjl 3 
 
 -' 12. Where is the heaviest rainfall.' Why? 
 
 Haiti IS divided bet\yeen two negro 13. what are the Important industries of the 
 
 republics. Of the other islands, Jamaica, islands? 14. What are the products ? 15. Where 
 
 the Bahama group, and several of the are sponges found ? 16. Hew are they prepared 
 
 I \ MI 1 1 /^ n • ■ for use ? 
 
 Lesser Antilles belong to Cireat Britain, 
 
 and the remainder to other European 
 countries and to the L^nited States. 
 Trinidad, the largest of the Lesser An- 
 tilles, is one of the British islands. It has 
 a valuable lake of asphalt, a substance 
 used for street pavements (Fig. 280). 
 
 Havana, in Cuba, is the largest city in 
 the West Indies, and Kingston, in Ja- 
 maica, is another port of importance. 
 Much of the trade is with the United 
 States, and steamships visit the islands 
 on regular voyages. 
 
 Review of Sections 182 and 183. — i. Where is 
 Central America ? 2. What countries does it 
 include? 3. Describe the surface of this group. 
 4. Where are the dense forests ? 5. Where do 
 most of the people live ? 
 
 6. What are the chief crops ? 7. What prod- 
 ucts are obtained from the forests ? 8. Name 
 three cities in Central America. 
 
 9. What islands are called the Greater Antilles ? 
 
 17. How did Cuba gain its independence? 
 
 18. Which island has two negro republics? 
 
 19. Which group and which large islands belong 
 to (jieat Britain ? 20. Where is Trinidad, and 
 what is its chief product ? 
 
 21. Where are Havana and Kingston? 
 22. What country gets much of their trade?
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 THE LAND 
 
 184. South America Compared with 
 North America. — The continent ot South 
 America is southeast of North America, 
 and is connected with it by the narrow 
 isthmus of Panama (Fig. 283). What 
 ocean borders South America on the north .'' 
 What ocean is on the east .'' On the 
 west .'' Into which ocean do most of the 
 rivers flow ? 
 
 The physical maps of the two con- 
 tinents (Figs. 134 and 283) show that in 
 some ways they are much ahke. They 
 are of nearly the same size and have about 
 the same shape. North America, how- 
 ever, is a little larger and has a more 
 irregular coast line and a greater number 
 
 of good harbors. In both continents the 
 longer and higher mountains are in the 
 west, and the shorter and lower moun- 
 tains are in the east. Between the two 
 highland regions in each continent there 
 is a great central plain. In both conti- 
 nents the central plain is drained toward 
 the north, the east and the south, by 
 large, navigable rivers. 
 
 185. Climate. — In climate there are 
 great differences between the two con- 
 tinents. The broad northern part of 
 North America is cold even in the sum- 
 mer time, and in the winter the ground 
 is frozen and usually covered with snow 
 or ice. But the broad northern part of 
 South America is in the hot part of the 
 earth (Fig. 124). Here most of the 
 
 i6s
 
 70** I-onKltuJn CO* Wr-nt from 60" Grnonwlch 40 
 
 i66
 
 CLIMATE AND SURFACE OF SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 167 
 
 Ihere is also rain 
 along the northwest- 
 ern shore of the 
 continent (Fig. 285). 
 Between this moist 
 northern region and 
 the rainy region of 
 the south, the nar- 
 row coastal plain west 
 of the great moun- 
 tains is dry. In some 
 parts it is a real 
 desert. The winds 
 from the east have 
 crossed the moun- 
 tains and have lost 
 most of their mois- 
 ture on the eastern 
 winds come from the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. side ; and the winds over the Pacific Ocean 
 284). With them comes much moisture, blow away from the continent. 
 which falls as rain on the great plain and 186. The Mountains, the Plains, and 
 on the eastern mountain slopes (Fig. 285). the Rivers. — The western mountains, 
 It is always hard for men to work in a known as the Andes, border the Pacific 
 hot, moist country like this part of South Ocean from the Strait of Magellan to the 
 America. Trees and plants there grow Caribbean Sea (Fig. 283). At the south 
 rapidly. In places they grow so rapidly they rise out of the ocean like a great 
 that it is almost impossible to clear the 
 ground and cultivate the soil. Much of 
 
 Fig. 2S4. Prevailing winds of South America 
 
 Fig. 285. Rainfall of South America 
 
 the broad northern part of the continent 
 is a dense forest where trees, vines, and 
 bushes crowd close together. Such a 
 region is very different from the cold, 
 barren plains of northern Canada. 
 
 Southern South America is in the tem- 
 perate part of the Southern Hemisphere, 
 where the winds are from the west (Fig. 
 
 wall. This is the region where the winds 
 are from the west. The upper slopes are 
 covered with snow, and glaciers are formed 
 in the higher mountain valleys. Farther 
 north, parallel ranges inclose high plateaus, 
 and there is a narrow coastal plain between 
 the mountains and the ocean. 
 
 The Andes are not so broad as the 
 Cordilleras of North America, but they 
 are much higher. Even at the Equator 
 
 284). With them comes moisture from some of the peaks tower to such great 
 
 the Pacific Ocean, and rain and snow fall heights that they are white with ever- 
 
 on the western slopes of the mountains, lasting fields of snow. 
 
 The eastern plains over which the winds The eastern highlands are much lower 
 
 pass after crossing the mountains, receive than the western, and are separated into 
 
 much less rain, although usually enough two parts by the broad valley of the 
 
 for an abundant growth of grass. Amazon River. The northern part is
 
 i68
 
 PEOPLE, ANIMALS, AND PLANTS OF SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 169 
 
 called the Guiana High- 
 lands, and the southern, 
 the Brazilian Highlands. 
 Both are plateaus with 
 low ranges crossing them. 
 
 The largest part of the 
 central plain is drained 
 by the Amazon and its 
 tributaries (Fig. 283). 
 The land is low and 
 nearly level. Much of 
 it is covered with forests 
 and is called sihas (Fig. 
 287) . The river is broad 
 and deep and carries 
 more water to the sea 
 than any other river in 
 the world. On it large 
 ships can go from the 
 Atlantic to the foothills 
 of the Andes. 
 
 The northern part of the plain is 
 drained by the Orinoco River, and is 
 called the llanos. During the rainy season 
 the llanos are covered with grass which dries 
 up during the dry season that follows. 
 
 The central plain south of the Amazon 
 basin is drained by the Plata and its 
 tributaries. This is a region of lighter 
 rainfall than the Amazon Valley. In the 
 western part there are great grassy plains 
 called pampas, much like the western 
 plains of the United States (Fig. 293). 
 
 Review of Sections 184 to 186. — i. In what 
 direction is South America from North America.? 
 
 2. How do the two continents compare in size .' 
 In form ? In the position of their highlands and 
 lowlands.' In the drainage of the great plain.'' 
 
 3. Which continent has the more regular coast 
 line .' Which has the larger number of good 
 harbors ? 
 
 4. What winds blow over the broad part of 
 South America .' 5. What parts of this region 
 have rain ? 6. Where are the dense forests .' 
 7. Why is there little agriculture here ? 
 
 Fig. 287. Silvas, South America 
 
 8. Where is the temper- 
 ate part of South America f 
 9. From what direction do 
 the winds come ? 10. On 
 which side of the moun- 
 tains is the heavy rainfall ? 
 1 1 . Where are the grass- 
 lands ? 
 
 12. What other part of 
 the western coast has rain r 
 13. Where on the western 
 coast is there little rain ? 
 
 14. How do the Andes 
 Mountainscomparein height 
 and width with the Cordil- 
 leras of North America r 
 15. Where are the eastern 
 highlands.? i6. Into what 
 two parts are they divided ? 
 
 17. By what river is the 
 northern part of the great 
 central plain drained .? The 
 southern part? 18. What 
 are the silvas ? The llanos \ 
 The pampas ? 
 
 PEOPLE, ANIMALS, AND PLANTS 
 
 187. The People and their Industries. 
 — Not long after the discovery of the 
 New World, the people of Spain and 
 Portugal learned that there were valuable 
 mines of gold and silver in the mountains 
 of South America. When they came in 
 search of these precious metals they 
 found the country already inhabited. 
 The natives, like those of North America, 
 were called Indians. Many of them were 
 savages, but the Incas, who lived in the 
 mountains of Peru, were almost civilized. 
 They had learned to make cloth, pottery, 
 and beautiful articles of gold and silver, 
 and they built wonderful roads and stone 
 buildings. The Spaniards conquered 
 many of the natives, and settled in the 
 Andes and in the basin of the Plata. 
 The Portuguese settled in the eastern 
 part of the continent. Some negroes were 
 brouglit there from Africa.
 
 lyo 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Fig. 288. Llamas in Ecuador 
 
 Most of the people of South America 
 are descendants of these early Spanish 
 and Portuguese settlers, or of Indians, 
 negroes, and persons of mixed blood. In 
 the past few years other Europeans and 
 men from the United States have settled 
 there and are helping to work the mines 
 and farms, and to build railroads and 
 factories. The ])oi)ulation of South 
 America is less than half that of North 
 America. All the countries are inde- 
 pendent republics, except the Guianas. 
 
 I he chief industries are mining, graz- 
 ing, and agriculture. Mining is carried 
 on chiefly in the mountain regions, and 
 grazing on the grassy plains. Agricul- 
 ture is develo|)ing in those |)arts of the 
 country where the soil and climate are 
 favorable, or where irrigation laii be 
 used. Coffee, wheat, cacao, and cotton 
 are among the important crops. 
 
 Most of the commerce of South America 
 is with European countries. Commerce 
 with the I'nired States is increasing 
 rai)idly, now that the Panama Canal has 
 
 been completed. In addition to the three 
 great river systems, which are navigable 
 for hundreds of miles. South America 
 has many railroads. Only one of them 
 crosses the Andes. 
 
 i88. Native Animals and Plants. — 
 The llama (Fig. 288), an animal tamed 
 by the Incas, is found on the higher slopes 
 of the Andes. It is used to carry loads 
 along the mountain paths. The alpaca, 
 a similar animal, is especially valuable 
 for its wool. The condor, the largest of 
 birds, is also found in the higher Andes. 
 The jaguar is a fierce and powerful animal 
 much like the tiger of Asia. It is found 
 in many parts of South America, and in 
 Mexico and Central America. In the 
 tropical forests there are serpents, 
 monkeys, bright-colored insects, and 
 birds with beautiful plumage, such as 
 parrots. The rhea, a bird much like the 
 ostrich, lives on the southern plains. 
 
 Corn and the potato, now known and 
 cultivated in many parts of the world, 
 were native plants of South America, and 
 were grown by some of the Indians. 
 The cinchona tree, from the bark of 
 which the bitter medicine, quinine, is 
 made, is also a native of this continent. 
 Several varieties of rubber trees are 
 found in the forests. 
 
 Review of Sections 187 and 188. — i. Why did 
 
 inoplc- from Spain and Portugal settle in South 
 America.'' 2. Where did tlicy find Indians who 
 wen- ahiiost civilized .? 3. What had these In- 
 dians learned to do .? 4. Where did the Spaniards 
 settle? Tlie Portuguese.'' 
 
 5. What are the chief industries in South 
 Anierica ? 6. Name several important crops. 
 7. With wli.it other parts of the world do South 
 American countries carry on commerce ? 
 
 S. What is the llama ? Of what use is it ? 
 9. Name some of the other animals of South 
 America. 10. What two important plants were 
 prown by Indians in South America? 11. What 
 is made from the hark of the cinchona tree?
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 171 
 
 COUNTRIES 
 
 189. Brazil. — Brazil is in the eastern 
 part of South America. How does it 
 compare in size with other South American 
 countries (Fig. 286) .'' It is somewhat 
 hirger than the United States, with a 
 popuhition less than one third as great. 
 The population is small because so much 
 of the country is low, very rainy, and 
 covered with a dense growth of vegeta- 
 tion (Sec. 185), and is in the hot part of 
 the earth (Fig. 124), where only the 
 natives can live and work comfortably. 
 Most of the people of Brazil live in the 
 cooler parts of the country, either in the 
 south or in the highlands near the coast. 
 
 A few Indians live in the forests of the 
 interior. They are often employed in 
 finding rubber trees, and in preparing the 
 crude rubber. They first cut gashes in 
 the bark of the rubber trees and catch the 
 milky sap in cups. The sap is collected 
 daily. To prepare it for shipment it 
 must be made into balls of crude rubber. 
 This is done by pouring a little of the sap 
 over a stick that is turned slowly around 
 
 in the dense smoke of a fire of palm nuts. 
 As soon as the sap dries on the stick, 
 more is poured on and smoked, and the 
 process is repeated many times until a 
 large ball is formed. Most of the rubber 
 is sent to the city of Para, near the 
 mouth of the Amazon, and from this 
 port it is carried in ships to the United 
 States or to Europe. 
 
 In the plateau region of eastern and 
 southern Brazil the chief industry is 
 farming. Among the crops cultivated 
 are coffee (Fig. 290), cotton, sugar cane, 
 tobacco, and cacao. Of these crops, coffee 
 is the most important, and Brazil now 
 produces two thirds of the world's supply. 
 
 The ripe berries of the coffee shrub are 
 often called " cherries " because of the 
 fleshy covering, much like that of a 
 cherry, which surrounds the two seeds, 
 or " beans." In preparing the coffee for 
 market, this fleshy covering is first re- 
 moved. The beans are then spread out 
 on large trays or platforms to dry, and 
 are turned frequently to prevent their 
 spoiling. Finally they are sorted and 
 packed in sacks for shipment.
 
 m^fiii:^^..
 
 BRAZIL, ARGENTINA 
 
 173 
 
 In the forests are found woods used in 
 the making of fine furniture, and woods 
 from which dyes are made. Another 
 tree of the forests is the cacao, from the 
 seeds of which chocolate is made. 
 
 Cattle are raised on the grasslands in 
 the central and southern parts of the 
 country. 
 
 The chief mineral products of Brazil 
 are gold and diamonds, which are found 
 in the plateau region. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, the capital, is the second 
 city in size in South America. It is a 
 large seaport with a fine harbor (Fig. 291). 
 Santos, farther south, is the chief port for 
 the shipment of colTee. Baliia and Per- 
 nambuco, on the coast to the north, export 
 sugar and tobacco. Para, near the mouth 
 of the Amazon, ex[)orts more rubber than 
 any other port in the world. Manaos, in 
 the Amazon basin a thousand miles from 
 the sea, is a rubber-shipping center. 
 
 Review of Section 189. ~i. Where is Brazil. - 
 2. How does it compare in size with the United 
 States.'' 3. How do these two countries compare 
 in population ? 
 
 4. Where are rubber trees found ? v How 
 is the crude rubber prepared for market .' 
 
 6. Where is the farminq; region of Brazil .' 
 7. What are the important crops ? 8. How is 
 
 coffee prepared for shipment ? 9. What other 
 products are important ? 10. Where are the 
 grazing lands .? 11. Where is the mining region.' 
 12. Which of the following cities are on the 
 coast, and which one is in the interior: Rio de 
 Janeiro ? Santos .' Bahia .'' Para .' Manaos .'' 
 
 190. Countries of the Plata Basin. — 
 
 The three countries of the Plata basin are 
 Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. 
 
 Argentina is larger and has greater 
 wealth than any other country of South 
 America, except Brazil. The eastern part 
 of the country is a vast plain which 
 stretches through its entire length. What 
 part is in the Plata basin .'' What moun- 
 tains border Argentina on the west .'' 
 
 Argentina is in a temi)erate part of the 
 earth (Fig. 124), and its crops are like 
 those of the United States. In the north- 
 east there is plenty of rain and it is warm 
 enough to allow cotton, sugar cane, 
 tobacco, and tropical fruits to be raised. 
 Farther south, in the eastern part of the 
 country, there are large wheat fields, and 
 Argentina is one of the great wheat- 
 growing countries of fhe world. Corn 
 and fiax also are grown in large quantities. 
 Wheat, corn, and linseed oil, made from 
 flax seed, are the most important agricul- 
 tural exports.
 
 174 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 West of the wheat country and farther 
 south are the grazing lands, where enor- 
 mous herds of cattle and sheep find 
 pasture (Fig. 293). Live cattle, frozen, 
 salted, or dried meat, meat extracts, wool, 
 hides, and tallow are exported. 
 
 Btienos Aires, on the Plata River, is 
 the capital and great railroad center of 
 Argentina. It is the largest city in 
 South yVmerica and the chief port for the 
 southeastern part of the continent. It 
 has important and growing manufactur- 
 ing industries (Fig. 294). 
 
 The two smaller countries of the Plata 
 basin, Paraguay and Uruguay, have a 
 heavier rainfall than Argentina. There 
 are some forests, hut the ciiicf industry 
 in both countries is cattle raising. Uru- 
 guay also raises large crops of wheat, and 
 Paraguay grows tropical fruits. Most 
 of the exports are like those of Argentina. 
 
 Mate, or Paraguay tea, is so called 
 because it is used in tlie place of tea. It 
 is made from the leaves of a tree that 
 grows both in Brazil and in Paraguay. 
 Mate leaves are exported to other Soutli 
 American countries. 
 
 Asuncion, the ca|)ital of Paraguay, is 
 an important river port, and is connected 
 by rail with Buenos Aires. Montevideo, 
 
 the capital of Uruguay^ is 
 a large city and carries on 
 much foreign commerce. 
 
 Review of Section 190. — 
 
 I. \\ here is AiRcntina ? 2. How 
 dees it rank among the countries 
 of South America in size and 
 wealth .'' 3. What are the chief 
 crops in the northeastern part 
 of the country ? 4. Where 
 is the wheat-raising region ? 
 
 5. What other crops are raised ? 
 
 6. Where are the grazing re- 
 gions ? 7. What agricultural 
 products are exported ? What 
 
 cattle products .'' 8. Where is Buenos Aires .'' 
 
 9. Where is Paraguay .'' Uruguay .'' 10. What 
 is the chief industry in each of these countries ? 
 
 11. Name other products of each country. 
 
 12. Where is Asuncion .'' Montevideo.^ 
 
 191. Countries of the Andes. — There 
 
 are four countries in the Andes group : 
 Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Of 
 these Chile lies farthest south, on the 
 west slope of the Andes. Using the scale 
 of miles, find out how long Chile is from 
 north to south (Fig. 286). 
 
 At the southern end the Andes are 
 lower than they are farther north. They 
 are in a region of heavy rains (Fig. 285), 
 and their lower slopes and the rocky 
 islands offshore are covered with forests. 
 
 Fig. 294. An avenue in Buenos Aires
 
 e'liii.K 
 
 175 
 
 Fig. 295. Farms in niiual Clnk. In the back^iuuud is a lake 
 
 In central Chile there is a long and 
 narrow valley between the Andes and a 
 lower coast range. This is the agricul- 
 
 tural and grazing section of the country 
 (Fig. 295). Some parts of it need to 
 be irrigated, but it produces a great va- 
 riety of crops. These include, at the 
 south, grain and other products of tem- 
 perate climates, and at the north, tropical 
 fruits. Many cattle and sheep are raised. 
 The most important industry of Chik- 
 is mining. Copper is mined in large 
 quantities, and some gold and silver are 
 found. The chief mineral deposits, how- 
 ever, are those of nitrate, in the dry 
 northern part of the country (Fig. 296). 
 From these deposits a whitish powder is 
 prepared which is exported to the United 
 
 States and European countries. It is 
 used in the manufacture of gunpowder 
 and of fertilizers. 
 
 Falparaiso, the principal port, has a 
 poor harbor, but it is the best on the 
 Pacific coast of South America (Fig. 297). 
 It is connected by rail with Santiago, the 
 capital, and across the Andes with Buenos 
 Aires. Through Valparaiso the agricul- 
 tural region of the central valley finds an 
 outlet. 
 
 The shipping point for the nitrate 
 fields is Iqiiique. As northern Chile is a 
 desert, the fresh water needed both at the 
 port and at the nitrate works is brought 
 from the mountains in large pipes. 
 
 On the Strait of Magellan is Punta 
 Arenas, the most southern city in the 
 world. 
 
 "T^^HSswi 
 
 Fig. 297. The harbor, Valparaiso
 
 176 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 Fig. 298. Mt. Chimborazo, Ecuador, covered with perpetual snow 
 
 Chile is one of the most progressive 
 countries of South America. As in Argen- 
 tina and Brazil, there are free schools, and 
 extensive railroads and telegraph lines. 
 These three large and progressive coun- 
 tries are often called the A B C countries 
 of South America, from the first letters 
 in their names. 
 
 Bolivia once extended to the coast, 
 but lost that part of its territory in a war 
 with Chile. Witli this exception, Bolivia, 
 Peru, and Ecuador are muth alike. 
 
 There is a narrow coastal lowland which 
 at the south is a desert, joining that of 
 northern Chile. At the north this coastal 
 plain is well watered and yields large crops 
 where cultivated. 
 
 East of the coast region, the 
 mountains of all three coiuitries rise 
 to great heights and inclose high 
 plateaus and valleys. Both the 
 plateaus and the western mountain 
 slopes are cold and dry. 1 hey are 
 cold because of the great elevation, 
 and (irv because the winds here are 
 from the east (Fig. 284). Only the 
 long eastern slope of the mountains, 
 and the lowlands that join it on the 
 east, receive uhk h rain. 
 
 Agriculture and mining are the 
 leafling industries of Bolivia, Bern, 
 and I'.cuador. Most of the agricul- 
 ture is in the irrigated valleys of the 
 
 mountain streams, on the 
 western side of the Andes. 
 Cotton and sugar are raised 
 in Peru, and cacao and 
 cinchona trees in Ecuador. 
 Rubber is obtained from 
 trees that grow in the 
 eastern forests. 
 
 The rich mineral deposits 
 of the Andes still continue 
 to yield gold, silver, copper, and tin, as 
 they did in the days of the Incas. Tin 
 ore is the chief export of Bolivia. 
 
 One interesting industry is the weaving 
 of fine straw hats by the natives of 
 Ecuador and Peru. The best hats are 
 woven under water, and it takes a long 
 time to make one. They are sent to our 
 country by way of Panama, and for this 
 reason are known as Panama hats. 
 
 A wonderful mountain railroad has 
 been built from Callao, the principal port 
 of Peru, to Lima, its capital. From that 
 point it is continued for a long distance 
 into the mountains (Fig. 299). Another 
 line runs from Mollendo, a ])ort in southern 
 Peru, to Lake Titicaca, where it connects
 
 COUNTRIES OF THE ANDES AND OF THE NORTH COAST 
 
 177 
 
 Fig. 300. Water front and market, Guayaquil 
 
 with steamers. La Paz, the capital of 
 I Bolivia, is on a plateau more than two 
 miles above the level of the sea. It is 
 connected by rail with Pacific ports. 
 Guayaquil, the chief port and city of 
 JA-uador (Fig. 300), is joined to Quito, the 
 capital, by railroad. The eastern parts 
 of all these countries 
 have an outlet to the 
 Atlantic through the 
 Amazon and its tribu- 
 taries. 
 
 Review of Section 191. — 
 I . Where are the great for- 
 ests of Chile .'' 2. Why are 
 there no forests in northern 
 Chile? 3. Where is the 
 an;ricultural and grazing sec- 
 tion ? What crops are produced there ? 4. Where 
 are the nitrate heds .'' 5. Of what use is nitrate ? 
 
 6. Where is X'alparaiso ? 7. With what city 
 east of the Andes is it connected by rail ? 
 8. Where is Santiago.' 9. From what port is 
 most of the nitrate shipped .' 
 
 10. Which are the ABC countries of South 
 America ? 
 
 11. W'hat are the leading industries of Bolivia, 
 Peru, and Ecuador ? 12. W'here are Panama hats 
 manufactured ? How did they get this name ? 
 
 13. Where is Callao ? 14. How is it con- 
 nected with Lima.? 15. In which country is La 
 Paz? Gua\a(iuil ? Quito? 
 
 192. Countries of the North Coast. — 
 
 The countries in the north coast group 
 
 are Colombia, Venezuela, and Guiana. 
 
 1 
 
 'f«|BK9 '^V/ldV 
 
 m^^HP 
 
 v'JS^v Hd^Hi^l 
 
 '^mV^S^^Q/0^\_- 
 
 
 ySL'4^^° ^|HLi^l<Aq 
 
 ^9IHfc^i^^^l 
 
 ^^^iii.. , Mf^^mJ^^L^Ji 
 
 
 PSMlfcl^^fflp^^ 
 
 ^^n 
 
 ^^■^^ik. 
 
 Fig. 301. 
 
 Cacao pods on the trees 
 
 Which two of these border on the Ciuib- 
 bean Sea (Fig. 286) ^ Which one borders 
 on the Pacific Ocean .'' .All three countries 
 are near the Equator and in the hot part 
 of the earth (Fig. 124). In the moun- 
 tains, however, the temperature is agree- 
 able and the climate healthful. 
 
 On the coastal lowlands and in the val- 
 leys all kinds of tropical products are raised 
 and exported, especially coffee, cacao (Fig. 
 301), and sugar. On the llanos of Vene- 
 zuela and Colombia cattle raising is the 
 great industry, and hides form an im- 
 portant export. In the higher and cooler 
 regions some of the grains and fruits of 
 temperate regions are grown. In the 
 mountains gold is mined. Among the 
 exports are cinchona, tobacco, and rubber. 
 Guiana is the only one of the South 
 American countries not 
 now a republic. It is 
 divided into three parts, 
 which are colonies of 
 three countries in Eu- 
 rope, — Great Britain, 
 the Netherlands, and 
 France. The chief ex- 
 ports are sugar, mo- 
 lasses, and cacao. 
 Bogota is the capital and largest city of 
 Colombia, and Barranquilla, near the 
 mouth of the Magdalena River, is the 
 chief port. Caracas, the capital of Vene- 
 zuela, is connected by a mountain rail- 
 road with La Guaira, the most important 
 seaport. Maracaibo, in western Vene- 
 zuela, on a lake of the same name, carries 
 on a large foreign commerce. 
 
 Review of Section 192. — i. In what part of 
 the countries of the north coast can people best 
 live ? 2. What are the chief products of this 
 group of countries? 3. To what three countries 
 of Europe do the three parts of Guiana belong? 
 4. Where is Bogota ? Caracas ?
 
 178
 
 EUROPE 
 
 THE CONTINENT 
 
 have generally been called separate con- 
 tinents, as they are in this book. 
 
 193. Size and Position. — The conti- 194. The Boundaries of Europe. — On 
 
 nent of Europe is smaller than any of the the north, west, and south, Europe is 
 
 other continents except Australia. It bordered by the salt waters of the ocean, 
 
 is not very much larger than the United or of the gulfs, bays, and seas connected 
 
 States. It is so much smaller than Asia with the ocean. It is only on the east 
 
 that on a globe Europe looks like a huge and southeast, where it joins Asia, that 
 
 peninsula of the larger continent. there are land boundaries (Figs. 302, 304, 
 
 The large land mass formed by Europe 306). 
 and Asia together is called Eurasia, and The coast line is very irregular. In- 
 in some books it is described as a single deed, no other continent has so long a 
 continent. This is because the land con- coast line for so small an area. The bays 
 nection between the two continents is and seas reach a long distance inland 
 so very broad, and is without a good toward the center of the continent, 
 natural boundary. But the people of There are also large peninsulas that ex- 
 Europe are very different from most of tend into the bordering waters. Europe, 
 the people of Asia, and they live and work like North America, includes many islands 
 in different ways. Europe and Asia are separated from the mainland by shallow 
 partly separated by large seas, and they seas. 
 
 179
 
 'nnDDDI^DDDD 
 A 
 
 1 80
 
 SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF EUROPE 
 
 i8i 
 
 IQS- Surface. — The maps 
 of Eurojic show tliat the 
 most mountainous part ot 
 the continent is in the south. 
 The greatest ranges run al- 
 most east and west, and cut 
 off the southern peninsulas 
 from the great lowland plain 
 of northern and eastern 
 Europe. 
 
 Where is the Iherian Pen- 
 insula (Fig. 304) ? The 
 Italian Peninsula ? The Bal- 
 kan Peninsula ? The Pyre- 
 nees are north of the Iberian 
 Peninsula, the Alps are north 
 of the Italian Peninsula, and 
 the Carpathian Mountains 
 are some distance north of the Balkan 
 Peninsula. In each of the three penin- 
 sulas there are smaller ranges, the longest 
 being the Apennines in Italy. 
 
 The highest of all the European moun- 
 tains are the Alps. These mountains 
 are very beautiful and are visited every 
 year by people from all parts of the 
 world. For many hundreds of years the 
 people living north of the Alps and those 
 living south have traded with each other. 
 In order to make it easy for traders and 
 travelers to cross the mountains, many 
 wonderful carriage roads (Fig. 305) and 
 railroads have been built. Several of 
 the railroads pass under the higher moun- 
 tain ranges through tunnels, one of which 
 is more than twelve miles long. 
 
 On the map (Fig. 304) find the Black 
 Sea ; the Arctic Ocean ; the Baltic Sea ; 
 the North Sea. The central lowland of 
 Europe is widest in the eastern part, 
 where it extends from the Black Sea on 
 the south to the Arctic Ocean on the 
 north. On the east this plain joins the 
 
 Fig. 305. A winding road in the Alps. Source of the Rhone River 
 
 great plain of northern Asia, and on the 
 west it extends to the shores of the Baltic 
 and North seas. 
 
 Northwest of the central lowland there 
 are mountains in the Scandinavian Pen- 
 insula. Find this peninsula on the map 
 (Fig. 304). There are also low moun- 
 tains in the British Isles. 
 
 The Ural range borders the north- 
 eastern part of the continent and extends 
 almost north and south. For much of 
 its length it is low. It forms a part of 
 the boundary between Europe and Asia. 
 
 196. Climate. — Most of Europe is in 
 the temperate region of the Northern 
 Hemisphere (Fig. 124). It has a mild 
 climate both summer and winter, espe- 
 cially in the western part. The climate 
 is mild because the temperature of the 
 ocean does not change quickly, and the 
 winds from the Atlantic Ocean are cooler 
 than the land in summer and warmer 
 than the land in winter. These winds 
 from the Atlantic also bring much mois- 
 ture to the continent (Figs. 308, 309).
 
 BuioKlffi
 
 Longitude 
 
 Transfers of Territory 
 
 1. Geriuaoy to Belgium 
 
 2. GermtiDy to France 
 3.3 Gerraauj- to PoUcd 
 
 1. Germany to Danzig; 
 f». Geimaay to LitbunDi;i (?) 
 6. Germany to Czechosloviiki.i 
 ",7^7,7. -iiistria to Italy 
 S.8, 8,8, 8. Austria aod Hunj-ary to 
 Yugoslavia 
 9. Austria and Hungary to 
 
 Czechoslovakia 
 10 Austria to Polaod 
 11. 11. Austria and Hungary to 
 
 13, II. Parta of Albania in din|>iitu 
 15. Moulcncgro to Yugoslavia 
 10 Serbia to Yugonlavia 
 17, 17, 17. Bulgaria to Yugoslavia 
 
 18. Bulgaria to Greece 
 
 19. Turkey to Bulgaria 
 20 Turkey to Greece 
 21. Kus%ia to Itourutala 
 
 22,22.22. RuMia to Poland 
 
 23. Part of Lithuania in dispute 
 
 Runala to Lithuania or Poland 
 21. rtuuin to Lithuania 
 a,2i. Kuiiiu to I^atvla 
 
 20. Kuwia toK«(honia 
 
 27. KuwIa to Finiimd 
 TranAfcfB bub)uct to Plubl^scltt- 
 
 28. Germany to Denmark 
 
 (vot«d lij IVIV to I)i>nmark) 
 29 Germany to Poland ( 1021) 
 ?/}. Marra Iloakn, Germany to 
 France (voto tu l'J3S) 
 31. Turkey to Greoro (vote In WZi) 
 
 COPYflrOHT, BY AfcjtRICAH BOOK COMPANY 
 
 Vig. 307 
 TKHRITOItlAI, CIlANfiKS IN 
 
 CENTRAL EUROPE 
 
 SCALE OF MiLt% 
 
 — — Uounilarifs bi-foro the World War 
 ^^^ New Boundarloa 
 ■■■• Uuundariol In dliput«
 
 CI.IMATK AND DRAINACJE OF EUROPE 
 
 183 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ /y 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 308. Prevailing winds of Europe 
 
 Lliilo ralu 
 
 U(M>7 ralai 
 
 Fig. 309. Rainfall of Europe 
 
 The rainfall in the west, and especially 
 on the western mountain slopes, is heavy. 
 Eastern Europe, being farthest from the 
 ocean, has less rain than any other part 
 of the continent. 
 
 The rainfall in the Alps and in the 
 Scandinavian mountains is heavy dur- 
 ing a large part of the year. As is usual 
 in high mountains, some of the moisture 
 falls as snow. In the higher mountain 
 valleys the snow packs into ice and forms 
 glaciers (Figs. 303, 305). 
 
 197. Drainage. — On account of the 
 heavy rainfall in the Alps, large rivers 
 flow from these mountains in every direc- 
 tion. Not all these rivers are long, but 
 their lower courses are navigable and are 
 important trade routes for the countries 
 through \\hich they flow. The two most 
 important are the Rhine and the Danube 
 (Fig. 306). 
 
 On the map trace the course of the 
 Volga, the longest river in Europe. No- 
 tice the other rivers flowing across the 
 great plain. Many of the European 
 rivers have been deepened and cleared of 
 rocks to make them navigable. The 
 more important rivers have been con- 
 
 nected by canals, and much ol the com- 
 merce of central Europe is carried on by 
 water. 
 
 Review of Sections 193 to 197. — i. Which 
 
 continent is snKilicr than Europe \ 2. What name 
 is sometimes given to the land mass of Europe 
 and Asia \ 
 
 3. What parts of Europe are liordered by 
 water.? 4. Where are the land lioundaries .^ 
 5. How docs the coast line differ from that of 
 other continents \ 
 
 6. In what part of Europe are the greatest 
 mountain ranges .? Name and locate them. 7. In 
 what other parts of Europe are there mountains .? 
 8. Where is the great lowland of Europe ? 
 
 9. Why is the temperature of western Europe 
 so mild .'' 10. Which parts of the continent have 
 the heaviest rainfall .' 
 
 II. In what part of Europe do several large 
 rivers rise i" i 2. How have many of the European 
 rivers been made navigable? 
 
 198. People and Industries. — Europe 
 is only a little larger than the United 
 States and Alaska, but it has four times 
 as large a population. It is divided into 
 many countries, each with its own laws 
 and generally with a language of its own. 
 Long ago, when our country was first 
 settled, most of the explorers and settlers 
 came from Great Britain, the Nether- 
 lands, France, and Spain. Later many
 
 l84 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 settlers came from Germany, Norway, 
 Italy, Russia, and other countries. On 
 the map (Fig. 306) find the eight coun- 
 tries above named. 
 
 Even at the present time many people 
 every year leave Europe and come to our 
 country to live. When they land here, 
 few of them know our language, but they 
 soon learn to speak it. Their children 
 go to our schools, and most of them be- 
 come useful citizens and good Americans. 
 
 There are so many people in Europe 
 that they are not able to raise on that 
 continent all of the food that they need 
 or all of the necessary raw materials for 
 their clothing. Most of the European 
 countries must buy both food and raw 
 materials from other lands, and must 
 manufacture many things to sell in ex- 
 change. Manufacturing and commerce, 
 as well as agriculture, grazing, and fishing, 
 are ver\^ important industries in Europe. 
 
 Large crops of wheat, rye, and barley 
 are raised, and are used in making bread. 
 Potatoes and other vegetables are raised 
 in large quantities, and in southern Eu- 
 rope corn and such fruits as grapes, 
 oranges, olives, and figs are grown. Flax 
 is raised for the fiber used in the manu- 
 facture of linen, and in southern Europe 
 many silkworms for the raw material used 
 in the manufacture of silk goods. 
 
 Among the mountains and in other 
 parts of Europe are extensive pastures for 
 cattle and sheep. The flesh of these 
 animals is used as food, their hides for 
 leather, the wool for the manufacture of 
 clothing, and much of the milk for making 
 butter and cheese. Large quantities of 
 fish are caught in the shallow waters of 
 the North Sea and along the coasts of 
 France, Great Hrir;iin, and Norway. 
 
 Besides the ni;nuifactures of food and 
 
 clothing, there are many other manu- 
 facturing industries. These include the 
 making of such diff^erent things as great 
 ships, fine machinery, and artistic jewelry. 
 
 In addition to canals and navigable 
 rivers (Sec. 197), Europe has many rail- 
 roads. Nearly a third of all the railroad 
 track in the world is in this continent. 
 Most of the great ocean steamships in 
 the w^orld belong to Europeans. 
 
 199. The World War. — In August, 
 1914, a great war began in Europe — the 
 greatest war in the history of the world. 
 Most of the European nations took part 
 in it, and finally our own country also. 
 This war came to a close in November, 
 1918, although treaties of peace were not 
 signed until much later. 
 
 During the war millions of people were 
 killed or crippled. Hundreds of villages 
 and many large cities were wholly or 
 partly destroyed. Forests and farm lands 
 were ruined. Mines and factories were 
 wrecked. For a long time after the war 
 there was a shortage of food, clothing, 
 and machinery, both in Europe and in 
 other parts of the world. 
 
 Figure 307, with the two maps just 
 before it, shows clearly the European 
 changes in territory resulting from the 
 World War. 
 
 Review of Sections 198 and 199. — i. How 
 does the population of Europe compare with that 
 of our country ? 2. From what parts of Europe 
 did men come to settle our country ? 
 
 3. What two things do most European coun- 
 tries have to buy from other lands ? 4. What do 
 they sell in exchange? 5. What are the impor- 
 tant industries of Europe ? 
 
 6. Name some of the crops that are raised. 
 7. What use is made of flax fiher? 8. What 
 animals are raised for food ? 9. Where are the 
 fishing grounds ? 
 
 10. I low many years did the World War last ? 
 1 1. What were some of its results ?
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 i8S 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 200. Position and Surface. — West of 
 the mainland of Europe, and separated 
 from it by the North Sea, the Strait of 
 Dover, and the English Channel, are 
 two large islands. The larger island is 
 Great Britain, the government of which 
 controls Ulster in northeastern Ireland. 
 The rest of Ireland was in 1922 organized 
 as the Irish Free State. Great Britain 
 is divided into England, Wales, and 
 Scotland. England is the largest of these 
 divisions and has the most people. 
 
 Neither of the islands has high moun- 
 tains and there are only a few prominent 
 peaks. The chief highland areas are in 
 the northern and western parts of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 There is a small lowland in central 
 Scotland, and there are larger lowlands 
 in central and southeastern England and 
 in the interior of Ireland (Fig. 310). 
 
 201. Great Britain: Agriculture and 
 Fishing. — Northern Scotland is rough 
 
 and barren. Swept by the winds from 
 the Atlantic, it has a heavy rainfall and 
 a cool temperature. Although the soil 
 is thin, there is usually an abundant 
 growth of grass, and in most of this 
 region grazing and dairying are the only 
 industries of importance. The Scotch 
 Highlanders tend many herds of cattle and 
 flocks of sheep ; and the chief products 
 of the country are meat, milk, butter, 
 hides, and wool. 
 
 In southern Scotland, northern and 
 western England, and Wales, the high- 
 lands are less rugged. In these regions 
 also grazing and dairying are important 
 industries, but, as we shall see later, min- 
 ing and manufacturing are of even greater 
 importance. 
 
 In the lowlands of Great Britain, espe- 
 cially in central and southeastern England, 
 the soil is good, and large crops are raised. 
 The chief products are wheat, oats, barley, 
 hay, and vegetables. The rolling hills, or 
 " downs," of southern England furnish 
 pasture for large Hocks of sheep.
 
 1 86 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 i?-^ -^- ,i&syaS^- 
 
 Fig. 311. A fishing village in Scotland, on the 
 North Sea 
 
 Along the coast of Great Britain are 
 villages of fishermen (Fig. 311). Large 
 numbers of fish are caught in the shallow 
 waters of the North Sea and along the 
 northern and western coasts. 
 
 The agricultural, grazing, and fishing 
 industries of Great Britain do not furnish 
 enough food for the people, and great 
 quantities are imported from other parts 
 of the world, (iireat Britain is a little 
 larger than our state of Texas, yet it con- 
 tains nearly half as many people as the 
 United States. This is a 
 very large population for 
 so small a country, and 
 great industries have been 
 built up to give the people 
 employment. What are 
 these industries ? 
 
 202. Great Britain : Min- 
 ing, Manufacture, and Com- 
 merce. — The most im|)or- 
 tant industry of Great 
 Britain is manufacturing. 
 Hut this industry would 
 not li.ivc become impor- 
 tant without the many 
 large deposits of coal that 
 arc found in several |)arts 
 
 of the country. Enough coal is mined 
 (Fig. 312) to furnish all the necessary 
 heat and power for homes and factories, 
 and to provide an abundance for ex- 
 port. 
 
 Near several of the deposits of coal there 
 are rich beds of iron ore. The manufac- 
 ture of iron and steel is the chief industry 
 of many cities, large and small, which 
 have grown up near these deposits. 
 
 Among the largest of the iron and steel 
 manufacturing centers are Birviingham 
 in England and Glasgow in Scotland. 
 Glasgow is a center for the building of 
 steel ships. Sheffield is famous for its 
 manufactures of steel, especially for its 
 knives and other cutlery. 
 
 The largest of the manufacturing indus- 
 tries in Great Britain is the making of 
 cotton goods. All the cotton used comes 
 from other countries, most of it from the 
 United States. Manchester is the center 
 of the industry. This i« partly because 
 the air in western England is always moist. 
 Moist air is necessary in the manufac- 
 ture of the finer grades of cotton goods. 
 
 KiH- J 12. Entrance to an English coal nunc
 
 GREAT BRIIAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 187 
 
 in east central Eng- 
 land, in the city of 
 Leeds and in the towns 
 near it. Some of the 
 cities of Scotland also 
 are engaged in this in- 
 dustry. So much wool 
 is needed that the 
 sheep of Great Britain 
 furnish only one fourth 
 of the amount. The 
 other three fourths are 
 imported from Aus- 
 tralia, Argentina, and 
 other countries. 
 
 Great Britain has be- 
 come a great commer- 
 cial nation. Its ships 
 sail every sea and reach 
 For many years all the cotton was every important port of the world. The 
 first landed at Liverpool, a large port and welfare of the British people is depend- 
 manufacturing city on the west coast ent upon the safety of their commerce, 
 of England. From there it was sent to and a large navy is kept to protect their 
 Manchester and to other cotton-manufac- ships and their foreign possessions. 
 turing cities by rail. There is now a The chief seaports of Great Britain are 
 ship canal between Liverpool and Man- London, Liverpool, and (JIasgow. Lon- 
 chester, and many of the cotton ships don is on the Thames River, about 50 
 go directly to the Manchester docks, miles from the sea, but the river has been 
 Woolen manufactures are carried on dredged and large ships are able to reach 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 
 Ijm Tf^:^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 " 
 
 Fig. 313. Making steel street cars, England 
 
 Unloading steamships at the new docks in Liverpool
 
 a 
 c 
 
 CQ 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 (I. 
 
 i8S
 
 GREAT HRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 189 
 
 its docks. It is the capital of Great Brit- 
 ain and of the British Emjiire. and is the 
 largest city in tlie OKI World (Eig. 315). 
 
 203. The British Empire. — Great Brit- 
 ain has always been interested in the ex- 
 ploration and settlement of new lands, 
 and many of these lands it still owns. 
 It has also gained control of some parts 
 of the older countries of the world. Its 
 possessions include Canada, Australia, 
 India, and several other regions in Asia, 
 Africa, and South America. It also owns 
 many islands. All these possessions, with 
 the mother country, make the British 
 Empire one of the largest and most power- 
 ful empires of the world. 
 
 The king of Great Britain has very little 
 power. The government is controlled by 
 those members of Parliament who are 
 elected by the people. 
 
 204. Ireland. — Ulster, which is still un- 
 der British control, is the best agricultural 
 region in Ireland and raises most of the 
 flax from which Irish linen and laces are 
 made. For centuries these products 
 were manufactured in the homes of 
 the people. Most of the linen, however, 
 is now made in factories. Belfast is the 
 center of the industry (Fig. 316). Find 
 it on the map (Fig. 306). This city is 
 also engaged in shipbuilding. 
 
 The Irish Free 
 State is largely a 
 grazing region but 
 with some farm 
 lands. Under the 
 new government the 
 people hope to im- 
 prove their indus- 
 tries, especially agri- 
 culture. 
 
 Dubliyi, like Bel- 
 fast, is a shipbuilding 
 
 center. Both cities get most of their 
 iron and coal from Great Britain, as 
 Ireland has little coal and few forests. 
 For fuel the country people use peat 
 which they dig out of swamps. It con- 
 sists of a mass of plant roots and other 
 vegetable matter that has been kept from 
 decay by the water. 
 
 Review of Sections 200 to 204. — i. By what 
 bodies of water are Great Britain and Ireland 
 separated from the mainland of Europe? 
 2. What sea lies between Great Britain and 
 Ireland ? 3. Into what three parts is Great 
 Britain divided .^ 
 
 4. Where are the highlands of Great Britain ? 
 5. Why are the highlands of Scotland so cool dur- 
 ing the summer ? 6. What are the leading in- 
 dustries of northern Scotland? 7. In what other 
 parts of Great Britain is there much grazing ? 
 
 8. Where are the chief agricultural regions of 
 Great Britain ? 9. What are the leading crops ? 
 10. Why must Great Britain import food ? 
 
 II. What is the leading industry in Great 
 Britain? 12. What mineral deposits have made 
 this industry possible? 13. Where are iron and 
 steel goods made? 14. For what industry is 
 Glasgow noted? Sheffield? 15. What is the 
 largest manufacturing industry of (ireat Britain ? 
 
 16. Where does the raw material come from? 
 
 17. What city is the center of this industry? 
 Why? 18. What port once handled all the raw 
 material ? Why does it not do so now ? 
 19. Where are woolen goods manufactured in 
 Great Britain ? 20. Where does the wool come 
 from ? 
 
 21. Why does Great Britain keep a large navy ? 
 22. What cities arethechief seaports ? 23. Name 
 
 souurhing for which 
 London is famous. 
 24. What is the British 
 Empire ? 
 
 25. Where is Ulster ? 
 for what industry is it 
 famous ? 26. What city 
 is the center of linen 
 manufacture ? 27. What 
 are the chief industries 
 of the Irish Free State? 
 
 28. What cities are en- 
 gaged in shipbuilding? 
 
 29. What fuel is used in 
 the country districts ?
 
 I go 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 
 Fig. 317. Cultivated fields in southeastern Gi 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 205. Position and Size. — Germany 
 was for many years an empire, but 
 after its defeat in the World War it be- 
 came a republic. The country is smaller 
 than it was before the war (Figs. 306 
 and 307) ; but still it is larger than the 
 six New England States and the three 
 Middle Atlantic States combined. It is 
 separated into two parts by Poland. It 
 has land boundaries on the east, south, 
 and west, but most of its northern bound- 
 ary is formed by the waters of the North 
 and Baltic seas. 
 
 Northern Germany and northeastern 
 Germany are low plains. Southern Ger- 
 many is high and includes a shkiII part of 
 the northern Alps. The central part is 
 a region of hills and low, forest-covered 
 mountains. The general slope of the 
 hind is from the south to tlir iiortii. 
 
 206. Agriculture and Grazing. On tin' 
 northern jjlain the summers are warm 
 and the winds from the Atlantic Ocean 
 bring enough rain to make it possible 
 
 to raise large crops. The 
 higher and rougher country 
 farther south also has much 
 good farming land (Fig. 
 317). Along some of the 
 rivers the slopes have been 
 built into terraces. 
 
 The leading crops are 
 sugar beets, potatoes, rye. 
 oats, barley, and wheat. 
 Potatoes and the " black 
 bread " made from rye and 
 barley are the chief food of 
 the poorer people. Many 
 grapes are grown on the 
 terraced slopes of the upper 
 Rhine valley. Hops are 
 also grown in abundance. 
 
 Cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs are 
 raised, especially on the uplands and 
 wherever the soil is too poor for cultiva- 
 tion. Some fishing is carried on along 
 the coast, but the industry is not so 
 important as in Great Britain. Because 
 of its large population Germany must 
 import part of its food supply. 
 
 207. Forests and Mines. — The forests 
 of Germany cover about one fourth of 
 its surface and are carefully tended and 
 protected. Only large trees or poor ones 
 are cut down, and when this is done 
 great care is taken not to injure those 
 that are left. Even the small twigs and 
 branches are picked up to be used for 
 fuel, and to jirevent the starting of forest 
 fires. 
 
 Coal and iron are found in several 
 parts of Germany, and there are valuable 
 (lei)osits of silver, lead, zinc, copper, and 
 salt. 
 
 208. Manufacturing. — Most of the 
 grain cro|)s are used in the manufacture 
 of Hour, and a good flour is also made
 
 GERMANY 
 
 191 
 
 from potatoes. Grapes are used in ttu' 
 manufacture of wine, and hops in the 
 manufacture of beer. Germany makes 
 more beet sugar than any other country 
 of the world. 
 
 Other manufactures in Germany include 
 the making of cotton, woolen, and linen 
 goods and the printing ot books. Essen is 
 the center of a great steel-manufacturing 
 industry. 
 
 209. Commerce and Cities. — Ger- 
 many, like Great Britain, must have 
 food for its people, raw materials for its 
 factories, and markets for its manufac- 
 tures. In 1914 it was a great commercial 
 nation. It imported grain, meat, cotton, 
 and wool, and exported sugar, wine, 
 medicines, dye stuffs, and many other 
 kinds of manufactured goods. At the 
 close of the World War, Germany was 
 left with but few ships and little of its 
 foreign trade. 
 
 Hamburg and Bremen near the North 
 Sea, and Stettin on the Baltic, are seaports 
 and shipbuilding centers. Ports on the 
 Baltic can be reached from the North 
 Sea through a ship canal which cuts 
 across a narrow part of Germany south 
 of Denmark. 
 
 Several large rivers rise in the southern 
 mountains and flow across central and 
 northern Germany to the Baltic and 
 North seas. The Danube, however, flows 
 east to the Black Sea. These rivers are 
 navigable for long distances, and are 
 connected by canals. Many boats make 
 use of this network of waterways, espe- 
 cially those carrving freight. In addition 
 Germany has large railroad systems. 
 
 Berlin is the capital and chief railroad 
 center. Leipzig is a fur market and book 
 publishing center. Dresden and Mtinich 
 are famous for their picture galleries ; 
 
 and Cologne for its cathedral and the 
 manufacture of perfumery. 
 
 Review of Sections 205 to 209. — i. What 
 
 ch;inp;c ot" goviTiiniciU in (icnnany followed the 
 World War .^ 2. Descrilie the size and bound- 
 aries of Germany. 3. Describe the surface of the 
 country. 
 
 4. Where are the agricultural regions ] 
 5. What arc the important crops \ 6. How 
 has the upper Rhine valley been fitted for agri- 
 culture .f' 7. What is grown there ? 8. Where 
 are the grazing regions .'' 9. Why must Ger- 
 many import food .' 
 
 to. How are the forests of Germany cared 
 for .^ n. What mineral deposits are found in 
 Germany .? 
 
 12. What crops arc used for the manufacture 
 of flour? 13. How does Germany rank in the 
 manufacture of beet sugar.? 14. What are some 
 of the other important manufactures .? 
 
 15. What was {he effect of the World War 
 on the commerce of Germany.? 16. What three 
 cities are important seaports and shipbuilding 
 centers.? 17. How may Baltic ports be reached 
 from the North Sea.? 18. What large rivers 
 rise in the southern mountains (Fig. 306) ? 
 19. How have the rivers been made useful 
 in commerce.? 20. Where is Berlin? 21. For 
 what is Leipzig noted .? Dresden .? Cologne .?
 
 193 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Fig. 319. Stacks of flax in Belgium. The stalk of the 
 plant contains the fiber used in making linen 
 
 Fig. 321. Canal in a Dutch city. Narrow streets border 
 the canal, but most of the transportation is by water 
 
 OTHER COUNTRIES ON THE NORTH 
 AND BALTIC SEAS 
 
 210. Belgium. — Belgium is about as 
 large as Maryland, but has five or six 
 times as many people. The southeastern 
 part is hilly, and has well-kept forests 
 and mines of coal, zinc, iron, and lead. 
 Northern Belgium is a lowland. Part of 
 it is so low that high banks, called dikes, 
 have been built to keep out the sea. 
 
 Belgium is a country of small farms, 
 especially in the northern lowlands. The 
 chief crops are grain, flax, hops, sugar 
 beets, and vegetables. Sheep and horses 
 are raised among the southeastern hills. 
 
 Fig. 320. Shipping 011 the- Scheldt River at Aiitwrrp 
 
 On account of the coal and iron mines, 
 southern Belgium has become one of the 
 busiest iron-manufacturing regions in 
 Europe. Belgium is famous also for its 
 linens, laces, carpets, and woolen and 
 cotton cloths. Much of the flax used 
 in the linen and lace is home grown, but 
 all the cotton and most of the wool are 
 imported. The Belgians have long been 
 leaders in the making of woolen goods. 
 
 Brussels, the capital and largest city, 
 manufactures lace, linen, and carpets. 
 Antzverp is the chief seaport and one of 
 the great ports of Europe (Fig. 320). 
 Lii'ge manufactures woolen and steel goods. 
 
 Belgium has a large colony in the Kongo 
 district of Africa. 
 
 211. The Netherlands. — The name 
 Netherlands means lowlands and is there- 
 fore a good n;niu' for the low country north 
 of Belgium aiulwest of (icrmany (Pig. 306). 
 1 his country is often called Holland, which 
 is really the name of one of its provinces. 
 The peoi)ic- arc t illnl 1 iolhiiulers or Dutch. 
 y\ j)art nf the country is in the Rhine delta, 
 ;in(l niiuh ol it lies below the level of the 
 sea. Here, as in northern Belgium, dikes 
 have been built tn kt-ej) the sea and rivers 
 from ll( Killing the l.md.
 
 BELGHM, rilK NKTIIKRLANDS 
 
 193 
 
 Fig. 322. Shipping in the harbor of Rotterdam 
 
 Fig. 323. An Amsterdam diamond cutter 
 
 The water that gathers on the lowlands 
 behind the dikes is pumped out by wind- 
 mills into the canals which cross nearly 
 all parts of the country. The people 
 use the canals instead of roads, traveling 
 and carrying their produce to market 
 in boats. In some of the cities there are 
 canals through the principal streets (Fig. 
 321). In the winter the canals freeze 
 over and are used for skating and sleigh- 
 ing. 
 
 212. Industries of the Netherlands. — 
 The leading industries are agriculture and 
 dairying. The small farms are so care- 
 fully tended that they look like well-kept 
 gardens. The cattle also are given the 
 best of care. Butter and cheese are 
 made in large quantities and sent to 
 other countries for sale. The crops are 
 like those of Belgium. The Dutch 
 farmers grow also many flowers and 
 Hower bulbs for foreign markets. 
 
 The Dutch have large possessions in the 
 East Indies (islands near Asia), small 
 islands in the West Indies, and part of 
 Guiana in South America. The city of 
 New York was founded and the Hudson 
 Valley was explored and settled by the 
 Dutch. Later this region became an 
 
 English colony and finally a part of the 
 United States. 
 
 The capital of the Netherlands is the 
 Hague. Rotterdam is one of the chief 
 seaports of Europe (Fig. 322). The larg- 
 est city of the Netherlands is Amsterdam. 
 Here live and work the most skillful 
 diamond cutters in the world. When 
 found, most diamonds look like small 
 round pebbles. Cut diamonds glisten 
 brilliantly as the light strikes them. 
 Stones from many diamond mines are 
 sent to Amsterdam to be cut (Fig. 323). 
 
 Review of Sections 210 to 212. — i. Which 
 
 part of the Belgium country is hilly.'' 2. Where 
 is the lowland } 3. How are lands below sea 
 level protected from the sea ? 4. What are the 
 chief industries ? 5. Where is each carried on ? 
 
 6. What are the most important manufactures ? 
 
 7. Where is the raw material obtained .? 
 
 8. Name the chief cities of Belgium. 
 
 9. What does the name Netherlands mean ? 
 
 10. Why are the people called Hollanders } 
 
 11. What river delta forms a part of this 
 country.' Of what use are dikes? 12. How 
 are the lowlands drained .' 13. Of what use 
 are the canals ? 
 
 14. What are the leading industries of the 
 Netherlands? 15. What products are ex- 
 ported ? 16. What city is the capital ? 
 17. Which city is the largest? 18. Which is 
 the chief port ?
 
 ■94 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Fi-i. 
 
 ' ) . Young women at work decorating beautiful Danish 
 pottery, Copenhagen 
 
 214. Norway and Sweden. — Nor- 
 way and Sweden are two independ- 
 ent kingdoms occupying the Scan- 
 dinavian Peninsula. This is the 
 largest peninsula of Europe. It is 
 more than twice as large as Great 
 Britain, although Great Britain has 
 nearly six times as many people as 
 Norway and Sweden combined. 
 
 Much of the Scandinavian Penin- 
 sula is mountainous. Farming is 
 possible only in the eastern and 
 southern parts.. The chief crops are 
 hay and the grains and vegetables 
 that will grow in cool countries. 
 213. Denmark. — Denmark occupies a In the highlands sheep, cattle, and goats 
 small peninsula between the North and are raised. Much butter and cheese are 
 Baltic seas, and the islands east of the made. Many of the mountain slopes 
 peninsula (Fig. 306). It is a lowland, are covered with forests, and both Norway 
 larger than the Netherlands, but has only and Sweden produce lumber, wood pulp, 
 half as many people. and paper for export (Fig. 325). 
 
 Much of the soil of Denmark is sandy Norway stretches along the western 
 or swami)y, and the climate is too cool side and around the northern end of the 
 for many crops. Oats, barley, rye, and peninsula. Long Hords, or narrow arms 
 vegetables are grown ; but the leading of the sea bordered by steep rocky walls 
 mdustries are dairying and the raising (Fig. 326), reach inland among the moun- 
 of poultry, sheep, horses, and hogs, tains. It is easier for the people living 
 Butter is made in large quantities, and near these fiords to go from place to place 
 much of it is sent to London and to other by sea, than to cross the rugged land, 
 cities of Great Britain. Part of the food 
 given to the cattle in Denmark and other 
 west European countries is cottonseed 
 meal from the United States. 
 
 There is some manufacturing, including 
 the making of leather and line decorated 
 pottery (Fig. 324). 
 
 The capital, Copenhagen, is the largest 
 city and chief port. 
 
 The Danish ])ossessions include (Ireen- 
 land fSec. 176) and the Faroe Ul.iiids iu 
 the north Atlantic. Between thein is 
 Iceland, with a government of its own, 
 under the Danish king. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Fir. 325. Log.s to lie used in paper iiuiUinn, Norway
 
 DENMARK, NORWAY, SWEDEN 
 
 195 
 
 Fig. 326. A steamer in one of the Norwegian fiords 
 
 For this reason the Scandinavians have 
 always been devoted to a V\ic on the sea. 
 A thousand years ago the Norsemen, as 
 they were called, were the most famous 
 and daring sailors and sea rovers in the 
 world. At the present time many of 
 the Scandinavians are fishermen, and 
 fish supply a large part of their food. 
 Many are sailors, both on their own 
 ships and on those of other nations. 
 Vessels owned and manned by Scandina- 
 vians are engaged in the business of 
 carrying goods to and from all the great 
 ports of the world. 
 
 One of the most beautiful ocean trips in 
 the world is in and out among the fiords 
 of Norway (Fig. 326) and along its coast. 
 At the heads of many of the northern 
 fiords great glaciers may be seen, al- 
 though they are not so large as those in 
 the fiords of Alaska. The North Cape 
 is so far north that for several weeks dur- 
 ing the summer the sun does not set 
 there even at midniglit. For this reason 
 the northern part of Norway is called 
 
 the " land of the midnight 
 sun." 
 
 In northern Sweden there 
 are large forests and valu- 
 able deposits of iron ore. 
 The steel made from this ore 
 has long been famous for its 
 excellent cpiality. In south- 
 ern Sweden agriculture is 
 the leading industry and the 
 farms are well cultivated. 
 There is no coal in Norway 
 and Sweden, but the power 
 furnished by the mountain 
 streams is used, and much 
 manufacturing is done. 
 
 215. Cities. — Most of the 
 people live in the southern 
 part of the peninsula, and all of the 
 large cities are there. Stockholm is the 
 capital and largest city of Sweden. 
 Gotcborg is the most important port. 
 Christiania is the capital and largest 
 city of Norway. Bergen is its chief port 
 and the headquarters of a large fishing 
 fleet. 
 
 Review of Sections 213 to 215.— i. Where is 
 
 Denmark ? 2. How does it compare in size and 
 population with the Netherlands? 3. What are 
 the industries? 4. What are the exports? 
 5. Where is one export sent ? 6. What food is used 
 for the cattle ? 7. Where is Copenhagen ? 8. 
 What outlyinp; possessions has Denmark ? 
 
 9. In what peninsula are Norway and Sweden ? 
 10. How does the peninsula compare in size and 
 population with Great Britain ? 11. What parts 
 of it are suitable for farming ? 12. What crops can 
 be grown? 13. Where are the grazing regions? 
 14. What part of the peninsula is covered with 
 forests? 15. Where is Norway? 16. Describe 
 its coast. 17. What occupations do the people 
 follow on the sea ? 
 
 18. Where is the North Cape? 19. Why is 
 it interesting to visit this cape in midsummer? 
 
 20. Where do most of the Scandinavian people 
 live? 21. Where is Stockholm? Goteborg ? 
 Christiania ?
 
 196 
 
 EUROi^E 
 
 216. Poland. — Poland is 
 made up of lands until 
 recently ruled by Germany, 
 Austria, and Russia. Its 
 area is greater than that 
 of our state of Colorado, 
 and its population is many 
 times as great. In the 
 west its boundaries are so 
 fixed that Poland separates 
 a small part of northeast- 
 ern Germany from the main 
 body of that country (Fig. 306). The 
 eastern boundary was established by 
 treaty with Russia after a war in 1920. 
 
 Poland is mainly an agricultural coun- 
 try (Fig. 327) ; the chief crops are rye, 
 oats, wheat, potatoes, and sugar beets. 
 Horses, cattle, and sheep are raised. The 
 mineral wealth of the country includes 
 rich deposits of coal, iron, zinc, and salt. 
 Among the manufactures are textiles, 
 leather, and iron and steel goods. 
 
 The Vistula is the most important river 
 highway. On its banks is Warsaw, the 
 capital and chief railroad center (Fig. 
 328). It has tanneries, sugar refineries, 
 and other factories. The great cotton mills 
 
 f 
 
 
 *u^ 
 
 
 
 -l 
 
 -v^wj 
 
 >»«» -fimrtww-. -' ''TK«p^D» 
 
 
 Fig. 327. At work on a Polish farm 
 
 are at Loch. Raw cotton used there is 
 imported from the United States. 
 
 Danzig, an independent city near the 
 mouth of the Vistula, is the chief port 
 for trade with Poland. 
 
 217. Lithuania, Latvia, and Esthonia. 
 — ■ These three countries border the east- 
 ern shore of the Baltic Sea. The area of 
 this region is six times that of Belgium 
 and about equal to that of our state of 
 Washington. The entire region is low and 
 flat and a considerable part is marshland. 
 The leading industries throughout the 
 district are farming, lumbering, and fish- 
 ing. Riga is the chief port. 
 
 Review of Sections 216 and 217. — i. What 
 counrry does Poland divide into 
 two parts .-■ 2. What is the chief 
 industry of Poland ? 3. What 
 crops are raised .? 4. What min- 
 erals arc found ? 5. What are the 
 leadinfi manufactures ? 6. Why 
 is the \'istula River important 
 to the Polish people.? 7. What 
 are the industries of Warsaw ? 
 8. What is manufactured at Lodz 
 and where does the raw material 
 come from ^ 9. Through what 
 independent city is Polish sea 
 trade carried on ? 
 
 lo. What countries horder the 
 eastern shore of the Maltic Sea .? 
 II. What are the leading indus- 
 tries? 12. What city is the chief 
 
 ift 
 
 port 01 this region :
 
 FRANCE 
 
 197 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 218. Position and Surface. — The Euro- 
 pean country nearest to Great Britain is 
 
 the silkworm. This Httle caterpillar is fed 
 on the leaves ol the mulberry tree until it 
 is old enough to spin its cocoon. 
 
 Cattle, sheep, and horses are raised 
 
 the republic of France. By what strait in large numbers, and butter and cheese 
 
 and channel are these countries separated are exported. Several kinds of French 
 
 (Fig. 306) .? From these waters France cheese are widely known for their delicate 
 
 stretches across the mainland of Europe .flavors. 
 
 to the Mediterranean Sea. The south 220. Forests and Mines. — The French 
 
 and east boundaries are formed partly tend their forests with great care. Trees 
 
 by mountain ranges. to be cut down are carefully chosen. 
 
 The central plateau west of the river Twigs and branches are not allowed to 
 
 Rhone is the only large highland in the lie on the ground. Many trees have 
 
 interior. The valley between the plateau been planted in districts where the soil 
 
 and the Alps is drained into the Medi- is too poor for cultivation or for pasture, 
 
 terranean Sea. Nearly all the rest of France has always had some coal and 
 
 France slopes toward the west and north- 
 west and is drained by several large rivers. 
 219. Agriculture. — As France has a 
 mild climate and abundant rain, large 
 
 iron, but in the territory recovered from 
 Germany after the World War (Fig. 307) 
 there is much more of both these impor- 
 tant minerals. Potash, a valuable man- 
 
 crops are easily grown on the lowlands eral fertilizer, is also found in this terri- 
 
 and in the valleys. Wheat is the chief tory near the river Rhine. 
 
 grain raised, but oats, 
 
 barley, and rye also 
 
 are grown. Potatoes 
 
 and sugar beets are 
 
 produced in many 
 
 parts of the country 
 
 (Fig. 329). 
 
 In the cultivation of 
 wine grapes France 
 leads the world. The 
 finest vineyards are 
 in the Garonne and 
 Rhone valleys and in 
 the upper parts of the 
 Seine, Saone, and Rhine 
 valleys. Southern 
 France also produces 
 oranges and olives. 
 
 One of the principal 
 industries of southern 
 France is the care of 
 
 
 A', work m a French potato licld
 
 198 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 221. Manufacturing. — Of all the 
 French manufactures the most im- 
 portant are the textiles, or cloth 
 and other woven goods. A part of 
 the linen, silk, and wool used in 
 them are produced in France, but 
 all of the cotton is imported 
 
 French textiles are of line quality 
 and the silks are especially famous. 
 Lyon, in the valley of the Rhone, 
 is the center of the silk manufac- 
 turing industry (Fig. 330) ; and 
 St. Etie?ine, near Lyon, makes silk 
 ribbons. There are large cotton and 
 woolen mills in northeastern France 
 and in the Rhine Valley. Other 
 
 French manufactures include iron and the Garonne, is the chief port for the ship- 
 steel goods, wine, sugar, gloves, shoes, ment of wines. Calais is the French 
 artistic jewelry, and other articles prized port for the steamers that run between 
 for their superior quality. northeastern France and Dover in south- 
 
 222. Commerce and Cities. — Among the ern England. 
 
 imports of France are coal, cotton, wool, The most beautiful city of France and 
 raw silk, and meat, wheat, and other one of the most beautiful in the world is 
 foods. The chief exports are a great Paris (Fig. 331). It is the capital of 
 variety of textiles, fine jewelry, and other France and the third city of the Old World 
 artistic products, and much wine. in population. Its avenues are broad and 
 
 Marseille is the largest seaport, and con- handsome, well shaded, and brilliantly 
 trols the trade with other countries on lighted at night. There are many fine 
 the Mediterranean Sea. Bordeaux, on public buildings and large art galleries with 
 
 famous paintings and statues. To this 
 city many students of music, painting, 
 and architecture go to study. Paris has 
 a variety of manufactures and carries 
 on an extensive commerce through its 
 seaport, Havre. Small luiats come up 
 the Seine from the ocean and receive or 
 unload their cargoes within the city limits. 
 Although for many centuries a mon- 
 archv, France has now been for some time 
 a rcpublii . li has colonies in Asia, 
 several large colonies in Africa, one in 
 South -America (Sec. 192), and it owns 
 many islands. 
 
 4 
 Fig. 331. On 
 
 
 -1 
 
 L of tli( firidgt s across tin 
 
 Seine at Paris
 
 FRANCE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL 
 
 199 
 
 Review of Sections 218 to 222. — i. Where is 
 France? 2. What parts of its boundary are 
 mountain ranges? 3. Into what waters do its 
 rivers flow ? 
 
 4. Why are large crops easily grown in France ? 
 ;. What grains are raised ? 6. Where is grape 
 culture carried on ? 7. Where are silkworms 
 raised ? 8. Describe this industry. 9. On what 
 are the worms fed ? 
 
 10. What care do the French people give their 
 forests ? 
 
 11. What are the leading manufactures? 
 12. What cities are the leading silk-manufacturing 
 centers? 13. Where are the cotton and woolen 
 mills ? 
 
 14. What are the chief imports ? Exports ? 
 15. What cities are important ports? 16. On 
 what waters are they located? 17. Where is 
 Paris? 18. For what is the city noted ? 19. What 
 is the present government of France ? 20. What 
 other countries have this form of government ? 
 II. Where are the French colonies ? 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 223. Surface. — The two countries of 
 the Iberian Peninsula are Spain and 
 Portugal (Figs. 304, 306). They are 
 independent of each other, but are alike 
 in climate and industries. Spain is five 
 and one half times as large as its smaller 
 
 neighbor. Much of the penin- 
 sula is a high and rugged 
 plateau. It is bordered on the 
 north by the Pyrenees (Fig. 332). 
 and is crossed by other ranges. 
 
 224. Grazing and Agricul- 
 ture. — The plateau is so high 
 that it is cool in spite of its 
 southern position, and the winds 
 that reach the interior bring but 
 little rain. Some wheat and 
 other grains are grown, but 
 much of the plateau is unfit foi 
 agriculture. The raising of 
 cattle and sheep is the leading 
 industry. 
 
 Along parts of the coast and 
 in the valleys of some of the rivers there 
 are small lowlands whose climate is mild. 
 These are the chief agricultural districts. 
 On the west coast during the winter 
 the west winds bring enough rain for the 
 growth of crops. In the east it is neces- 
 sary to irrigate the fields. 
 
 In the warm valleys and lowlands, 
 grapes, olives, oranges, and other tropical 
 fruits are raised. Another product of 
 southern Spain and Portugal is cork, 
 which is the bark of a kind of oak tree 
 (Fig. 333). It is stripped ofT in large 
 sheets and used in making corks for 
 bottles and in filling life preservers.
 
 20O 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 225. Mining, Manufactures, and Com- 
 merce. — There are large deposits of im- 
 portant minerals, including iron, copper, 
 lead, zinc, and quicksilver. There is 
 not much coal in either Spain or Portugal, 
 and the people are lacking in enterprise. 
 For these reasons most of the ore is sent 
 to Great Britain and Germany for smelt- 
 ing and manufacture. 
 
 There are textile mills in Barcelona in 
 northeastern Spain, but in most parts of 
 the peninsula there is little manufactur- 
 ing. This is partly because of the small 
 supply of coal. As there are few impor- 
 tant manufactures, the leading exports 
 are ores, cork, truit, and wine. Barcelona 
 (Fig. 334) and Valencia are the chief ports 
 of Spain. The seaports of Portugal are 
 Oporto (Fig. 335) and Lisbon, the capital. 
 
 Madrid is the capital and the largest 
 city of Spain. It is near the center of 
 the high plateau and is surrounded by a 
 barren country. 
 
 226. People and History. — Spain and 
 Portugal were at one time among the 
 leading nations of the world. They led 
 in the explonition and settlement of new 
 countries and had many colonirs. Ir 
 was a Spanish expedition that Columbus 
 
 commanded when he dis- 
 covered the New World. 
 It was also by expeditions 
 from Spain and Portugal 
 that South America and 
 the southern part of 
 North America were ex- 
 plored and settled. Spain 
 was cruel in the govern- 
 ment of its colonies, and 
 finally they rebelled and 
 obtained their freedom. 
 Portugal also lost her 
 great American colony, 
 Brazil. At present both Spain and Por- 
 tugal have colonies in Africa. 
 
 
 Fig. 335. The harbor of Oporto, Portugal 
 
 In 1910 the people of Portugal forced 
 the king to leave the country, and se.t 
 up a republic. Spain is a monarchy. 
 
 At the southern end of Spain, not 
 far from the northern coast of Africa, 
 is the famous mountain known as the 
 Rock of Cjibraltar. This rock is owned 
 by Great Britain. Rooms and passage- 
 ways have been cut in it, and great camion 
 placed in them, making a powerful for- 
 tress. Thus the British can lontiol the 
 movement of sliijjs between the Atlantic 
 Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.
 
 SPAIN, PORTUGAL, SWITZERLAND 
 
 20I 
 
 Review of Sections 223 to 226. — i. Ih whiili 
 peninsula ut Luropc arc Spain and Portugal ? 
 2. How do they compare in size? 3. Describe 
 the surface of the peninsula. 
 
 4. W hat eftect has the ele\ arion of the penin- 
 sula on the temperature? 5. Compare the rain- 
 fall of the Iberian Peninsula with that of France. 
 6. What industries are carried on? 7. Where 
 is irrigation necessary ? S. What tree grown in 
 the southern part of the peninsula has an especially 
 valuable bark ? 9. What minerals are found ? 
 10. Where is the ore sent for manufacture ? 
 
 II. Where is Barcelona? iz. What industries 
 are carried on there? 13. What are the ex- 
 ports of Spain ? 14. What cities are important 
 ports? 15. Where are they? 16. Where is the 
 capital of Spain ? 
 
 17. \\ here did Spain and Portugal at one time 
 have colonies ? 18. From which of these countries 
 did Columbus sail when he discovered America ? 
 19. What has become of the colonies that Spain 
 once had ? 20. What change did Portugal make 
 in 1910 in the form of government ? 
 
 teau is the most densely settled part of 
 the country. 
 
 228. Climate. — Switzerhmd is cooler 
 than the surrounding countries because 
 of its greater elevation. The west winds 
 from the Atlantic Ocean blow across the 
 land. During the winter there is much 
 snow. In summer rain falls abundantly 
 on the lower mountain slopes and on 
 the plateau. 
 
 22Q. Grazing and Agriculture. — There 
 is excellent pasture on many of the 
 mountain slopes and in the higher moun- 
 tain valleys. When the winter has passed 
 and the snows begin to melt, the cattle 
 are driven into the upper mountains, 
 from one pasture to another. They feed 
 in each pasture as long as the grass lasts 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 .IP^ 
 
 21. Where is Gibraltar? 22. By what country or until a higher pasture is free from 
 is this rock owned ? 23. Why is it important ? snow. As winter again comes on, they 
 
 are driven back to the lower pastures, 
 one after another, and finally to the home 
 
 227. Position and Surface. — Switzer- buildings, where they are kept during the 
 land is a country of the central Alps, cold winter months. During the sum- 
 How many countries border it (Fig. mer the grass that can be saved is cut 
 306) ? As it is shut in on all sides by and carried to the barns for winter use 
 other countries, it has no seacoast. It (Fig. 336). 
 is about half as large 
 as Maine, but has 
 five times as many 
 people. 
 
 Much of its surface 
 is occupied by the 
 high, snow-clad Alps 
 in the south, and the 
 lower ranges of the 
 Jura along the north- 
 western border. Be- 
 tween these two high 
 mountain masses is a 
 narrow, hilly plateau 
 with several beauti- 
 ful lakes. This pla- 
 
 Fig. 336. Making hay in Switzerland
 
 202 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 The house and the barn are generally 
 under one roof. Such buildings are made 
 of wood, with wide overhanging eaves. 
 Great stones are sometimes placed on 
 the roofs to keep them from blowing 
 away when strong winds sweep through 
 the mountain valleys. 
 
 The chief industry in the mountain 
 valleys is the making of butter and cheese. 
 On the plateau and on some sunny moun- 
 tain slopes the farmers raise grain, grapes, 
 and vegetables. Other, more rugged 
 mountain slopes are covered with forests. 
 
 230. Manufactur- 
 ing. — There is not 
 much coal in Switzer- 
 land, and the Swiss 
 depend on rluir rapid 
 streams and water- 
 falls for the power 
 necessary to run mills 
 and factories. I he 
 Swiss iii,inu(:i( tint's 
 are valuable because 
 of their fine work- 
 
 manship rather than be- 
 cause of the amount of 
 material used. They in- 
 clude toys, clocks, and 
 carved woodwork, jewelry, 
 fine watches, lace, linen, 
 silk, and embroideries (Fig. 
 
 337)- 
 
 Carved woodwork and 
 toys are made by the moun- 
 taineers during the winter. 
 Many other articles also are 
 made in the homes of the 
 people. The three manu- 
 facturing centers are Zurich 
 and Bast'l (Fig. 338), noted 
 for their silks, and Geneva, 
 famous for its watches. 
 As Switzerland has no seacoast, com- 
 merce is carried on by rail (Sec. 195). 
 
 231. Language and Government. — 
 Nearly all mountain people are brave 
 and fearless. The Swiss have long been 
 free and independent because they have 
 fought for their freedom when necessary. 
 For many years Switzerland has been a 
 republic. Bern is the capital. 
 
 Fhere is no Swiss language. Many of 
 the people near Germany and Austria 
 speak German, others near France speak 
 French, and a few near Italy speak Italian. 
 
 Fig. 338. Basel, on the Rhine River, Switzerland
 
 SWITZERLAND, ITALY 
 
 203 
 
 232. Tourists and People. 
 — The wonderful snow-clad 
 mountains, the beautiful val- 
 leys, and the great glaciers 
 attract tourists from all parts 
 of the world. Every sum- 
 mer thousands of people go 
 to Switzerland for a vaca- 
 tion. Providing for these 
 tourists furnishes employ- 
 ment for many of the Swiss 
 people. The dress of the 
 Swiss mountaineers is pictur- 
 esque. It is quite different 
 from that which we usually 
 
 see. There is good reason for this. 
 People who live in mountainous countries 
 must wear clothing that is suitable for 
 mountain climbing. It must be strong, 
 and loose, especially at the knees. Be- 
 sides such clothing the Swiss mountaineers 
 usually wear hats with some kind of 
 bright-colored ornament. 
 
 Review of Sections 227 to 232. — i. Where is 
 Switzerland .? 2. Which parts of its surface are 
 most mountainous? 3. What part is a plateau? 
 
 4. Tell about the climate of Switzerland. 
 
 5. For what are the mountam valleys used ? 
 
 6. What is done with the grass that can be cut ? 
 
 7. What are the chief products of this part of 
 Switzerland ? 8. Where is the agricultural sec- 
 tion ? 
 
 9. What are the leading manufactures of 
 Switzerland? 10. What power is used ? 11. How 
 is trade carried on between Switzerland and lands 
 across the mountains ? 
 
 12. What form of government has Switzer- 
 land ? 13. What languages are used ? 14. Why 
 is this country visited by many tourists ? 
 
 ITALY 
 
 233. Position and Surface. — Italy oc- 
 cupies the central one of the three south- 
 ern peninsulas of Europe. It is a long, 
 narrow country, shaped much like a boot 
 
 Fig. 339. Harvesting wheat in the Po Valley 
 
 with a wide top (Figs. 306, 307). At the 
 toe of the boot is the island of Sicily, and 
 west of the peninsula is the island of Sar- 
 dinia. Both islands belong to Italy. 
 
 The Alps border the peninsula on the 
 north and on the northwest. Near Genoa 
 they unite with the Apennines, which 
 continue southeast through the entire 
 length of the peninsula. 
 
 As the Apennines are high and broad, 
 the eastern and western coast plains are 
 narrow. There are fertile valleys among 
 the mountains, and small lowlands along 
 the rivers. The largest lowland of Italy 
 is the valley of the river Po, in the 
 northern part of the peninsula, between 
 the Alps and the Apennines. 
 
 234. Agriculture. — The climate of Italy 
 is mild, but the summer rainfall is not 
 enough for crops, and the land must be 
 irrigated. In parts of the Po Valley, 
 with the aid of irrigation, two or more 
 crops are raised each year. The principal 
 products of this valley are wheat, corn, 
 rice, and vegetables. Here also are large 
 groves of mulberry trees, and Italy out- 
 ranks France in the production of raw 
 silk.
 
 204 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Fig. 340. Carrara marble quarry 
 
 ever, get some idea of their 
 beauty from the ruins that 
 are still left. About the 
 Forum, or ancient market 
 place, are remains of its old 
 temples and other public 
 buildings (Fig. 341). Near 
 the Forum may still be 
 seen the ruins of the Col- 
 osseum, an immense build- 
 ing with seats for 80,000, 
 Around the Gulf of Genoa, and in the where the people of ancient Rome gath- 
 warm southern valleys and coast plains, ered to see men and animals fight, 
 oranges, lemons, grapes, and olives are The Pope, the head of the Roman 
 grown. Catholic Church, lives in Rome in the 
 
 235. Other Industries. — There is little palace called the Vatican. Connected 
 mining in Italy, though some sulphur with the Vatican is the great church of 
 is found on the island of Sicily. A fine St. Peter's. 
 
 quality of white marble is quarried near 237. Other Cities. — Naples is the 
 Carrara in the northern part of the largest city of Italy, and an important 
 peninsula (Fig. 340). seaport. It lies on a beautiful bay in 
 
 The manufactures of Italy are not the southwestern part of the country, 
 extensive, but they are developing rapidly. Near it is Mount Vesuvius, a volcano 
 Silk and cotton goods, lace, and gloves that is still active. Another active vol- 
 are among the most important. Most cano, Etna, is on the island of Sicily, 
 of the raw cotton is imported from the and a third, Stromboli, is on a small 
 United States. Wine and olive oil are island between them, 
 made in large quantities. 
 
 Pishing is an iinjior- 
 tant industry, especially 
 along the eastern coast. 
 
 236. The City of Rome. 
 Rome, the capital of the 
 kingdom, was at one 
 time the center ol ;iii 
 empire that controlkd ;i 
 large i)art of the world 
 then known. This was 
 nearly two thousand 
 years ago, and most ol 
 the splendid buildings ol 
 that time have been de- 
 stroyed. We may, how- 
 
 I 
 
 Fi^. .^41. Tin- Roman Forum, with ruins of ancient buildings
 
 ITALY. AUSTRIA 
 
 205 
 
 Fig. 342. Public square in Florence 
 
 Fig. 343. A landing place for boats, in Venice 
 
 Florence (Fig. 342) has large picture 
 galleries, in which have been gathered 
 the paintings and statues made by many 
 Italians and other great artists. It is 
 the center of a large region where grapes 
 are raised and used for making wine. 
 
 Genoa, the chief seaport of Italy, was 
 the birthplace of Christopher Columbus. 
 Here are shipyards and cotton mills. 
 
 One of the most interesting of the 
 Italian cities is Venice, built on a group 
 of islands near the head of the Adriatic 
 Sea. It has narrow, winding footpaths, 
 but no broad streets such as we usually 
 find in large cities. People commonly 
 travel, and goods are carried, in boats, 
 on canals which take the place of streets 
 (Fig. 343). Not far from Venice is 
 Trieste, another port on the Adriatic. 
 
 Milan and Turin are manufacturing 
 cities in the valley of the Po. 
 
 Review of Sections 233 to 237. — i. Where is 
 haly? 2. What is Its shape? 3. What two 
 islands near Italy belong to it? 4. I5y what 
 mountains is the northern part of the peninsula 
 bordered? 5. What mountains occupy the central 
 part? 6. Where are the lowlands? 
 
 7. Describe the climate of Italy. 8. Why must 
 irrigation be used in growing crops ? 9. What are 
 the principal crops of the Po Valley ? 10. Where 
 are tropical fruits grown ? 
 
 II. What stone comes from the Carrara 
 quarries? 12. What manufactures are carried on 
 in Italy ? 
 
 13. What famous ruins are in Rome? Name 
 two great buildings now in use. 14. What two 
 cities are important seaports? 15. Where are 
 they? 16. For what is Florence noted ? 17. Why 
 is Venice interesting? iS. What two manufac- 
 turing cities are in the Po Valley ? 
 
 AUSTRIA, HUNGARY, AND 
 CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 238. Austria. — Northeast of Italy is 
 Austria. Before the World War, the 
 emperor of Austria was also king of 
 Hungary, and the " dual monarchy " of 
 Austria-Hungary was one of the largest 
 countries in Europe. In 191 8 the em- 
 peror-king was deposed and Austria-Hun- 
 gary was broken into i)ieces. (Fig. 307.) 
 
 The new republic of Austria is much 
 smaller than the old Austria, and has a 
 population about one fourth as large. 
 Most of the people are Germans.
 
 206 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 r 
 
 Austria is largely a region 
 of mountains with some fertile 
 valleys, especially along the 
 Danube River. There are 
 forests and pasture lands on 
 the mountain slopes, and in 
 the more level agricultural re- 
 gions grain, potatoes, grapes, 
 and other crops are grown. 
 The chief mineral deposits are 
 coal, iron, and salt, and there 
 are some manufactures. 
 
 Vienna, the capital, is an art 
 and music center. It is one of 
 the large cities of Europe. 
 
 239. Hungary. — After the 
 World War parts of Hungary 
 were added to countries on the 
 north, east, and south. The 
 region that is now called Hun- 
 gary is inhabited chiefly by Hungarians. 
 It is less than one third the size and 
 has less than one half the population of 
 Hungary as it was before the war. 
 
 Most of the country is a plain, and the 
 chief industries are agriculture, grazing, 
 and forestry. The leading crops are 
 wheat and corn, but much rye, barley, 
 and oats are also grown. Cattle, sheep, 
 hogs, and horses are raised (Fig. 345). 
 
 Fig. 344. Public square, Vienna 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 . ^* 
 
 m 
 
 
 fk 
 
 ' \ 
 
 - •* 
 
 
 
 k" 
 
 
 ' *, 
 
 II ,:,, 
 
 The Danube River is a trade route of 
 great importance for Hungary as for 
 Austria. As the map (Fig. 306) shows, 
 neither of these countries has any seacoast. 
 
 Budapest, the capital, is on the Danube. 
 It is the chief trade center, and manufac- 
 tures flour and other agricultural products 
 and agricultural machinery. 
 
 240. Czechoslovakia. — North of Aus- 
 tria and Hungary is the republic of 
 Czechoslovakia. The country gets its 
 name from the fact that most of its people 
 are either Czechs or Slovaks. These two 
 groups of people speak languages that are 
 nuuli alike. Until 1918 nearly all of 
 C/cclioslovakia formed a part of the old 
 Austria-Hungary. On the north and 
 west it is separated from Poland and 
 (Icrmany by bordering mountains. Its 
 western part, Bolicniia, is a low plateau 
 that slopes IVomi the soutli toward the 
 north. Its eastern part is on the southern 
 slope of the Carpathian Mountains.
 
 AUSTRIA. HUNGARY, CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 207 
 
 241. The Industries of 
 Czechoslovakia. - Czecho- 
 slovakia is a country ot 
 abundant natural resources 
 and of great industries. 
 The plains and river val- 
 leys are agricultural re- 
 gions of unusual fertility. 
 The mountain districts are 
 rich in a variety of min- 
 erals, and their slopes are 
 covered with extensive 
 forests of oak and pine. 
 The cities are centers of 
 trade and manufacture. 
 
 The principal crops are corn, oats, rye, city and trade center of the country 
 barley, sugar beets, potatoes, and flax. (Fig. 347). 
 
 Wheat is raised, but not so extensively as Czechoslovakia, like Austria and Hun- 
 in Hungary. g-^ry, has no seacoast. Its trade with 
 
 Of the minerals coal and iron are the other countries must be carried on by 
 most important, although almost every rail or on such navigable rivers as the 
 useful metal and mineral is found. Some Elbe and Danube, 
 of the most famous mineral springs of 
 the world are found in the western part 
 of the country. 
 
 The leading manufactures include tex- 
 tiles (Fig. 346), iron and steel goods, 
 glassware, sugar, and beer. Prague, 
 the capital, is the chief manufacturing territory as 
 
 Review of Sections 238 to 241. — i. When 
 was Austria-Hungary broken up.'' 2. How does 
 modern Austria compare in size and population 
 with Austria before the war.^ 3. Where are the 
 forests and pasture lands of Austria .'' 4. What 
 are the chief crops? 5. Name the capital. 
 6. To what countries did Hungary lose 
 result of the World War ? 
 7. What are the chief Hun- 
 garian industries? 8. What 
 river is an important trade 
 route ? 9. What are the 
 manufacturing industries oi 
 Budapest ? 
 
 10. How is Czechoslovakia 
 separated from Germany and 
 Poland? n. What part of 
 the country is mountamous .' 
 12. Where are the agricultural 
 regions? 13. What are the 
 principal crops? 14. What 
 are the two most important 
 minerals? 15. What are the 
 leading manufactures? 
 16. What is the chief manu- 
 facturing city ?
 
 2o8 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 ^^jim 
 
 
 Fig. 646. Farm yard iii eastern Yugoslavia. The waguiis arc usually drawn by cattle instead ui horses 
 
 THE BALKAN COUNTRIES 
 
 242. The Balkan Peninsula. — The 
 
 Turks, coming to Europe trom Asia, 
 gained control of the Balkan Peninsula 
 several hundred years ago. Their rule 
 was cruel, however, and in different parts 
 of the peninsula the people rebelled from 
 time to time and set up independent 
 governments. All of the Balkan coun- 
 tries took part in the World 
 War. (Fig. 307.) 
 
 Much of the peninsula 
 is mountainous, but there- 
 are some lowlands in the 
 northern and eastern parts. 
 Agriculture is the chief in- 
 dustry, but it has been in- 
 terrupted by wars, and the- 
 people have little farming 
 machinery. Many cattle, 
 sheep, and hogs are raised. 
 
 243. Yugoslavia. — South 
 of Austria and Hungary 
 is the kingdom of Yugo- 
 slavia, made uj) ol Scriiia, 
 Montenegro, and the south- 
 
 Fig. J')y. Kt)iiinaiu.iii vvuiiuui, 
 spinniiiK wool 
 
 em parts of the old Austria-Hungary. 
 Nearly all of the people are farmers (Fig. 
 348). Corn and other grains are the im- 
 portant crops. Much fruit is raised. 
 
 Hogs are fattened on the nuts of the 
 forest. Sheep, cattle, and horses also are 
 raised. There are forests of oak, pine, and 
 beech, and timber is an important export. 
 Small coal and iron mines are worked. 
 Belgrade, on the Danube, is the capital 
 and chief trade center. 
 Much of the foreign trade of 
 Jugoslavia passes through 
 the free city of Fiume on 
 the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 244. Roumania. — East 
 of Hungary and northeast 
 of J ugoslavia is the king- 
 dom of Roumania. It is 
 bordered by the Black 
 Sea, and most of it lies 
 north of the Danube River, 
 rhe western part was taken 
 from Austria-Hungary at 
 the close of the World War, 
 and in the east it annexed 
 other territory. (Fig. 307.)
 
 THE BALKAN COUNIRIES 
 
 209 
 
 The mountain region of the west is 
 rich in mineral resources, its slopes are 
 forest-covered, ami cattle are pastured in 
 the valleys. Coal, gold, and silver are 
 mined. The eastern part is an agricul- 
 tural region of great fertility. The chief 
 crops are corn and wheat. 
 
 In Roumania, as also in other Balkan 
 countries, much spinning and knitting 
 are done by hand (Fig. 349). 
 
 Bucharcsl is the capital. 
 
 245. Bulgaria. — The kingdom of Bul- 
 garia is south of Roumania. On what 
 sea does it border (Fig. 306) ? In spite 
 of the rough surface of the country, the 
 leading industry is agriculture, which is 
 being constantly improved. Many sheep 
 and cattle are raised. Corn and wheat 
 are grown, and large fields of roses, from 
 which the perfume attar of roses is made. 
 Some raw silk is also produced. 
 
 Sofia is the capital. 
 
 246. Albania. — In the distribution of 
 territory following the Balkan war of 
 191 2, Albania was made an independent 
 country. It lies between Yugoslavia and 
 the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 247. Greece was one of the 
 important lands of the ancient 
 world. Long before the days 
 of Rome's greatness the Greeks 
 had become powerful. In many 
 of their cities they built beauti- 
 ful temples and set up fine 
 statues. Most of the temples 
 are now in ruins, and many of 
 the statues have been lost or 
 taken to other countries and 
 placed in museums. 
 
 The ancient city of Athens is 
 the capital of the modern king- 
 dom (Fig. 350). Salonica is the 
 chief city of northern Greece. 
 
 Fruits are raised for export, especially 
 small grapes, which are dried and called 
 currants. Some grain also is grown, and 
 sheep and cattle are raised. 
 
 248. Turkey. — European Turkey is 
 now limited to a very small region in the 
 eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. 
 The larger part of Turkey is in Asia. 
 
 Co7istanti7iople, the capital of Turkey, 
 is the largest city of the Balkan Peninsula. 
 It is on the Bosporus, and formerly con- 
 trolled the commerce between the Black 
 Sea and the Mediterranean. Now this 
 commerce is free, under the protection of 
 officials appointed by many nations. 
 
 Review of Sections 242 to 248. — i. Where 
 
 is the Balkan Peninsula ? 2. What are the 
 countries of that peninsula? 3. By what people 
 was this region once governed } 
 
 4. What are the leading industries of Yugo- 
 slavia ? Of Roumania ? Of Bulgaria ? 5. What 
 country makes attar of roses ? 6. Where is 
 Bucharest? Belgrade? Sofia? 
 
 7. What is left to remind us of the glory of 
 ancient Greece ? 8. What city is the capital 
 of Greece ? What are the industries ? 
 
 9. Where is European I urkey ? 10. Where 
 is Constantinople ? 11. Why is it important ? 
 
 Fig. 350. The Royal Palace, Athens
 
 2IO 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 L . 
 
 Fig. j61. ■ Breaking '■ flax, Russia. The liber is atter- 
 wards spun and woven into cloth 
 
 EASTERN EUROPE 
 
 249. Russia. — Russia in Europe is only 
 a part of the great territory held by the 
 Russian people. It is, however, more 
 densely populated than the Russian pos- 
 sessions in Asia, and is therefore far 
 more important. It is larger than any 
 other country in Europe, and has a larger 
 population. 
 
 250. Surface. — Most of Russia in Eu- 
 rope is a great plain (Fig. 304), but there 
 are two regions of elevation, known as 
 the Valdai Mills and the Ural Mountains. 
 The Valdai Hills are in the western part 
 of the country, and are only a little higiicr 
 than the surrounding plain. Here several 
 of the large Russian rivers have their 
 sources. The Ural Mountains form a 
 part of the eastern boundary. 
 
 251. Grazing, Agriculture, and Lum- 
 bering. — Russia extends so far north 
 and south, and most of it is so distant 
 from the sea, that it has a great variety 
 of climate. 
 
 In the southeast it is so dry that agri- 
 culture is not possible without irrigation, 
 and grazing is the important industry. 
 This is the region of the steppes, or dry 
 grasslands. 
 
 In the far north the plains, called 
 tundras, are frozen to a great depth, but 
 the surface thaws in summer. The tun- 
 dras are covered with moss, which fur- 
 nishes food for the reindeer, the domestic 
 animal of northern Russia. The reindeei 
 draw loads as horses do in our country, 
 and furnish flesh for food and skins to be 
 made into clothing. 
 
 South of the tundras there is a great 
 forest belt, where the lumber industry 
 is carried on. 
 
 South of the forest there is more rain. 
 Among the largest crops raised are wheat, 
 rye, and oats. Other leading crops are 
 flax, hemp, and potatoes. 
 
 252. Mining and Manufacture. — 
 Mining is one of the important Russian 
 industries. The Ural mountain region 
 yields gold and platinum, which is a whit- 
 ish metal more valuable than gold. Far 
 more platinum is mined in Russia than 
 in all the rest of the world. Some coal 
 and iron are mined, but the oil fields near 
 Baku produce so much petroleum that 
 it is used largely as a fuel in place of 
 coal. 
 
 There are few factories in Russia for so 
 large a country, but the people make many 
 things in their homes (Fig. 351). 
 
 253. Commerce and Cities. — Russia 
 has an extensive railroad system and 
 many navigable rivers. A vast amount 
 of freight is carried by water. Most of 
 the sea-borne trade passes through the 
 ports of Petrograd and Riga on the Baltic 
 Sea, and Odessa and Sebastopol on the 
 Black Sea.
 
 RUSSIA IN EUROPE 
 
 211 
 
 As the harbors of the Baltic are frozen 
 during several months in the year, they 
 can be kept open only by iron boats that 
 crush the ice. For this reason the Black 
 Sea ports are better. In order to reach 
 the ocean, ships from Baltic and Black 
 Sea ports must pass through waters 
 controlled by other nations. As the Rus- 
 sian people did not like this, they built 
 the port of Archangel on the White Sea, 
 but its harbor is frozen during half of the 
 year. Later they built Murmansk, a port 
 on the open Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Moscow, the capital, is the oldest city 
 of Russia. It is noted for its many great 
 churches. It is an important manufac- 
 turing and railroad center. 
 
 254. Government. — For centuries the 
 government of Russia was harsh and cruel. 
 The poorer people of the farming districts 
 were practically slaves. About sixty years 
 ago they were freed and allowed to own 
 land. Still later, the people were allowed 
 to elect representatives to help in making 
 laws. During the World War the Rus- 
 sian emperor, or Czar, was deposed, and 
 civil war began between different Russian 
 parties. Most of the 
 country soon fell un- 
 der the control of the 
 extreme radical party. 
 
 255. Ukraine. — The 
 southern part of Rus- 
 sia, called the Ukraine, 
 was conquered by the 
 radicals in 1920. It 
 is a very fertile agri- 
 cultural region and 
 raises immense crops 
 of wheat and corn. 
 It has also coal and 
 iron mines, and the 
 great cities of Kiej 
 
 and Odessa. Odessa exports wheat (Fig. 
 352) and manufactures much Hour. 
 
 256. Finland. -Alter a hundred years 
 of Russian rule, Finland became inde- 
 pendent in 191 7. It is a cold country, 
 but fine forests furnish much timber for 
 export. Agriculture, dairy farming, and 
 fishing give employment to most of the 
 l)eople. Ilelsingfors, a port on the Gulf 
 of I'inland, is the capital and chief city. 
 
 Review of Sections 249 to 256. — i. Where is 
 Russia.'' 2. How does l^iissia in Europe compare 
 in size with the other countries of Europe .? 
 3. Why clo the different parts of Russia have such 
 different climates .'' 
 
 4. What region is given up to grazing ? 
 5. What are the tundras.^ 6. In what part of 
 Russia are the wheat fields ? 7. What other 
 crops are grown ? 
 
 8. W'hat metals are found in Russia ? 
 9. What is much used for fuel ? 10. How is 
 the internal commerce carried on? u. Through 
 what ports is Russian trade carried on ? 12. Why 
 did the Russians build a port on the White Sea? 
 
 13. Name and describe the capital of Russia. 
 
 14. What changes have recently been made in 
 the government of Russia ? 
 
 15. What is the Ukraine ? 16. What business 
 is carried on at Odessa ? 
 
 17. Where is Finland? 18. What are the 
 principal industries of Finland ?
 
 Siuz Canal, near the deepisi i ui. .\i th. iiv;lil is a ferryboat crossing the canal 
 
 ASIA 
 
 THE CONTINENT 
 
 257. Size and Position. — Asia is the 
 largest of the continents. It is about 
 twice as large as North America, and 
 more than four times as large as Europe. 
 On the south, one of its peninsulas almost 
 reaches the Equator. At the north, it 
 is bordered by the Arctic Ocean and it 
 extends nearer to the North Pole than the 
 mainland of North America or Europe. 
 
 The far northern part of the continent 
 is very cold. During most of the year, 
 ice and snow cover both land and water. 
 Where the coast is low, therefore, it is 
 sometimes impossible to tell where the 
 land. ends and the sea begins. 
 
 Northeastern Asia is separated from 
 North America by Bering Strait, which 
 is less than forty miles wide. But there 
 is no trade or travel across this narrow 
 strait, because few people live in these 
 cold northern parts of the world. 
 
 West of Asia is the continent of Europe. 
 On the southwest the narrow Isthmus of 
 
 Suez connects Asia with Africa. Across 
 this isthmus a canal has been cut (Fig. 
 354), to connect the Mediterranean Sea 
 with the Red Sea. On the south and 
 east the continent is bordered by seas 
 and bays that are arms of the Indian and 
 Pacific oceans. 
 
 258. Coast Line. — The coast line of 
 Asia is irregular, and some of the seas 
 and bays are almost shut off from the 
 ocean by islands and peninsulas. 
 
 The three southern peninsulas of Asia 
 are very large. Name them (Fig. 3SS). 
 Indo-China is a double peninsula ; the 
 narrow southern part of it is called the 
 Malay Peninsula. What sea is west of 
 India ? What bay is east .'' 
 
 There are many islands along the east- 
 ern and southern coasts of Asia. The 
 most important group is the Japan 
 Islands. What sea separates them from 
 the mainland .'' The islands between 
 Asia and Australia are called the East 
 Indies. The Philippine Islands belong 
 to the United States (Sec. 168). 
 
 213
 
 214
 
 SURFACE AND DRAINAGE OF ASIA 
 
 215 
 
 259. Surface and 
 Drainage. Flic 
 central part of Asia 
 is a region of high, 
 broad phiteaus, 
 
 crossed and bor- 
 dered by mountain 
 ranges (Fig. 356). 
 Find the Plateau of 
 Tibet on the map. 
 On the southern 
 edge of this plate.iu, 
 in northern India, 
 are the Himalaya 
 Mountains. They 
 include the highest 
 ranges in the world, 
 with many high 
 peaks. The highest peak of all is Mt. 
 Everest (Fig. 364), which is about five 
 and one half miles in height. 
 
 The Himalayas extend generally east 
 and west, as do most of the chief moun- 
 tain ranges of Asia and Europe. 
 
 The great rivers of Asia rise in the cen- 
 tral highlands, or in highlands farther 
 north and east, and flow out across the 
 bordering lowlands to the sea. 
 
 The largest of the bordering lowlands 
 is the Siberian Plain, which extends east- 
 ward from the central lowland of Europe. 
 Several large rivers flow northward across 
 this plain to the Arctic Ocean. Like the 
 rivers of northern Canada, they flood their 
 valleys in the springtime, when the ice 
 breaks up after the long winter (Sec. 90). 
 
 There are smaller lowlands along the 
 eastern and southern coasts, in the valleys 
 of the great rivers. Still others border 
 the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral. A part 
 of the region around the Caspian Sea is 
 lower than the level of the ocean. These 
 bodies of water have no outlet and are salt. 
 
 Fig. 356. Plowing with buffaloes on a farm in Tibet 
 
 like Great Salt Lake in western United 
 States. Both the interior of Arabia and 
 the southern part of India are high pla- 
 teaus bordered by ranges of mountains. 
 
 Review of Sections 257 to 259. — i. How does 
 Asia compare in size with the other continents ? 
 2. What peninsula almost reaches the Equator 
 (Fig. 35S) ? 3. Which one of the continents 
 reaches nearest the North Pole ? 4. Why is it 
 sometimes impossible to tell where the northern 
 coast line really is ? 
 
 5. How far is it across Bering Strait ? 6. What 
 two continents are near each other in this region ? 
 7. Why does this fact not make very much differ- 
 ence to the people of the two continents ? 8. What 
 isthmus joins Asia to Africa ? 
 
 9. What sea and bay border Asia on the south r 
 10. Where is Arabia .? India ? The Malay Penin- 
 sula ? Indo-China ? 11. Where are the Japan 
 Islands? 12. Where are the East Indies? 
 
 13. Where are the high plateaus of Asia? 
 14. Where are the Himalaya Mountains ? Where 
 is Mt. Everest? 15. Why is this a noted peak? 
 16. Where is the Siberian Plain ? 17. In what re- 
 spect are the rivers that flow north across this low- 
 land like those of northern Canada? iS. Where 
 are the other lowlands of Asia ? 19. What is 
 peculiar about the drainage of the region around 
 the Caspian Sea and Lake .Xral ?
 
 2l6
 
 CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND ANIMALS OF ASIA 
 
 217 
 
 Little OT nu rain 
 ] Light r-iins 
 I Moderate rains 
 I Moderately heavy rainS' 
 I Heavy laias 
 
 Previiilinir winter winds - 
 Prevailinif summer winds - 
 
 Fig. 358. Rainfall and prevailing winds of Asia 
 
 260. Climate and Vegeta- 
 tion. — The lowlands of the 
 southeastern hall of Asia 
 are warm. Lhe wnuis blow 
 from the ocean durnig the 
 summer, and at that time 
 there are heavy rains. 
 Southwest winds from the 
 Indian Ocean cross India 
 and reach the Himalaya 
 Mountains. On the lower 
 mountain slopes there is 
 much rain, but on the higher 
 slopes the moisture falls as 
 snow. The highest slopes are 
 covered with snow through- 
 out the year. Part of north- 
 ern India has the heaviest 
 rainfall in the world (Fig. 
 358). During the winter, the winds blow the lower mountain slopes are forest- 
 outward from the center of the continent, covered. Along the rivers are excellent 
 in all directions. At this season many farming and ])asture lands. Farther 
 parts of the country have little rain. north, near the Arctic Ocean, are tundras 
 
 In the rainy regions there are dense (Sec. 251) where only moss and a few 
 forests where it is difficult to cut paths low bushes can grow, 
 through the tangle of vegetation. Such 261. Animals. — In the jungles of south- 
 regions are caWed jungles. em Asia there are great numbers of wild 
 
 In central and southwestern Asia, in- animals, such as elephants, lions, tigers, 
 eluding the great plateaus of Mongolia, poisonous serpents, and monkeys. 
 Turkestan, Iran, and Arabia, there is Many elephants are tamed and taught 
 little rain at any season, and most of the to carry heavy loads. People who live 
 land is a desert. The lowlands west of in desert regions use the camel as a beast 
 these plateaus also have little rain. The of burden. 
 
 temperature of central Asia is like that In the great grazing regions of Asia 
 of most regions a long distance from the there are enormous Hocks of sheep and 
 ocean. It is hot in summer, especially goats and many cattle and horses. In 
 in the lowlands, and bitterly cold in the northern forest are bears, foxes, 
 winter. sables, and other fur-bearing animals. 
 
 The great Siberian Plain is bordered In the far north reindeer feed on the mcjss 
 on the south by mountains which sepa- of the tundras, and the few people who 
 rate it from the highlands of central live there depend upon these animals 
 Asia. In the southern part there is for food and clothing. They also use 
 enough rain for a fine forest growth, and the reindeer as beasts of burden.
 
 2l8 
 
 ASIA 
 
 ■ .>. '''i: 
 
 ^/dm^ 
 
 Fig. 359. A family of Persian nomads, and their tent 
 
 262. The People. — There are large 
 parts of Asia in which only a few people 
 can live. This is true of the desert re- 
 gions of the southwest, of the high central 
 plateaus, and of the cold, barren lands 
 along the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Most of the people of Asia live in the 
 fertile river valleys and on the coastal 
 lowlands of the south and east. About 
 half the population of the whole world 
 is found in these parts of Asia. In 
 Japan. China, and India the population 
 is very dense. 
 
 The people of Japan and China and 
 some other j)arts of Asia belong to the 
 yellow race. More than three fourths of 
 the people of Asia belong to this race. 
 
 Most of the peoj)Ie of India, Persia, and 
 Arabia belong to dark-skinned branches 
 of the white race. Many Europeans 
 now live in Asia, but chiellv in those 
 parts that are near Kurojjc, in the huge 
 cities, and in colonies of European coun- 
 tries. 
 
 263. Industries. 1 he chief industry 
 of tile densely settled regions in the 
 south and east is agriculture. Some of 
 the crops are very different from those 
 that grow in our country. Others are 
 cxa( tly the same. 
 
 On the steppes of centr.il ;in(l western 
 
 Asia, where there is only enough rain- 
 fall for grass, grazing is the most profit- 
 able industry. In these regions most 
 of the people live in tents and wander 
 with their flocks from one pasture land 
 to another. Such wanderers are called 
 nomads (Fig. 359). 
 
 Fishing is an imi)ortant industry along 
 much of the southern and eastern coast, 
 and in many of the rivers. In the north- 
 ern part of the continent the people live 
 mainlv by hunting and fishing. 
 
 Mining is not so important as it will 
 be when the many rich mineral deposits 
 are more carefully located and worked. 
 There are deposits of gold, silver, and 
 copper in some of the mountains and 
 in Siberia. The great petroleum fields 
 are at the east end of the Caucasus 
 Mountains, near the Caspian Sea. There 
 are coal and iron deposits in Japan and 
 China. The coal fields in China are very 
 large, and only a small part of the coal 
 has been used. 
 
 Ill Japan the nali\e ])eoide welcome 
 visitors and carry on trade with many 
 foreign countries. In India and some 
 l)arts of China the same thing is true. 
 In some other parts of Asia the people 
 still object to visitors, as did all the 
 |)e(tple of Asia not many years ago.
 
 TURKEY 
 
 219 
 
 Review of Sections 260 to 263. — i. Whnt 
 part of Asia has the huavicst rainfall ? 2. De- 
 scribe the climate of Arabia, Iran, and Mongolia. 
 3. Why is central Asia very warm ni summer and 
 very cold in winter? 4. \\ here is the Sdierian 
 forest ? 5. What vegetation is there in the far 
 north ? Of what use is it ? 
 
 6. Name some of the large wild annuals of 
 Asia. 7. Where are they found .? S. For what 
 are elephants useful ? 9. Of what use is the caniel .? 
 The reindeer ? 10. Where are many fur-bearing 
 animals found? 11. In what parts of Asia can 
 only a few people live? 12. Where do most of 
 the people live ? 
 
 13. To what race do most of the people of Asia 
 belong ? 14. Where do white people live ? 
 
 15. Where is agriculture the leading industry? 
 16. In what parts of the contment is grazmg 
 more important? 17. Where is hshing carried 
 on? Hunting? 18. What important minerals 
 are found in Asia ? 
 
 Fig. 361. Weaving Turkish rugs 
 
 COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN 
 ASIA 
 
 Asia Minor, the peninsula between the 
 Black and Mediterranean seas, is nearly 
 twice as large as Great Britain and Ire- 
 land, but has only about one fifth as many 
 people. It is a high, uneven plateau, 
 264. Turkey in Asia. — Before the bordered on the north and south by 
 World War of 1914-1918, the Turkish mountains. On the slopes of some of 
 Empire embraced a small part of Europe the mountains there is enough rain tor a 
 (Sec. 248) and much of southwestern little agriculture, but even there the 
 Asia, including Asia Minor, Armenia, people do not raise much. The industry 
 Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and the of chief importance in Turkey, as in other 
 west coast of Arabia. The old Turkish countries of southwestern Asia, is grazing, 
 government was cruel, especially to Chris- and this industry does not support a 
 tians. In the war the Turks lost control dense population. Modern irrigation 
 of all their lands in Asia except the works, however, are being constructed 
 greater part of Asia Minor. for the purpose of bringing more land 
 
 under cultivation (Fig. 360). 
 Several railroads have been 
 built in Asia Minor. 
 
 There is very little manu- 
 facturing in Turkey, or else- 
 where in southwestern Asia, 
 except the making of beautiful 
 rugs, carpets, and shawls. The 
 weaving industry has been car- 
 ried on for hundreds of years. 
 The best of the old rugs are 
 highly prized (Fig. 361). 
 
 iiLljJ_JJj_ 
 
 lliiii 
 
 I I 
 
 Fig. 360. I 
 
 lam in Turkey
 
 220 
 
 ASIA 
 
 265. Armenia, Syria, and Palestine. — 
 Armenia is a plateau land of farms and 
 pastures southeast of the Black Sea, in- 
 cluding part of Asia Minor. The Arme- 
 nians are Christians and are one of the 
 oldest nations on earth. They once num- 
 bered perhaps 8,000,000, but by the 
 attacks of hostile neighbors have been 
 reduced to about 2,000,000. 
 
 Two countries at the eastern end of 
 the Mediterranean Sea are Syria, under 
 French control, and Palestine, under the 
 British. Palestine is interesting to us 
 because it is the Holy Land of Christian 
 and Jewish peoples. 
 
 Along the coast of Syria and Palestine 
 there is a narrow plain where figs, olives, 
 and other fruits of warm countries are 
 grown. Jerusalem, the Holy City, stands 
 on a low range of mountains between the 
 coast plain and the deep, narrow valley 
 of the Jordan River and Dead Sea. 
 
 The Dead Sea and a part of the Jordan 
 Valley are below the level of the Mediter- 
 ranean, and there is no outlet for the 
 drainage except as the water is evaporated 
 
 (Sec. 146). The waters of 
 the Dead Sea are, therefore, 
 very salt. 
 
 Jerusalem is connected by 
 a railroad with Jaffa, a small 
 seaport on the Mediterra- 
 nean. Beirut, the leading 
 port of Syria, is connected 
 by rail with Damascus, the 
 chief city in this region. 
 
 266. Arabia and Mesopo- 
 tamia. — From Damascus a 
 railroad extends most of the 
 way to Mekka. This city 
 was the birthplace of Mo- 
 hammed, who founded a re- 
 ligion in which the Turks, 
 Arabs, and many other people believe. 
 The Mohammedans think of Mekka as 
 their Holy City, and make pilgrimages to 
 it, as the Christians do to Jerusalem. 
 
 Mekka is the leading city of Hedjaz, a 
 state in western Arabia which gained its 
 independence during the World War. 
 
 Near the southern end of the Red Sea 
 is Mokha, a port from which coffee is 
 shipped. The finest Arabian coffee is 
 kept for use at home. What is sold to 
 foreign nations is ot poorer quality. 
 
 Oman is an independent state of south- 
 eastern Arabia. It has a long coast line 
 and carries on trade in dates and pearls, 
 cliicHy through Maskat, the capital. 
 
 The vast interior of Arabia is not well 
 known. The people, who are wanderers, 
 or nomads, live in tents and drive their 
 flocks from one pasture land to another. 
 They are ruled by chiefs, called sheiks. 
 
 Northeast of Arabia is Mesopotamia. 
 
 This word means " between the rivers." 
 
 Mesopotamia is the valley of the Tigris 
 
 and Euphrates rivers, which rise in the 
 
 northern highlands and have built flood
 
 COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA 
 
 221 
 
 ' '•'■•;$* 
 
 
 plains of fine, rich soil. Here, with the 
 help of irrigation, large crops can be grown. 
 A railroad is under construction from 
 Asia Minor to the Persian Gulf. In the 
 World War, Mesopotamia was taken by 
 British forces. Most of 
 the people are Arabs. 
 
 Except the railroads 
 already mentioned, we 
 find few good high- 
 ways in southwestern 
 Asia. Most of the goods 
 are carried across the 
 deserts on camels, as 
 they have been for 
 thousands of years. 
 For the sake of protec- 
 tion against robbers, 
 many camel owners 
 travel together and 
 form a caravan. 
 
 Review of Sections 264 (o 
 266.^1. In what part of 
 Asia is Turkey ? 2. Where 
 is Arabia? 3. How does 
 Asia Minor compare with 
 the British Isles in size.'' In 
 population ? 4. Why is the 
 
 population so small.'' 5. What is the most im- 
 portant industry in the countries of southwestern 
 Asia ? 6. What is the chief manufacture of those 
 countries .' 
 
 7. Where is Syria ? Palestine ? 8. Why is 
 Palestine interesting ? 9. Where are the follow- 
 ing places, and why are they interesting: Jerusa- 
 lem, Jaffa, Beirut," Mekka, Mokha ? 10. Why 
 are the waters of the Dead Sea salt ? 
 
 II. Where is Hedjaz? Oman? 12. Where is 
 Mesopotamia? What does the word mean? 
 13. Why is this an important region? 14. What 
 mdustry is carried on in the interior of .Arabia ? 
 15. How are goods carried across the deserts of 
 southwestern Asia ? 
 
 267. Persia. — -Persia is east of Mesopo- 
 tamia. What waters border it on the 
 north and on the south ( F"ig. 357) ? Persia 
 is more than five times as large as the 
 
 Fig. 363. A castle in Oman 
 
 British Isles, but has only about one fifth 
 as many peojjle. Teheran is the capital. 
 Find it on the map. 
 
 Much of the country is a desert. 
 Like Asia Minor, most of Persia is a 
 high plateau bordered 
 by mountains. The 
 chief industry of Per- 
 sia is grazing. The 
 rain that falls on the 
 mountain slopes fur- 
 nishes water for some ir- 
 rigation. In the moun- 
 tain valleys, and along 
 the shores of the Cas- 
 pian Sea, grain and 
 fruit are raised. Silk, 
 cotton, and wool are 
 produced also. Many 
 of the people are en- 
 gaged in transporting 
 goods across the desert. 
 The finest Persian 
 shawls, rugs, and car- 
 pets are even more 
 beautiful than those of 
 Turkey. The patterns 
 used are hundreds of years old. 
 
 268. Afghanistan. — Afghanistan lies 
 east of Persia and north of India. It is a 
 mountainous country, nearly as large as 
 Texas. Grazing is the leading industry, 
 and many horses, camels, and sheep are 
 raised here. There is also some agriculture, 
 but, as in Turkey and Persia, irrigation 
 is necessary and the crops are not large. 
 
 Review of Sections 267 and 268. — i. Where is 
 
 Persia ? 2. How does it compare in size and 
 population with (Jreat Britain ? 3. Where is 
 agriculture carried on ? 4. Name some of the 
 important products. 5. What other industries 
 are carried on ? 
 
 6. Where is Afghanistan ? 7. Tell about its 
 industries.
 
 >^»fc.- 
 
 
 
 
 •^ ■'p*; 
 
 
 "•^^v 
 
 an 
 
 im' ,'K.':*f'.<^'.ii:fr ' 
 
 b'i^. Ju4. buiiiinil3 ol llu: HimilMy.-i M'lUiilmiiH. tlic grcul moiiiilain raiiKf of smilli. . n /> i .. The most dislaiil peak, 
 near the center, is Mount Everest, the highest mountain peak in tlic world
 
 INDIA 
 
 223 
 
 COUNTRIES OF SOUTHEASTERN 
 ASIA 
 
 269. India. — The Empire of India, or 
 British India, as it is often called, belongs 
 to Great Britain, and the king of Great 
 Britain is also emperor 
 of India. This country 
 occupies the peninsula of 
 India and includes Balu- 
 chistan on the west and 
 Burma on the east. 
 
 Burma is a part of the 
 peninsula of Indo-China 
 and borders on the Bay 
 of Bengal. It is about 
 as large as Texas, and 
 has three times as many 
 people. The rainfall is 
 heavy and the soil is 
 fertile. The chief prod- 
 ucts are rice and lumber. 
 
 Baluchistan is a region 
 of barren mountains, des- 
 erts, and stony plains. 
 There is but little. rain, the summers are 
 hot, and the winters very cold. Wherever 
 there is enough water to make it possible 
 the land is cultivated. Grain and fruit 
 are the chief products. 
 
 North of India, in the mountains, is 
 Nepal, a small country under the pro- 
 tection of Great Britain. 
 
 Northern India is a region of great 
 highlands. Here are the southern ranges 
 of the Himala^^as, the highest mountains 
 of the world (Fig. 364). During the sum- 
 mer time, in this part of Asia, the winds 
 are from the ocean. The rainfall is more 
 than 100 inches a year. Because of the 
 heavy rains and the large amount of water 
 that comes from the melting snow, great 
 rivers have their sources in these high- 
 
 Fig. 365. Bathing in tlie Ganges, Benares 
 
 lands. They flow for long distances 
 through the mountain valleys before they 
 reach the bordering lowlands. South of 
 the Himalaya Mountains they have built 
 a great lowland plain of the material 
 brought down from the highlands. Name 
 the three longest rivers 
 of this plain (Fig. 355). 
 
 The lowland plain of 
 India stretches in a broad 
 belt across the peninsula 
 from the Bay of Bengal 
 to the Arabian Sea. It 
 has a fine and fertile soil 
 and is the chief agricul- 
 tural region and the most 
 densely })opulated part of 
 India. In the east, along 
 the lower courses of the 
 Ganges and Brahma- 
 putra, there is usually 
 enough rain for agricul- 
 ture. Farther west it is 
 often necessary to irrigate 
 the land. The British 
 government has greatly enlarged and im- 
 proved the old irrigation works of the 
 natives. 
 
 South of the lowland plain is the 
 Dekkan Plateau. Its eastern and western 
 borders have been named the Eastern 
 Ghats and the Western Ghats. During 
 the summer, when the winds blow from 
 the ocean, there are heavy rains along 
 the seaward slopes of the Western Ghats. 
 The rains on the plateau are more mod- 
 erate. In the winter, the winds blow 
 from the land (Fig. 35S), and there is less 
 rain. In many parts of the plateau, 
 irrigation is necessary, and here, as in 
 the northern plain, new works have been 
 built and the native works have been 
 greatly improved.
 
 224 
 
 ASIA 
 
 270. Products of 
 India. — Rice, wheat, 
 and millet are the im- 
 portant food crops of 
 India. Much of the 
 rice is raised along 
 the lower Ganges and 
 in the region around 
 the Bay of Bengal. 
 Most of it is needed 
 for home use, but 
 much is exported. 
 
 Wheat is grown on 
 
 the Dekkan and on the northern plains. Valley, and cotton on the Dekkan and 
 In years when crops are good, much elsewhere. Some of the cotton is manu- 
 wheat is exported, especially to Great factured in the mills of India, but most 
 Britain. Millet, a cereal with big heads of it is sent to England, 
 of small seeds, is used by the poorer Jute, silk, spices, teakwood, and in- 
 people in place of wheat. digo and other dyes are valuable prod- 
 
 When these crops fail, because of ucts. Teak is an especially useful wood, 
 lack of rain or for some other reason, food because it does not decay easily and be- 
 must be sent from other parts of the cause worms do not destroy it, as they do 
 world, and even then thousands of people many woods in warm countries. 
 
 ...-MP-/ - 
 
 Fig. 367. Ships in the harbor of Bombay 
 
 Starve. Famines have been frequent, 
 even in recent years, and millions of 
 people have starved to death. 
 
 Much tea is grown in the Brahmaputra 
 
 Fig. 366. l'''U<iji>u liM'li;' •I'.M ilii Ilin;li Kivcr, 
 mouth of the G.-inRcs, at Calcutta 
 
 Some minerals are found in India. 
 
 Railroads and navigable rivers make 
 trade with the interior easy. The foreign 
 trade, much of which is with CJreat 
 Britain, is carried on chiefly through the 
 ports of Calcutta and Bombay. 
 
 271. Cities and People of India. — Cal- 
 cutta is on the Ganges delta, not tar up- 
 stream from the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 366). 
 It is the largest city of India and was for 
 many years the capital. In 191 1, how- 
 ever, the government was moved back 
 to the ancient ca])ital city, Delhi. Finil 
 this city on the map. Boinhay, on the 
 west coast, has a better harbor than 
 Calcutta, and its trade is steadily growing 
 (Fig. 367). 
 
 The natives of India are largely of the 
 white race, and most of them are called 
 Hindus, iheir Holy City is Benares, on
 
 INDIA, CEYLON 
 
 225 
 
 the Ganges River (Fig. 365). 
 There are many other large 
 cities in India. Tlie total 
 population of the country is 
 ahout three times that of the 
 United States, although its 
 area is less than two thirds 
 as great. 
 
 In India, as in most of the 
 warm southern countries of 
 Asia, many of the natives 
 have fine, strong bodies and 
 are able to work hard. Be- 
 cause of the climate they wear but little 
 clothing. The people from Europe and 
 other cooler countries find it necessary to 
 use light clothing and adopt many of the 
 native ways. Even then few of them 
 can live in such hot countries for many 
 years. 
 
 One of the things that prevent prog- 
 ress in India is the caste system. The 
 Hindus are divided into several great 
 family groups, or castes, and the members 
 of each caste follow the same occupation 
 and have as little as possible to do w itli 
 the people who belong to other castes. 
 
 li^fir^v'^ 
 
 Fig. 368. Elephants bathing, India 
 
 272. Ceylon. — Southeast of the penin- 
 sula of India is the island of Ceylon, 
 which is nearly as large as Ireland. It 
 belongs to Great Britain. Its products 
 include rice, coconuts, rubber, spices, and 
 especially tea (Fig. 369), in the grow- 
 ing of which it holds a leading position. 
 There are many mines of graphite, a min- 
 eral used in making the " lead " for our 
 lead pencils. 
 
 Colombo, the capital, is important as 
 a coaling and food station for ships en- 
 gaged in trade between eastern Asia and 
 F'.uropean ports. 
 
 Review of Sections 269 to 272. — i. Where is 
 
 British hidia 
 
 Whc 
 
 Hur 
 
 What 
 
 its chief products .'' 3. Where is Bakichistan .^ 
 4. Where are the agricultural regions of India.? 
 
 5. Where is it necessary to use irrigation ? Why ^ 
 
 6. How has the British government helped agri- 
 culture in India .'' 7. Where is rice grown .'' 
 Wheat.'' Tea.? Cotton.? 8. Where is much of 
 the cotton manufactured ? 
 
 9. Through what ports is most of the foreign 
 trade carried on .^ 10. Where is Delhi .^ Benares.? 
 \\ hy are these places interesting ? 
 
 11. Compare India \\ith the United States in 
 size and in population. 
 
 12. \\'hat is the caste system? 13. How does 
 it interfere with the progress of India ? 
 
 14. Where is Ceylon ? 15. To what country 
 does this island belong? 16. What are its im- 
 portant products? 17. What city is the capi- 
 tal? 18. Why is it an important port?
 
 226 
 
 ASIA 
 
 273. Indo-China. — Indo-China is the 
 easternmost of the three southern penin- 
 sulas of Asia. Part of it is the long, 
 narrow Malay Peninsula, which extends 
 southward almost to the Equator. 
 
 Western Indo-China includes Burma, 
 which has already been studied, and 
 Siam. The eastern part belongs to 
 France and is called French Indo-China. 
 The Mekong River forms the boundary 
 between Siam and French Indo-China 
 for a long distance. Bangkok is the 
 capital of Siam. 
 
 Both Siam and French Indo-China 
 are mountainous, but have abundant rain, 
 and in both, agriculture is the chiet in- 
 dustry. Rice and millet are raised, and 
 many valuable woods, including teak, 
 are found in the forests. Other products 
 include spices, tea, silk, and some gems 
 and metals. 
 
 At the southern end of the Malay Pen- 
 insula is the British colony called the 
 Straits Settlements, and near it are some 
 small native states under the protection 
 of the British government. Here spices 
 (Fig. 370), gums, and fruits are produced, 
 
 Fig. 370. Pepper plants in the 
 Malay Peninsula 
 
 Fin. :i71. Suii;il 
 Commercial 
 
 but the region is noted chiefly for its rub- 
 ber plantations and its tin mines, which 
 yield more rubber and tin than any other 
 country in the world. Singapore is an 
 English city on an island at the southern 
 end of the peninsula. Its position has 
 made it an important coaling and supply 
 station, especially for ships that are engaged 
 in carrying goods between the ports of Eu- 
 rope and those of eastern Asia (Fig. 371). 
 
 274. The East Indies. — The Philip- 
 pines (Sec. 168) belong to the United 
 States, and the other islands of the East 
 Indies belong to European nations. The 
 map (Fig. 357) shows what countries 
 own islands in these waters. 
 
 The most important of these islands 
 belong to the Netherlands. Java has a 
 much greater population than all the 
 rest of the East Indies together. This 
 island produces rice, coffee, tea, sugar, 
 rubber, and tobacco. Batavia is the capi- 
 tal. The trade is chiefly with the Neth- 
 erlands. 
 
 Sumatra, a part of Borneo, and a part 
 of New Guinea, as well as many smaller 
 islands, also belong to the Netherlands. 
 
 Review of Sections 
 273 and 274. — 1. \\ luit 
 countries are included in 
 hulo-China .^ 2. Name 
 some of the important 
 products of each country. 
 3. Where are the Straits 
 Settlements .'' 4. Where is 
 Bangkok ^ Singapore f 
 
 5. To what nation do 
 tlu' Phihiipiius lu'long? 
 (1. W'liat other nations 
 own islands in the East 
 Indies? 7. What country 
 owns the hirgest numher 
 of these islands } 8. What 
 is the most populous is- 
 hiiui r <j. W'liat arc its prod- 
 ucts ? 10. Wirli what coun- 
 tr}' does it cliicHy trade? 
 
 |Pfi''-^l|-^ 
 
 ' >i ' li.irlKir, as s( cii troiii 
 Square, Singapore
 
 CHINA 
 
 227 
 
 Hanyang lion VVui ks, a large modern industrial plant. Beyond the nvtr is Hankow 
 
 CHINA 
 
 275. Political Divisions. — China is in 
 the east-central part of Asia. Some 
 parts of the country are densely peopled, 
 and its total population is more than 
 twice that of North America. 
 
 China was once a " hermit " nation. 
 The Chinese people would not trade with 
 foreigners, nor permit strangers to enter 
 their country. For many centuries they 
 made no change in their mode of life. 
 
 In recent years, however, there have 
 been many changes. Chinese ports have 
 been opened to foreign trade. Many 
 young Chinese have gone to school in 
 the United States and other countries. 
 Mines have been dug, and railroads and 
 factories built (Fig. 372). Finally, in 191 2, 
 the Chinese government was changed. 
 For hundreds of years it had been an em- 
 pire, but it was then made a republic. 
 
 In addition to the country properly 
 called China, the Chinese claim con- 
 trol over four provinces, — Tibet, Sin- 
 kiang, Mongolia, and Manchuria. The 
 old northern boundary of China is marked 
 
 for a thousand miles by the famous Great 
 Wall, which was originally built as a 
 defense against invaders. 
 
 276. Tibet. — Tibet is the southwestern 
 province, and is north of India. It is a 
 high plateau with higher mountain ranges 
 bordering and crossing it. Much of the 
 plateau is so high that it is very cold, 
 and it is so shut in by mountains that 
 there is little rain. The people keep 
 goats, sheep, and yaks. For food they 
 depend chiefly upon the flesh of these 
 animals and upon the rich milk of the 
 yak. Much of their clothing is made 
 from the wool, hair, or hides of these 
 animals. The yak, wliich is like a large 
 ox, is also used as a beast of burden. The 
 population is not dense anywhere, be- 
 cause there is not enough food to keep a 
 large population alive. Most of the peo- 
 ple live in the upper Brahmaputra Valley, 
 where there is some agriculture (Fig. 356). 
 
 Lassa is the sacred city of the Tibetans 
 and the capital of the province. Strangers 
 are not welcome in Tibet. Few foreigners 
 have visited the province, and very few 
 have ever entered the capital city.
 
 228 
 
 ASIA 
 
 .v:?^''"'^^^^^^^^€i 
 
 Fig. 373. Exports of Manchuria — bean cake and 
 oil — at Dairen 
 
 277. Other Provinces. — North of Tibet 
 is the province of Sinkiang, a desert 
 country of no great importance. The 
 inhabitants are nomads. There are, how- 
 ever, a few places where springs or oases 
 have made small settlements possible. 
 
 Mongolia is a mountainous and dry 
 province in which grazing is the most 
 important industry. 
 
 Manchuria lies east of Mongolia and 
 borders on the Yellow Sea. It is a 
 region of plains. The soil is excellent, 
 the climate is temperate, and there is 
 enough rain for farming. This province 
 produces large crops ot millet, wheat, 
 and beans (Fig. 373). 
 
 278. The Real China. — China is south 
 of Mongolia, with a long seacoast on the 
 Pacific Ocean. On the coast and along 
 the great rivers there are beaut it ul, bioad, 
 fertile lowlands. In rlu- Muitl' and west 
 the country is mountainous, like the 
 adjoining districts in Indo-China and 
 Tibet. 
 
 In iniuh of China there is plenty of 
 rain for agriculture, and in the south- 
 eastern |)art the rainfall is often \ery 
 heavy. The soil is Ime and rich, espe- 
 
 cially in the valleys of the two great 
 rivers, the Yangtze and the Hwang. 
 
 These two rivers rise in the interior 
 highlands of eastern Tibet and flow for 
 hundreds of miles across China to arms 
 of the Pacific Ocean. The Hwang has 
 frequent floods, and at times of very high 
 water the river sometimes changes its 
 course through the lowlands and causes 
 a great loss of life. 
 
 279. The Leading Industries. — A fine, 
 rich soil is brought down by the Yangtze 
 and Hwang during flood times, and in 
 their valleys agriculture is the chief 
 industry. The land is cultivated with 
 the greatest care, and in soine regions 
 three or four crops are raised each year 
 in the same fields. On the steeper slopes 
 
 m»'t*.*'* *.^iHtSi^yi 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^ -'^^^^^^s^ffl 
 
 ^Pk 
 
 IPHW 
 
 ■"' i6t^ ' ■ 
 
 — i i^^^^^ 
 
 
 -^f^^^^^- V ^^iK^M^^BQtSEai 
 
 ^ 
 
 apBill 
 
 
 
 ^^^pp 
 
 1^;. JlH 
 
 a 
 
 HI 
 
 Fig. 374. Irrigated cabbage fields, China 
 
 terraces have been buiU, so that the soil 
 will not wash away when it rains. For 
 making some ol these terraces, soil was 
 carried long distances. 
 
 In parts of the country there is not 
 enough i;iin lor the croi)s, and the peoi)le 
 li,i\e biiill irrigating ditches and canals. 
 I luse (lii(lies are arranged so that the 
 uatei will riui from one to another and 
 wet the whole field (I'ig. 374).
 
 CHINA 
 
 229 
 
 Fig. 375. Chinese lumbermen and rafts of bamboo poles, near Hangchow 
 
 Rice, cotton, aiul sugar caiie are grown 
 in the lowlands. Rice is the chief food 
 of the people. It is raised in fields that 
 can be easily flooded. Mulberry trees 
 are cultivated for their leaves, on which 
 manv millions of silkworms are fed. 
 China produces about one fourth of the 
 world's supply of silk fiber, or raw 
 silk. 
 
 Tea is another great product of China. 
 A part of the Chinese tea is exported, 
 although the best is kept for home use. 
 The poor<;st grades are sent to the people 
 of libet and Russia. 
 
 There are extensive fisheries 
 along the coast, and fish are much 
 used for food. 
 
 The Chinese have always done 
 much manufacturing by hand ; 
 and now a number of silk mills 
 and cotton mills are in operation. 
 There is a scant}' supply of lumber 
 (Fig. 375). Coal and metals are 
 found in large quantities, and as 
 manufacturing increases and more 
 railways are built, the mines of 
 China will become more and more 
 valuable. 
 
 280. Means of Transpor- 
 tation. — Ciiina has several 
 long railroads, and others are 
 being l)uiit. Much of the 
 interior trade is carried on 
 by boats and rafts on the 
 rivers and canals. It is com- 
 mon for persons living in the 
 interior of the country to 
 build rafts of bamboo, load 
 them with produce, float 
 downstream on them to the 
 markets, sell both the rafts 
 and their loads, and then 
 walk back to their homes. 
 Wheelbarrows with a large wheel in the 
 middle, and covered chairs carried on the 
 shoulders of men, are in common use. 
 
 281. Methods of Work. — In our own 
 country, machines and tools of all sorts 
 are used to help us in our work. Such 
 machines will do the work of many men. 
 Some agricultural machinery has been 
 introduced into China and other parts of 
 the Orient. Most of the work, however, 
 is still done by hand or with old-fashioned 
 tools, such as the Chinese have used for 
 hundreds of years (Fig. 376). 
 
 Fig. 376. Sawing boards by hand, China
 
 23° 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Fig. 377. Lifting water by hand labor 
 
 The Chinese have several ways ot Httinj; 
 water from rivers or canals for irrigation. 
 Most of them require much human 
 labor. By one method two men use 
 a water-tight basket with long rope 
 handles. Standing on the bank, they 
 fill the basket in the canal and swing 
 it over the land and empty the water 
 into one of the irrigating ditches (Fig. 
 377). This is slow and hard work, but 
 the men keep at it for hours at a time. 
 
 The Chinese are energetic and hon- 
 est and they are skillful farmers and 
 merchants. Hy their great industry they 
 are able to support nearly one fifth of 
 the world's population in a country half 
 as large as the United States. 
 
 Many customs of the Chinese seem odd 
 to us. A Chinaman takes off his shoes 
 instead of his hat w hen he enters a house. 
 In reading a book he begins at what we 
 should call the last page ; and in the older 
 schools the children study aloud. We 
 should find it very difficult to learn our 
 lessons if we had to do it in that way. 
 The inodfrn Chinese schools, however, are 
 much like our own (Fig. 378). 
 
 Shanghai is the chief seaport of China. 
 Peking is the capital, and near it is the 
 
 port of Tientsin. Canton is an 
 important port in the south, and 
 Ilankozu (Fig. 372) is the chief 
 city in the interior. 
 
 Much of the trade is with 
 Hongkong, a British colony near 
 Canton. 
 
 Review of Sections 275 to 281. — 
 
 1. Where is the Chinese Republic.^ 
 
 2. What changes have taken place in 
 China in recent years ? 
 
 3. Name the four provinces over 
 which China claims control. 4. Where 
 is Tibet .? 5. What work do the 
 Tibetans do ^ 6. In which of the 
 four provinces are large crops raised ? What are 
 the crops ? 
 
 7. Where are the lowlands of China ? 8. Name 
 the two great rivers of this region. 
 
 <■). What are the chief crops raised in China? 
 
 10. How are the steeper slopes prepared for use? 
 
 11. How is the land irrigated in some parts of 
 China ? 
 
 12. Wii.it ni.iiuif.icturing is done ? \}. Mow 
 are goods transported? i.|. Idl some Chinese 
 ways of doing work. 
 
 15. What are the ciilcf ports? 16. What is 
 the capital city? 17. Where is Canton? Han- 
 kow ?
 
 THE empirp: of japan 
 
 231 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN 
 
 282. Position and Area. — The Empire 
 of Japan includes the islands off the east 
 coast of Asia, between the peninsula of 
 Kamchatka at the north and the Philip- 
 pines at the south. It also includes the 
 peninsula of Korea on the mainland ; and 
 Dairen (Fig. 373), in Manchuria, is under 
 Japanese rule. 
 
 Most of the Japanese people live in the 
 central group of large islands. The area 
 of this group is a little less than that of 
 the state of California ; but the popula- 
 tion is more than half as great as that of 
 the whole United States. 
 
 283. Physical Features. — The islands 
 are mountainous and have been built in 
 part of volcanic material. There are 
 still active volcanoes, and the earth is 
 sometimes shaken by earthquakes. 
 Bridges and other public works must be 
 made very strong, so that earthquakes 
 will not damage or destroy them. I'or 
 the same reason the homes of the people 
 
 are built low and of light material, 
 largely bamboo, so that they will not be 
 easily damaged. 
 
 The rainfall is heavy. Snow falls on 
 the higher mountains and on the northern 
 islands. The most beautiful mountain 
 peak in Japan is the snow-crowned Fuji- 
 yama (Fig. 379). This volcanic cone is 
 regarded by the Japanese as a sacred 
 mountain and is shown in many of their 
 pictures and on their decorated china and 
 other ware. In the southern islands the 
 climate is warmer than in the north- 
 ern. The lower mountain slopes are cov- 
 ered with forests. In the spring of the 
 year the country is lovely with flowering 
 fields and the blossoms of trees and vines. 
 
 The rivers of Japan are all short 
 streams. They rise in the mountain 
 regions, and during times of heavy rain- 
 fall they are very rapid. The soil that 
 they have brought from the highlands 
 in ages past has been spread out as flood 
 plains and coastal lowlands, on which 
 most of the people of Japan live.
 
 232 
 
 ASIA 
 
 ¥iu.. 3SI). Ri I lint; silk from the cocoon, Japan 
 
 Japan produces a vast amount of raw 
 silk, both for use at home and for export 
 (Fig. 38o)_. 
 
 The minerals of Japan inckide iron, 
 coal, and copper. They are of great 
 value to the Japanese, especially since 
 their manufacturing industries are de- 
 veloping so rapidly. The manufacture 
 of cotton and silk is growing, and for 
 this industry Japan imports much cotton, 
 besides using the little that she raises 
 at home. Other important industries 
 are the manufacture of matting and the 
 making of articles of bamboo. 
 
 284. The People. — The Japanese be- Japan has built many miles of rail- 
 long to the yellow or Mongolian race, as way, so that trade with the interior is 
 do also the Chinese. They are a small easy. The foreign trade of Japan is 
 but active and courageous people. They large, and in addition to the Japanese 
 love their country and they love beautiful vessels steamships of many nations make 
 things. regular trips to the ports of Japan. 
 
 They are especially artistic in their The chief cities are Tokyo, the capital, 
 manufactures, which include fine por- and its seaport, Yokohama. Osaka is 
 celain and glass ware, inlaid and carved noted for its cotton manufactures, 
 woodwork, and silks. Many of these 286. Chosen. — The ancient country of 
 articles are so beautiful and so well Korea, now known as Chosen, on the 
 made that they are sold for large sums, mainland of Asia, belongs to the Japanese 
 Wonderful examples of Japanese work Empire. The surface of the country is 
 may be seen in the art miiseums of our irregular and in parts mountainous. The 
 own and other countries. soil is good and the climate is favorable 
 
 For several centuries the Japanese, to agriculture, which is the chief industry, 
 like the Chinese, would not allow for- There are rich mineral deposits. Under 
 eigners to come into the country. Now the rule of Japan the country is being 
 they welcome strangers and have adopted provided with roads and railroads. Sc'oiil 
 many of the ways of living and many of is the capital and tiic leading city. 
 the industries of other people and coun- Review of Sections 282 to 286.— i. What does 
 tries. In nearly all lines ol industry the Japanese Empire include.^ 2. Where do 
 they have made great |)rogress. "^''^^ "f the Japanese people live? 3. Why are 
 
 _ ■, , . . , „.!. 'i-i I • r their houses maile low and light? 
 
 285. Industries and Cities.— 1 he chief ^ ,;,„. ^^.,,^,^ ^^^^-^^-^ ^^.,„.;^ ^,,.^. ^,,^. Japanese 
 
 food croj) of Japan is rice. Tea is another famous? v What arc the important food crops 
 
 valuable croj), and some harlev, millet, 
 and cotton are raised. Fishing is a 
 leading industry, and supplies a large 
 part ot the food ol llic Japanese people. 
 
 raised in Japan ? 6. What minerals are found 
 there? 7. Name two important manufactures. 
 S. What aid to interioi commerce have the Japa- 
 nese constructed ? <). Name three important cities. 
 10. Describe Chosen.
 
 ASIATIC RUSSIA 
 
 233 
 
 ASIATIC RUSSIA 
 
 Siberia, Turkestan, and other Russian 
 provinces in Asia became independent 
 during the World War, but in 1920 
 Russian control was partly restored. 
 
 287. Siberia. — Siberia is larger than 
 Europe. Its population, however, is only 
 about as large as that of the state of New 
 York. In the cold and barren region of 
 the north and in the mountainous region 
 of the southeast the country can never 
 support a large population. The more 
 fertile regions of the central and south- 
 western part of Siberia are suitable for 
 farms and pastures. 
 
 The first Europeans to settle in Siberia 
 were the criminals and political prisoners 
 sent from Russia to work in the mines. 
 At that time it was believed that the 
 country was so cold and barren that it 
 could never be settled and developed as a 
 farming country. It was soon found, 
 however, that there were large regions 
 that could be used for grazing and agri- 
 culture (Fig. 381). The government be- 
 gan to help Russian farmers to 
 settle there. A railroad was 
 built from Moscow in Europe to 
 Vladivostok on the Pacific coast 
 of Asia. Along the line of this 
 railroad many new settlements 
 have been started, and farming 
 and mining have developed rap- 
 idly. Wheat, oats, and rye are 
 raised in large quantities, and 
 much butter is shipped to Euro- 
 pean markets. 
 
 Siberian mines yield gold, 
 iron, copper, and other minerals. 
 
 Tomsk and Irkutsk are the 
 leading cities. Find them on 
 the map (Fig. 357). 
 
 288. Turkestan. — Russian Turkestan 
 and other provinces east of the Caspian 
 Sea are very dry. Grazing is the chief 
 industry, and most of tlie people are 
 nomads. In Russian Turkestan, as in 
 Turkey and in Persia, many of the people 
 are skillful in making rugs from the wool 
 of sheep and of goats. 
 
 289. Caucasus. — South of Russia in 
 Europe is Caucasus. What sea is on 
 the east ? What sea is on the west ? 
 Cotton, fruit, and grain are raised in 
 Caucasus. Near Baku on the Caspian 
 Sea is one of the large oil-producing 
 regions of the world. 
 
 During the World War, Caucasus was 
 divided into several republics. 
 
 Review of Sections 287 to 289. — i. Of what 
 does Asiatic Russia consist .' 
 
 2. Compare the size of Siberia with that of 
 Europe. Of North America. 3. Compare its 
 population with that of New York state. 4. What 
 use did Russia once make of Siberia.' 5. Where 
 have recent settlements been started ? 6. What 
 are the leading industries ? 7. Where are Tomsk 
 and Irkutsk ? 
 
 8. What are the industries of Turkestan ? 9. 
 What are the industries of Caucasus ? 
 
 381. Irrigated vegetable gardens, southern Siberia
 
 AFRICA 
 
 THE CONTINENT 
 
 290. Position. — Africa is second in size 
 among the continents. It is about three 
 times as large as Europe, but it has a 
 much smaller population. The equator 
 crosses the continent nearly midway be- 
 tween its northern and southern points. 
 The northern part is larger, however, as 
 it has a greater width east and west. 
 
 What sea is north of Africa (Fig. 
 384) .'' What sea and ocean are east of it .'' 
 What ocean is west .'' 
 
 At the northeast, Africa is joined to 
 Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez. At 
 the northwest, Africa almost touches 
 southern Spain, but is separated from it 
 by the Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 291. Coast Line and Surface. — The 
 coast line of Africa is regular, and there 
 are few good harbors. This condition 
 delayed the exploration of the continent, 
 and still hinders commerce. 
 
 A low and narrow coastal plain borders 
 most of the continent, but it is very hot 
 and unhealthful. From the coastal plain 
 the surface rises rapidly to a great in- 
 terior plateau, which covers most of the 
 continent. The steep slope is so high 
 that in places, as seen from the ocean, 
 it looks like a range of mountains bor- 
 dering the coast. There are, however, 
 only a few mountain ranges in Africa, 
 and they are not equal in height or 
 length to the great ranges of Asia or of 
 America. 
 
 23s
 
 C.Guardafiil 
 
 236
 
 SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF AFRICA 
 
 237 
 
 The plateau surface is especially un- 
 even in the southern part of the conti- 
 nent, where it is cut up by the rivers. 
 In the northwest are tlie Atlas Moun- 
 tains. They are the longest range of 
 mountains in Africa. There is another 
 mountain region in eastern Africa. It 
 extends from the Plateau of Abyssinia 
 to the region of lakes in the southeast. 
 One of the highest points in this region is 
 the fine volcanic peak of Mt. Kilimanjaro, 
 southeast of Lake Victoria. Northwest 
 of this lake is the lofty range known as 
 the Ruwenzori Mountains. 
 
 292. Climate and Vegetation. — Be- 
 cause of the position of Africa in the hot 
 part of the earth, the climate of much 
 of the continent is such that white men 
 cannot make their homes there. The 
 cooler parts of Africa are in the north- 
 west and on the higher plateaus of the 
 south. 
 
 Central Africa, near the Equator, has 
 a heavy rainfall with a dense forest 
 jungle, like that of the Amazon basin 
 in South America. South of the forest 
 belt, and also along its northern edge, 
 are regions that have rain only a part 
 of the year. Trees grow along the stream 
 banks, but the rest of the country is a 
 region of savannas, or grasslands. 
 
 Southern Africa is dry, except along 
 the eastern coast, where the winds from 
 the Indian Ocean bring some rain. 
 
 Northern Africa, except the northern 
 coast and a narrow irrigated strip in the 
 northeast, is a great desert. This is the 
 Sahara (Fig. 384). It is larger than any 
 other desert in the world. In crossing 
 it, caravans make their way from one 
 oasis or spring to another. There are 
 not many of these oases, and during a 
 part of the journey not a tree or a blade 
 
 Fig. 385. Prevailing winds and rainfall of Africa 
 
 of grass can be seen. Journeys across 
 the desert are difficult and dangerous 
 because of sand storms, because of great 
 hills of sand, or dunes, that have been 
 piled up by the winds, and because of 
 fierce native robber tribes that roam over 
 this region. 
 
 Travelers on the desert greatly dread 
 the sand storms. The wind blows with 
 violence and picks up the sand from the 
 surface of the desert, as winds in our 
 country sometimes pick up the dust 
 from roads and fields, until the air seems 
 filled with it. 
 
 When such a storm overtakes a cara- 
 van, the camel drivers make the great 
 beasts kneel. This they usually do will- 
 ingly, for they seem to know what is 
 coming. They close their eyes and push 
 their noses into the sand. The men of 
 the caravan throw themselves face down 
 on the desert, close their eyes, and cover 
 their heads with a cloth until the storm 
 has passed.
 
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 atorvilfe V,,*? ^i%^ J NiuroL.i s ■«l.f«"«<i X 
 PonthlcrMId |(tr"l y^^-k I ^ 
 
 ■TFNGto% W\«IMUm„r.n,ro\ 1 
 
 '' \ fl 
 
 'Nv^ufwcfo ■/*:'■ T-ARGANYIKA ^-JlJlombasa 
 
 ijRUItMtf 
 
 I5/;-„^j.-''iCBN'Y|A/ S^^i^ogadiiho 
 
 » K A V* W f"' 
 
 •Kasanjcw 
 
 
 O C E a\ S 
 
 Btingueta 
 
 B 
 
 • (Dr.) 
 
 injiji .T"bora J «Vt"«. t- o C jB ^ Jf 
 
 .,/^ \ yj ? Kilwa Kisiwani 
 
 
 
 SMozanibi(lu< 
 
 C Wo \ . I 
 
 ~T ISO U til WEST: ^^ 
 
 "Tropic of Capricorn VaFRICAF *ji 
 
 \tonc_ S»«!ibury T^l 
 
 \^ ,J^ SOUTHIEKN j 
 V'Y„1>"1 KlIODpiA j 
 
 ''A/'il Bulalvnyo/i\ 
 .„^'^.^^''/"i •' 
 
 Fig. 386 
 
 Political 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 SealvofSUtuto Mil"* 
 
 [rn PisquonuV 
 
 Port N 
 
 V r-,Mufvk;naf %■ 
 
 'amutavc'l 
 mriyp mau«itiu> I. 
 
 F , HBUMIOH L4^ 
 
 irniitMoa C/VJ 
 
 _^ 
 
 TW UlLia TO 0N< (NCM 
 
 eorrmoMT, tr amkhican kook mmpi 
 ZO* LcmclUid* W«rt IQ'' fro m Onwinwlflh 0* 
 
 Cope Towfl 
 C-o^ Cuorf »opJ* 
 
 Mandatory ProU-ctoratca 
 over former 
 ,,uj„„„ German Colonies 
 
 , ' '^'p- 1 rnrl of T<'K») to Oroiit lUitaiu 
 
 \\\^'-' ,\1' ,M- / ^'•^^Ufff- II Pun of Toko to Fniuco 
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 Port liliztibctll V Omiian Soiilliw.'iil Africa to 
 
 ,>l0M/'Ta« I t'ulou of Siiutli Africa (Knifllnili) 
 
 VI Purl of OiT. East Alrlcn to Orcut Tlrltuiri 
 Vil JL*"rt ot Ouruiaii Eusl Afrlcu to BlI^Iuiii 
 ___J L 
 
 10" LAnii1tu4« EMt 20^fromJ»i»«wkh80" 
 
 238
 
 RIVERS AND ANIMALS OF AFRICA 
 
 ^39 
 
 Fig. 387. The African elephant is the largest of land 
 animals. Its tusks are much larger than those of the 
 Asiatic elephant. They furnish most of the world's 
 supply of ivory 
 
 Along the northern coast, 
 especially in the west, there 
 is enough rain to allow 
 the cultivation of grapes, 
 olives, and other tropical 
 fruits. In the desert there 
 are some elevated regions 
 in vvhich enough rain falls 
 to form temporary streams. 
 Along them grass springs 
 up ; but the streams soon 
 dwindle away, leaving only 
 dry and stony beds. 
 
 293. Drainage. — As the 
 central and southeastern 
 parts of Africa have the 
 heaviest rainfall, it is in these regions that 
 lakes are found and large rivers rise. 
 
 The longest of the African ri\ers is the 
 Nile (Fig. 383). Its main stream rises in 
 the region of great lakes, and its chief trib- 
 utary comes from the Plateau of Abys- 
 sinia. Along its banks is the narrow irri- 
 gated region of northeast Africa. 
 
 The Kongo, the second river in length, 
 also rises in the lake district. .As it 
 flows through a region of abundant rains 
 it has many tributaries. The Niger in 
 
 Fig. 388. Giraffes, eighteen feet 
 high, the tallest of all animals 
 
 the west and the Zambezi in the south 
 are large streams also (Fig. 384). 
 
 Where these rivers leave the plateau, 
 they are interrupted by great falls and 
 rapids, which have hindered trade with 
 the interior. Beyond the falls, how- 
 ever, the rivers of the plateau can be 
 navigated for hundreds of miles. 
 
 How many great lakes do you find in 
 the eastern highlands ? Name the larg- 
 est. Lake Chad, south of the Sahara, 
 has no outlet. 
 
 294. Animals. — Among the wild ani- 
 mals found in Africa are the chimpanzee, 
 the gorilla, the rhinoceros, 
 the hippopotamus, the 
 elephant (Fig. 387), the 
 giraffe (Fig. 388), and the 
 lion. There are many 
 monkeys, and many poi- 
 sonous serpents and an- 
 noying insects. The camel 
 (Fig. 392) is the chief beast 
 of l)urden in dry regions. 
 Ostriches are raised for 
 their feathers (Fig. 389). 
 How many African animals 
 have you seen at a circus 
 or at a zoological garden .'' 
 
 Fig. 389. Ostriches on a South African farm, 
 are cut from their wings and tails. 
 
 Plumes
 
 240 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 295. People. — Africa has often been 
 called the Dark Continent. One reason 
 is that for many years very little was 
 known about it. Another reason is that 
 most of the native people, except those 
 who live along the Mediterranean Sea, 
 are dark-skinned and belong to the 
 negro or black race. The white people 
 in southern Africa came mostly from 
 Europe. Along the northern coast there 
 are many Europeans, but most of the 
 white people are descendants of Arabians 
 who settled there many hundred years ago. 
 
 The home of the black race is central 
 and southern Africa. It was from this 
 region that the negroes of our own and 
 other countries first came. Most of the 
 African natives are still savage and ig- 
 norant in sjjite of efforts made to educate 
 them. They wear little clothing and live 
 in huts made of small poles covered \\'\x\\ 
 grass (Fig. 390) or mud. Where tiiere is 
 danger from enemies or wild animals, 
 they build their luits in trees or protect 
 them by a high wall made of posts. 
 
 In recent years there has been much 
 progress. This is because several of the 
 nations of Europe have taken possession 
 of a large part of Africa, and are trying 
 to develop their territory. They are 
 building railroads (Fig. 391), working 
 the mines, and stocking the land with 
 cattle. 
 
 Review of Sections 290 to 295. — i. Near what 
 other continents is Africa ? 2. How is it separated 
 from them .^ 
 
 5. Describe the coast line of Africa. 4. How 
 has this delayed the development of the continent ? 
 5. Where are the mountains of Africa ? 
 
 (i. What makes a great part of Africa unsuitable 
 for white people to live in ? 7. Where are the 
 great y\frican forests ? Why ? 8. Where are the 
 grasslands .? 9. What is the Sahara ? Where is 
 it .^ 10. How are the caravans able to cross the 
 great desert ? 
 
 II. Name four great rivers of Africa. 
 12. What parts of these rivers are navigalile ? 
 
 13. Name and describe some of the wild ani- 
 mals of Africa. 
 
 14. Why is Africa often called the Dark 
 Continent? \<^. What parts are occupied by 
 white people ? 16. Describe the homes of some 
 of the native people. 17. Why is Africa now 
 making progress ?
 
 EGYPT 
 
 241 
 
 
 COUNTRIES OF AFRICA 
 
 296. Egypt. -Egypt, in north- 
 eastern Africa, is one of the most 
 ancient of the civihzed countries 
 of the world, lor many cen- 
 turies it was ruled by its own 
 kings, and was a great and 
 powerful nation. For a lime it 
 was part of the Roman empire. 
 Later it was under the govern- 
 ment of Turkey, and the people 
 were poor and wretched. Later 
 still it was a British protectorate, 
 and the people were again pros- 
 perous. Finalh', ii: 1922, Egypt 
 became a separate kingdom. 
 
 Most of Eg\pt is a desert. But the 
 region tlirough which the Nile River Hows 
 is fertile, and here the |)()i)ulition is 
 gathered. Every year, when the heavy 
 rains fall on the Plateau of Abyssinia and 
 in the region of the upper Nile, the river 
 rises rapidly and floods its lower valley. 
 The muddy water irrigates the fields and 
 covers them with a layer of rich soil. 
 
 For thousands of j'ears the Egyptians 
 depended upon this annual flooding of 
 the river to grow their crops. When' 
 the British government was in control 
 
 Fig. 393. The Assuan Dam, Egypt 
 
 it greatly improved the methods of 
 irrigation. A dam built at Assuan 
 holds the water of the river in a vast 
 artificial lake (Fig. 393). The stored 
 water is distributed over the fields in 
 ditches whenever it is needed, and in 
 this way more land is irrigated than was 
 l)()ssible by the old methods. As it is 
 always warm in Egypt, and as it is easy 
 to control the watering of the fields, it 
 is possible to raise two or three crops a 
 year on the same land (Fig. 394). 
 
 Corn, cotton, wheat, and beans are 
 the chief crops. Most of the cotton, 
 like that of India, is sent to English 
 mills for manufacture. 
 
 The Nile is navigable for hundreds of 
 miles, and is used both by pleasure craft 
 and by freight boats. The Suez Canal 
 cuts through Egyptian territory, and 
 connects the Red Sea with the Mediter- 
 ranean. This canal makes it possible 
 for ships from North Atlantic ports to 
 reach ports on the Indian and Pacific 
 oceans without sailing around the south- 
 ern end of Africa.
 
 '^ras* 
 
 
 '\ 
 
 t-x^W 
 
 lPll:\ii!itti!ls|l 
 
 m 
 
 I '\ 
 
 1 . :i ■ '■ !■ , 
 
 MBWiWB»^BMi^^M>tWMWWMIiMII»«M3BMBM«gaBaaliyBMH M-ilJL^J ' l l' iii i - - 
 
 FiR. 3'J4 H;,lm trees and liclil ot young wheat in Epypt. The land is level and easily irrigated 
 
 ■>i3
 
 COUNTRIES OF NORTHERN AFRICA 
 
 243 
 
 Fig. 395. A store in Cairo whcrt Arnli 
 shoes or slippers are sold 
 
 Fig. 3'ii'. 01i(li\l: from Egypt, 
 now in the city of New York 
 
 Where the Nile en- 
 ters the Mediterranean, 
 it has built a great 
 delta. At the head of 
 the delta stands Cairo, 
 the largest city of 
 Africa. It is an inter- 
 esting city, with inhab- 
 itants from the three 
 continents that border 
 the Mediterranean Sea. 
 The picture (Fig. 395) 
 shows one of the shops 
 in Cairo. Notice how 
 different it is from the 
 stores in our cities. 
 /Alexandria, on the Mediterranean, is the and trade them for ivory, skins, and os- 
 seaport of Egypt. trich feathers. These they bring back to 
 
 Scattered through the country are Tripoli for export. 
 ruins of temples and pyramids built Tunis and Algeria are under French 
 thousands of years ago when the Egyp- control and are prosperous and well- 
 tians were a powerful nation. The larger governed countries. Wheat, barley, oats, 
 pyramids are made of enormous blocks corn, and tropical fruits are grown. The 
 of stone, and it must have taken thou- dates are excellent and furnish a much- 
 sands of men many years to build them, prized food. Much of the wheat is 
 They were burial places of ancient kings, sent to France. Camels, horses, sheep, 
 
 Tall blocks of stone, called obelisks and goats are raised. There are rich 
 (Fig. 396), were set up in various places, mineral deposits, especially in Algeria. 
 Obelisks and temple walls are covered Algiers, on the Mediterranean, is the chief 
 with carved picture writings which give port and principal city of Algeria. Tunis 
 the histories of the ancient kings. is the leading city of Tunis. 
 
 297. Other Countries of Northern Morocco has a ruler of its own, called 
 Africa. — Tripoli, or Libia, as it is now the Sultan ; but part of the country \^ 
 called, borders on the Mediterranean controlled by France and part by Spain. 
 and was under the control n\' Turkey as shown by the purple and brown colors 
 until it was won in war by the Italians on the map (Pig. 3S6). The people are 
 in 1912. Tripoli, the chief town and ignorant, and many of them are wild and 
 trading post, is on the coast. The south- cruel. Little of the country is under culti- 
 ern part of Libia is a desert, but much vation, although the northern part could 
 trade is carried on across it by means of be cultivated. Grain and such tropical 
 camels. Caravans of traders carry from fruits as dates, figs, and olives are grown 
 Tripoli to the Sudan various articles in abundance, 
 manufactured in Europe and America, Tangier is the chief city.
 
 244 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Railroads in operation 
 Proposed railroads 
 
 Cape Town 
 
 Review of Sections 296 
 and 297. — I. Where is Egypt r 
 2. Under what government is 
 it now? 3. How is the coun- 
 tr\' irrigated? 4. What crops 
 are grown? 5. Where is the 
 Suez Canal? 
 
 6. Where is Cairo ? 7. How 
 do the shops differ from our 
 own ? 8. Where is Alexandria ? 
 
 9. \\ hat are some of the 
 ancient monuments of Egypt ? 
 10. For what were they used ? 
 
 II. What European coun- 
 try controls Libia ? Tunis 
 and Algeria? 12. What 
 
 countries control Morocco ? 
 
 13. What are the chief crops 
 
 of Tunis and Algeria ? 14. Name the chief city 
 
 in each of these four countries. 
 
 298. Abyssinia. — Abyssinia, in eastern 
 Africa, is a country of mountains and 
 plateaus. The rainfall of this region 
 helps to cause the floods of the Nile River. 
 Agriculture and the raising of cattle, 
 sheep, goats, and mules are the chief 
 industries. There are extensive forests 
 in which there are many trees good for 
 lumber. Some iron is mined and worked 
 into spears, knives, and tools. 
 
 299. Sudan Countries. — South of the 
 Sahara, and north of the great forest 
 region of Africa, is the Sudan. It reaches 
 from Abyssinia and the Red Sea to the 
 Atlantic Ocean, and is the home of many 
 negro tribes. 
 
 The eastern part of the Sudan is under 
 the control of Great Britain and Egypt. 
 Khartum is the capital. A railroad now 
 extends from Cairo some distance south 
 of Khartum. It is |)art of a line that will 
 finally connect Cairowith Cape Town, near 
 the southern i)oiiir of Africa (Fig. 397). 
 
 Much <^)f the central and western part 
 of the Sudan is under French control. 
 The region along the Gulf of Guinea is 
 
 Fig. 397. Railroads of Africa 
 
 divided into colonies con- 
 trolled by France and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 There is some agricul- 
 ture, and much of the 
 country is used for graz- 
 ing. The products in- 
 clude ivory, hides, spices, 
 rubber, and gums. These 
 are carried to the ports 
 on the coast, or by cara- 
 vans across the Sahara 
 to the north. 
 
 300. Countries along 
 the Equator. — Two of the 
 large countries of the equatorial forest 
 region are Belgian Kongo and French 
 Equatorial Africa. Their names show to 
 what European nations they belong. The 
 Uganda Protectorate, Kenya, and Tan- 
 ganyika Territory are under British con- 
 trol. 
 
 In Kenya and Uganda the lowland 
 products include rice and corn. The 
 products of the highlands include most 
 of the crops of the temperate parts of 
 our own country, such as wheat, oats, 
 barley, potatoes, and corn, as well as 
 many vegetables. Coffee plantations have 
 been set out, and cotton and sugar are also 
 grown. Ostrich and sheep farming are 
 profitable. Ivory and hides are exi)orted. 
 In Tanganyika Territory rubber, ivory, 
 coffee, and copra, the meat of the coconut, 
 are the chief products. 
 
 The Belgian Kongo produces rubber, 
 palm nuts, and palm oil. Coffee and 
 cacao also are grown. Ihere is a con- 
 siderable supply of ivory. Valuable de- 
 posits of gold .md C()|)i)tT JKue been found. 
 The products of I'rench Fipiatorial 
 Africa are almost the same as those of 
 the Belgian Kongo.
 
 COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA 
 
 245 
 
 Fig. 398. Works at a gold mine, near Johanncsbursi 
 
 301. Countries of South Africa. — At 
 the present time South Africa is the most 
 prosperous part of the continent. This is 
 because its cHmate is healthful and also 
 because it has many white settlers. The 
 larger and better portions of South Africa 
 are under the control of Great Britain, 
 although many of the settlers are Dutch. 
 Two colonies (colored light brown on the 
 map) belong to Portugal (Fig. 386). 
 
 The most important divisions of South 
 Africa, where most of the white settlers 
 live, are Cape of Good Hope, Transvaal, 
 Orange Free State, and Natal. These 
 four British provinces form the Union 
 of South Africa, which has a government 
 much like that of Canada. It controls 
 Southwest Africa. 
 
 In the east, in the region of heavy rain- 
 fall (Fig. 385), wheat and corn are raised. 
 Where the rainfall is slight, grazing 
 is the leading industry. 
 
 Other industries in South Africa 
 are the raising of ostriches for their 
 feathers, and mining for gold and 
 diamonds. The Transvaal is the 
 greatest gold-mining region in the 
 world (Fig. 398). The largest 
 diamond mines are at Kimberley, 
 in the province of Cape of (jood 
 Hope. The manufacturing indus- 
 
 tries include the making of flour and of 
 leather. 
 
 The trade of South Africa is increasing 
 more and more as railroads are built 
 and the country is opened for settlement. 
 
 Johannesburg is the center of the gold 
 mines. Cape Town is the chief port of 
 South Africa (Fig. 399). 
 
 302. The African Islands. — Madagas- 
 car, off the southeast coast, is the largest 
 of the African islands. It is a colony of 
 France. The chief industries are agri- 
 culture and the raising of cattle. Mada- 
 gascar exports rubber, cattle, hides, and 
 gold. 
 
 The Cape Verde Islands, off the north- 
 west coast (Fig. 409), belong to Portugal, 
 as do also the Madeira Islands farther 
 north. The Canary Islands, ofip the same 
 coast, belong to Spain. 
 
 Review of Sections 298 to 302. — i. What 
 kind of country is Ab\ ssinia ? 2. What coun- 
 tries control the Sudan ? What are its exports ? 
 3. Where is Khartum ? 4. Tell about the Cape- 
 to-Cairo railroad. 
 
 5. Name the countries of equatorial Africa. 
 6. What are their products ? 
 
 7. To what country does most of South Africa 
 belong.'' 8. What are the leading industries.? 
 9. Name and describe the chief cities. 
 
 10. Where is Madagascar .^ 11. To what coun- 
 try does it belong.' 12. What are its products? 
 
 13. Name some of the other African islands. 
 
 14. To what countries do they belong.''
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 2.|(.
 
 Fifi. 401. On the Pacific coast of Australia 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS OF 
 THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 303. Position and Government.— Aus- 
 tralia is the smallest of the seven conti- 
 nents. Although it is sometimes called 
 an island, it is so much larger than any 
 other island in the world that it is better 
 
 from Europe or from North America. 
 It lies far south of Asia and is bordered 
 by the Pacific and Indian oceans. 
 
 The entire continent belongs to Great 
 Britain. It is divided into a number of 
 
 called a continent. It is not very much self-governing states which, together with 
 smaller than Europe. the island of Tasmania, form the Corn- 
 
 Australia is nearly two thousand miles monwealth of Australia. Its government 
 from Asia, and many thousand miles is somewhat like that of Canada. 
 
 304. Physical Features. — As the maps 
 (Figs. 400, 403, 406) show, there is only 
 one extensive range of mountains in 
 Australia. This is called the Great Divid- 
 ing Range. It is in the eastern part and 
 borders the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The continent lies almost wholly in the 
 region of the southeast winds. These 
 winds bring heavy rains to the eastern 
 slope of the mountains (Fig. 402). But 
 after crossing the mountains they reach 
 the interior of the continent as drying 
 winds ; and the central part of Australia 
 is a desert. 
 
 The maps show a number of rivers, 
 but none of them are large, except the 
 Murray and the Darling. 
 247 
 
 [ ■ -- ; i Light ralaj 
 ^^ Moderate nios 
 bBs Moderately heavy rains 
 ^BS n^Avy rains 
 
 iJ. 
 
 Prerallinir winter wintl& *■ \ 
 
 Prevailing suirimcr windtf*"^ 
 
 Fig. 402. Rainfall and prevailing winds of Australia
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 249 
 
 305. Natives and Native Animals. — 
 When Australia was tirst settled by white 
 people, they toiiml the country already 
 inhabited by a race of black men. The 
 natives hunted with a curved piece of wood 
 called a boomerang (Fig. 404), and with 
 spears and clubs. The boomerang was 
 their favorite weapon because it could 
 be thrown in such a way that if it failed to 
 hit, it would rise high in the air and glide 
 back to the one who threw it. Some 
 natives are still living in the interior of 
 the continent. 
 
 The native animals of Australia are 
 peculiar. Several of them have pouches 
 in their skins in which to carry their 
 young. The most interesting of these 
 animals is the kangaroo. It has long, 
 powerful hind legs and a powerful tail 
 which it uses in leaping over the ground 
 at great speed. The fore legs are short 
 and weak. 
 
 306. Australian Industries. — The lead- 
 ing industries of Australia are agriculture, 
 grazing, and mining. Wheat is the chief 
 
 grain raised, and large amounts are sent 
 to Great Britain. 
 
 Where the rainfall is too light for 
 successful agriculture, grazing is carried 
 on. There are great sheep ranches on 
 which are millions of sheep. They furnish 
 vast quantities of wool and mutton that 
 are sent to Great Britain and to othei 
 countries. 
 
 Large herds of cattle furnish beef, 
 hides, and tallow, as well as dairy prod- 
 ucts. The dairy products and the meat 
 are sent principally to Great Britain, 
 where they help to feed the large manu- 
 facturing population. The meat is 
 carried in refrigerator ships, as is the 
 meat sent from Argentina. 
 
 The gold mines of Australia have 
 yielded many million dollars' worth of 
 gold and are still productive. Coal, 
 silver, copper, lead, and tin also are found. 
 
 The settled portion of the country 
 is well supplied with railroads. Great 
 steamships sail regularly between Aus- 
 tralia and other countries. 
 
 Fig. 404. Native with boomerang 
 
 Fig. 405. Horse ranch, New South Wales
 
 I 
 
 250
 
 ISLANDS OF IHt PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 251 
 
 Fig. 407. Railroad station, Melbourne 
 
 Melbourne is the capital of the state of 
 Victoria and also of the Commonwealth 
 of Australia (Fig. 407). Sydney is the 
 capital of New South Wales (Fig. 408), 
 and Adelaide is the capital of South 
 Australia. All three cities are seaports. 
 • South of Australia is the island of 
 Tasmania, a grazing and agricultural 
 state. Hobart is the principal city. 
 
 307. New Zealand. — New Zealand is a 
 group of islands a thousand miles east of 
 Australia. The surface is mountainous, 
 and the scenery is wondrously 
 beautiful and grand. Some of 
 the mountains are covered with 
 perpetual snow, and great 
 glaciers creep down their sides. 
 Some peaks are of volcanic 
 origin, and there are gej'sers 
 and hot springs. New Zealand 
 has an abundance of rain and 
 many rivets. Agriculture and 
 grazing are the leading indus- 
 tries. Thi? country is a colony 
 of the British Empire. 
 
 Auckland is the chief city and 
 port. 
 
 308. Islands of the Pacific 
 Ocean. — Near Australia, in the 
 southwestern part of the Pacific 
 Ocean, are thousands of islands. 
 They vary greatly in size. Many 
 are small, but a few are large. 
 Many of them have been built 
 up by volcanic action. Some of 
 the smaller islands are important 
 chiefly as coaling stations. The 
 map (Fig. 406) shows the countries 
 to which the more important 
 islands belong. The largest of 
 these islands is New Guinea, 
 north of Australia. To what 
 countries does it belong .'' 
 
 Review of Sections 303 to 308. — i. How does 
 Australia rank in size among the continents .? 
 2. Compare it with Europe as to size. 3. To 
 what country does it belong .? 
 
 4. Where is the chief mountain range of 
 Australia ? 5. How does this range affect the 
 climate of the interior .' 
 
 6. Tell about the native people of Australia. 
 7. Describe the kangaroo. 
 
 8. What are the leading industries of Aus- 
 tralia ? 9. Where do many of the products go ? 
 10. Where are Melbourne, Sydney, and Ade- 
 laide? II. Where is Tasmania? 
 
 12. Name the wonders of New Zealand. 
 13. What nations own islands near Australia? 
 
 © Valrnline 
 
 Fig. 40S. Wharves at Sydney
 
 
 '•2 J 
 
 .9. S 
 
 p o 
 
 5 1 
 
 1 ■? 
 
 £ £ 
 
 w 1 
 " 2 a. • 
 
 o «s : 
 
 
 I S.6 s 
 
 111 i 
 
 |i| g 
 
 JBI 
 
 I
 
 COMMERCE OF OUR COUNTRY 
 
 309. The Need of Commerce. — When railroads and Figure 410 the chief canals 
 we began the study ot Geography, we and navigable rivers of our country that 
 learned that all mankind must have food are used in this domestic commerce. In 
 to eat, clothing to wear, and homes in addition, there is an enormous commerce 
 which to live. We have now learned on the Great Lakes and along our coasts 
 about all the larger and more important from port to port. 
 
 parts of the world. 
 We have found that 
 a part of our food, 
 and some of the ma- 
 terials used in our 
 clothing and in build- 
 ings, come from dis- 
 tant countries. How 
 do these things get 
 into our markets ? 
 Read again Section 
 46. 
 
 310. Domestic Com- 
 merce. — Commerce 
 between the different 
 parts of a country is 
 called domestic com- 
 merce, and in the United States it is of One reason for our great domestic corn- 
 great importance. Figure 147 shows the merce is that our country is so large. It 
 
 has many different kinds of soil and cli- 
 mate and minerals, and therefore a great 
 variety of productions. The people in 
 each region produce the things that can 
 be most easily grown or made there, and 
 depend on commerce to supply their other 
 needs. 
 
 Wheat raised in the fields of the North 
 Central States and elsewhere is carried to 
 Minneapolis, Chicago, Buffalo, or some 
 other milling center, to be made into 
 flour (Fig. 411). From these cities the 
 flour is sent to all parts of the country. 
 
 2S3 
 
 Fig. 410. Navigable rivers and canals
 
 254 
 
 DOMESTIC COMMERCE 
 
 "l^y 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 i!^ 
 
 Each 5raall dol represents 1000 cattle 'Q^? 
 • Principal meat packing centers. ^J 
 
 Fig. 412. Cattle raising and meat packing 
 
 Fig. 414. Regions producing petroleum and natural gas 
 
 Cattle raised on the Great Plains are 
 fattened and sent t-i) Omaha, Kansas 
 City, Chicago, and other centers to be 
 slaughtered (Fig 412). The meat is then 
 packed and sent to many cities, and sold 
 for use as food. 
 
 There is enough cotton grown in the 
 plantations of our southern states to 
 keep busy the mills of both the South 
 and the North, lii these mills many 
 varieties of cloth .irc inailc, which are 
 sent to .ill parts of the country to be 
 sold (Fig. 413). 
 
 The wool and hides from the sheep 
 and cattle of western ranches are made 
 into clothing and shoes in the factories 
 of our northern states. 
 
 Coal and petroleum and natural gas 
 (Figs. 179, 414) are carried to many 
 parts of the country, to be used for heat 
 or power in homes and factories, or to 
 run steamships and railroad trains. The 
 trees of our forests are cut and sawed 
 into lumber and sent to distant states, to 
 be used in building and in the manufacture 
 of furniture and other articles (Fig. 415). 
 
 From our iron mines (Fig. 416), ore is 
 taken to smelters and steel mills in 
 Chicago, Pittsburgh, Birmingham, Cleve- 
 land, and other cities to be made into 
 machinery, building iron, engines, and 
 rails. Mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, 
 and zinc furnish other metals for use in 
 our industries. 
 
 Cotton ifftwlnif nr^n 
 
 • •Prlnrii ■ 
 
 Fig. 413. Coltfjn yrowing and cotton niiinufacturing 
 
 
 
 lleavleit lorcsu 
 
 Fig. 415. LumhtT prothirinj; regions
 
 OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 255 
 
 Fig. 416. Iron-mining regions 
 
 Fig. 417. Manufacturing regions 
 
 The transportation of all these products 
 gives work to thousands of men on rail- 
 roads and steamships. The manufactur- 
 ing of the raw materials in great mills 
 and factories has led to the growth of 
 large cities. In the cities, millions of 
 people work, in the mills, and millions 
 more are engaged in supplying the needs 
 of the mill workers and others. Figure 
 417 shows the great manufacturing sec- 
 tion of our country and some of the 
 smaller manufacturing regions. 
 
 Many of the larger cities, such as New 
 York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Hoston, St. 
 Louis, Galveston, and New Orleans, are 
 especially important as trade centers. To 
 them raw materials and manufactured 
 goods from our own country and other 
 countries are sent (Figs. 418, 419). The 
 raw materials may come from the rural 
 districts and the smaller towns near these 
 cities, or from more distant places. The 
 manufactured goods are distributed to 
 places far and near. 
 
 Fig. 418. Docks where goods are unloaded from ships 
 
 Fig. 419. Freight yard
 
 2s6 FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 311. Foreign Commerce. — Our trade Our imports include articles of food, 
 
 with other parts of the world is called raw materials for manufacture, and manu- 
 
 foreign commerce. Europe alone takes factured goods. From the West Indies, 
 
 more than three fourths of our exports. Mexico, and South America we import 
 
 The greater part of this trade is with sugar, coffee, cacao, crude rubber, wool, 
 
 Great Britain, France, Germany, Bel- and hides. From Japan, China, and 
 
 gium, and the Netherlands. India we get tea and raw silk, and from 
 
 On our own continent we carry on other Asiatic countries, beautiful rugs and 
 
 much foreign trade with Canada and carpets. From Australia we get wool and 
 
 Mexico. We also have a large trade with hides. 
 
 Japan and China in Asia, and with Brazil, More than half of our total imports, 
 
 Argentina, and Chile, in South America, however, come from European countries. 
 
 There is some trade direct with Australia These imports consist largely of manu- 
 
 and to a smaller extent with Africa. factured goods, such as fine woolens, 
 
 To these foreign countries we send silks, linen goods, ribbons, gloves, laces, 
 
 breadstuffs, including wheat, corn, and and jewelry. 
 
 flour ; raw cotton for manufacture ; and Figure 409 shows the chief seaports of M 
 
 such manufactured articles as cotton the world, and the important ocean ■ 
 
 goods, iron and steel and copper goods, routes followed by ships trading between ■ 
 
 and mineral oils. (Table 4, page 260.) our own and other countries. 
 
 Fig. 420. Docks in Bi • (;oods are received from abroad and where gooil'li'Mii ihr. c .uniiN .m 
 
 shipped ubioa'l. In th> li.icktround arc many large warehouses where goods are stored
 
 A SHORT LIST OF USEFUL REFERENCES 
 
 The reference readings listed below deal in a fuller 
 way with topics discussed in the textbook itself. 
 Many of the books referred to can be read by the 
 children ; others are suitable for readmj; to them. 
 Page references are not given, as the index or chap- 
 ter headings in each book make this unnecessary. 
 
 The following abbreviations are used : American 
 Book Company, New "V'ork (A. B. C.) ; D. Apple- 
 ton and Company, New ^'ork (D. Ap.) ; E. P. 
 Dutton &: Company. New York (Dut.) ; Educa- 
 tional Publishing Company, New York (E. P. 
 Co.) ; A. Elanagan Company, Chicago (Flan.) ; 
 Ginn and Company, Boston (Ginn) ; Harper & 
 Brothers, New York (Harp.) ; D. C. Heath &: Co., 
 Boston (Heath) ; Orange Judd Company, New 
 York (Judd) ; Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, Boston 
 (L. & S.) ; The Macmillan Company, New York 
 (Mac.) ; Rand McNally &: Company, Chicago 
 (R. McN.) ; Silver, Burdett and Company, New 
 York (S. B.). 
 
 General. — " National Geographic Magazine," 
 a monthly published by the National Geographic 
 Society, Washington, D.C. Each number con- 
 tains brief articles and many beautiful pictures. 
 
 Sections 1-5. Food, Clothing, and Shelter. — 
 Carpenter's " How the World is Fed," " How the 
 World is Clothed," and " How the World is 
 Housed " (A. B. C). Chamberlain's " How 
 We are Fed," "How We are Clothed," and 
 " How We are Sheltered " (Mac). " How the 
 World is Fed " (National Geographic Magazine, 
 Volume XXIX, Number One). 
 
 6-9. Life in Other Lands. — Shaw's " Big 
 People and Little People of Other Lands " (A. B. 
 C). Starr's "Strange Peoples" (Heath). 
 Youth's Companion Series — " Strange Lands 
 Near Home" (Ginn). Smith's "Eskimo Stories" 
 (R. McN.). Andrews's " Seven Little Sisters " 
 (Ginn). Carpenter's "Around the World with 
 the Children " (A. B. C). 
 
 10-45. The Great Industries. — Payne's "Geo- 
 graphical Nature Studies " (A. B. C). Long's 
 " Home Geography " (A. B. C). Fairbanks's 
 " Home Geography for Primary Grades " (E. P. 
 Co.). Rocheleau's Great American Industries — • 
 " Products of the Soil," " Minerals," and " Manu- 
 factures " (Flan.). Chase and Clow's " Stories 
 of Industry," Vol. I and Vol. II (E. P. Co.). 
 Youth's Companion Series — " Industries of To- 
 day " (Ginn). BufFum and Deaver's " Sixty 
 Lessons in Agriculture " (A. B. C). Mann's 
 " Beginnings in Agriculture " (Mac). Roth's 
 
 " First Book of Forestry " (Ginn). Frye's 
 " Brooks and Brook Basins " (Ginn). 
 
 46 54. Commerce. — Chamberlain's "How 
 We Travel " (Mac). Rocheleau's Great Ameri- 
 can Industries — "Transportation" (Flan.). 
 Brigham's " From Trail to Railway through the 
 Appalachians " (Ginn). Dutton's " Trading and 
 Exploring " (A. B. C). Payne's " Geographical 
 Nature Studies" (A. B. C). Andrews's "Stories 
 Mother Nature Told her Children " (Ginn). 
 Warman's " Story of the Railroad " (D. Ap.). 
 Braine's " Merchant Ships and What They Bring 
 Us " (Dut.). 
 
 55-60. The Atmosphere. ■ — ■ Long's " Home 
 Geography " (A. B. C). Payne's " Geographical 
 Nature Studies " (A. B. C). Fairbanks's " Home 
 Geography for Primary Grades " (E. P. Co.). 
 Frye's " Brooks and Brook Basins " (Ginn). 
 Murche's " Science Reader," Book III (Mac). 
 
 61-65. Government. — Marriott's "Uncle Sam's 
 Business " (Harp.). Payne's " Geographical 
 Nature Studies " (A. B. C). Dunn's " Com- 
 munity and the Citizen " (Heath). 
 
 66-83. The Earth as a Whole. — Lucia's 
 " Stories of American Discoverers for Little 
 Americans " (A. B. C). Shaw's " Discoverers 
 and Explorers " (A. B. C). Dunton's " Glimpses 
 of the World " (S. B.). Fairbanks's " Home 
 Geography for Primary Grades " (E. P. Co.). 
 Long's " Home Geography" (A. B. C). 
 
 84-95. North America and the United States. 
 — Carpenter's Geographical Reader "North 
 America " (A. B. C). Chamberlain and Cham- 
 berlain's " North America " (Mac). Blaich's 
 " Three Industrial Nations " (A. B. C). Allen's 
 Geographical and Industrial Studies — " The 
 United States " (Ginn). King's " Picturesque 
 Geographical Readers," Second Book (L. & S.). 
 Schwartz's " Five Little Strangers " (A. B. C). 
 Wilcox's " Great Cities in America " (Mac). 
 Carpenter's " How the World is Fed," " How the 
 World is Clothed," and " How the World is 
 Housed " (A. B. C). 
 
 96-109. The New England States. — Car- 
 penter's " North America " and other references 
 given for Sections 84-95. Chase and Clow's 
 " Stories of Industry," Vols. I and II (E. P. Co.). 
 Rocheleau's " Minerals " and " Products of the 
 Soil " (Flan.). Kipling's " Captains Coura- 
 geous " (story of fishing industry) (The Century 
 Co., New York). Cook's " Maple Sugar and the 
 Sugar Bush " (Judd). 
 
 257
 
 2s8 
 
 A SHORT LIST OF USEFUL REFERENCES 
 
 110-120. The Middle Atlantic States. — 
 Carpenter's " North America " and other refer- 
 ences given for Sections 84-95. Chase and Clow's 
 " Stories of Industry," Vols. I and II (E. P. Co.). 
 Rocheleau's " Minerals " (Flan.). Martin's 
 " Story of a Piece of Coal " (D. Ap.). Tower's 
 " Story of Oil " (D. Ap.). Smith's " Story of 
 Iron and Steel " (D. Ap.). 
 
 121-136. The South Atlantic States and South 
 Central States. — Carpenter's " North America " 
 and other references given for Sections 84-95. 
 Rocheleau's " Products of the Soil " (Flan.). 
 Wilkinson's " Story of the Cotton Plant " (D. 
 Ap.). Curtis's " Story of Cotton " (Penn Pub- 
 lishing Company, Philadelphia). Surface's " Story 
 of Sugar " (D. Ap.). 
 
 137-144. The North Central States. — Car- 
 penter's " North America " and other references 
 given for Sections 84-95. Rocheleau's " Products 
 of the Soil " (Flan.). Myrick's " Book of Corn " 
 (Judd). Curtiss's "Wheat Culture" (Judd). 
 Edgar's " Story of a Grain of Wheat " (D. Ap.). 
 
 I45'i53- The Plateau States. — Carpenter's 
 " North America " and other references given for 
 Sections 84-95. Chase and Clow's " Stories of 
 Industry," Vol. I (E. P. Co.). Hough's " Story 
 of the Cowboy " (D. Ap.). Shinn's " Story of 
 the Mine " (D. Ap.). Moran's " Kwahu, the Hopi 
 Indian Boy " (A. B. C). 
 
 154-162. The Pacific States. — -Carpenter's 
 " North America " and other references given for 
 Sections 84-95. Chase and Clow's " Stories of 
 Industry," Vol. I (E. P. Co.). Mead's " Story of 
 G<ild " (D. Ap.). Tower's " Story of Oil " (D. Ap.). 
 
 163-169. Outlying Possessions of the United 
 States. — Carpenter's Geographical Reader "Au.s- 
 tralia, Our Colonics, and Other Islands of the 
 Sea" and "Around the World with the Chil- 
 dren" (A. B. C). Krout's "Alice's Visit to the 
 Hawaiian Islands" (A. B. C). Dunton's The 
 World and Its People—" Porto Rico," " Hawaii 
 and Its People," "Story of the Philippines" 
 (S. B.). Schwartz's "Five Little Strangers" 
 (A. B. C). MacClintock's "The Philippines" 
 (A. B. C). 
 
 170-183. The Northern Countries and South- 
 ern Countries of North America. — Carpenter's 
 (Juogiaphical Reader "North America" (A. B. 
 C). Chamberlain and Chamberlain's " North 
 America " (Mac). Lyde's " (kography of North 
 America " (Mac). Dunton's The World and Its 
 People— "Our American Neighbors" (S. B.). 
 Adams's " Conquest of the Tropics " (Doubleday, 
 Page & Co., New York). 
 
 184-192. South America. — Carpenter's Geo- 
 graphical Reader " South America " (A. B. C). 
 Chamberlain and Chamberlain's "South America" 
 (Mac). Dunton's The World and Its People^ 
 " South American Republics " (S. B.). Boyce's 
 "Illustrated South America" (R. McN.). 
 Keable's " Coffee " (Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 
 London). 
 
 193-256. Europe. — Carpenter's Geographical 
 Reader "Europe" and "Around the World with 
 the Children" (A. B. C). Chamberlain and 
 Chamberlain's "Europe" (Mac). Lyde's "Geog- 
 raphy of Europe" and "A Geography of the British 
 Isles" (Mac). Monroe and Buckbee's "Europe 
 and Its People" (Harp.). Allen's Geographical 
 and Industrial Studies — "Europe" (Ginn). An- 
 drews's " Seven Little Sisters " (Ginn). Youth's 
 Companion Series — "Northern Europe" and "The 
 Wide World " (Ginn). Blaich's " Three Industrial 
 Nations" (A. B. C). 
 
 257-289. Asia. — Carpenter's Geographical 
 
 Reader "Asia" and "Around the World with the 
 Children " (A. B. C). Chamberlain and Cham- 
 berlain's "Asia" (Mac). Dunton's The World 
 and Its People— "Life in Asia" (S. B.). Miller's 
 "Little People of Asia" (Dut.). Schwartz's "Five 
 Little Strangers " (A. B. C). Krout's " Two Girls 
 in China " (A. B. C). Andrews's " Seven Little 
 Sisters" (Ginn). Starr's "Strange Peoples" 
 (Heath). Youth's Companion Series — " The Wide 
 World," "Toward the Rising Sun." " Under Sunny 
 Skies" (Ginn). Ibbetson's "Tea" (Sir Isaac 
 Pitman and Sons, London). 
 
 290-302. Africa. — Carpenter's Geographical 
 Reader " Africa " and " Around the World with the 
 Children " (A. B. C). Chamberlain and Cham- 
 berlain's "Africa" (Mac). Schwartz's "Five 
 Little Strangers" (A. B. C). Andrews's "Seven 
 Little Sisters" (Ginn). Dunton's The World and 
 Its People — "Views in Africa" (S. B.). 'V'outh's 
 Companion Series — " Under Sunny Skies " (Ginn). 
 Starr's "Strange Peoples" (Heath). 
 
 303-308. Australia and the Islands of the Sea. 
 — Carpenter's Cjeographual Reader " Australia, 
 Our Colonies, and Other Islands of the Sea " 
 (A. B. C). Chamberlain .md Chamberlain's 
 " Australia " (Mac). Dunton's The World and 
 Its People — " Australia and the Islands of the 
 Sea " (S. B.). 
 
 309-311. Commerce of the United States.— 
 Keller and Bishop's "Commercial antl Industrial 
 (k-ography " (Ginn). Blaich's "Three Industrial 
 Nations " (A. B. C.). Rocheleau's " Geography 
 of Commerce and Industry " (K. P. Co.).
 
 TABLES 
 
 1. AREA AND POPDLATION OF THE WORLD 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 I.CML'th of partli's axis (miles) 7. 1100 
 
 LeiiKth of e<niator (miles) . , "J-l.^'OO 
 
 Earth's Surface (sq. mi.) 196.900.00} 
 
 Pacific Ocean (sq. mi.) 71.000.000 
 
 Atlantic Ocean (sq. mi.) 34.000,000 
 
 Indian Ocean (sq. mi.) 28,000,000 
 
 Antarctic Ocean (sq. mi.) 2.700,000 
 
 Arctic Ocean (sq. mi.) 4.000,000 
 
 The Sea (sq. mi.) 139.700.000 
 
 North America 
 South America 
 
 Europe 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa 
 
 Australia, etc. 
 Antarctic Cont. 
 The Land. . . 
 
 Sq. Mn.c0 
 
 9.392.000 
 
 O.S.=)r.,000 
 
 3,St>4,0()<l 
 
 17,073,000 
 
 11.514,000 
 
 3,457,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 67.156,000 1 
 
 Population 
 146,120,000 
 
 03,S50,000 
 
 4.52,(115,000 
 
 S92,r.09,000 
 
 136,272,000 
 
 8,758,000 
 
 700,230.000 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 United SUtes. 3,08R,5I9 105,711,000 
 (States in Table No. 2) 
 
 Alaska 590,884 55,000 
 
 Dom, of Canada 3,759,365 8,788,000 
 
 Nova Scotia 21.428 524,000 
 
 N. Brunswick 27,985 388,000 
 
 Prince Edw. 1. 2,184 89,000 
 
 Quebec 706,834 2,361,000 
 
 Ontario 376,722 2.934,000 
 
 Manitoba . . •251,8.32 610,000 
 
 Saskatchewan 251,700 757,000 
 
 Alberta 255,285 588,000 
 
 Brit. Columbia 355.8.55 525,000 
 
 Territories . 1,479,000 12,000 
 
 Part C.l. Lakes .30.540 
 
 Newfdiand. et<-. 49,080 268.000 
 
 Newfoundland 42,730 264,000 
 
 Labrador 6,950 4,000 
 
 Greenland 838,000 14,000 
 
 Mexico 767,300 15,503,000 
 
 Central America 206,753 5,813,000 
 
 Guatemala 43,640 2,100,000 
 
 Brit. Honduras 8.600 45.000 
 
 Honduras . 44,270 6.37,000 
 
 Salvador . .. 8.170 1,501,000 
 
 Nicaragua . . . 49.5.50 638,000 
 
 Costa Rica . . 18.690 468.000 
 
 Panama 33.300 401,000 
 
 Canal Zone.. 527 23,000 
 
 West Indies.. 91,400 9,947,000 
 
 Cuba 44,000 2,889,000 
 
 Haiti, Rep. of 11,070 2,500,000 
 
 Dominican Rep. 18,750 897,000 
 
 Jamaica 4,840 858,000 
 
 Porto Rico 3,435 1,300,0(J() 
 
 Bahama Is. 4,400 .53,000 
 
 Lesser Antilles 4,<.t05 1,450.000 
 
 Ochcr islands 112 27,000 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Draiil 3.300.000 30.645.000 
 
 Argentina 1.084,000 8.699.000 
 
 Paraguay 100.000 1,050,000 
 
 Uruguay 09,000 1,495,000 
 
 Chile 293,000 3.755,000 
 
 .^Q. Mri.F.s 
 
 Hiilivia 440.000 
 
 Peru 440.000 
 
 Ecuador lls.ooo 
 
 Colombia 46(i,000 
 
 Venezuela. . . . 3(>4.0()0 
 
 C.uinna.Rritish 95,000 
 
 (Miiaiia,nuteli 50,000 
 
 Guiana, French .30,500 
 
 Falkland Is., etc. 6,570 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 British Isles. 121.300 
 
 England . 50,850 
 
 Wales 7,473 
 
 Scotland . . 30,405 
 
 Ireland 32,360 
 
 Other islands 302 
 
 Germany 179,500 
 
 Belgium 11,700 
 
 Netherlands . . 12,772 
 
 Dennsark 16,585 
 
 Iceland 39,770 
 
 Norway 124,710 
 
 Sweden 172,928 
 
 Poland 130,000 
 
 Lithuania 30,000 
 
 Latvia 24,000 
 
 Esthonia 19,700 
 
 France 212,832 
 
 Spiiin 192,000 
 
 Portugal 34,264 
 
 Switzerland... 15.956 
 
 Italy 123.000 
 
 Austria 30.700 
 
 Hungary 30,000 
 
 Czechoslovakia .54,700 
 
 Yugoslavia . . 95,000 
 
 Roumania 116,000 
 
 Bulgaria . . 40,600 
 
 Albania 11,000 
 
 Greece 50,000 
 
 Russia in Eur. 1,800,000 
 
 Finland 130,000 
 
 Arctic islands. 33,500 
 
 Other lands . . 4,915 
 
 ASIA 
 
 .\rtn<^nia ,50,000 
 
 Turkey 233,000 
 
 Greek claim .. . 12,000 
 
 Syria 80,000 
 
 Mesopotamia . 140,000 
 
 Palestine 9,500 
 
 Hedjaz 140,000 
 
 Oman 75,000 
 
 Other Arabia . 906,000 
 
 Persia 635,000 
 
 Afehanistan . . 240.900 
 
 Nepal .54.000 
 
 Indian Empire 1,856,500 
 
 Ceylon, etc. . . 25.500 
 Straits Settles, etc. ,35,600 
 
 Siam 245,000 
 
 East Indies . . 788.000 
 
 Philippine Is. 115,000 
 
 ,Java 51,000 
 
 Other islands 622,000 
 
 2SQ 
 
 F'OPULATION 
 
 
 
 .Sq. Milm 
 
 POPOLATION 
 
 2.800 000 
 
 French Indo- 
 
 
 
 4..5sri,o(io 
 
 China, etc. . . 
 
 256..500 
 
 17,209,000 
 
 2.000.000 
 
 China, etc. . . . 
 
 4„300,000 
 
 320,650,000 
 
 5.835,000 
 
 China proper 
 
 1,497,000 
 
 302,110,000 
 
 2.412,000 
 
 Tibet 
 
 814,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 298,000 
 
 Siiikiang .... 
 
 5,50,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 113,000 
 
 MonEolia. . . . 
 
 1,076,000 
 
 I.HOO.OOO 
 
 49,000 
 
 Manchuria . . 
 
 363,000 
 
 12.740.000 
 
 3,000 
 
 Hongkong .... 
 
 400 
 
 625,000 
 
 
 Japanese Empire 
 
 201,300 
 
 77,600,000 
 
 
 Chosen 
 
 84,2.50 
 
 17,284,000 
 
 47,308,000 
 
 Dairen, etc. . 
 
 1,200 
 
 601,000 
 
 35,679,000 
 
 Japan 
 
 147,7.50 
 
 55,961,000 
 
 2,207,000 
 
 Other islands 
 
 28.100 
 
 3,760,000 
 
 4,882,000 
 
 Ru.ssi,a in Asia 
 
 6.489.100 
 
 28,330,000 
 
 4,390,000 
 150,000 
 
 Siberia 
 
 4 807 000 
 
 11,069,000 
 7,202,000 
 
 R. Turkestan 
 
 641, ,500 
 
 59,8.57,000 
 
 Other prov. - . 
 
 1,040,000 
 
 10,059,000 
 
 7,684,000 
 
 Bokhara 
 
 79,200 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 6,841,000 
 
 Georgia 
 
 25,000 
 
 2,372,000 
 
 3,289,000 
 
 Azerbaijan . . . 
 
 35,000 
 
 2,097,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 Other lands. . . 
 
 100,8.30 
 
 2,280,000 
 
 2,646,000 
 5,904,000 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 
 27,788,000 
 
 Egypt 
 
 T-l J3 
 
 400,000 
 
 13,387,000 
 
 4,160.000 
 
 Libia 
 
 542,000 
 
 525,000 
 
 1,503.0(10 
 
 Tunis 
 
 ^^1 
 
 64,600 
 
 2,094,000 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 Algeria 
 
 "^1 
 
 343,900 
 
 5,801,000 
 
 39,210,000 
 
 Morocco 
 
 176,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 2O,784,0SO 
 
 Sahara, remain- 
 
 
 
 5,546,000 
 
 ing part 
 
 1,944,000 
 
 695,000 
 
 3,880.000 
 
 .\by.s.sinia , . . 
 
 312,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 40,070.000 
 
 Anglo-Eg. Sudan 
 
 1,014,400 
 
 3,400,000 
 
 6.131.000 
 
 Fr. West .\friea 
 
 704,000 
 
 12,284,000 
 
 7,841,000 
 
 Nigeria, etc. . . 
 
 394,000 
 
 17,300,000 
 
 13,590,000 
 
 Uganda Prot. 
 
 111,000 
 
 3,072,000 
 
 11,333,000 
 
 Kenva 
 
 247,000 
 
 2,630,000 
 
 17,393,000 
 
 Tanganyika Ter. 
 
 384,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 4,861,000 
 
 Belgian Kongo, etc. 947,200 
 
 15,400,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 Fr.E<iuatorial Af. 
 
 680,600 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 5,477,000 
 
 Fr. Kanicnm . 
 
 160,000 
 
 1,. 500,000 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 3 Portug. Col'a 
 
 799,700 
 
 7,570,000 
 
 3,335,000 
 
 Union of S. Af. 
 
 792,340 
 
 6,926,000 
 
 
 C. of G. Hope 
 
 Natal 
 
 277,000 
 
 2,781,000 
 
 928 
 
 34,710 
 
 1,194,000 
 
 
 Or. Free State 
 
 48,340 
 
 028,000 
 
 
 Transvaal . . 
 
 114,290 
 
 2,086,000 
 
 2,000 000 
 
 S. W. Africa 
 
 318,000 
 
 237,000 
 
 9,000.000 
 
 Other Br. S. Af. 
 
 722,400 
 
 3,724,000 
 
 1,200.000 
 
 Madagascar. . . 
 
 228,600 
 
 3,545,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Cape Verde Is. 
 
 1,475 
 
 150,000 
 
 2,850,000 
 
 Madeira Is. . . . 
 
 315 
 
 170,000 
 
 770,000 
 
 Canary Is 
 
 2,940 
 
 521,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 Other lands. . . 
 
 541,000 
 
 8,619,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 AUSTRALIA. ETC. 
 
 2,000.000 
 
 
 
 
 9..500.OO0 
 
 Com. of .\ustr. 
 
 2,972,866 
 
 5,437.000 
 
 0,380.000 
 
 Victoria 
 
 87,884 
 
 1,532,000 
 
 5,600,000 
 
 New S. Wales 
 
 310,660 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 319,075,000 
 
 Queensland . . 
 
 668,497 
 
 758,000 
 
 4,568,000 
 
 South Austr.. 
 
 380,070 
 
 495,000 
 
 2,377,000 
 
 Western Austr. 
 
 975,920 
 
 332,000 
 
 8,266,000 
 
 Tasmania. . . . 
 
 26,215 
 
 214,000 
 
 60,694,000 
 
 Northern Ter. 
 
 523,620 
 
 4,000 
 
 10,351,000 
 
 New Zealand . 
 
 104, ()03 
 
 1,221,000 
 
 35,017,000 
 
 New Guinea Gr. 
 
 311,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 15,326,000 
 
 Other Pacific Is. 
 
 68,850 
 
 1,100.000
 
 26o 
 
 TABLES 
 
 2. THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Sq. Miles 
 
 Alabama 51,998 
 
 Arizona 113,956 
 
 Arkansas 53,335 
 
 CalUornia 158,297 
 
 Colorado 103,948 
 
 Connecticut 4,965 
 
 Delaware 2,370 
 
 Dist. of Columbia 70 
 
 Florida 58,666 
 
 Georgia 59,265 
 
 Idaho 83,888 
 
 Illinois 56,665 
 
 Indiana 36,354 
 
 Iowa 56,147 
 
 Kansas 82,158 
 
 Kentucky 40,598 
 
 Louisiana 48,506 
 
 Maine 33,040 
 
 Maryland ..:... 12,327 
 
 Massachusetts. . . 8,266 
 
 Michigan 57,980 
 
 Minnesota 84,682 
 
 Mississippi 46,865 
 
 Missouri 69,420 
 
 Montana 146,997 
 
 Nebraska 77,520 
 
 Nevada 110,690 
 
 New Hampshire. . 9,341 
 
 New Jersey 8,224 
 
 New Mexico 122,634 
 
 New York 49,204 
 
 North Carolina . . 54,426 
 
 North Dakota . . . 70,837 
 
 Ohio 41,040 
 
 Oklahoma 70,057 
 
 Oregon 96,699 
 
 Pennsj'lvania . . . . 45,126 
 
 Rhode Island 1,248 
 
 South Carolina. . . 30,989 
 
 South Dakota 77,615 
 
 Tennessee 42,022 
 
 Texas 265,896 
 
 Utah 84,990 
 
 Vermont 9,504 
 
 Virginia 42,627 
 
 Washington 69,127 
 
 West Virginia. . . . 24,170 
 
 Wisconsin 56,066 
 
 Wyoming 97,914 
 
 Part of the Great 
 
 L:ikrs 01,730 
 
 Main Body 3.088.519 
 
 P0PrL.4.TI0N, 
 
 1920 
 2,348,174 
 
 334,162 
 1,752,204 
 3,426,861 
 
 939,629 
 1,380,631 
 
 223,003 
 
 437,571 
 
 968,470 
 2,895,832 
 
 431,866 
 6,485,280 
 2,930,390 
 2,404,021 
 1,769,257 
 2,416,630 
 1,798,509 
 
 768,014 
 1,449,661 
 3,852,356 
 3,668,412 
 2,387,125 
 1,790,618 
 3,404,055 
 
 548.889 
 
 1,296,372 
 
 77,407 
 
 443,083 
 3,155,900 
 
 360,350 
 
 10,385,227 
 
 2,559,123 
 
 646,872 
 5,759,394 
 2,028,283 
 
 783,389 
 8,720,017 
 
 604,397 
 1,683,724 
 
 636,547 
 2,337,885 
 4,663,228 
 
 449,396 
 
 352,428 
 2,309,187 
 1,356,621 
 1,463,701 
 2,632,067 
 
 194,402 
 
 106710.620 
 
 Outlying Territory, etc. 
 
 Alaska Tfrrritorj' . 590,884 55,030 
 
 Hawaii Territory . 6,449 255,912 
 
 Porto Rico 3,435 1,299,809 
 
 Virgin Inlands of 
 
 the United 
 
 States ('17).... 132 20,051 
 
 Philippine la. ("18) 115,026 10,350,040 
 
 Tutuiitt, etc 77 8,056 
 
 C.iinm 210 13,276 
 
 I'ariama Canal 
 
 Zone 527 22.868 
 
 Soldiers and sailors 
 
 Htiilionid abroad 117,238 
 
 Total Outlying. . . 716 740 12,148.875 
 
 Grand Total 3,805,269 117,869,496 
 
 Michigan 8.2 ; New 
 Nebraska 6.1 ; Ohio 
 Alabama 
 
 3. STATES LEADING IN THE PRODUCTION OF CERTAIN CROPS 
 
 The vftUie of each cr<tp for the country as a «hok- is HMt%. Tlie amount [iroiiiiecii by eacii state, 
 aocordiriiT to the census of 1910, is given as a perceutuge of the total value foi- the country^ 
 
 Apples: New York 16 ; Michigan 7.2; Pennsylvania (!." ; Missouri 5.9 
 
 Barley: Minnesota 18.6; California 18. G; Wisconsin 13.7; North Dakota 12.9; 
 
 .South Dakota 11.8 ; Iowa 5.8 
 Cherries: California 13.2; Pennsylvania 12.6; Ohio 9.1; 
 
 York 7.5 
 Corn: Illinois 13.8 ; Iowa 11.7; Missouri 7.5; Indiana 6.8 ; 
 
 5.7 ; Kansas 5.6 
 Cotton: Texas 23.1 ; Georsia 18; Mississippi 11.8; South Carolina 11.4; 
 
 10.5 : Arkansas 7.8 ; North Carolina 6 ; Oklalioina 6 
 Cottonseed: Texas 21.4; Georgia 19.2; South Carolina 1M.3; Mississippi 10 9; 
 
 Alabama 10.0 ; Arkansas 7.1 ; North Carolina 7 ; Oklahoma 4 8 
 Grapefruit: Florida 92.6 ; California 6.9 
 Grapes : California 49.2 ; New York 18 
 
 Maple sugar : Vermont 52.2 ; New York 24.2 ; Pennsylvania 7.7 
 Oats: Illinois 14.4; Iowa 11.8; Minnesota 8.2; Wisconsin 6.9; North Dakota 
 
 5.8 ; Ohio 5.6 ; Nebraska 4.7 ; Indiana 4.6 
 Oranges: California's.?; Florida 24.5 
 
 Peaches: California 15.9; Georgia 7,6; Arkansas 5.2 
 
 Peanuts: North Carolina 29.4; Virginia 23.2; Georgia 13.4; Florida 11.7: Ala 
 bauia 8.2 : Texas 5.9 
 
 Pears : California 21 ; New York 17.9 ; Michigan 6.8 ; New Jersey 3.2 
 
 Plums and prunes : California .''>3. 1 ; Oregon 8. 1 ; Washington 5.8 
 
 Potatoes: New York 12.2; Pennsylvania 7.2; Maine 6.1 ; Michigan 6; Ohio 6.6 , 
 Wisconsin 4.8 ; Minnesota 4.6 
 
 Rice: Louisiana 50.3 ; Texas 38.1; Arkansas 7.2 
 
 Rye: Michigan 19.3; Wisconsin 15.5; Minnesota 1.3.1 ; Peniisvlvania 13.1 ; New 
 York 7.7 
 
 Strawberries: New York 6.6; California 6.4 ; Mis.souri 6.3 ; Maryland 6; Michi- 
 gan 5.6; New Jersey 5.2 
 
 Sugar beets: Colorado 30.5 ; California 21.7 ; Michigan 20.2; Utah 9.3 
 
 Sugarcane: Louisiana 07.2 ; Georgia 8.6 
 
 Sweet potatoes: Georgia 12.3; North Carolina 12.2; Alabama 10.1 ; Mis.sissippi 
 8.7; A'irginia 7.6 : South Carolina 7.4 ; Louisiana 6.7 ; New Jersey 4.3 
 
 Tobacco: Kentucky 38.2; North Carolina 13.3; Virginia 11.7; Ohio 8.6; Ten- 
 nessee 5.4 
 
 Wheat: North Dakot;i 16.6; Kan.sasll.3; Minnesota 8.5; Nebraska 6.7 ; South 
 Dakota 6.5 ; Illinois 6.8 ; Washington 5.3 
 
 4. CHIEF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF THE UNITED 
 With their Value in the Year igig 
 
 STATES 
 
 EXI'OUTS 
 
 Agricullurai implements .'J41,]88,494 
 
 Automnhilrs. i'arriiige.s, cars, 
 
 and Other vehicles 151,597.682 
 
 Breadstuffs 920,409,1.57 
 
 Chemicals, drugs, and meili- 
 
 cines 1,33,526,488 
 
 Coal and coke 125,465,092 
 
 Copper 121,846,326 
 
 Cotton 1,137,3" 1 .252 
 
 Cotton goods 273,11.5,411 
 
 Klectrical machinery, etc... 89,089.711 
 
 Explosives 28,399,707 
 
 Fertilizers 20,909,870 
 
 Fish 126,264,602 
 
 Fruits and nut.s 122,678.783 
 
 Furs and fur skins 23,788,599 
 
 Iron and steel anil manufac- 
 tures of iron ami steel 969,273,732 
 
 Leather 218,784,060 
 
 Le:ither gooils 81. .392,479 
 
 Mc';it and dairy product,s. . 1 ,160,846,625 
 
 Naval stores 31.456,051 
 
 Oil cako and oil cake meal. . 36,036.694 
 Oils, animal and vegetable. .104,491.234 
 
 Oils, mineral 313,776.385 
 
 Paper and paper goods 86,983.06.'! 
 
 Kuliber goods 6.3,8(!5.(i55 
 
 TfiliaiT'o iind manuf.actures 
 
 of iHbac.'o .■!06.854.65» 
 
 Wood :ind articles of wood. . 136.786.063 
 
 iMroitTs 
 
 Animals .$58,037, .361 
 
 Art works 21,619,446 
 
 l!re;ul.stuffs 50,804,777 
 
 Cacao 57,999,464 
 
 Chemicals, drugs and dyes. .126.032.265 
 
 Coffee 261,270,106 
 
 Copper and manufactures of 86.270.661 
 
 Cotton 71,880,290 
 
 Cotton goods 52.649,218 
 
 Fibers (sisal, hemp, etc.) .. . 81,777,998 
 
 Fillers, m;inufactarcs of 95,032,853 
 
 Fish .3.5,760,712 
 
 Fruits anil nuts 95.813,190 
 
 Furs and f m- skins 69,289,909 
 
 Hides and .skins 300,610,023 
 
 Iron and .steel and manufac- 
 
 tiii-es of iron and steel 26.880,164 
 
 Meat and dairy proilm-i.s 37,368.903 
 
 Oils of variou.s kinds 164.3,56,919 
 
 l';iper and paper goods 53,602,174 
 
 rrei'ious stones, etc 105,273,643 
 
 Crude rubber 221,626,122 
 
 Silk, raw .341.886,776 
 
 Silk manufactures 54,700,816 
 
 Sugar t ..394.280,434 
 
 Tin 61,761.967 
 
 Tobaci'i. 75, 1 15.564 
 
 Wood and articles of wood. .111, .578,988 
 Wool 216.764 501
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 261 
 
 6. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. 1910 
 
 The Number Engaged in Each Occupation in Each Group of States and in the Whole Country 
 
 Nkw 
 Occri'ATION Enolanp 
 
 States 
 
 Agriculture 271,i;)4 
 
 Dairy in<; and jirazing 10, 210 
 
 LunriMTiiii; »,28li 
 
 Mining iiml quarrving 9,078 
 
 Fisliiii;; ." l-.',447 
 
 Manufacturing l,4;iO,Or).S 
 
 Trade .•no,187 
 
 Transportation 188,'.t88 
 
 Profe.-isional, domestic, clerical (i73,291 
 
 All occupations 2,aU,080 
 
 MlDI>I.R 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 STATS'* 
 
 7(i7,204 
 
 34,;{42 
 
 12,845 
 
 346, 123 
 
 0,644 
 
 3,335,218 
 
 <.»82,271l 
 
 052,8(;2 
 
 2,071,408 
 
 8,208,885 
 
 South 
 Atlantic 
 
 States 
 
 2,00!l,«47 
 
 0,6«i; 
 
 29,018 
 
 95,28.i 
 
 22,731 
 
 964,021 
 
 317.895 
 
 250,840 
 
 884,928 
 
 5,187,729 
 
 South 
 Centkal 
 States 
 
 4,302,050 
 
 30,709 
 
 39,020 
 
 93,933 
 
 8,009 
 
 888,139 
 
 435,372 
 
 325,040 
 
 984.504 
 
 7,106,770 
 
 North 
 Ckntkal 
 
 States 
 
 3,599,312 
 
 44,702 
 
 35,885 
 
 270,209 
 
 9,104 
 
 3,299, 108 
 
 1,229,.5:!7 
 
 899,793 
 
 2,319,100 
 
 11,706,996 
 
 Plateau 
 
 States 
 
 296,090 
 
 55,881 
 
 7,355 
 
 103,700 
 
 183 
 
 216,433 
 
 90,493 
 
 114,:i(l9 
 
 217,421 
 
 1,107,937 
 
 Pacific 
 Stai'Kh 
 
 358,342 
 
 30,930 
 
 39,522 
 
 40,372 
 
 9,257 
 
 625,849 
 
 242,907 
 
 199,8:!9 
 
 481,309 
 
 1,934,333 
 
 WlKiI.K 
 
 Uniteu 8tati!« 
 
 12,203,985 
 
 213,412 
 
 173,531 
 
 904,824 
 
 68,276 
 
 10,058,881 
 
 • 3,614,070 
 
 2,037,071 
 
 _ 7,032,087_ 
 
 38,107,336 
 
 6. POPULATION OF CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 
 Cities having more than 50,000 People, together with Others mentioned in the Text. 
 
 Pop. lOilt Pop. UnO 
 
 Akron, Ohio 208,435 69,007 
 
 Albany, N. V 113,344 100,253 
 
 AUentown, Pa 73,602 61,913 
 
 Altoona, Pa 60,331 62,127 
 
 AtlanU% Ga 200,616 154,839 
 
 Atlantic City, N.J. . 50,707 46,150 
 
 Augusta, Ga 62,548 41,040 
 
 Baltimore, Md 733,826 5.38,485 
 
 Bayonne, N.J 76,754 55,645 
 
 Berkeley, Calif 66,036 40,434 
 
 BeUilehem, Pa 60,358 12,8;}7 
 
 BiQghamton, N.Y... 66,800 48,443 
 
 Birniiiiiiham. Ala. . . 178.806 132,085 
 
 Boston, Ma.s.s 748,000 670,685 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn. . . 143,.5.55 102,054 
 
 Brockton, M;uss 60.254 56,878 
 
 Bufialo, N.Y 506,776 423,716 
 
 Butte, Mont 41,611 .39,105 
 
 Cambridge, Mass.... 109,094 104,839 
 
 Camden, N.J 1 10,309 94,538 
 
 Canton, Ohio 87,091 50,217 
 
 Charleston, S.C 67,957 58,833 
 
 Chattanooga, Tenn. . 67,895 44,604 
 
 Chester, Pa 68,030 38,537 
 
 Chicago, 111 2,701,705 2,185,283 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 401,247 303,591 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio ... . 796,841 560,003 
 
 Colonulo Spr's, Colo. 30,105 29,078 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 237,031 181,511 
 
 Covington. Ky 67,121 53,270 
 
 Dallas, Tex 158,976 92, 104 
 
 Davenport, Iowa . . . 56,727 43,028 
 
 Dayton, Ohio 152,.5.59 116,-577 
 
 Denver, Colo 256,491 213,381 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa . . 126,468 80,308 
 
 Detroit, Mich 993.678 465,700 
 
 Duluth, Minn 98,917 78,460 
 
 East Orange, N.J. . . 50,710 34,.371 
 
 East St. Louis, III... 66,767 58,-547 
 
 Elizabeth, N.J 95,783 73,409 
 
 Kl Pa.so, Tex 77,560 39,279 
 
 Erie, Pa 9.3,372 66,-525 
 
 Evaiisville, Ind 8-5.264 69,647 
 
 Fall River, Miuw. ... 120.485 119,295 
 
 Far„'o, N. Dak 21,901 14,331 
 
 Flint, Mich »1,.599 38.550 
 
 Fort Wavne, Inc'.. . . 86,-549 63,933 
 
 Fort Worth. Tex 106.482 73.312 
 
 Galveston, Tex 44.2-55 30.981 
 
 Gary, Ind .5-5,378 16.802 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich. 1.37.»i.S4 112.-57I 
 
 Harri-sburg, Pa 75,917 64,I8(J 
 
 Hartford, Coon 138,036 U8,U15 
 
 Pop. VJ-M Pop. I'.HO 
 
 Haverhill, Mass 53,884 44,115 
 
 Iloboken, N.J 68,166 70,324 
 
 Ilolyoke, Ma.<« 60,203 57,730 
 
 Honolulu, Hawaii .. 83,327 62,183 
 
 Houston, Tex 138,276 78,800 
 
 Huntington, W. \a.. 50,177 31,161 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. . . 314,194 233,0-50 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla. . . 91,558 57,099 
 
 Jersey City, N.J 298,103 267,779 
 
 Johnstown, Pa 07,327 55,482 
 
 Kansas City, Kans.. 101,177 82,331 
 
 Kansas City, Mo 324,410 248,-381 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn. . . . 77,818 36,346 
 
 1/anca.ster, I'a 53,150 47,227 
 
 L.an.siiig, Mich.. 57,327 31,229 
 
 Lawrence, Mass. . . . 94,270 85,892 
 
 Lincoln, Nebr 64,948 43,973 
 
 Little Rock, Ark. .. . 6-5,142 46,941 
 
 Long Beach, Calif. . 5-5,593 17,809 
 
 Los Angele.s, Calif. . .576,673 319,198 
 
 Louisville, Ky 234,891 223,928 
 
 Lowell, Mass. 112,759 106,294 
 
 Lynn, Mass 99,148 89,3-36 
 
 Macon, Ga 52,995 40,665 
 
 Manchester, N.H. .. 78,384 70,063 
 
 Manila, 1'. I. ('19, '03) 283,013 219,928 
 
 Meinpliis, Tenn 162,351 131,105 
 
 Meriden, Conn 29,867 27,266 
 
 Meridian, Miss 23,399 23,285 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis.... 457,147 373,857 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn. . 380,582 301,408 
 
 Mobile, Ala 60,777 51,521 
 
 Nashville, Tenn. .. . 118,342 110,364 
 
 Newark, N.J 414,.524 347,409 
 
 New Bedford, Mass. 121,217 96,652 
 
 New Britain, Conn. 59,316 43,910 
 
 New Haven, Conn. . 162,-537 1-33,005 
 
 New Orleans, La. . . . 387,219 339,075 
 
 New York, N.Y 5,020,018 4,706,883 
 
 Nia-ara Falls, N.Y. . 60,700 30,445 
 
 Norfolk. Va 116,777 67,462 
 
 Oakland. Calif 216,261 1-50,174 
 
 Oklahoma City, Okla. 91,295 64,205 
 
 Omaha, Nebr 191.601 124,090 
 
 P:ts.saic, N.J. 03.841 .54,773 
 
 Paterson, N.-T 13-5,875 :26.60O 
 
 Pawtucket, R.I 64.248 61.622 
 
 Peoria. Ill 76,121 66,960 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa.... 1,823.779 1,649,008 
 
 Phoenix. Ariz 29.0-53 11.1.34 
 
 Pitt.sburi;ii. Pa 588.343 53.3,905 
 
 Portland, .Maine 69,272 68,571 
 
 Portland, tJregon . . . 268,288 207,214 
 
 Pop. 1920 Pop. 1910 
 
 Portsmouth, Va 54,387 -33,190 
 
 Providence, R.I. ... 237,595 224,.320 
 
 Pueblo, Colo 43,060 41,747 
 
 R.icine, Wis 68,693 38,002 
 
 Readhig, Pa 107,784 90,071 
 
 Richmond, Va 171,667 127,628 
 
 Roanoke, Va 50,842 34,874 
 
 Rochester, N.Y 296,7-50 218,149 
 
 Rockford, III 65,051 45,401 
 
 S.icramento, Calif... 05,908 44,090 
 
 Saginaw, Mich 01,90.3 50,510 
 
 St. Jo,sepli, Mo 77,939 77,403 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 772,897 087,029 
 
 St. Paul, Minn 234,698 214,744 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 118,110 92,777 
 
 San Antonio, Tex. . . 161,379 96,014 
 
 San Diego, Calif 74,683 39,578 
 
 San Francisco, Calif. 606,070 410,912 
 
 San Juan, P.R 70,707 49,000 
 
 Savannah, Ga 83,2-52 65,064 
 
 Schenectady, N.Y... 88,723 72,826 
 
 Scranton, Pa 137,783 129,867 
 
 Seattle, Wash 315,312 237,194 
 
 Shreveport, La 43,874 28,016 
 
 Sioux Citv, Iowa .. . 71,227 47,828 
 
 Sioux FalLs, S. Dak. 25,202 14,094 
 
 Somerville, Mass. .. 93,091 77,236 
 
 South Bend, Ind 70,983 53,084 
 
 Spokane, Wash 104,437 104.402 
 
 Springfield, 111 59,183 61.678 
 
 Springfield, Mass. . . 129,614 88,926 
 
 Springfield, Ohio 00,840 40,921 
 
 Superior, Wis 39,671 40,384 
 
 Syracuse, N.Y 171,717 1.37,249 
 
 Tacoina, Wash 90,965 8.3,743 
 
 Tampa, Fla 51,008 37,782 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind. . . 66,083 58,157 
 
 Toledo, Ohio 243,164 168,497 
 
 Topeka, Kan.s 50,022 43,684 
 
 Trenton, N.J 119,289 96,816 
 
 Trov, N.Y 72,013 76,813 
 
 Tul.sa, Okla 72,075 18,182 
 
 Utica. N.Y 94,156 74,419 
 
 Wi>.sliington, D.C. .. 437,-571 331,069 
 
 Waterbury, Conn.. . 91,715 73,141 
 
 Wheeling, W. Va... 66,208 41,641 
 
 Wichita, Kans 72,217 52,4-50 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa... 7.3,83:'. 67,106 
 
 Wilmington, Del .. . 110,108 87,411 
 
 Wilmington. N. (\ . 33,372 2-5.748 
 
 Worcester, Ma.ss. .. . 179,7-54 14-5,986 
 
 Yonkers, N.Y 100,170 79,803 
 
 Youngstown, Ohio . . 132,358 79,066
 
 262 
 
 TABLES 
 
 7. POPULATION OF CITIES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
 Cities Having more than 500,000 People, together with Others Mentioned in the Text 
 
 Adelaide. Australia . 265,000 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt . . 445,000 
 
 Algiers, Algeria .... 172,000 
 
 Amiens, France .... 93,000 
 
 Amsterdam. Neth. . . 642,000 
 
 Antwerp. Belgium . . 334,000 
 
 Archangel, Russia . . 43,000 
 
 Asuncion, Paraguay 100,000 
 
 Athens, Greece 301 ,000 
 
 Auckland, New Zealand 158.000 
 
 Bahia, Brazil 348,000 
 
 Baku, Azerbaijan . . . 237,000 
 
 Bangkok. Siam 630,000 
 
 Barcelona, Spain .... 682,000 
 Barranquilla. Colombia 66.000 
 
 Basel, Switeerland . . 1.35,000 
 
 Batavia, Java 235,000 
 
 Beirut, Syria 180,000 
 
 Belfast, Ireland • 393,000 
 
 Belgrade, Yugoslavia 120,000 
 
 Benares, India 199,000 
 
 Bergen, Norway ... 91,000 
 
 Berlin, Cerraany 3,801,000 
 
 Bern, Switzerland . . 104.000 
 
 Birmingham, England 919.000 
 
 Bogota, Colombia. . . 144,000 
 
 Bombay, India 1,173,000 
 
 Bordeaux, France.. . 267,000 
 
 Bremen. Germany . . 258,000 
 
 Breslau. Germany. . . 528,000 
 
 Bru.ssels, Belgium. . . 685,000 
 
 Bucharest. Houmania 309,000 
 
 Budapest, Hungary . 1,185,600 
 
 Buenos Aires. Argent. 1.674,000 
 
 Cairo, Egypt 791.000 
 
 Calais, France 73,000 
 
 Calcutta. India 1,263,000 
 
 Callao, Peru 63,000 
 
 Canton. China 900,000 
 
 Cape Town, S. Africa 207,000 
 
 Caracas. Venezuela.. 92,000 
 
 Changsha, China .536,000 
 
 Christiania. Norway. 258,000 
 
 Cologne, Germany " . 634,000 
 
 Colombo, Ceylon . . . 244,000 
 
 Constantinojjle. Turk. 1,000,000 
 
 Copenhagen, Denmark 506,000 
 
 Dairen, Mancluiria.. 97,000 
 
 Dama.scus. Syria .... 280,000 
 
 Danzig. Danzig 195,000 
 
 Delhi, India 303,000 
 
 Dresden, Germany,. 829,000 
 
 Dublin, Ireland .. . 399,000 
 
 Essen. (Jermany .... 439,000 
 
 Florence, Italy" 242,000 
 
 Foochow, China ... 624.000 
 
 Geneva, Switzerland. 56,000 
 
 Genoa, Italy 300,000 
 
 Glasgow. Scotland .. . 1.034.000 
 
 Goteborg, Sweden. .. 201,000 
 Guatemala. Guatemala 90,000 
 
 Guayaquil. Ecuador." 94,000 
 
 Hague, Netherlands . 360,000 
 
 Halifa.y, Canada 58,000 
 
 Hamburg, Germany. 986,000 
 
 Hangcho^v. China. . . 892,000 
 
 Hankow, China 1,462,000 
 
 Havana, Cuba 364,000 
 
 Havre, France ... 163,000 
 
 Helsingsfors, Finland 188,000 
 
 Hobart, Tasmania. . . 52,000 
 
 Hyderabad, India. . . 404,000 
 
 Iquique, Chile 48,000 
 
 Irkutsk, Siberia 130,000 
 
 Jerusalem, Palestine. 64,000 
 
 Johannesburg, S. Af. 284,000 
 Khartum, Ang.-Eg. Sud. 23,000 
 
 Kief, Russia 610,000 
 
 Kimberley, S. Africa 39,000 
 
 Kingston, Jamaica . . 57,000 
 
 Kobe, Japan 609,000 
 
 Kyoto, Japan 891 ,000 
 
 La Paz, Bolivia 107,000 
 
 Lassa, Tibet 20,000 
 
 Leeds, England 468,000 
 
 Leipzi", Germany . . . 604,000 
 
 Liege, Belgium 167,000 
 
 Lima, Peru 175,000 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal .... 435,000 
 
 Liverpool, England . . 808,000 
 
 Lodz, Poland 462,000 
 
 London, England ... 7,476,000 
 
 Lyon, France 562,000 
 
 Jladras, India 623,000 
 
 Madrid, Spain 609,000 
 
 Manaos, Brazil 81,000 
 
 Manchester, England 731,000 
 
 Maracaibo, Venezuela 47,000 
 
 Marseille, France . . . 586,000 
 
 Mekka, Hedjaz 70,000 
 
 Melbourne, Australia 784,000 
 
 Mexico, Me.xico 1,080,000 
 
 Milan, Italy 66.3,000 
 
 Montevideo, Uruguay 362,000 
 
 Montreal, Canada. . . 619,000 
 
 Moscow, Hus.s-ia 1 ,050,000 
 
 Munich, Germany . . . 631,000 
 
 Naples, Italy 698,000 
 
 Ode.ssa, Kussia 631,000 
 
 Olicirto, Portugal 204,000 
 
 '20 
 '20 
 '16 
 '21 
 '20 
 '10 
 '19 
 '19 
 '21 
 '20 
 '20 
 '20 
 '20 
 '21 
 •17 
 '21 
 •21 
 •19 
 '13 
 '19 
 '21 
 '12 
 '1.3 
 '21 
 '14 
 '20 
 '20 
 '18 
 
 '21 
 '19 
 '19 
 '19 
 'II 
 '21 
 '21 
 '21 
 '21 
 '21 
 '18 
 '13 
 '21 
 '20 
 '21 
 
 '21 
 •19 
 '16 
 '20 
 '21 
 '20 
 '19 
 •15 
 '12 
 '20 
 
 Osaka, Japan 1,263,000 
 
 Ottawa, Canada 108,000 
 
 Panama, Panama ,. . 61,000 
 
 Para, Brazil 275,000 
 
 Paris, France 2,906,000 
 
 Peking. China 924,000 
 
 Pernambuco. Brazil. 216,000 
 
 Petrograd, Russia 1,000,000 
 Prague, Czechoslovakia 676,000 
 
 Quebec, Canada 95,000 
 
 Quito, Ecuador 70,000 
 
 Riga, Latvia 186,000 
 
 Kiode Janeiro, Brazil 1,158,000 
 
 Rome, Italy 591,000 
 
 Rotterdam, Neth 606,000 
 
 Rouen, France 124,000 
 
 St. Etienne, France . 168,000 
 
 St. John, Canada . . . 47,000 
 St. Johns, Newfoundland 34,000 
 
 Salon ica, Greece 170,000 
 
 Santiago, Chile 607,000 
 
 Santos, Brazil 36,000 
 
 S5o Paulo, Brazil . . . 504,000 
 
 Sebastopol, Russia . . 62,000 
 
 Seoul, Chosen 247,000 
 
 Shanghai, China 1,500,000 
 
 ShefBeld, Englasd . . 491,000 
 
 Singapore, Straits Set. 387,000 
 
 Sofia, Bulgaria 154,000 
 
 Soochow. China .... 600,000 
 
 Stettin, Germany . . . 233,000 
 
 Stockholm, Sweden . 416,000 
 
 Sydney. Australia . . 898,000 
 
 Tangier. Morocco . . . 60,000 
 
 Teheran, Pei-sia 220,000 
 
 Tientsin, China 800,000 
 
 Tiflis. Georgia 347,000 
 
 Tokyo, Japan 2,173,000 
 
 Tomsk, Siberia 117,000 
 
 Toronto, Canada 522,000 
 
 Trieste, Italy 230,000 
 
 Tripoli, LiWa 73,000 
 
 Tunis, Tunis 162,000 
 
 Turin, Italy 462,000 
 
 Valencia, S^iain 2.36,000 
 
 Valparaiso, Chile . . . 182,000 
 
 Vancouver, Canada . 117,000 
 
 Venice, Italy 168,000 
 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico. . 49,000 
 
 Vienna, Austria 1,842,000 
 
 Vladivostok, Siberia. 91,000 
 
 Warsaw, Poland .... 931,000 
 
 Winnipeg. Canada . . 179,000 
 
 Yokohama. .lapan . . 423,000 
 
 Zurich, Switzerland . 206,000 
 
 ('20) 
 ('21) 
 ('17) 
 ('13) 
 ('21) 
 
 ('13) 
 (•19) 
 C21) 
 ('21) 
 (•16) 
 ('20) 
 ('20) 
 ('16) 
 (•19) 
 
 ('21; 
 ('2r 
 ('21) 
 ('18^ 
 ('20^ 
 ('20$ 
 ('11) 
 ('19) 
 ('10) 
 ('20) 
 ('20) 
 ('21) 
 ('19) 
 ('20) 
 ('20) 
 ('19) 
 ('20) 
 ('21) 
 ('19) 
 ('20) 
 ('15) 
 ('13) 
 ('20) 
 ('13) 
 ('21) 
 ('10) 
 
 ('11) 
 ('15) 
 ('18) 
 ('20) 
 ('21) 
 (•16) 
 (•10) 
 ('20) 
 
 ('11) 
 (21) 
 ('21) 
 (•20) 
 ('20) 
 
 8 GREAT RIVERS AND THEIR BASINS 
 
 BlTCK 
 
 Arka or 
 
 Barin, 
 
 Sii. Mn.Kn 
 
 2,320,000 
 780,000 
 2.30.000 
 290.000 
 320,000 
 
 Amazon ....... 
 
 Amur 
 
 Colorado 
 
 '.'olnrnbia 
 
 Danube 
 
 Dnieper 197,000 
 
 EuphralCK 490,000 
 
 Ganges. Brahmapnira 600,000 
 
 Hwang .'lOfl.OOO 
 
 Indu.t 360,000 
 
 Irrawaddy 1 80,(KK) 
 
 Kongo 1,600,000 
 
 1.0N0E8T 
 Strkam, 
 
 MlI.K!* 
 
 3,500 
 2,700 
 1 ,000 
 1,400 
 1,800 
 1,.300 
 2.000 
 1,800 
 2,800 
 1.900 
 1,2(!0 
 2,800 
 
 r.i\ RR 
 
 Lena ... 
 
 M.ackenzie 
 
 Magdalena 
 
 Mekong . . . 
 
 Mississippi-Missouri . 
 
 Murray 
 
 Nelson-Saskatchewan 
 
 Niger 
 
 Nile 
 
 Ob 
 
 Orange 
 
 Orinoco 
 
 Arra op 
 Rasin. 
 
 Sy. M11.R8 
 
 900,000 
 
 680,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 280,000 
 
 1,2.50,000 
 
 360,000 
 
 470.000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1.. 30(1. 000 
 
 1,1011. (ton 
 
 270,000 
 
 426,000 
 
 LoNdKST 
 
 Stream, 
 
 M I l.Krt 
 
 2,800 
 2,100 
 1,100 
 2,600 
 4,200 
 1,100 
 1 ,900 
 2,600 
 3,700 
 3,(H)0 
 1 ,200 
 1,600 
 
 IllVKR 
 
 Arra of 
 
 ItARIN, 
 
 Sg, Mil. KM 
 1,160,000 
 27,000 
 63, '265 
 .•?8,180 
 
 Plata 
 
 Po 
 
 Rhine 
 
 Rhone 
 
 Rio Grande 230,000 
 
 St. Lawrence 605,000 
 
 Silo Francisco 210,000 
 
 Volga . . r.90,000 
 
 Yangtze (i'.io.OOO 
 
 Yenisei. 1.. 50(1, 000 
 
 Yukon ;!80,000 
 
 Zambezi 680,000 
 
 I,ON<)K81 
 
 Stkrau, 
 Mii.rs 
 
 2,500 
 
 460 
 
 709 
 
 447 
 
 1,800 
 
 2,100 
 
 1,800 
 
 2,300 
 
 3,100 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,865 
 
 2,200
 
 INDl'X AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 MAKKINOS ' fi ill late, ft in fftt. & in oAre, ii in fi'ir, li in last, a in fall, t) In 8ofi>, an in author , c in can ; 8 in 
 me, 6 in return. 6 in nift, bCrry, «• in voll, r in tf-rni ; j; "> Kp™, K i" K^t , i in fine, I in tin. ■ in |>oIic<- , n = ng, N = 
 iiK in lis clt'eit (n;i.s:il) on llic pivct'iling vnwi I, hut Is nut itself soi.ndeil ; 5 In iiotr. 6 ii. 6bcy. " in niSt. o in soft, in 
 ror, u in son, 9 in \v9lf, u in (lu, <Ti> in school, 00 In %vdbl ; § = 7. : th in tliine : u In tfinc. n in nOt, A in burn, u in 
 full, u in rude ( = o), uu = wa, ue = we ; $ = g/. ; y in my, J in hymn. Jtalic letters are silent. 
 
 absolute monarchy r>4 
 /\b-ys-slii'i-ii 244 
 Aconcagua ( ii^kftn-ka'gwii) 
 
 lt!6 
 Ad'e-laide 251 
 Ad-i-ron'(i;ick8 100, 102 
 A-dri-at'ic Sea 206 
 Af-j,''''"'-'-"^'''n' 221 
 Af'ri-c;i 236, 01 
 agiicultiinil implements 131 
 agriculture 1, 0, 14-1(1 
 
 in dry regions 137 
 air 40 
 
 airplane 40, 41 
 Ak'ron 131 
 Al-a-bii'ma lir.-122 
 A-las'ka 147-14i>, 76 
 Al-ba'ni-j 20U 
 Albany (al'ba-nl) 106 
 Al-bBr'ta 16(5' 
 A-lfu'tian (-shan) Islands 
 
 147 
 Al-ej-an'dri-A 243 
 Al-t;e'ri-a 243 
 Al-girTj'"243 
 al-pac'a 170 
 Alps 181, 183 
 Am'a-zon Hiver 169 
 Amiens (a-my'ts') 198 
 Am'ster-dam 193 
 An'dSj 107, 174, 170 
 Ant-arc'tic Circle 03 
 Antarctic Continent 01 
 Antarctic Ocean 01 
 an'thra-citf 99. 102 
 Ant'werp 192 
 Ap'en-nine? 181, 203 
 Ap-pa-lJcli'i-an Mountains 75 
 AppaLicliian Plateau 99, 115 
 A-ra'l)i-a 220, 218 
 Aral (i1r"'an. Lake 216 
 AreA'an'pef 211 
 Arc'tic 01, 03 
 Ar-gen-ti'na 173, 176, 256 
 Arizona (ftr-i-z6'na) 135-140 
 Ar'kan-SflS 115-122 
 Ar-me'ni-ii H-O 
 A.sia (a'sha) 21.3, 0] 
 as'phalt 103. 38, 53 
 Assuan (as-swiin') 241 
 Asuncion (a-soon-syon") 174 
 Ath'enj 209 
 At-lan'la 113 
 At-lan'tic Ocean 01 
 Ai'las .MountaiiLs 237 
 at'inos-ptiere 4(5-49 
 Auck'land 251 
 Aus-tra'li-A 247,61. 266 
 Aus'tri-ij 205-206 
 automobiles 131 
 axis 57, 03 
 Ba-hA'm,i,s 162, 103 
 Bi^Ai'ii 173 
 Baku' 210, 233 
 Bal'kan countries 208 
 Balkan Teninsula 181 
 Bftl'ticSea 181, 211 
 
 Hiirii-more 11:!, 112 
 
 Hii-lij-ihls-tan' 223 
 
 bananas Ili2 
 
 Bang-kok' 220 
 
 Hanks of New'found-land 96 
 
 Har-ce-lo'na 2U() 
 
 I!ar-ran-(|uiria (-kt'l'ya) 177 
 
 Milr'n'ii Lands li'iO 
 
 liariicr beaclius 109 
 
 Ha'fel 202 
 
 b.asin of a river 28 
 
 Ba-ta'vi-a 226 
 
 bay 34, 30 
 
 beaches 33, 100 
 
 Hi'irut (ba'roof) 220 
 
 Bel-fast' 189 
 
 Hcl'tri-an Kongo 244 
 
 liel'j:i-um 192, 250 
 
 Bel-grade' 208 
 
 Ben-ii're? 224 
 
 Ben-gal', Bay of 223 
 
 Ber'gen 195 
 
 Be'i'ing Strait 147 
 
 Hei-k'sbiiv Hills 91, 100 
 
 Ber-lin' 191 
 
 Bern 202 
 
 Hir'niing-/iam. Ala. 121, 2.J4 
 
 Birmingham, Knj;. 180 
 
 bi-tii'mi-nous coal 102 
 
 Black Hills 128. 1:50 
 
 black race 89, 240 
 
 Blue Kidge 110 
 
 boats 4 1 
 
 Bo-go-tii' 177 
 
 Bo-be'mi-a 200 
 
 Bo-liv'i-a 170 
 
 Bom-bay' 224 
 
 boom'er-anc 249 
 
 Bordeaux {b6r-do') 198 
 
 Bor'ne-o 22() 
 
 Bos'po-rus 209 
 
 BSs'ton 97, 93, 90, 255 
 
 boundaries 09, 81 
 
 BiaA-ma-pu'tra River 223 
 
 Bra-zir 171. 17(5, 250 
 
 Bra.zil'ian llifihlands 109 
 
 breakwaters 42 
 
 Brfm'en 191 
 
 bricks 4 
 
 Bridge'port 93. 94 
 
 Brit'ish Co-luni'bi-ii 150 
 
 British Kast Africa 244 
 
 British Empire 189 
 
 British Hon-du'ras 101-102 
 
 British I.sles 185 
 
 Brock'ton 93 
 
 Bmnx 104 
 
 Br.x)k'lvn 104, 105 
 
 Brus'sels 192 
 
 Bu-eAa-rest' 209 
 
 Bu'da-pest 206 
 
 Buenos Aires (bwa'nOs i'ras^ 
 
 174 
 Buf'fa-lo 106, 120, 253 
 buildings 4 
 
 building stone 6, 24, 96 
 Bal-gil'ri-j 209 
 
 b«ovs 44 
 
 Biir'ma 223 
 
 liuUe l:i8 
 
 butter making 2 
 
 cable 45 
 
 ca-cii'o 102, 173, 177 
 
 Cairo (ki'ro) 243, 235, 244 
 
 CiXITu.s- 198 
 
 Cal-cut'ta 224 
 
 Cal-i-fSr'ni-a 141-146 
 
 Callao (kiil-ya'o) 170 
 
 Cani'den 107 
 
 camels 7, 2.39 
 
 Can'a-da 155. 71, 74, 2.50 
 
 canals 41, 263 
 
 in Holland 193 
 Canal Zone 147, 149 
 Ca-na'ry Islands 245 
 Can'cer, Tropic of 63, 04 
 canning factories 1:50, 141 
 Can-ton', China 230 
 can'yons 20, 28 
 cape, defined 3:5 
 Cape Coil ('anal 97 
 Cape of Good Hope 245 
 Cape Town 244, 245 
 Cape Verde Islands 245 
 capital 51 
 Capitol 51 
 
 Cap'ri-corn, Tropic of 03, 04 
 Ca-ra'ciis 177 
 ciir'a-van 7 
 
 car'di-nal directions 59 
 Car-ib-he'an Sea 149 
 Car-pil'llu-an Mountains 181, 
 
 206 
 Car-rii'rii 204 
 cas-cade', defined 28 
 Cascade Hange 141 
 Cas'pi-an Sea 215 
 Cats'kill Mountains 99 
 cattle 18, 20, 21 
 in Argentina 174 
 in United States 120, 128, 
 
 2.54 (map) 
 Cau'ca-sus 2:53 
 cement 5 
 
 Central A-mer'i-ca 101-102 
 Cey-lon' 225 
 Chad, Lake 239 
 Charles'ton. S.C. 113 
 Cliat-la-noo'ga 121 
 Ches'a-peake Bay 112 
 Chicago (shi-ka'go) 131-1.32, 
 
 127, 128. 253, 254, 255 
 Chi'le 174-170. 250 
 Chi'na 227-2:50, 218,250 
 Chi-neje' Republic 227-230 
 choc'o-late 162 
 Cho's6n 232 
 Chris-ti-a'ni-a 195 
 cin-efto'na 170 
 Cin-cin-nat'i 1.32 
 cities .37-38. 43 
 
 government .50, .53 
 Cleve'land 129, 1.32, 254 
 clifts 20, 32 
 
 climate 06 
 clothing 3-8 
 clouds 48 
 coal 24, 26 
 
 in Great Britain 186 
 
 in the United States 84, 
 102 (niaiO 
 coasl'al [ilain 99 
 Coast Raiifics 141 
 co'co-nut palms 102 
 cod fisheries 34, 96 
 coffee 171, 3 
 cold regions 05 
 
 life in 5 
 Co-lo(?ne' 191 
 Co-loni'bi-a 177 
 (•o-loin'bo225 
 Co-Ion' 102 
 Col-o-rii'do 1:55-140 
 Colorado River 77. 139 
 Colorado Sjjrings 140 
 C6l-os-se'uni 204 
 Co-luni'bi-a River 77. 141, 
 
 142 
 Co-luin'bus 131 
 Cohiinlius. Christopher 56 
 commerce' 1. :l7-45, 2.53 
 Com'mon-wealth of Australia 
 
 247 
 coin 'pass 59 
 con'crete 6 
 conden.salion 48 
 Con'gress 52 
 Con-iiect'i-cut 91-97 
 ('on-stan-li-n5'ple 209 
 con'ti-nents 33, 55. 01 
 Co-pen-ha'iren 194 
 cojiper 24, 26 
 
 in the United States 84, 
 129. 1.38 
 cop'ra 244 
 Cordilleras (kdr-dil-ya'r4z) 
 
 75 
 cork 199 
 
 corn 12(i, 123, 170, 127 (map) 
 Cos'ta Ri'ca 161-102 
 cotton 3, 110 (map;. Ill, 
 119, 2.54 
 
 manufacture 93, 112. 187, 
 2.54 (map) 
 cottonseed oil 121-122 
 Cov'ing-ton 120 
 cowboys 120 
 cows 2, 18 
 crater 151 
 
 cre-vAsse' in a glacier 179 
 Cu'ba 102, 163 
 Cum'ber-land Plateau 116 
 Czech'o-.sl6-vak'i-,a (chek'-, 
 
 200 
 Czeclis (clicks) 206 
 Dai'rtMi' 231 
 dai'rv-ing 18, 20, 102 
 Dal'hus 121 
 l>.a-ma.s'cus 220 
 Danes 1.59 
 Dan'ube River 183, 206 
 
 263
 
 264 
 
 INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 Danzig (dan'tsiK) 196 
 day 57, 62, 63, 65 
 Dav'ton 131 
 Dead Sea 220 
 degrees, defined 60 
 Dek'kan Plateau 223, 224 
 Del'a-ware 109-113 
 Delaware River 101 
 Del'fii 224 
 delta 12 
 Den'mark 194 
 Den'ver 138 
 dej'erts 7, 137 
 Des Moines' 129 
 De-troit' 131 
 dew 49 
 dikes 192, 193 
 directions 57-59 
 
 on maps 68 
 dlr'i-gi-ble 40 
 District of Co-lum'bi-a 1 14 
 divide 13 
 docks 42 
 dogs, Eskimo 6 
 domestic commerce 253 
 Do-min'ion of Can'a-da 155, 
 
 71, 74, 256 
 Do'ver, Strait of 186 
 dry fanning 137 
 Dub'lin 189 
 Du-luth' 127, 129 
 Du'ma211 
 Dutch 192 
 earth, as a whole 55 
 
 form of 55 
 
 revolution of 63 
 
 rotation of 57 
 
 size of 55 
 earthquakes 231 
 east, defined 57, 58, 59 
 Kastem Hemisphere 01 
 East St. Lou'is 132 
 Ec'ua-dor 176 
 E'gypt 241-242 
 El'bS River 182 
 electric railway 39 
 elephant 217, 239 
 elevated railways 38 
 empire 54 
 
 England (In'gland) 185-189 
 Eng'lish Channel 185 
 E-qua'tor 57 
 
 e-qua-to'ri-al regions 61, 62 
 E'lie 107 
 Erie, Lake 77 
 Erie Barge Canal 100, 103 
 Es'ki-mO} 5-6, 159 
 Es'sen 191 
 Es-thO'ni-a 196 
 Et'na, Mount 204 
 Eu-\>hTA'l^ River 220 
 A'iir-a'sia (-hIuI) 179 
 i'Q'rope 179, 6"l 
 Ev'ans-ville 129, 131 
 e-vap-o-ra'lioii 48 
 Ev'er-est, Mount 215 
 express trains 40 
 faclorleH. location of 30 
 Kair'bankH 118 
 Fall Line 109 
 Fall River 93 
 Far'go 133 
 farming 1, 9, 14-16 
 
 dry fanning 137 
 Far'iV iHhiiitlrt 104 
 ferryboats 42 
 
 FIn'land 211 
 
 fiords (fyordz) 147. 194, 196 
 
 fishing 30. 31, 34, 84, 96 
 
 Fiume (fyoo'ma) 208 
 
 flax 184, 192 
 
 flood plains 12 
 
 flv)ods, effect of forests 23 
 
 Flor'ence 206 
 
 Flor'i-dil 109-113 
 
 flour 2, 130, 253 
 
 fogs 49 
 
 food 2, 5, 7, 8 
 
 foreign commerce 266 
 
 forest fires 22 
 
 forest reserves 136, 137 
 
 forests 21-23 
 
 iu Gennany 190 
 
 in United Slates 95, 136- 
 137, 254 (map) 
 Fort Waj/ne 131 
 Fort Worth 121 
 France 197, 256 
 freight 40, 41 
 
 French Equatorial Africa 244 
 French Indo-China 226 
 Frig'id Zones 63, 05 
 frost 49 
 
 fruits, in California 143 
 Fu'ji-ya'ma 231 
 Gal'ves-ton 122, 256 
 Gan'gej River 223 
 gang plow 16 
 gardens 15 
 Ga-roniis' River 197 
 gasoline 102 
 gelatin 21 
 
 Geneva (je-ne'va) 202 
 Genoa (jfn'o-a) 205 
 ge-og'ra-phy, defined 1 
 Ge6r'gi-A 109-113 
 Georgia, republic in western 
 
 Asia 216 
 Ger'ma-ny 190, 256 
 gey'sei-} 139 
 (i/iats 223 
 
 Gibraltar (ji-brol'ter) 200 
 Gibraltar, Strait of 235 
 gi-raf/fi' 239 
 
 Glacier National Park 139 
 glaciere (gla'.sh6rz) 70, 147, 
 183 
 
 ancient 92, 101, 126 
 Glas'goio 186, 189 
 (ilouces'ter 96 
 glue 21 
 gold 24 
 
 in Transvaal 245 
 
 in United States 84, 1.38, 
 144 
 gorge, defined 28 
 (Joteborg (yfi-le-li6r'y') 195 
 government 60-64 
 governor 61 
 Grand Rapids 128 
 granite 24 
 grapes 143, 197 
 grazing 20-21. 120, 128 
 
 in Swilzirlanil 201 
 (ireal Appalachian Vallev 
 
 no, 115 
 Great B.iHin 186 
 Great Itrilain (brlt"n) 185. 
 lH9.2.'i6 
 
 Great <'.ilifi,rriia Valley 141 
 (Jreal Dividing Kango 247 
 Greater An-lil'le9 162 
 
 Great Lakes 77 
 Great Salt Lake 136 
 Greece 209 
 Green'land 159, 76 
 Green Mountains 91 
 Grej/'lock, Mount 91 
 ground water 27 
 groups of states 89 
 Guiim 153 
 
 Gua-te-ma'la 161-162 
 Guayaquil (gvvi-a-kel') 177 
 Guiana (JJe-a'na) 177 
 Guiana Highlands 169 
 Guinea (gin'i). Gulf of 244 
 gulf, defined 34 
 Gulf Plains 115 
 Hague, the 193 
 Hai'ti 162, 163 
 Hal'i-fax 157 
 Ham 'burg 191 
 Hiiu'koto' 230 
 harbors 42, 44 
 H,1r'ris-burg 107 
 Hart'ford 94 
 harvesting machines 16 
 Ha-van'A 163 
 H.a'ver-Aill 93 
 Havre (hii'ver) 198 
 Ha-wai'i 151 
 Ha-waT'ian Islands 151 
 Hedj-az' 220 
 Hel-sing-fftrs' 211 
 hem' i-spheres 58 
 Hi'lo 152 
 
 Hi-nia'lii-ya Mts. 215, 223 
 Hin'du? 224, 226 
 Ho'bart 261 
 hogs 128 
 Hol'land 192 
 Holy Land ■2f20 
 Hol'yoke 94 
 Hon-du'ras 161-162 
 Hong'kong' 230 
 Ho-no-lu'lu 152 
 Hood, Mt. 142 
 hops 190 
 ho-ri'zon 55 
 hot regions 66 
 
 life in 7 
 lli.us'ton 122 
 
 llud'son River 77, 100, 103 
 lluiison's Hay Company 157 
 llug'li River 224 
 llui_i'g.a-ry 20.5-207 
 llu'ron, l.ake 77 
 hur'ri-canes 162 
 Hwang River 228 
 l-be'ri-an Peninsula 181, 199 
 icebergs 76 
 Ice'land 194 
 IMa-ho 135-140 
 ll-li-noi.s' 123-1.T2 
 In'cis 169 
 
 In'di-a 223-225, 217, 218 
 In-di-an'il 123-131 
 In-di-an-ilp'o-lis 131 
 In'di-an Ocean 61 
 Indians 8.-|, 88, 161, 169 
 lnMo-('hi'Ma226 
 industrial regions of the 
 
 United Stales 81 
 industry, delini'd 9 
 inlet of 11. lake 31 
 Po-wii 123-1.33 
 Iquique (e-UO'ka) 176 
 
 Irc'land 185.189 
 
 Irkutsk (Ir-kootsk') 233 
 iron 24, 25 
 in the United States 84. 
 
 121, 129, 254 (map) 
 irrigation 118, 137 
 in Asia 219, 228 
 islands 33 
 isjA'mus 33 
 Italian (i-tal'yan) Peninsula 
 
 181 
 It'a-ly 203-205 
 ivory 239 
 Jack'son-ville 113 
 J.affa (yii'fa) 220 
 jilg'uiir 170 
 Ja-mai'ca 162, 163 
 Ja^pan' 231-232, 218, 256 
 Ja'va 226 
 Je-ru'sa-lem 220 
 Johannesburg (y6-han'§s- 
 
 biirg) 246 
 Jor'dan River 220 
 Ju-go-slii'vi-a (yoo-) 208 
 Juneau (joo'no) 148 
 jungle 61, 217 
 Ju'ra Mountains 201 
 Kam-chat'ka 231 
 kan-ga-roo' 249 
 Kan'jas 123-133 
 Kansas City 128, 133, 254 
 Ken-tuck 'y 116-122 
 Ken'ya 244 
 Ke'o-kuk, 133 
 Kh.ar-t.uni' 244 
 Kief (ke'yef) 211 
 Kil-i-miin-jii'ro, Mt. 237 
 Kim'ber-ley 246 
 kingdom 54 
 
 Kings'ton, Jamaica 163 
 Klon'dike district 148, 156 
 A'nox'ville 121 
 Kon'go River 239 
 Ko-re'a 232 
 Lab-ra-d6r' 157 
 Lii Guni'rii 177 
 Lake Plains 100 
 lakes 31 
 
 salt 136 
 Lan'sing 131 
 Lii Paz (piis) 177 
 Liis'sii 227 
 lat'i-tude 60 
 Lilt'vi-a 196 
 lii'va 151 
 Law'rence 93 
 lead 84 
 
 Leud'ville 1.38 
 leather 21, 93 
 Lelj'a-iion Mountains 220 
 Leeds \><1 
 leg'is-la-ture 51 
 Leipzig (lip'.sik) 191 
 Lesser An-lil'les 162 
 lev'eej 1 18 
 Lib'i-a 243 
 Liege"(le-ezli') 192 
 liglilhou.ses 43 
 Li'mii, Peru 176 
 linen 184, 180 
 linseed oil 127 
 Lij'boM 200 
 Lilh-ft-a'ni-ii 196 
 Lii tie Hoek~122 
 Llv'er-pnol la7 
 l/ii'iiia^ 170 
 lia'no.s 169, 177
 
 INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 265 
 
 LOdzlOe 
 lop 4, 22 
 Lun'doii 1><7-1S.) 
 Loiij; Island 0!>, 101, 107 
 16n'(ri-tuile, detiiU'd 00 
 LOs Aii'i;<'l-fe H''> 
 Loit-V-ji-iln'ii 115-1^2 
 Lou'is-viUe 120 
 
 Lower California 100 
 lumbenni;4, 21-23, 121, U3, 
 
 254 (map) 
 Lii-zon' li')2 
 I.vnn 113 
 
 Lyon (le-6s') 198 
 Mc-Kin'ley, Mt. 147 
 Mad-a-gas'car 245 
 Ma-df i'l-j Islands 245 
 Ma-drid' 200 
 Miig-dii-le'nii Kiver 177 
 Ma-j;el'lan, t'XiUorer 60 
 Maei'llan, Strait of 167 
 mails 44 
 Maine i»l-07 
 
 main stream, defined 28 
 Ma-lav' Peninsula 220 
 Ma-nd'fts 173 
 Man'ches-ter, Eng. 186 
 Manchester, N. 11. 03 
 Man-chi|'ri-a 228 
 Man-hai'tan 104 
 Ma-uil'a 153 
 Man-i-tO'ba 156 
 manufacturinj; 34-36 
 in the United States 84, 
 
 92-S14, 112, 130,266 
 maple sugar 1)6 
 maps 07-<i!l, 91 
 map symbols 68 
 Mii-rii-eni'bo 177 
 marble 24, 95, 96, 204 
 Marseille (mar-sa'y') 198 
 Mar'y-land ("nier'-) 109-113 
 Maskat (niQs-kilt') 220 
 Mas-sa-chi('setts 91-97 
 ma't# 174 
 mayor 50 
 
 meat industry 21, 254 
 Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an Sea 241 
 Mek'ka 220 
 Me-kons' Kiver 220 
 Mel'boume 251 
 Mem'phis 121 
 Mer-ced' River 141 
 M6r'i-den 93 
 Me-rid'i-an 122 
 meridians 57, 59, 68 
 Mes-o-po-ta'mi-ii 220 
 metals 4, 24-27 ,'84 
 Mex'i-co 159-161, 74, 256 
 Mexico, city l60 
 Michigan (mish'1-gan) 123- 
 
 132 
 Michigan, Lake 77 
 Middle Atlantic States 90 
 Mil'an 206 
 milk 2. 18 
 millet 224 
 Mil-wau'kee 132 
 Min-da-na'o 152 
 minini; 24-27, i:J8 
 Min-nc-ap'o-lis 133, 127, 130, 
 
 2.-)3 
 Min-ne-so'ta 123-133 
 Mi8-si»-8ip'pi 115-122 
 Mississippi River 28, 76, 118 
 
 Mis-s»!('rl 12;J-133 
 
 Missouri Hivor 70 
 
 Mo-bilc' 122 
 
 Mo'liawk Kiver 100 
 
 moisture 48, 49 
 
 .Mo'kAa 220 
 
 Mol-l<Mi'(lo 170 
 
 nion'are/i-y 54 
 
 Moij-gA'li-a 228 
 
 Mongolian race 232 
 
 Mon-tii'na 135-140 
 
 Mfin-te-ne'gro 208 
 
 Mon-te-vid'e-o 174 
 
 Mon-tre-al' 150, 157 
 
 M(i-roc'oo 243 
 
 .Mos'crno 211 
 
 mountain range 19 
 
 mountains 19, 100 
 
 MQ'nieA 191 
 
 Mur'ray Kiver 247 
 
 Na'plej a»4 
 
 N;isli'ville 121 
 
 Na-t;il' 245 
 
 national forests 22, 130 
 
 natural gas 102, 254 (map) 
 
 Ne-bras'ka 123-133 
 
 negroes 89, 111, 240 
 
 Ne-pal' 223 
 
 Neth'er-lands 192, 220, 250 
 
 Ne-vii'da 135-140 
 
 New'ark 107 
 
 New Hed'ford 93 
 
 New Hruns'wick 155, 156 
 
 New Kngland States 91 
 
 New'found-land 157 
 
 New Guinea (gln'I) 226, 
 
 251 
 New Hamp'shire 91-97 
 New lla'ven 94 
 New JSr'jey 99-103, 107 
 New Mex'i-co 135-140 
 New Or'le-ans 122, 255 
 New South Wales 251 
 New York, city of 104, 126, 
 
 42, 184, 193, 255 
 New York (state) 99-107 
 New Zea'land 251 
 Ni-ag'a-ra Falls 100 
 Nic-a-ra'g^ia 161-102 
 Ni'ger River 239 
 night 57, 62, 65 
 Nile River 239, 241-242 
 ni'trate 175 
 nom'ads 218 
 Nome 148 
 Nor'foik 113 
 Norsc'men 195 
 north, defined 67, 58, 59 
 North A-mer'i-c^ 71-81, 155, 
 61 
 
 climate 74 
 
 rainfall 76 
 
 rivers 76 
 
 size 71 
 
 surface 75 
 
 winds 76 
 North Cape 195 
 North Car-o-li'na 109-113 
 North Central States 123 
 North Da-ko'ta 123-133 
 Niirthcrn Hemisphere 68 
 North Krig'id Zone 63 
 North I'ole 57 
 North Star 69 
 North Temperate Zone 64 
 Nor'way 191 
 
 No'va Scotia (skO'shya) 166, 
 
 157 
 nurseries 105 
 O-a'hj! 152 
 o-ii'sej 8 
 ob'e-lisks 243 
 ocean 31-34, 61 
 ocean commerce 42 
 ocean currents 32 
 (>-des'sa211 
 O-hi'o 123-132 
 Ohio River 77, 101 
 O-kla-ho'ma 115-122 
 Oklahoma Citv 121 
 O'ma-ha 128, 133, 254 
 O-miin' 220 
 On-Ui'ri-o, Lake 77 
 Ontario, province of 155, 
 
 156 
 0-p6r't() 200 
 Orange Free State 245 
 oranges 143 
 or'bit of the earth 63 
 Oregon (6r'^-g6n) 141-145 
 ores 4, 24, 26 
 ( )-ri-no'co River 169 
 O-sii'ka 232 
 ostrich 239 
 ( )t'ta-wa 156 
 outlet of a lake 31 
 ovsters34, 90, 112 
 o'ziirk Plateau 110, 123 
 Pa-cif'ic Ocean 61 
 Pacific States 141 
 Pago Pago (pang'6 pang'o) 
 
 163 
 P51'es-tine 220 
 pain 'pas 169 
 Pan-a-mii' 71, 101-162 
 Panama Canal 149, 41 
 Panama hats 170 
 )iaper 94 
 Pa-rii' 171, 173 
 Par'a-guay 174 
 Paraguay tea 174 
 par'al-lels 57, 69, 68 
 parcel post 44 
 PSr'is 108 ■ 
 Par'lia-ment 189 
 passes, mountain 19 
 Pat'er-son 107 
 pavements 38 
 Paw-tuck'et 93 
 peaks 19 
 peat 189 
 Pe-king' 230 
 pen-in'su-la 33 
 Penn-syl-va'ni-a 99-103, 106 
 Pe-o'ri-a 131 
 Per-nam-bu'co 173 
 Per'sia (-sha) 221, 218 
 Pe-ru' 176 
 
 Petrograd (pye-tro-grat') 210 
 pe-tro'le-uin ' 102, 121, 144, 
 
 254 (map) 
 Phil-a-del'phl-a 106, 255 
 Phil'ip-pine Islands 152 
 Phoe'nix 140 
 phos'phate rock 111 
 phyj'i-cal features 69 
 physical maps 09 
 Pigd'mont Plateau 109 
 piers 42 
 pineapples 111 
 pilch 111 
 Pitts'burgh 107, 129, 254 
 
 plans 67 
 
 plants, recjuirements of 9 
 
 Pla'tii Kiver 1(;9 
 
 plateau (|)la-to') 74, 99 
 
 Plateau States 136 
 
 pl:it'i-num 210 
 
 Po'land 190 
 
 polar regions 01 , 02 
 
 poles 57 
 
 policemen 53 
 
 po-lit'i-cal maps 69 
 
 Pon'ce 149 
 
 ponds 31 
 
 piipulationofcountries,states, 
 cities 259-2ti2 
 
 I'o Kiver 203 
 
 Port 'land, Maine 96, 97 
 
 Portland, Oregon 143, 145 
 
 Por'to Ki'co 149, 162 
 
 Por'tu-gal 199-200, 246 
 
 potatoes 170, 190, 197 
 
 Po-to'mac River 114 
 
 pottery 130 
 
 Prague 207 
 
 prairies 128 
 
 precious metals 138 
 
 President 52 
 
 Pri-bi-lof Islands 148 
 
 prime meridian 59 
 
 Prince Edward Island 166 
 
 Proc'tor 95 
 
 Prov'i-dence 97, 93 
 
 Pufb'lo 138 
 
 pueblos 88 
 
 PiTget Sound 141 
 
 Ptjii'tii A-re'nas 175 
 
 Pyr'e-neej'l81, 199 
 
 •luarrying 24 
 
 (iu*-b6c' (city) 157 
 
 Quebec, province of 165, 156 
 
 (.Queens 104 
 
 quT'nine 170 
 
 Quito (ke 16) 177 
 
 railroads 39-40, 38 
 in Africa 240, 244 
 of the United States 84 
 
 rain 48, 75, 70, 136 
 
 rainfall 75 
 of Africa 237 
 of Asia 217 
 of Australia 247 
 of Europe 183 
 of North America 76 
 of South America 107 
 of the United States 81 
 
 Rai-nfer', Mt. 141 
 
 rapids, defined 28 
 
 raw materials 34-36 
 
 Kead'ing 107 
 
 reaper 10 
 
 reel race 88 
 
 reiii'deerO, 210. 217 
 
 R'e'no 1.38 
 
 reimblic 64 
 
 res-er-va'tions 88 
 
 rev-o-lu'tion of the earth 63 
 
 K/iine River 183, 15 
 
 KAode Island 91-97 
 
 RAone River 181, 197 
 
 rice 120, 1.52 
 
 Rich'mond, N.Y. 104 
 
 Richmond. Va. 113 
 
 Ri'ga 196 
 
 Ri'o de Janeiro (zba-na'ro) 
 173 
 
 Ei'o Gran'de 86
 
 266 
 
 INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 river basin 28 
 rivei-s 27-31, 262 
 work of 11-13 
 river system 28 
 roads 39 
 Roch'es-ter 105 
 rocks broken up into soil 10 
 Rocky Mountains 135 
 Rome 204 
 
 ro-ta'tion of crops 14 
 rotation of the earth 57 
 Rot'ter-dam 193 
 Rouen (rwax) 198 
 Roa-ina'ni-a 208 
 rubber 171 
 
 Russia (rush'a) 210, 233 
 Rutland 95 
 
 Ru-wen-zo'ri Mountains 237 
 Sac-ra-men'lo 145 
 Sag'i-naw 127 
 Sa-hii'ra 7, 237 
 St. An'iho-ny, Falls of 133 
 St. Croia- 149 
 
 St. Elienne (sax-ta-tyen') 198 
 St. John, N.B. 15fi 
 St. Johns 157 
 St. Joseph 133 
 St. I.aw'rence River 77, 157 
 St. Lou'is 128, 132, 255 
 St. Paul 1.33 
 St. Tftoin'as 149 
 sSiin'on 30, 144 
 Sa-lo-ni'cii 209 
 salt 103, 130 
 Salt Lake City 1.38 
 Sal-va-dor' lGl-162 
 San An-to'ni-o 120 
 San Di-e'go 145 
 San Fran-cis'co 145 
 San Joaquin (wa-ken') River 
 
 141 
 San Juan (hwiin) 149 
 San-ti-a'go 175 
 Santos (sax'tu-sh) 173 
 Saone River 197 
 Sar-din'i-a 203 
 Sas-katcli'e-wan 156 
 Sa-van'iiah 1 13 
 sa-vaii'nas 2.37 
 sawmills 23 
 scali! of a inaj) 07, 91 
 Scan-di-iia'vi-an I'eninsula 
 
 181. 194 
 Sefteldt Kiver 192 
 SeAe-nfc'la-dy 105 
 Scot'land 185-189 
 Scraii'ton 107 
 sea, defined 33 
 sea island cotton 111 
 seaLs 148 
 seapoil-s 42, 43 
 Se at'tic 143, 145 
 Se-bils'to-pftl 210 
 sediment 12 
 
 Seine (san) River 197, 198 
 S6-oiil' 232 
 Sei'l,i-:i 208 
 Sh,in--liii'V 2.30 
 Shan'ta, Mt. 141 
 8he.|. 3, 18-21, 137, 219 
 Sheffield 180 
 SliCfkH 220 
 shilter 4, 0-8 
 ghi|i canalH 41 
 ■hipH 42, 43 
 
 shoe factories 93 
 
 shore line 32 
 
 Shreve'port 121 
 
 Sl-am' 226 
 
 Si-be'ri-a 233 
 
 Siberian Plain 215 
 
 Si9'i-ly 203 
 
 Si-er'ra Ne-va'da 141 
 
 silk 3, 4. 232 
 
 sil'vaj 169 
 
 sUver 24, 84. 138, 160 
 
 Sin-ga-p6re' 226 
 
 Sinkiang (sln-kyang') 228 
 
 sinks 136 
 
 S|-ou.T City 133 
 
 Sioux Fails i;33 
 
 slate 24, 96 
 
 S18-vaks' 206 
 
 snow 49, 75, 76 
 
 Sofia (s6'f*-ya) 209 
 
 soils 9-14 
 
 soarccs of streams 28, 27 
 
 south, defined 57, 58, 69 
 
 South Africa 245 
 
 South A-m6r'i-ca 165, 61 
 
 South Atlantic States 109 
 
 South Bend 131 
 
 South Car-o-li'na 109-113 
 
 South Central States 116 
 
 South Da-ko'ta 123-133 
 
 Southern Hemisphere 68 
 
 South Frig'id Zone 63 
 
 South Pole 67 
 
 South Temperate Zone 64 
 
 Spain 199-200 
 
 Spo-kan«' 145 
 
 sponge fisheries 84, 163 
 
 spring (of water) 27 
 
 Spring'field, 111. 129, 131 
 
 Springtield, Ma.ss. 94 
 
 states, government 61, 53 
 
 groups of 89 
 steamships 41-43 
 steel 35 
 steppes 210 
 Stettin (shte-ten') 191 
 Stock'holni 196 
 .stock raising 9 ' 
 .stockyards 21 
 strait, defined 34 
 Straits Settli'inents 226 
 streams 1 1-13. 27-31 
 street-s of a city 37-38, 60, 63 
 Strom'bft-li 204 
 sub-ina-riiie' cable 46 
 subways 38 
 Rn-diin' 244 
 S(j-ez', Isthnuia of 213 
 Suez Canal 213, 241 
 sugar 2 
 
 sugar beets 127, 137, 190 
 sugar cane 119 
 sulphur 121 
 Sul'tan 2(J8 
 Su-mii'tra 220 
 summer 62, 63 
 sun 67, (12, 63, 66 
 Su-pf-'ri-or 127, 129 
 Sii))erior, Lake 77 
 SnH-c|ue-han'na Hiver 77, 101 
 swamps 31 
 Swe'den 194 
 Swit/.'cr-land 201-203 
 Syil'iiey 261 
 Syr'a-ciiae 105 
 
 Syr'i-a 220 
 
 Ta-c6''ma 143, 145 
 
 Tam'pa 113 
 
 Tani-pi'co 160 
 
 Tan-gan-yi'ka Ter. 244 
 
 Tan-gier' 243 
 
 Ta?-ina'ni-a 247, 261 
 
 tea 3. 225 " 
 
 teak'wood 22-i 
 
 Teheran (te-h'riin') 221 
 
 telegraph 46 
 
 telephone 45 
 
 temperate regions 62, 63, 65 
 
 life in, 8 
 Temjierate Zones 64, 65 
 Teii-nes-see' 115-122 
 terraces for farming 15, 153 
 Tex'as ll.'i-122 
 tex'tiles 198 
 
 Thames (temz) River 187 
 threshing machine 16 
 Ti-bet' 227 
 Tibet, Plateau of 216 
 Ti-en'tsin' 2.30 
 Tifiis (ty*-fly*s') 216 
 Ti'gris Kiver 220 
 Ti-ti-ca'ca, Lake 176 
 tobacco 110, 120, 149 
 To'ky-o 232 
 To-le'do 127, 131 
 T6m.sk 233 
 To-ron'to 156, 157 
 Tor'rid Zone 64, 65 
 trade 37 
 trails 39 
 trans-con-ti-nen'tal railroads 
 
 139 
 trans-por-ta'tion 37-42 
 Trans-viiffl' 246 
 Tren'ton 107 
 trib'u-ta-ries 28 
 Tri-este' 205 
 Trin'i-dad 163 
 Trip'o-ll 243 
 'I'ropic of Can'cer 63, 64 
 Tropic of Cap'ri-corn 6.3, 64 
 Troy 106 
 
 truck farming 16, 111 
 tun'ihuj 210 
 Tfi'iiis 243 
 Tu^in 206 
 Tur-ke-.stttn' 233 
 Ttir-key 208-209, 219 
 ttu'penline 111 
 Tii-tu-i'lii 16.3 
 I'-gaii'dii (6o-) 244 
 Ckrahie 211 
 
 I'nion of South Africa 245 
 Uiiited Kingdom 186 
 Unitccl Slates 81-163 
 
 boundnries 81 
 
 climate 74 
 
 commerce 253-250 
 
 government 58, 64 
 
 grouijs of states 89 
 
 history 85-89 
 
 immigrants 184 
 
 iiidustrii'S 81-85 
 
 outlying possessions 147 
 
 rainfall 81 
 IJ'ral M.Miiitains 181, 210 
 r'ni-guav 174 
 I''la/i 1.36-140 
 U'ti-c;i 1115 
 VAl-duI' Hills 210 
 
 Valencia (va-len shl-a) 200 
 valleys, formation of 12-13 
 A'al-pa-r«i'so 176 
 Van-cou'ver 156, 157 
 vapor 47 
 Val'i-can 204 
 vegetable gardens 16 
 Ven-e-zue'la 177 
 Ven'ice 205 
 
 Ve'ra Cruz (croos') 160 
 Ver-moni' 91-97 
 Ve-su'vi-us, Mount 204 
 Vic-to'ri-;V, Lake 237 
 Victoria, .state 251 
 Vi-en'na 206 
 Vir-gin'i-a 109-113 
 VIs'ttl-la Kiver 196 
 Vla-di-v6s-t6k' (-dyi-") 233 
 vol-can'ic cone 161 
 vol-ca'nopj 161 
 Vol'ga River 183 
 Walcj 185-189 
 Wal'lham (wol'-) 93 
 War'saw 196 
 Wash'ing-ton (city) 114 
 Washington (state) 141-146 
 Waterburv (wa'ter-bfr-i) 93 
 waterfall.s 28 
 
 water power 36, 91, 92, 109 
 water gaps 100 
 water vapor 47, 48 
 waves 32 
 weather 49 
 well, of water 27 
 west, defined 57, 58, 59 
 Western Hemisphere 61 
 West In'dies 1()2. 256 
 West Virginia 109-1 13 
 wharves 42 
 wheat 2. 16, 16ti, 21t» 
 
 in the United States (maps) 
 127, 2.53 
 Wheel'ing 113 
 White Mountains 91 
 white race 88, 218 
 Wil-liim'ettc Valley 142, 143 
 Wil'niing-ton, Del. 113 
 Wihnington, N. C. 113 
 windiniils 46, 193 
 winds 4(i-47 
 wiiiihvard. deliiuHl 48 
 Win'ni-iK'g l.'iO 
 winter 62, 63 
 wireless telesrraph 45 
 Wis-con'sin '123-132 
 wood 4 
 wood pulp 94 
 wool .3, 21 
 
 woolen manufacture 93 
 Woivcs'ter 94 
 WV-o'ming 1.35-140 
 Vilk 227 
 
 Viing'tze River 228 
 Yar'mouth 157 
 yellow race 89, 218 
 S'eriou-slone Nat.'l Park 139 
 Yellowslone River 29, 139 
 Yo'ko-ha'mii 232 
 Yo-sem'i-l,u Valley 141 
 Youngs'town 129 
 Yu-go-.slii'vi-j 208 
 Yii'kon River 149 
 Zam-be'zi Kivir 239 
 zones (i3-(i6 
 Zu'ricft 202
 
 
 
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