New Biographical 
 Dictionary 
 
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 NEW 
 
 Biographical Dictionao 
 
 / 
 
 BY KI>ITORS OF THE 
 
 CASSELL'S 
 
 Standard Reference Books, Dictionaries, &c. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 Memoirs of the Most Eminent Men and Women 
 
 OF ALL 
 
 Ages and Countries 
 
 fteuiseft jEdition 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 DAVID McKAY, Publisher 
 I022 Market Street
 
 Copyright, 1893, by CASSELL PUBLISHING COMPANY. 
 Copyright, 1899, by DAVID McKAY.
 
 URL 
 
 INTRODUCTOKY NOTE. 
 
 It is a trite thing to say of a book that it " meets a long felt 
 want"; but when that is so absolutely the case as with Cassell's 
 " New Biographical Dictionary," ii is almost impossible to abstain 
 from using the phrase. Biographical dictionaries are no new 
 thing ; there are many and excellent ones in existence ; but they 
 are all more or less bulky and consequently expensive. The aim 
 of the publishers in making this book has been to make it first a 
 thorough]}^ reliable book of reference ; then to make it concise, 
 convenient to refer to, and inexpensive. That tliey have fulfilled 
 this aim there can be no doubt. In the words of one eminently 
 fitted to judge, this Dictionary is "a thoroughly reliable Avork of 
 reference, giving particulars of the world's celebiities, whether 
 living or dead, from the earliest times up to the present date. It 
 also gives the twins de plume of popular writers, with their real 
 names. So carefully has it been edited that so recent an event 
 as the death of Lord Tennyson is noted." While tl>e details are 
 necessarily brief, all the important facts are there. To the 
 student and the man of letters, or to the busy man of afl:"airs, this 
 will be found a most valuable book of reference, and one that once 
 used will never be dispensed with.
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Aagaxd, Christian [b. 1616, d. 1664), Danish, 
 writer of Latin poetry ; his compositions 
 will be found collected in Rostgaard's 
 Delicia Quormidiim Poetaj-um Danorum. 
 
 Aali or All, Mustapha Ben Achmed {d. 
 1597), Turkish historian, whose principal 
 work was a universal history. 
 
 A'all or All, Pacha, Mehemet Emin 
 {b. 1815, d. 1871), a distiaguished statesman 
 of the Ottoman empire, was employed 
 diplomatically at the courts of Austria and 
 England, and finally, returning to Con- 
 stantinople, was five times appointed grand 
 vizier. 
 
 Aaron, son of Amram and Jochebed, of 
 the tribe of Levi, and the elder brother of 
 Moses and Miriam. He appeared with 
 Moses before Pharaoh, and was the first 
 high priest of Israel, his sons being also 
 consecrated to the priesthood. He shared 
 the sin of Moses at Meribah, as well as its 
 punishment, his death taking place shortly 
 afterwards on Mount Hor. 
 
 Aaron, Saint, the reputed founder, in the 
 sixth century, of the first monastery in 
 Brittany. 
 
 Aarsena, Francis van (6. 1572, d. 1641), 
 Dutch politician and diplomatist of dis- 
 tinction, was ambassador at several courts, 
 notably France ; the execution of Barueveldt 
 was mainly due to his influence. 
 
 Aarshot, PhiUppe {d. 1595), second Duke 
 of Croi, a Flemish noble, commander of 
 the forces sent against the Duke of Cleves. 
 In the Spanish war of the Low Countries he 
 first espoused the cause of Philip II., and 
 was made president of the council ; after- 
 wards sichng with the States, he became 
 governor of Flanders, and in the rising of 
 Ghent was seized by the mob and imprisoned. 
 On his release he took refuge in Venice. 
 
 Aartsen or Aertsen, Pieter (6. 1519, d. 
 1566), historical painter, son of a stocking 
 weaver of Amsterdam. 
 
 Abad I., About Cacem Mohammed (d. 
 1042), the founder of the dynasty of Abad- 
 tydes, and first Moorish king of Seville. 
 
 Abad n. (6, 1012, d. 1069), a prince of 
 great ability and ambition, succeeded to the 
 above and added largely to his dominions. 
 He was fond of literature and poetry, but 
 was voluptuous, cruel, and superstitiovis. 
 
 Abad III., Abou Cacem Mohammed al 
 Mohammed Billah {h. 1039, d. 1095), son of 
 the above, completed the conquest of the 
 kingdom of Malaga, but was finally defeated 
 by Yousuf-ben Taschfyn, and carried cap- 
 tive to Africa, where he died. 
 
 Abaka Khan (rf. 1222), a Persian emperor, 
 eighth of the Jliengis dynasty, married the 
 daughter of Michael Palseologus, and is 
 supposed to have been a convert to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 Abamonti, Giuseppe (6, 1759, d. 1818), 
 Neapolitan statesman, who took an active 
 part in the revolutionary movement. In 
 1799 he was arrested and condemned to 
 death, but was pardoned, and he retired to 
 Milan, returning to Naples in 1805. 
 
 Abancourt, Charles Xavier Joseph Fran- 
 queville [b. 1758, d. 1792), appointed minis- 
 ter of war in 1792 by Louis XVI., was 
 afterwards denounced as an aristocrat by 
 Thuriot, and put to death as a sop to the 
 popular party. 
 
 Abano, Pietro (3. 1246, d. 1320), a na 
 tive of Padua, celebrated for his skill in 
 alchemy and medicine. 
 
 Abascal, Jos^ Fernando (5. 1763, d. 
 1821), Viceroy of Peru during several years 
 of the South American war of independ- 
 ence. 
 
 Abati or Abbati, Niccolo {b. 1512, d. 
 1572), Italian painter, a native of Modena, 
 principally known for the frescoes which he 
 painted at Fontainebleau, of which, how- 
 ever, the greater part have been destroyed. 
 
 Abauzit, Firmin {b. 1679, d. 1767), theo- 
 logian, mathematician, antiquarian, and 
 historian. A native of Uzes in Languedoc, 
 he was of Arabian descent, and travelled 
 through Germany, Holland, and England, 
 and was honoured witJi tlie friendship of 
 Voltaire, Rousseau, and Newton,
 
 Abb 
 
 (2) 
 
 Abd 
 
 Abbas I., Shah (b. 1557, d. 1628), ascended 
 the throne of Persia in 1585, and after 
 defeating the Uzbegs was able, with the 
 assistance of Sir Anthony and Sir Robert 
 Shirley from England, to overthrow the 
 Turks, regaining all his lost provinces. 
 
 Abbas, Mirza (b. 1795, d. 1833), Prince 
 Royal of Persia, an enlightened reformer of 
 his country. He sent several youths to 
 England to be educated, and established the 
 first printing press in Persia at Tabritz. 
 
 Abbas, Pacha (b. 1813, d. 1854), eldest 
 son of Mehemet Ali, succeeded his uncle, 
 Ibrahim Pacha, in the viceroyalty of 
 Egypt, 1834. 
 
 Abbassah {d. 1634), appointed Pacha of 
 Erzerum by the Aga of the Janissaries, 
 twice revolted against Murad IV. , by whom 
 he was finally put to death. 
 
 Abbey, Edwin Austin (b. 1852), a weU- 
 known American artist in black and white, 
 educated at the Pensylvanian Academy. 
 His water-colour drawings also have at- 
 tracted attention both in America and ia 
 England. 
 
 Abbey, Henry {b. 1842), American author, 
 was educated at Kingston Academy and the 
 Hudson River Institute. 
 
 Abbot, Ezra, LL.D., D.D. (d. 1819, d. 
 1884), American critic, very precocious as a 
 child, graduated at Bowdoin College, and 
 settled at Cambridge, gaining considerable 
 reputation as a biblical critic. He contri- 
 buted to periodicals, and also wrote several 
 critical works, and ia support of Unitarian- 
 ism ; the best known is that on The Author- 
 ity of the Fourth Gospel. 
 
 Abbot, George (*. 1562, d. 1633), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, the son of a cloth- 
 worker of Guildford. He early became a 
 popular preacher and author, and his efforts 
 to establish episcopacy in Scotland and a 
 pamphlet he wrote upon the conviction of 
 George Sprot, brought him into favour with 
 James I. He was first appointed Bishop of 
 London, and then Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Later, his action with respect to the mar- 
 riage of the Earl of Essex, his Calvinistic 
 views, the growing influence of Laud, and 
 his accidental shooting of a keeper, brought 
 him into disfavour, and though he attended 
 James's death-bed, and crowned Charles I., 
 he was soon placed under confinement. The 
 almshouses he founded at Guildford still 
 
 Abbot, Henry Larcom (b. 1831), Ameri- 
 can engineer, graduated at West Point, 
 and entered the tojjographical engineers. 
 During the Civil war he rose to be lieutenant- 
 colonel, and after the close of the war 
 was actively engaged on various matters, 
 
 notably the invention and development of 
 the U.S. system of marine mines for coast 
 and river defence. 
 
 Abbot, Joel (b. 1793, d. 1855), American 
 naval officer ; during the second. American 
 war with England his bravery and self- 
 devotion were conspicuous. The latter part 
 of his life was spent in China, where, as 
 flag-officer, he discharged deHcate diplo- 
 matic duties to the entire satisfaction of his 
 Government. 
 
 Abbot, Lemuel {b. 1762, d. 1803), an 
 English portrait painter of naval heroes. 
 
 Abbot, Samuel (d. 1839), American lawyer, 
 invented the method of obtaining starch 
 from the potato ; he was burnt to death in 
 his factory. 
 
 Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan {b. Boston, 
 1830), has produced several works conjointly 
 with his brother and partner, Austin, and 
 also many separately. He was appointed 
 to revise the statutes of the United States, 
 and compiled important "digests" of de- 
 cisions, etc. 
 
 Abbot, Charles Conrad {b. 1843), Ameri- 
 can naturalist, educated at Trenton, and 
 Pennsylvania, graduated in medicine in 
 1863. His investigations concerning pre- 
 historic man are valuable and interesting. 
 
 Abbt, Thomas (b. 1738, d. 1766), a learned 
 German educated at Ulm and Halle. In- 
 tended for the church, his inclinations led 
 him to philosophy, mathematics, and modern 
 languages ; he was professor of philosophy at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder and of mathematics 
 at Riuteln. He died at Bucksberg. 
 
 Abdallah (d. 1818), the fourth and last 
 Scherif of the Wahabites, succeeded his 
 father in 1814, but was taken prisoner by 
 Mehemet Ali and beheaded by the Sultan. 
 
 Abdallatif (b. 1162, d. 1231), Arabian 
 physician and philosopher, and author of 
 several books, notably on Egypt. 
 
 Abdal Wahab (b. 1692, d. 1787), an Ara- 
 bian religious reformer, and founder of the 
 sect of Wahabites. 
 
 Abd-el-Kader, Sidi-el-Hadjo-Ouled Mah- 
 iddin (b. near Mascara, 1807, d. 1883), dis- 
 tinguished Algerian commander, led the 
 native tribes against the French when the 
 latter had taken possession of Algeria. For 
 fourteen years he kept them at bay, and 
 secured to himself the virtual sovereignty of 
 Oran. Finally he surrendered to General 
 Lamorici^re, and was restored to freedom by 
 Napoleon III. upon undertaking not to take 
 up arms against the French. In 1860 he 
 defended the Christians against the Druses 
 in the massacre at Damascus. 
 
 Abd-er-ralunan L (b. 731, d. 787),
 
 Abd 
 
 (3) 
 
 Ab€ 
 
 founder of the royal race of the Ommeyades, 
 Emirs of Cordova, laudiug in Granada 
 755, and reported introducer of the palm- 
 tree, pomegranate, apricot, and peach into 
 Spain. 
 
 Abd-er-raliinan II. {b. 788, d. 852), the 
 fourth Emir of Cordova of the Ommeyade 
 line, and called " Ab Mutrif," or '* The vic- 
 torious, ' ' from his successes over the native 
 Spanish kings. 
 
 Abd-er-raHman III. (b. 891, d. 961), 
 " Prince of the Faithful," was eighth Emir 
 of the race, and first to assume the title of 
 Caliph. He reigned for forty-nine years in 
 prosperity and splendour, haviug defeated 
 his enemies, and built the magnificent 
 palace and city of Azzahrah. 
 
 Abd-er-rhaman {b. 1778, d. 1859), Em- 
 peror of Morocco and Fez. He was involved 
 in troubles with several of the European 
 powers, especially France, which took 
 Algiers and attacked Tangiers, while his 
 attempts to annex Oran were rendered futile 
 by the opposition of Abd-el-Kader. 
 
 Abdul-aziz Khan {*. 1830, d. 1876), 
 Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, succeeded 
 his brother, Abdul Medjid, in 18G1. Brought 
 up under a French tutor, he imbibed many 
 European ideas, inti'oduced improvements 
 in agriculture, reformed the courts of jus- 
 tice, and personally discarded polygamy. 
 In 1862 he conquered the Montenegrins, 
 and visited England in 1867. An insurrec- 
 in Herzegovina was settled by European 
 intervention (1876), but the extravagance 
 and despotism of the Sultan rendered him so 
 unpopular as to provoke his deposition, 
 which was quickly followed by his suicide 
 or murder. 
 
 Abdul Hamid (b. 1725, d. 1789) suc- 
 ceeded to tlie Ottoman throne iu 1773. In 
 1774 he concluded peace with Kussia by the 
 Treaty of Kaiiiardji, but three years later 
 war again broke out, the battle of Kinbum 
 was lost, and finally Russia took all the 
 provinces north of the Danube. 
 
 Abdul Hamid II. {b. 1842), reigning Sultan 
 of Turkey, succeeded his brother, Murad V. 
 (deposed on account of alleged insanity), in 
 August, 1876. Abdul Hamid's rule, ushered 
 in by the famous Bulgarian atrocities, has 
 been marked by disturbances in every por- 
 tion of his dominions. His government is 
 autocratic, even insignificant departmental 
 measures requiring his approval. His 
 ministers are frequently deposed at a mo- 
 ment's notice. Of a morbidly nervous 
 disposition, he is extremely sensitive to 
 hostile reflections on Turkish matters in the 
 press, over which his officials have to exer- 
 cise a very severe censorship. He has 
 brought the Turkish army to a great state 
 of perfection with the aid of numerous 
 b2 
 
 German officers. He is held in great awe 
 by his subjects, but in his intercourse with 
 foreign envoys and visitors bis manners are 
 gracious and engaging. 
 
 Abdullah ben Zobair {b. 622, d. 692), 
 sovereign of Mecca, was one of the most 
 eminent personages in the early times of 
 Islamism. 
 
 Abdul Medjid Khan (/;. 1823, d. 1861), 
 Sultan of Turkey, succeeded his father 1839. 
 The empire was then in a most critical state, 
 but the treaty of 1840 between England, 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia, followed by 
 the taking of Acre and the bombardment of 
 Beyrout, saved Turkey from Ibrahim. 
 Early in his reign the young Sultan issued 
 the great "Tanzimat," or Magna Charta of 
 Turkey ; he re-organised the anny and the 
 penal code, formed a postal system, and 
 erected telegraphs. Troubles with Servia, 
 Albania, SjTia, Bosnia, and Montenegro, 
 culminated in war with Russia in 1854, but 
 the intervention of England, France, and 
 Sardinia resulted in the taking of Sebasto- 
 pol, 1854, and the Treaty of Paris, 1S56. 
 
 Abel, the second son of Adam, slain by his 
 brother Cain. 
 
 Abel (d. 1252), King of Denmark, 1241 ; 
 was slain in battle with his Frisian subjects. 
 
 Abel, Clarke {b. 1780, d. 1826), doctor of 
 medicine and naturalist, accompanied Lord 
 Amherst to China in 1816, and gave the 
 name Abelia to a species of plant brought 
 back with him. 
 
 Abel, Johann Joseph {b. 1768, d. 1818), 
 Austrian painter. He studied in Vienna 
 and Rome. 
 
 Abel, Karl Friedrich {b. Vilb, d. 1787), 
 a native of Anhalt, musician and composer. 
 He gave in England a series of concerts in 
 conjunction with Bach. 
 
 Abel, Niels Henrik {b. 1802, d. 1829), 
 mathematician, born at Fiudoe, iu Norway. 
 He especially investigated the theory of 
 elliptic functions. 
 
 Abelard or Abailard, Pierre {b. 1079, d. 
 1142), studied philosophy under Cham- 
 peaux, and divinity under Anselm, to such 
 effect that in each case he excelled his 
 master, and his reputation spread through 
 Europe. While teacher of a school of 
 rhetoric at Paris he conceived a violent 
 passion for the eautiful and accomplished 
 Heloise, and tk story of their love is well 
 known. Helois- took the veil and Abelard 
 became a monk the Abbey of St. Denis, 
 where his lecture' attracted crowds, but his 
 writings were .nounced as heretical. 
 Condemned in his bsence by the Council 
 of Soissons, he witholrew to the banks of the 
 Ardisson. PeiBecuti«*i followed him here
 
 Abe 
 
 (4) 
 
 Abr 
 
 and elsewhere, aud he died at the Priory of 
 St. Marcellus, Chalous. His remaius aud 
 those of Heloise uow rest in Pere-la-Ohaise. 
 
 Abelin, Johauu Pliilipp {d. circa 1646), a 
 prolific Gennau author. 
 
 Abenezra or Hezra {!>. 1119, d. 1174), a 
 celebrated rabbi aud expositor of the Bible ; 
 boru at Toledo. 
 
 Abercrombie, John, M.D. (6. 1781, d. 
 1844), a native of Aberdeen aud distin- 
 guished member of the medical profession 
 in Edinburgh, esteemed both for his pro- 
 fessional skill and his philosophical attain- 
 ments. His best known work is his In- 
 qtiiries concerning the Intellectual Poivers. 
 
 Abercromby, Sir Ralph (b. 1734, d. 1801), 
 a distinguished British general, a native of 
 Clackmannanshire. After studying law at 
 Edinburgh aud Leipsic he entered the army, 
 and in 1793 accompanied the Duke of York 
 into Holland as lieutenant-general. His 
 abilities won for him high commendation, 
 aud his career in the West Indies, whither he 
 weut in 1795 as commander-in-chief, was a 
 brilliant success. He afterward served in 
 Ireland, in Holland against Helder, and was 
 sent to Egypt against the French. Land- 
 ing at Aboukir, he won the sanguinary aud 
 obstinate battle of Alexandria, but received 
 a mortal wound. 
 
 Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th 
 Earl of (h. 1784, d. 1860), statesman, an 
 accomjilished scholar and man of taste, edu- 
 cated at Harrow and Cambridge. He was 
 early chosen a.represeutativepeer of Scotland 
 and rewarded for important political services 
 by being made a British peer, with the title 
 of Lord Gordon. Under Tory administration 
 he occupied successively the office of Foreign 
 Secretary and of Secretary to the Colonies, 
 and while in the latter post established 
 the entente cordiale between England and 
 France. In 1852, as head of the Peel Party, 
 he became Prime Minister. The Eastern 
 question came into prominence. Lord Pal- 
 merston retired from the Ministry, and Lord 
 Aberdeen allowed the country to "drift" 
 into the Crimean war. The war was mis- 
 managed, and he resigned upon what was 
 practically a vote of want of confidence, aud 
 spent the remainder of his life in retirement. 
 
 Abernethy, John (b. 1680, d. 1740), an 
 Irish dissenting minister, educated in Scot- 
 land. He agitated for the repeal of the 
 Test Act. 
 
 Abernethy, John {h. 1765, d. 1831), 
 grandson of the preceding, and professedly 
 an Iiishman : he studied medicine at St. Bar- 
 tholomew's Hospital, London, and rapidly 
 rose to be one of the first surgeons of the 
 day, aud a lecturer of great power. He 
 
 was Professor of Anatomy and Surgery to 
 the Koyal College of Surgeons, and his pro- 
 fessional writings are still standard works. 
 
 Abigail, a sister of David. 
 
 Abigail, the wife of Nabal, and after- 
 wards of liavid. 
 
 Abildgaard, Peter Christian {b. 1740, d. 
 ISikS), noted Danish physician and natu- 
 ralist, aud ouo of the fouuders of the Veter- 
 iuu.ry College of Copenhagen. 
 
 Abimelecli, the name of various kings of 
 
 Philistia. 
 
 Abinger, James Scarlett, Lord («. 1769, 
 d. 1844), eminent English barrister, pos- 
 sessed of marvellous influence over both 
 judge and jury. In 1816 he entered Par- 
 liament as a Whig, but afterwards joined 
 the amalgamation of parties under Canning, 
 and held the office of Attorney General till 
 his retirement on the accession of William 
 IV. Under Peel's ministry in 1834 he was 
 appointed Chief Baron of the Exchequer, 
 aud the following year made Baron Abinger. 
 
 Abington, Frances {b. 1731, d. 1815), popu- 
 lar English actress ; the first Lady Teazle. 
 
 Abisbal, Enrique O'Donnell, Count of 
 {b. 1770, cl. 1834), Spanish general of Irish 
 descent, who commanded the army in 
 Catalonia, and defeated the French at 
 Abisbal, from which he took his title. He 
 afterwards made himself master of Madrid, 
 but on the restoration of Ferdinand retired 
 to France, where he died. 
 
 Ablancourt, Nicholas Perrot d' {b. 1606, 
 d. 1G()4), translator of repute, and member 
 of the Academy ; he found patrons in both 
 England and France. 
 
 Abner, the son of Ner, and consequently 
 cousin to Saul, whose army he commanded. 
 
 About, Edmond Francois Valentin (b. 
 1828, (I. 1885), unsuccessful as a dramatist, 
 he obtained a great reputation as a novelist 
 and essayist. Les Mariages de Province 
 and La Question Eomaine are his most 
 remarkable works. He acted as corre- 
 spondent for LeSoir in the Franco-Prussian 
 war. A work entitled Alsace, which he 
 wrote after the i^eace when living in the 
 newly-aimexed provinces, and in which he 
 attacked the Prussians, was the cause of his 
 being temporarily imprisoned. 
 
 Aboville, Fran9ois Maret (b. 1730, d. 
 1819), French general of artillery who served 
 under Marshal Saxe, and under Napoleon 
 became a senator, and member of the 
 Legion of Honour, while Louis XVIII- 
 made him a peer. 
 
 Abradates, King of Susa, at first fought
 
 Abr 
 
 (5) 
 
 Ach 
 
 against Cyrus with the Assyi-ians, but after- 
 wards, joining Cyrus, fell in battle with the 
 Egyptians. 
 
 Abraham, the son of Terah, and pro- 
 genitor of the Jews. 
 
 Abrantes, Don Jose Maria, Marquis of 
 (b. 1784, d. 1827), Portuguese nobleman, 
 detained by Napoleon as a hostage. He 
 afterwards assisted Miguel in the revolution 
 of 1823 , but for his coinphcity in the murder 
 of the Marquis of Soule he was banished, 
 and went first to Italy, then to London, 
 where he died. 
 
 Absalom, the third son of David, by 
 Maachah, daughter of Talmai, King of 
 Geshur. 
 
 Abt, Franz {b. 1819, «?. 1885), German 
 composer, educated originally for the 
 Church, but devoted himself to music. 
 Became kapellmeister at Zurich, and after- 
 wards at Brunswick, but, though he wrote 
 many light pieces for the pianoforte, is best 
 known by his numerous and graceful songs. 
 
 Abu-bekr (i. 571, d. 634). This name 
 (Father of the Virgin) was assumed by 
 Abd-ul-Kabah ou the marriage of Mahomet 
 with his daughter. He proved a faithful 
 ally to his son-in-law, whom he survived. 
 
 Abu-1-Fazl {d. 1600), the wise and en- 
 lightened minister of Akbar, celebrated for 
 his learning and justice. He was attacked 
 by rebels and slain. 
 
 Abu-1-Feda, Ismail, sumamed "The Vic- 
 torious" {i). 1273, d. 1331), King or Governor 
 of Hammah in Syria, and a man of great 
 bravery and learning. He left many works, 
 the chief being An Abridgment of the His- 
 tory of Mankind. 
 
 Abu-1-Easim or Albucasis, the most 
 famous Arabic wiuter ou surgery, bom at 
 Cordova in the eleventh century. His great 
 ■work is At Tassrif, or £ook of the Theory 
 and Fractice of Medicine, 
 
 Abu-Said, ninth of the Persian kings of 
 the dynasty of Hulaku. He succeeded his 
 father in 1317, and won the sui'name of 
 Bahadur (the Valiant) by his prowess in 
 battle when only 17. 
 
 Abu-Teman {h. 805, d. 845), celebrated 
 Arabian poet, born at Damascus. He com- 
 piled a biography of tlie best poets, and a 
 selection from their writings. 
 
 Abu-Yakub Yusuf (/;. 1139, d. 1184), 
 third Sultan of Africa and Spain, of the 
 dynasty of Almohades. Defeated and slain 
 by the Spaniards at Sautarem. 
 
 Abu-Yakub Yusuf {!>. IIGO, d. 1189), son 
 of the preceding, routed the Christians at 
 
 Alarcos, and conquered a large portion of 
 Spain. 
 
 Acarie, Madame Barbe {b. Paris 1565, 
 d. 1618), religious enthusiast, who, aided 
 by Cardinal de Berulle, set herself to reform 
 the monasteries in France. 
 
 AcciajuoU, Mccolo {b. 1310, d. 1366), 
 Florentine statesman, prominently engaged 
 in the political affairs of Naples during the 
 reign of Joanna and Luis, to whom he ren- 
 dered many important services, both civil 
 and military. He was a patron of literary 
 men and the friend of Petrarch and Strada, 
 and spent his great wealth in works of 
 charity and utility. 
 
 Accius or Attius, Lucius, the greatest of 
 the early tragic poets of Rome, born about 
 B.C. 170. His style is based on that of 
 ^schylus. 
 
 Accum, Friedrich (b. 1769, d. 1838), 
 German chemist, who, in conjunction with 
 Ackermann, applied himself to the subject 
 of gas lighting ; to their exertions was due 
 the adoption of gas lights in London. He 
 also wrote several treatises on chemical 
 subjects, notably Chemical Meagents and 
 Culinary Chemistry. 
 
 Acevedo, Christobal, a highly esteemed 
 historical painter of Murcia in the 16th 
 century, a pupil of Carducci. 
 
 Acevedo, Felix Alvarez {d. 1820), a pro- 
 minent personage in the Spanish revolution 
 of 1820. He routed the Royalists at Miuho, 
 but was shot by them while addressing the 
 miUtia at Zaderneto. 
 
 Achaeus, of Eretria (J. B.C. 484), a tragic 
 poet, who contended unsuccessfully with 
 Euripides. 
 
 Achard, Franz Karl (i. 1753, d. 1821), 
 a chemist of Berlin, who made numerous 
 and valuable contributions to science, and 
 especially directed his attention to the 
 method of extracting sugar from beetroot. 
 
 Acharius, Eric (b. 1757, d. 1819), Swe- 
 dish botanist and physician, and pupil of 
 Linnaeus. He devoted himself chiefly to 
 the study of lichens and has left many 
 valuable works, of which the principal is 
 Lichenographia Universalis. The geniis 
 Acharia was named in his honour. 
 
 Achates, a companion of .Slneas in his 
 journeyings after the fall of Troy. In the 
 JFjiciA he is always designated "fidus"= 
 trusty. 
 
 Achates, Leouardus, a German printer, 
 who introduced the art of printing into 
 Italy towards the end of the 15th cen- 
 tury, and published at Padua, Venice and 
 Vicenza,
 
 Ach 
 
 (6) 
 
 Ada 
 
 Achen, Hans vau (i. 1556, d. 1621), a 
 paiuter who studied at Venice under the 
 celebrated Gaspard Earns, and afterwards 
 visited Rome, Munich and Prague. Sixteen 
 of his works are in the Gallery at Vienna. 
 
 Achenbacli, Andre {h. 1815), German 
 paiuter of repute, a member of the Academies 
 of Berlin, Amsterdam, and Antwerp. His 
 pictures are chiefly landscape and marine 
 pieces, and his earlier works are after the 
 Dusseldorf school. The best collection of his 
 works is at Munich. 
 
 AchenweU, Gottfried {b. 1719, d. 1772). 
 German political economist, who may be 
 considered the founder of the science of 
 statistics. He held a professorship at the 
 University of Gottingen from 1748, and also 
 lectured on international law. 
 
 Acliilles, the son of Peleus, king of the 
 Myrmidoues, and the hero of the Iliad. His 
 history, much of which is fabulous and 
 traditionary, is gathered from ancient 
 poems, in which he is described as a partisan 
 of the Greeks before Troy, performing pro- 
 digies of valour, and finally killing Hector 
 and being slain himself by Paris and buried 
 on the shores of the Hellespont. 
 
 Ackermann, G'^nrad Ernst (i. 1710, 
 d. 1771), celebrated German comedian, 
 who may be considered the founder of the 
 modern stage of Germany. 
 
 Ackermann, Rudolph (6. 176-lr), at first 
 a coachbuilder, then a seller and publisher 
 of prints in London ; it was he who, in 
 conjunction with Accum, introduced gas- 
 Hghtiug, and to him is also due the credit of 
 introducing lithography into England. 
 
 Acoluth, Andreas (6. 1654, d. 1704), one 
 of the greatest linguists of his age, conver- 
 sant with both Eastern and European 
 languages. He was appointed preacher at 
 Breslau, and Professor of Hebrew at the 
 Elizabethan Gymnasium. His works are 
 still of great value to students of Oriental 
 literature. 
 
 AconziO, James (i. 1492, d. 1566), philo- 
 sopher and theologian, whose work on 
 method, entitled iJe Methodo, hoc est, de 
 recta inrestigandarum tradendarumqtw scien- 
 tiariim ratione, is remarkable as antici- 
 pating portions of Bacon's philosophy. He 
 was pensioned by Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Acoris, King of Egypt, and ally of Eva- 
 goras against Artaxerxes, B.C. 385. 
 
 Acosta, Joaquim (b. 1799, d. 1852), one of 
 the most distinguished historians and geo- 
 graphers of South America. He early 
 entered the army, in which he attained 
 eventually to the rank of colonel. He ex- 
 plored the valleys of the Socorro and 
 Magdalena, and, besides his valuable his- 
 tory of the discovery and colonisation of 
 
 New Granada, he contributed important 
 geographical and archaeological papers to 
 the Geographical Society of Paris. 
 
 Acquaviva, a noble family of Naples, 
 distinguished for their love of learning. 
 
 Acropolita, Georgius (b. Constantinople, 
 1220, d. 1282), an liistorian of repute, and 
 "logotheta," or controller of the revenue, 
 to Michael Palaeologus. 
 
 Acropolita, Constantius, son of the pre- 
 ceding, an historian and "logotheta" to 
 Andronicus. 
 
 Acton, Sir John Francis Edward [b. 
 
 1736, d. 1811), entered the Tuscan navy 
 and took part in the expedition against 
 Algiers. Being appointed to reorganise the 
 Neapolitan navy in 1779, he contrived to 
 render himself exceedingly powerful in that 
 state, and held successively the offices of 
 Minister of Finance and Prime Minister. 
 The intervention of France in 1799 caused 
 his removal from power, and he finally took 
 refuge with the Court in Sicily, where he 
 died. 
 
 Acuna, Antonio d' {b. 1459, d. 1526), 
 Bishop of Zamora. He headed the insur- 
 rection^pf Castile against Charles V., with 
 a following of over 5,000 men, but was de- 
 feated by the Conde de Haro, and finally 
 captured, imprisoned and killed. 
 
 Acuna, Don Pedro Bravo d', Spanish 
 Governor of the Philippine Islands under 
 Philip II. He distinguished himself at 
 Cadiz on the occasion of Drake's attack, 
 and succeeded in re-conquering the Moluccas 
 from the Dutch in 1605. 
 
 Adair, Et. Hon. Sir Robert, G.C.B. (b. 
 1763, d. 1855), was educated at Westminster 
 and Gottingen, and entered ParUament in 
 1802. He was soon employed diplomatically 
 at Vienna and Constantinople, and acquired 
 a high reputation. It was to him that the 
 peace of the Dardanelles was mainly due, 
 and later his diplomacy probably prevented 
 the outbreak of war between Holland and 
 Belgium. He retired from political life iu 
 1835. 
 
 Adam, the first of the human race. 
 
 Adam, Adolphe Charles {b. 1803, d. 1856), 
 French dramatic composer ; of his numer- 
 ous works the best is Le Fostillon de Long- 
 jumeau. In 1847 he opened in Paris a 
 third theatre for comic opera, but, being 
 compelled to close it during the revolu- 
 tionary disturbances, found himself ruined, 
 and compelled to earn money by giving 
 lessons and vmting musical reviews. 
 
 Adam, Alexander, LL.D. {b. 1741, d. 
 1809), rector of the High School of Edin- 
 burgh from 1768. A man of great learning,
 
 Ada 
 
 (7) 
 
 Add 
 
 he left several works, amongst them being 
 Roman Antiquities, Classical Bioyraphies, 
 amd the first Latin Grammar that was writ- 
 ten in English. 
 
 Adam, de La Halle, a French poet of the 
 13th ceutuiy, attached to the Coiu-t of 
 Naples, and suniamed Le Bossu (the hunch- 
 back). One of his poems, Le jeti du Beryer 
 et de la Beryere, affords perhaps the earliest 
 example of the modern drama. 
 
 Adam, Lambert (i. 1700, «?. 1759), sculptor, 
 studied at Rome, and executed several 
 works for Louis XV. for the decoration of 
 St. Cloud and Versailles. 
 
 Adam, Robert {b. 1728, d. 1792), archi- 
 tect, and the most celebrated of the four 
 brothers Adam, who erected the buildings 
 known as Adelphi, between the Strand 
 and the Thames, besides many others in 
 London and elsewhere. Robert especially 
 did much to influence aud improve the 
 street architecture of Loudon. 
 
 Adamnan, or Adomnan {d. 704), Abbot 
 of lona, author of a description of Palestine 
 and a life of St. Columba. 
 
 Adams, Charles Francis {b. 1807, d. 1886), 
 son of J. Q. Adams, spent his childhood in 
 Europe, and returuiug to America grad- 
 uated at Harvard College, 1825. He was 
 educated for the law, but adopting politics, 
 eventually joiued the coalition now known 
 as the Republican party, and was appointed 
 minister to England, 1861-8. He was arbi- 
 ti-ator for America for the settlement of 
 claims under the Treaty of Washington, 
 1871, and continued to take an active 
 interest in political life. He wrote bio- 
 graphies of his father and grandfather. 
 
 Adams, John {b. 1735, d. 1826), second 
 President of the United States, graduated 
 at Harvard, and was called to the bar in 
 1761. He was one of the delegates at the 
 Congress at Philadelphia 1774, and through- 
 out encouraged the movement for inde- 
 pendence, in which, as chairman of the 
 board of war, he took an active part. He 
 was commissioner to the Court of France 
 1788, aud was sent on an embassy to 
 England 1779. He was elected Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the Union in 1789, aud succeeded 
 Washington as President in 1797, but in 
 1801 failed to gain re-election, and then 
 retired from public affairs. 
 
 Adams, John Couch (i. 1816, d. 1892), 
 son of an agi-icultural labourer, early 
 showed a capacity for matliematics, and 
 graduated at Cambridge in 1838, being 
 Senior Wrangler. He devoted himself espe- 
 cially to astronomy, and from protracted 
 study of the perturbations of Urauus pre- 
 dicted the existence aud the precise position 
 
 of the disturbing body, almost at the same 
 time at which M. Le Verrier arrived inde- 
 pendently at the same conclusion. Their 
 predictions were verified by the telescope, 
 and the planet Neptune thus discovered. 
 In 1858 Adams was appointed to the 
 Lowndesian chair of astronomy in Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy {b. 1767, d. 1848), 
 son of President John Adams, and sixth 
 President of the United States, studied 
 at Leyden and Harvard, and was called 
 to the bar in 1791. He entered the diplo- 
 matic service, and was successively Ameri- 
 can minister in Holland, England, and 
 Prussia, and as a senator (1803-1808) he 
 supported Jefferson's Embargo Act. From 
 1806-1809 he occupied the chair of rhe- 
 toric at Harvard College. After holding 
 various offices, in 1825 he was elected 
 President of the United States, and being 
 returned to Congress in 1830, became a 
 vigorous supporter of the Abolitionists. 
 He was author of Letters on ISiltnia, Lectures 
 on Rhetoric, and a poem Dermot Mac- 
 Mar rogh. 
 
 Adams, Samuel (b. 1722, d. 1803), edu- 
 cated at Boston and Harvard, entered his 
 father's brewery, aud began public Hfe as 
 a tax-collector. By his tii'mness in 1770 he 
 obtained the withdrawal of the British 
 troops from Boston, and it was he who 
 instigated and led " the Boston Tea 
 Party." He was a member of Congress, 
 1794, and ardently supported the Declara- 
 tion of Independence. In 1794 he was 
 appointed Governor of Massachusetts, and 
 died at Boston. 
 
 Adanson, Michel {b. mi, d.^ 1806), 
 naturalist : a pupil of Jussieu and Reaumur ; 
 he travelled in Africa, making a map of the 
 Senegal and Gambia, aud studying the 
 languages. His great work Families des 
 I'lantes was published in 1763. 
 
 Adaschoff, Alexay Theodorovich {d. 1561), 
 the favourite minister of Ivan IV. of Russia, 
 whose life he saved from the populace 
 during the conflagration of Moscow, 1547. 
 He used his power wisely and well, revising 
 the laws and encouraging commerce, but 
 was imprisoned by his enemies on a charge 
 of sorcery, in Livonia, where he died. 
 Addington. [See Sidmouth, Lord.] 
 Addison, Joseph (b. 1672, d. 1719), passed 
 from Charterhouse school to Queen's Col- 
 lege, Oxford, aud graduated at Magdalen 
 College in 1693. He spent four years 
 travelling on the Continent, returning in 
 1703, and in 1704 The Campaign, a poem 
 celebrating the victory of Bleuheim, brought 
 him into favour. In 1708 he was sent to 
 Ireland as secretary to the Lord Lieutenant. 
 He contributed largely to the Tatler and 
 Spectator from their commencement, and
 
 Ade 
 
 (8) 
 
 Ado 
 
 wrote 274 numbers for the latter. In 1713 
 he brought his tragedy of Cato before the 
 public, and at Drury Lane it proved an 
 unprecedented success. In 1716 he mar- 
 ried the Countess Dowager of Warwick, and 
 the following year was appointed Secre- 
 tary of State. He died at Holland House. 
 
 Adelaide (b. 931, d. 999), widow of 
 Lothaiie II. of Italy, was imprisoned by 
 Berengarius II., but rescued and married 
 by Otho I., 951. During the minorities of 
 her son and grandson (Otho II. and III.) 
 she acted as regent, showing both zeal and 
 ability. 
 
 Adelaide (d. 1091), "The Marchioness," 
 daughter of Manfredi, Count of Turin, and 
 wife of Oddo, Marquis of Italy, acted as 
 regent during the minority of her sons, 
 displaying considerable energy and ability. 
 
 Adelard, of Bath, eminent English phi- 
 losopher of the twelfth century, called 
 " the Father of natural philosophy in Eng- 
 land." He travelled in Europe and Asia, 
 and was the first to translate Euclid's fifteen 
 books from the Arabic ; he also left several 
 treatises on physics. 
 
 Adeler, Cort Siverstein (b. 1622, d. 1675), 
 naval commander, of Danish birth, who 
 served with distinction in the navies of 
 Holland and of Venice, signalising himself 
 especially in the war between the latter 
 country and Turkey. Returning to Den- 
 mark, he was given control of the navy, and 
 appointed to command in the war with 
 Sweden, but failing health compelled him 
 to resign. 
 
 Adeler, Max, the pseudonym of Charles 
 Heber Clark, the American humorist, author 
 of Out of the Hurly Burly (1874), and other 
 works. 
 
 Adil Shah, Yusuf (b. 1443, d. 1510), 
 after the death of Mahommed II. , in whose 
 service he had attained considerable distinc- 
 tion, withdrew to Bejapoor, and in 1489 
 assumed the title of royalty, and succeeded 
 in establishing his empire in the Deccan. 
 He was successful in an attack upon the 
 Portuguese at Goa, but died shortly after. 
 
 Adimari, Ludovico {b. 1644, d. 1708), 
 Professor of the Tuscan language at Flor- 
 ence, and one of the best satirical poets of 
 Italy. 
 
 Adler, the Rev. Dr. Hermann (4. 1839), 
 appointed principal of the Jews' college in 
 London 1863, and minister of the Bays- 
 water synagogue 1864, and succeeded his 
 father as Chief Rabbi. 
 
 Adler, the Rev. Dr. Nathan Marcus 
 (b. 1803, d. 1890), studied in Germany, 
 and in 1845 was appointed Chief Rabbi 
 of the L'uited Congregations of the Brit- 
 ish Empire. Besides commentaries and 
 
 sennons, he wrote a brief exposition of 
 'The Jewish Faith. 
 
 Adlerbeth, Gudmund Goran {b. USl, 
 d. 1818), a Swedish poet and translator, and 
 twice President of the Swedish Academy ; 
 he also filled political posts, and in 1809 
 assisted in drawing up the fundamental 
 laws of the new constitution. 
 
 Adlerfeld, Gustaf {b. 1671, d. 1709), his- 
 torian, travelled with the Court of Charles 
 XII. His Journal of the Wars has been 
 published in French and German. He was 
 killed by a caimon ball at Pultowa. 
 
 Adlzreiter, Johann (*. 1596, d. 1662), 
 lawyer, who, under Maximilian I. of 
 Bavaria, rose rapidly to the position of 
 Privy Chancellor. He wrote a history of 
 Bavaria from the earliest times to 1652. 
 
 Adolphus, Duke of Guelders {b. 1438, 
 d. 1477), wrested the dukedom from his 
 father, Arnold, in 1465. The interference 
 of Charles the Bold ultimately resulted in 
 his father's release and his own imprison- 
 ment. Released in 1477, he again headed 
 the insurgents, but was killed the same year. 
 
 Adolphus I., Count of Holstein (cZ. 1131), 
 was er trusted by the Emperor Lothair 
 with «he government of Holstein in 1106, 
 and contrived to subdue his enemies, pro- 
 mulgate Christianity, and establish a dynasty 
 which lasted 350 years. 
 
 Adolphus II., Count of Holstein {d. 1164), 
 succeeded the preceding in 1131. His reign 
 was troubled, and he was slain at the siege 
 of Demmin. 
 
 Adolphus III., Count of Holstein, and son 
 of the preceding, assisted Heury the Lion 
 at the battle of Haltefeld, by whom he was 
 afterwards driven from his throne, but was 
 restored by Barbarossa of Denmark. In 
 1200 he was taken prisoner by Canut VI. 
 of Denmark, and on his release retired to 
 Schauenberg, where he soon afterwards 
 died. 
 
 Adolphus rv., Count of Holsteia (d. 1252), 
 son of the preceding; in 1227 defeated 
 "Waldemar at the battle of Bornhoved ; but 
 in 1238 retired into a Franciscan monastery. 
 
 Adolphus VIII., Duke of Schleswig {d. 
 1459) , was educated at the court of the Em- 
 peror Sigismimd. After a long warwith Den- 
 mark for the possession of Schleswig, he 
 received it in 1440, as a fief of that country. 
 On the death of King Christopher he was 
 offered the crown of Denmark, which, how- 
 ever, he refused. 
 
 Adolphus, Frederick II. {b. 1710, d. 
 1771), succeeded to the Swedish throne in 
 1731, but was destitute of the necessary 
 power of mind for such a position.
 
 Ado 
 
 (9) 
 
 ^pi 
 
 Adolphus, John, Duke of Saxe Weis- 
 senfels {b. 1685, d. 1746), a valiant soldier 
 whose courage aud skill attracted the notice 
 of Marlborough ; iu 1734 he took Dantzic, 
 and was made field-marshal of the Saxon 
 army. He succeeded his brothers to the 
 dukedom, and took part in the Quadruple 
 Alliance of 1745. 
 
 Adolpnus, John {b. 1768, d. 1845), 
 historian and criminal lawyer. He defended 
 the Cato Street conspirators in 1820 ; and, 
 besides other works, wrote a History of 
 England, from the accession of George III. 
 to 1783. 
 
 Adolphus of Nassau, Emperor of Ger- 
 many, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 
 1292. For his cruelty and oppression he 
 was deposed in 1298, and killed in battle 
 with his rival Albert of Austria, who had 
 been elected by the Diet of Mainz. 
 
 Adonijah, the fourth son of David, by 
 Haggith. His three elder brothers being 
 dead, Adonijah made an attempt on his 
 father's throne, which was entirely frus- 
 trated by David's immediate abdication in 
 favour of his youmger son, Solomon. 
 
 Adorno, a wealthy family of Genoa, 
 several members of which were Doges of 
 the republic in the 14th, loth, and 16th 
 centuries. The Adomo and Fregoso fami- 
 lies were rivals, and their contentions 
 continually disturbed the republic till both 
 were expelled. 
 
 Adrets, Francois de Beaumont, Baron 
 des (h. 1513, d. 1587), a Huguenot leader, 
 though a Eoman Catholic, a brave and skil- 
 ful, but cruel soldier. Under Charles IX. 
 he changed sides. 
 
 Adrian I. {d. 795), pope, a Eoman by 
 birth, was raised to the papal chair in 772. 
 Sought aud received the protection of 
 Charlemagne against Desideriu, King of 
 the Longobards. The firm establishment of 
 the temporal power of Eome may be at- 
 tributed to him. 
 
 Adrian IL {d. 872), pope, 867, an able 
 prince who well maintained the papal 
 authority over European monarchs. During 
 his time the separation of the Greek and 
 Eoman churches commenced. 
 
 Adrian III. {d. 885), pope, 884, a Eoman 
 named Agapetus, the first to change his 
 name on assuming the tiara. 
 
 Adrian IV. {d. 1159). pope, 1154, Nicholas ' 
 Breakspere, the only Englishman who has ' 
 occupied the papal chair. He was the son of 
 a servitor to a monastery, and entered a 
 French monastery as clerk, and rose to be 
 abbot, cardinal, and legate, and was finally 
 elected pope. 
 
 Adrian V., pope, 1276, a noble Genoese, 
 who had been legate in England. He 
 occupied the papal chair one month only. 
 
 Adrian VI. {b. 1459, d. 1523), cardinal and 
 pope, 1521, a native of Utrecht, of mean 
 parentage, rose to be Bishop of Tortosa, 
 and regent during the minority of Charles 
 V. of Spain. 
 
 Adriano {d. 1630), Spanish painter, and 
 lay-brother of the Carmelite convent at 
 Cordova. 
 
 Adye, General Sir John Miller, G.C.B. 
 
 {b. 1819), entered the army in 1836, and 
 distinguished himself in the Ciimean war, 
 the Indian mutiny, and the Sitana expedi- 
 tion. In 1882 he was chief of the staff 
 to Sir Garnet Wolseley, and took part in 
 the actions of Mahsameh and Tel-el-Kebir. 
 From 1883 to 1886 he was Governor of 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 .ffiacides, King of Epirus (d. b.c. 313), 
 father of Pyrrhus, and liueal descendant of 
 Achilles. He allied himself with Olympias 
 against Cassauder, but was defeated and 
 slain. 
 
 iEgidius, Colonna {d. 1316), a monk of 
 the order of St. Augustine, and a distin- 
 guished disciple of Thomas Aquinas. He 
 taught philosophy in Paris, and was pre- 
 centor to the sons of Philip III. ; Bishop of 
 Bourges, 1294. 
 
 ^lianus, Claudius, Italian waiter of the 
 third century, and Greek scholar. He 
 wrote a work on the peculiarities of animals, 
 and a Miscellaneous History. 
 
 Aelst, Evert van {b. Delft, 1602, d. 1658), 
 an eminent painter of still life. 
 
 Aelst, Willem van {b. Delft, 1620, d. 
 1679), nephew and pupil of the preceding, 
 whom he surpassed. 
 
 ^ffimilia, one of the most ancient pa- 
 trician families of Eome, to which several 
 of the consuls belonged, notably : — Lucius 
 Mamercus, thrice consul ; Lucius Paulus, 
 killed at the battle of Cannae ; Lucius 
 Paulus, his sou, twice consul, and victor 
 over the Macedonians at Pydna. 
 
 ^ffineas, a hero of the Trojan war, and 
 founder of the Latin race. From the Ho- 
 meric poems aud the ^neid we learn that, 
 on the capture of Troy, iEueas escaped, and 
 arriving iii Italy built the city of Lavinium, 
 which he named in honour of his wife La- 
 vinia, daughter of King Latinus. On the 
 death of his father-in-law .^ueas succeeded 
 to the kingdom, but four years later was 
 slain in battle with the Eutuli. 
 
 .ffipinus, Franz Maria Ulrich {b. 1724, 
 d. 1802), a German mathematician and
 
 iEpi 
 
 (10) 
 
 Aga 
 
 Bcieutist, who discovered the electrical pro- 
 perties of lieated toui-maltue, aud published 
 several works ou electricity. 
 
 JEpinus, Johaiin {b. 1499, d. 1553), one of 
 the early reformers, aud a friend of Luther. 
 In 1534 be came to England to advise 
 Henry VIII. respecting the reformation of 
 the English chm'ch. 
 
 ^rius, a native of Pontus, in the fourth 
 century ; first a follower of Arius, he later 
 established a sect known as Brians. 
 
 ^schines {b. b.c. 389, d. b.c. 314), cele- 
 brated Athenian orator. Failing in an 
 attack on Demosthenes, was twice sent on 
 an embassy to Philip of Macedonia, and re- 
 tired to Rhodes, where he founded a school. 
 
 ^schylus {b. B.C. 525, d. b.c. 456), 
 Athenian tragic poet ; distinguished also 
 for his valour at the battles of Marathon, 
 Salamis, and Platea. First gained the 
 prize for tragedy in 484 B.C. He retired 
 for some years to Sicily, but returning to 
 Athens, received the prize for tragedy for 
 his famous trilogy, Oresteia. He event- 
 ually returned to Sicily, where he died. 
 Of the seventy tragedies said to have been 
 written by him, only seven remain, includ- 
 ing Prometheus, Agamemnon, etc. 
 
 ^sopus {b. B.C. 619, d. B.C. 564), said 
 to have been a Phrygian slave, com- 
 poser of the well-known fables. Having 
 obtained his freedom, he was well received 
 by Croesus, King of Lydia, but when visit- 
 ing Delphi gave offence by his sarcasm, and 
 was put to death. 
 
 .ffitius {d. 454), Eomau general, who 
 was four times consul, defeated the Bur- 
 guudians and Franks, and drove Attila 
 beyond the Rhine, but having excited the 
 jealousy of Valentinian, was put to death. 
 
 Affleck, Sir Edmund {d. 1787), rear- 
 admiral, went with Sir George Rodney to 
 the relief of Gibraltar, aud afterwards, in 
 the West indies, rendered such signal 
 services that he was rewarded with a 
 baronetcy in 1782. 
 
 AflFre, Denis Auguste (b. 1793, d. 1848), 
 Archbishop of Paris, a man of benevolence 
 and learning, who did much to improve 
 education in his country. While endea- 
 vouring to mediate in the disturbances of 
 1848, the insurgents by mistake opened fire, 
 and he was killed. 
 
 AflFry, Louis Auguste Augustin d' (b. 1713, 
 d. 1798), served in the French army, 
 rising to the rank of field-marshal. He 
 protected Louis XVI. on the 5th aud 6th 
 October, 1789, but afterwards supported 
 the revolutionary party. 
 
 Affry, Count Louis Augustin Philippe d' 
 (ft. 1745, d. 1810), commander of the anny 
 
 on the Upper Rhine during the revolution, 
 was appointed chief magistrate of Switzer- 
 land, after Bonaparte had proclaimed him- 
 self protector of the Helvetic confederacy. 
 
 Afzelius, Adam {b. 1750, d. 1836), Swe- 
 dish botanist, a pupil of Linnaeus, aud 
 professor of botany at tipsala. He travelled 
 much, published valuable papers, and was a 
 member of the Royal Society of England. 
 
 Aga, Mohammed Khan {h. 1734, d. 
 1797), founder of the present dynasty of 
 Shahs of Persia, and belonging to the tribe 
 of the Kadjars. He conquered Ispahan, 
 Shiraz, and the south of Persia, and crossed 
 the Ai'axes aud invaded Khorassan, but was 
 murdered by two condemned slaves. 
 
 Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, was 
 entrusted with the command of the allied 
 forces of Greece in the Trojan war. He 
 sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia at Aulis to 
 appease the vn-ath of Diana. Ou his return 
 to Mycenae he was killed by his wife, Clytem- 
 nestra. 
 
 Agapetus I. {d. 536) succeeded John II. 
 as i^ope in 535. He was the first Roman 
 Poutitt' who exercised authority over the 
 Eastern Church, aud was a diligent opponent 
 of Ariauism. 
 
 Agapetus II. {d. 956), pope, succeeded 
 Martin III. in 946 ; was aided by Otho in 
 953 against Berenger. 
 
 Agardh, Karl Adolph (6. 1785, d. 1859), 
 Swedish scientist and politician, distin- 
 guished in many branches of learning, was 
 particularly eminent as a botanist, being 
 especially devoted to the study of Algsa 
 and marine plants. He left writings on 
 many subjects, his great work being Sys- 
 tema Algarum, 1834. 
 
 Agassiz, Alexander {b. 1835), son of 
 Louis Agassiz, graduated at Harvard in 
 1855, and afterwards assisted his father in 
 the study of marine zoology. A fortuna,te 
 enterprise in copper mining relieved him 
 from all fear of pecuniary embarrassment, 
 and he devoted himself to the promo- 
 tion of his favourite study, both by personal 
 research and munificent endowment. 
 
 Agassiz, Louis Johann Rudolph {b. 1807, 
 d. 1878), eminent naturalist, was the son 
 of a Swiss Protestant clergyman. He 
 studied medicine and graduated at Munich, 
 but devoted himself principally to ichthyo- 
 logy, aud was employed to classify and 
 arrange the collection brought from Brazil 
 by Martins and Spix. In 1840 he went to 
 America, where he was well received, aud 
 accepted the chair of zoology aud geology at 
 the University of Cambridge (Harvard 
 College). In 1865 he visited Brazil, and 
 on his return placed the large collection he
 
 Aga 
 
 (11) 
 
 Agn 
 
 had made in the museum of Cambridge. 
 He wrote numerous very valuable works, 
 and was to the last a disbeliever in the 
 Darwinian theory of evolution. 
 
 Agathocles {b. b.c. 361, d. b.c. 289), 
 tjiant 01 Syracuse, a soldier of fortune, 
 who became wealthy by his marriage with 
 the widow of his patron, Demas. Being 
 banished on account of his intrigues, he 
 raised an anny and became sovereign of 
 Syracuse B.C. 317. He gained many vic- 
 tories over the Carthaginians. Is supposed 
 to have died of poison. 
 
 Agathon (6. circa B.C. 448, d. circa B.C. 
 401), Greek tragic poet, contemporary and 
 friend of Plato, Aristophanes, audEuripides. 
 Only fragments of his works remain. 
 
 Agazzari, Agostino (b. 1578, d. 1640), 
 Italian musician and composer, maestro of 
 the cathedral of Sienna. 
 
 Ageladas, Greek sculptor, who flou- 
 rished in the fifth century B.C., and waa 
 master of Myron, Rheidias, and Polycletus. 
 
 Agelet, Joseph Le Paute d' {b. 1751, 
 d. 1786), French astronomer, who took part 
 in the South Sea expedition of 1773, and 
 (1785) accompanied LaPerouse on the voyage 
 of exploration in which they both perished. 
 
 Agelli, Antonio (b. 1532, d. 1608), author 
 and scholar. Bishop of Acerno, was chosen 
 by Pius V. to assist in revising the Septu- 
 agint, and also assisted in the revision of 
 the Vulgate. 
 
 Agesander, sculptor of Rhodes in the 
 time of Vespasian, was one of the three 
 artists who executed the group of Laociion 
 and his Sons, now in the Vatican. 
 
 Agesilaus 11. (b. b.c. 445, d. b.o. 361), 
 King of Sparta, son of Archidamus, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne B.C. 398. After 
 successes against the Persians, he defeated 
 the combined forces of Athens, Argos, 
 Corinth, and Thebes at Coroneia in B.C. 
 394. He next invaded Argos and Corinth, 
 and in 277 b.c. attacked Thebes. He died 
 on his way home from a campaign in Egjrpt. 
 
 Agesipolis L («?. b.c. 380), King of 
 Sparta, sou of Pausanias, commanded ex- 
 peditious against Argos, B.C. 390, and Man- 
 tineia, B.C. 385, and was chosen chief of the 
 Lacedemonian forces against Macedonia, 
 but died during the war. 
 
 Agiluphus, Duke of Turin, who, by his 
 marriage with Theudalinda, the widow of 
 King Autaris, became king of Lombardy 
 in 590. He extended his dominion over the 
 greater part of Italy. 
 
 Agls I., King of Sparta, succeeded his 
 father Eurysthenes, and reduced his con- 
 quered subjects to a state of vassalage, and 
 
 the inhabitants of Helos to that condition of 
 slavery which gave rise to the name of helot. 
 
 Agis XL (d. B.C. 399) ascended the throne 
 B.C. 427. He invaded Argolis B.C. 418, and 
 later defeated the allied armies of Argives, 
 Athenians and Mantineians at Mantineia. 
 In B.C. 413 he invaded Attica, and waged 
 war successfully against the Eleans, B.C. 401. 
 
 Ag^s III., King of Sparta, succeeded to 
 the throne in 388 B.C., resisted the en- 
 croachments of Alexander the Great, but 
 was defeated by Antipater, and slain after 
 a brave and prolonged resistance, B.C. 331. 
 
 Agia rv. (d. B.C. 235), King of Sparta B.C. 
 144, a brave and prudent man who did all in 
 his power to avert the decline of the State. 
 His exertions, however, aroused consider- 
 able opposition ; after varying success his 
 rival, Leonidas, gained the upper hand, 
 and he was seized while taking sanctuary 
 in the temple of Pallas, and was executed. 
 
 Agneaux, Robert and Antoine, two 
 brothers, natives of Normandy, who pro- 
 duced in 1582 the first French translation 
 of Virgil and afterwards of Horace. 
 
 Agnes (d. 1077), daughter of William, 
 Duke of Aquitaine, wife of Henry III. of 
 Germany, was appointed regent during the 
 minority of her son Henry, but finding 
 herself unequal to the difficult position, 
 retired to a monastery, where she died. 
 
 Agnes, Saint {d. 303), a Roman maiden 
 martyred during the Diocletian persecution. 
 
 Agnes of Austria (b. 1280, d. 1364), 
 daughter of Albert I. , and wife of Andrew 
 III. of Hungary : her cruel revenge for the 
 murder of her husband caused her to be 
 universally hated ; she died in a monastery. 
 
 Agnes Sorel or Soreau {b. 1409, d. 1450), 
 the favoiuite mistress of Charles VII. of 
 France, distinguished for her beauty and 
 wit, and her influence with the king, 
 which she used to such good purpose as to 
 gain for herself the good- will and affection 
 of the people. Her death is attributed to 
 poison. 
 
 Agnesl, Maria Gaetana (5. 1718, d. 1799), 
 a woman of great learning, both in lan- 
 guages and mathematics, was appointed 
 professor of mathematics at the tiniversity 
 of Bologna, and her text-book on this sub- 
 ject has been translated into French and 
 English. Towards the end of her life she 
 entered a monastic order. 
 
 AgnolO, Baccio {b. 1460, d. 1543), emi- 
 nent Florentine sculptor and architect, re- 
 commended by Michael Angelo to Clement 
 VII., to restore the statues in the Belvedere 
 Museum at Rome.
 
 Ago 
 
 (12) 
 
 Aha 
 
 Agoracritus, sculptor of Pares, aud the 
 favourite pupil of Phidias. 
 
 Agostini, Paolo {h. 1593, d. 1660), emi- 
 neut musiciau aud maestro of the chapel of 
 St. Peter's at Kome. 
 
 Agostino, Veneziano or Augustiuus de 
 Musis, Veuetiau eugraver of the 16th ceu- 
 tury, engraved inauy of Raphael's desigus. 
 
 Agresti, Livio (d. 1580), a Roman his- 
 torical paiuter, worked in the Vatican 
 under Gregory XIII. 
 
 Agricola, Cuaeus Julius {b. 2/1, d. 94), 
 Eoman commander in Britain luider Sueto- 
 nius Pauliuus, became Governor of Britain, 
 77, and, pushing his conquests northward, 
 built the chain of forts from the Clyde to 
 the Firth of Forth. 
 
 Agfricola, Georg (b. 1494, d. 1555), whose 
 real name was Laudmaun, German metal- 
 lurgist, travelled in Italy and Germany, aud 
 finally settled at Chemnitz. 
 
 Agricola, Johann, surnamed Islabius {b. 
 1492, d. 1566), at first the friend and advo- 
 cate of Luther, but afterwards opposed him, 
 and became the founder of the sect of Anti- 
 nomians. 
 
 Agricola, Johann Friedrich {b. 1720, d. 
 1774), GeiTnan composer and musician, a 
 pupil of Bach, wrote several operas. 
 
 Agricola, Rudolph (A. 1443, d. 1485), phil- 
 ologist and scholar of the loth century, tra- 
 velled in Italy 1476, and afterwards in Ger- 
 many, dwelling at Worms and Heidelberg. 
 
 Agn^ippa, Heinrich Cornelius {b. 1486, d. 
 1535), scientist and theologian, was secre- 
 tary to the Emperor Maximilian, studied 
 at Paris 1506, and taught theology at 
 D61e, in Burgundy ; nf tor mnny wander- 
 ings he settled at lAntwerj). His treatises. 
 Be Vanitate Scientiarum and De Occulta 
 Philosophia, brought him into discredit ; 
 he was several times imprisoned, and after 
 Bome years of poverty died at Grenoble. 
 
 Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius {b. B.C. 63, d. 
 B.C. 12), three times consul, and twice 
 governor of Syria, took a prominent part 
 in the wars which followed the death of 
 Julius Caesar ; defeated Sextus Pompeius 
 at sea, B.C. 38, and greatly contributed to 
 the victory of Octavius at Actium. 
 
 Agrippa, Menenius Lanatus {d. circa B.C. 
 493), Roman consul about B.C. 502, con- 
 quered the Sabines, and, by the fable of 
 the belly and its members, appeased the 
 Plebs when they had seceded to the Aven- 
 tine Hill. 
 
 Agrippa I., Herod {h. b.c. 10, d. a.d. 44), 
 son of Aristobulus aud Berenice, aud graud- 
 Bou of Herod the Great, was tetrarch of 
 
 Abilene, and afterwards, \mder the Emperor 
 Claudius, king of Judea and Samaria. He 
 persecuted the Christians, killing James, the 
 brother of John, and imprisoning Peter. 
 He died at Caesarea. 
 
 Agrippa II., Herod {b. 27, d. 94), son and 
 successor of the preceding, and last of the 
 Jewish monarchs of the family of Herod the 
 Great. He took the part of the Romans 
 against his countrymen on several occasions, 
 aud it was before him that St. Paul was 
 brought iu 69. 
 
 Agrippina {d. 63), daughter of M. V. 
 Agrippa, married Germanicus, after whose 
 death she was banished by Tiberius a.d. 30. 
 
 Agrippina {d. 59), daughter of above, 
 the mother of Nero, a cruel, licentious 
 woman, poisoned her uncle and third 
 husband Claudius to secure the elevation of 
 her sou, who caused her to be put to death 
 a few years later. 
 
 Aguesseau, Henri Francois d' (b. 1668, 
 d. 1751), orator and advocate, took part 
 iu the contest between the Pope and the 
 Gallican Church, 1699 ; was made Procureur- 
 General in 1700, and defended the Gallicau 
 Church against the Ultramoutaue party. 
 After the death of Louis XIV. was ap- 
 pointed Chancellor in 1717, but was twice 
 deprived of the seals, retiring from Paris 
 1722, but was finally restored in 1727. He 
 was a great scholar and j urist. 
 
 Aguilar, Grace (b. 1816, d. 1847), Jewess 
 of Spanish extraction, authoress of The Bays 
 of Bruce, as well as of many moral tales and 
 
 religious tracts. 
 
 Ahab, son of Omri, and seventh king of 
 the separate kingdom of Israel, married 
 Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, King of Sidon. 
 His reign is marked by the attempted ex- 
 termination of the followers of Jehovah, 
 the death of Naboth, and his oven death in 
 battle with the Syrians. 
 
 Ahasuerus, the name or title of one 
 Median and two Persian kings, mentioned 
 in the books of Daniel, Ezra, and Esther, 
 and supposed to be identical with Cyaxares, 
 Cambyses, and Xerxes respectively. 
 
 Ahaz, eleventh Idng of Judah, and son 
 of Jotham, became tributary to Tiglath- 
 Pileser, King of Assj'ria, whom he had sum- 
 moned to assist him iu reijelliug the kings 
 of Israel aud Damascus. He adopted the 
 necromantic practices of the Syrians, and 
 died after a reign of sixteen years. 
 
 Ahaziah, called also Azariah, fifth king 
 of Judah, was the son of Jehoram and 
 Athaliah the daughter of Ahab. He was an 
 idolater ; being mortally wounded by Jehu, 
 died at Megiddo after a reign of one year.
 
 Ahe 
 
 (13) 
 
 Ain 
 
 Ahenobarbi or ^nobarbi (Brazenbeards), 
 a distiuguished family of the Geus Domitia 
 of Rome, members of which filled the 
 highest othces in the State from B.C. 496 till 
 the first century a.d. 
 
 AMi Shirazi, a Persian poet and native 
 of Shiraz, lived in the fifteenth century ; 
 his chief work is the Kanidajs. 
 
 Ahlwardt, Christian Wilhelm {b. 1760, 
 d. 18o0;, linguist, rector of the gymnasiums 
 of Oldenburg and Grafswald, and writer of 
 several translations from the classical 
 authors. 
 
 Ahmed or Aliinud (Shah), a cruel and 
 warlike prince of the Bahmuny dynasty in 
 the Deccau. He was bitterly hated by his 
 Hindoo neighbours, who compassed his 
 death in 1435. 
 
 Alimed or Achmet L {b. 1590, d. 1617J 
 succeeded his father as Sultan of Turkey in 
 1603. While fond of scvt, he was weak and 
 voluptuous, and embroiled his country in 
 civil commotions and foreign wars. 
 
 Alimed or Achmet II. {b. 1643, d. 1695), 
 Sultan of Turkey, succeeded his brother in 
 1691. He was defeated by Germany at 
 the sanguinary battle of Salankeman. 
 
 Ahmed or Achmet III. (3. 1673, d. 
 1739) ascended the throne in 1703 on the 
 abdication of his brother, and found himself 
 involved in internal troubles and foreign 
 wars. Against Russia and Venice the Otto- 
 man arms were successful, but Ahmed was 
 defeated by Austria, and afterwards by 
 Persia, and a rebellion of the Janissaries 
 compelled him to abdicate in 1730. 
 
 Ahmed IV. [See Abdul Hamid.] 
 
 Ahmed Ibn Ahmed {b. 1577, d. 1632), 
 known also as Ahmed al Mak-kari, a 
 learned native of Telemsan, who lectured at 
 Damascus. His great work is The History 
 of the Mahometan Empire in Spain. 
 
 Ahmed Ibn Tulun {b. 835, d. 884), one of 
 the generals of the Caliph Al Mamun, and 
 founder of the Egyptian dynasty of the 
 Tuiunitess 
 
 Ahmed Khan Abdali {b. 1723, d. 1773), 
 founder of tlie Durani dynasty in 
 Afghanistan. He avenged the death of his 
 master, Nadir Shah, was crowned at 
 Kandahar in 1747, and in a series of brilliant 
 victories overran the Punjaub, and routed 
 the army of the Mahrattas. 
 
 Aibek, Azak Ed-din, founder of the 
 Egyptian dynasty of Mameluke Baharites. 
 Originally a slave, his valour attracted the 
 notice of the widowed Sultaness, wlio mar- 
 ried him. He was acknowledged Sultan 
 
 in 1254, but was soon afterwards assassi- 
 nated by his wife. 
 
 Aid6, Hamilton, a well-known author. 
 Besides novels he has wi-itteu several popu- 
 lar drawing-room songs, plays and other 
 works. 
 
 Aignan, Etienne {b. 1773, d. 1824), a 
 zealous but moderate revolutionist, and a 
 member of the French Academy, distin- 
 guished as a poet and dramatic author. He 
 has produced many works of a miscel- 
 laneous nature, including several tragedies, 
 and a translation into verse of the Iluid. 
 
 Ajguillon, Armand, Due d' {d. 1800), 
 joined the Duke of Orleans against the 
 Royahsts, but was eventually compelled to 
 fly, first to Loudon, and then to Hamburg, 
 where he died. 
 
 Aikin, John, M.D. {J>. 1747, d. 1822), mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was educated uuder hia 
 father at Warrington. He devoted himself 
 chiefly to literature, and among his works, 
 some of which were written in conjunction 
 with his sister, afterwards Mrs. Barbauld, 
 is his General Biography . 
 
 Aikin, Lucy {h. 1781, d. 1864), daughter 
 of the preceding, by whom she was educated. 
 Besides historical works, she wrote several 
 poetical pieces. 
 
 AiMns, Hon. James Cox (b. 1823), 
 Lieutenant-Governor of the province of 
 Manitoba, entered the Canadian House of 
 Assembly, in lf5o4, as representative for 
 county Peel. After holding various political 
 posts he was appointed Lieutenant-Governor 
 in 1882. 
 
 Ailly, Pierre, learned theologian of the 
 14th ceutury, who, as cardinal, had great 
 influence in ecclesiastical affairs, and joined 
 in the condemnation of Huss. 
 
 Aimard, Gustav {b. 1818, d. 1883), 
 French novelist. After leading a life of 
 adventure in America for many years, he 
 travelled in Europe, aud finally settled in 
 Paris. Several of his works have been 
 translated into English, the most popular 
 being Les Trappeurs de V Arkansas. 
 
 AinmitUer, Max Emmanuel {b. 1807, 
 d. 1870), German paiuter on glass, who exe- 
 cuted the new wiudows in Ratisbon Cathe- 
 dral, as well as several at Spires, Cologne, 
 and in St. Paul's, London. 
 
 Ainsworth, William Francis (b. 1807), 
 natural historian aud author. Entering the 
 medical profession while quite young, he 
 devoted himself to natural history. He 
 travelled first in Europe, but in 1835 ha 
 accompanied Chesney's Euphrates expedi- 
 tion, and later on was sent into Asia Minor.
 
 Ain 
 
 (14) 
 
 Ala 
 
 Besides general literature, he has published 
 a variety of works giving accounts of his 
 travels. 
 
 Ainswortll, William Harrison (6. 1805, d. 
 1882), English novelist. Originally in- 
 tended for the bar, he decided in 1824 to 
 devote himself to literature. His first con- 
 siderable work, Sir John Chiverton, won 
 Sir Walter Scott's admiration ; it was 
 quickly followed by many others, including 
 The Tower of London, Old Si. Faults, and 
 Jac/c Sheppard. 
 
 Aird, Thomas {b. 1802, d. 1876), Scotch 
 poet and journalist, graduated at Edin- 
 burgh. Besides writing separate works he 
 contributed to JB lack wood'' s Magazine, and 
 was for a time editor of the Edinburgh 
 Weekly Jotirnal, and the Dumfries Herald. 
 
 Airey, George Biddell {b. 1801, d. 1892), 
 English astronomer, a native of Alnwick, 
 educated at Cambridge, where he held 
 various professorships, including that of 
 astronomy. In 1835 he was appointed 
 Astronomer RoyaL 
 
 Airey, Eichard, General and Baron 
 (b. 1803, d. 1881), was educated at Sand- 
 hurst, and entered the army in 1821. After 
 serving in the Ionian Islands and British 
 North America, he went through the Crimean 
 war, and in 1865 was made Governor of 
 Gibraltar. He retired from service in 1876 
 with the title of Lord Airey, but in 1879 was 
 president of the Airey commission of inquiry 
 into the new short service system. 
 
 Aitcliison, George, B.A., and A.R.A. 
 
 (b. 1825), architect, was educated at Mer- 
 chant Taylors' school, and after enteiing 
 the Royal Academy in 1847, spent two 
 years abroad. He gained medals at the 
 Exhibitions of Philadelphia, Sydney, and 
 Melbourne, and has lectured at the Royal 
 Academy since 1882. The practical results 
 of his work are to be seen in many large 
 warehouses, the London and St. Katherine 
 Docks, and in the decoration of many houses 
 of the aristocracy. 
 
 Aivazovski, Gabriel (Pfere Gabriel) [b. 
 1812), learned Amienian scholar, belonging 
 to the convent of St. Lazaro, near Venice. 
 He is author of many valuable works, and 
 was one of the founders of the Armenian 
 College of Grenelle near Paris. 
 
 Ajax, son of Oileus, King of the 
 Locrians, and one of the heroes who be- 
 sieged Troy, but on his return perished by 
 shipwreck. 
 
 Ajax, son of Telamon, King of Salamis, 
 a brave and handsome man of great stature. 
 
 who fought single-handed with Hector in the 
 Trojan war, 
 
 Akber (Jabul-ud-dinMohammed) (b. 1542, 
 d. 1605), the son of Humayun, was a wise 
 and just monarch. It was he who first col- 
 lected the various tribes of India into a single 
 empire, with himself at its head. He en- 
 couraged literature and commerce, and for- 
 bade the burning of Hindoo widows against 
 their will. Domestic sorrows troubled his 
 declining years, and he died 1605. 
 
 Akenside, Mark (*. 1721, d. 1770), 
 British physician, and son of a Newcastle 
 butcher ; he is now remembered only as a 
 poet. His chief work is Fleasures of the 
 Imagination. 
 
 Akerblad, John David {b. 1760, d. 1819), 
 celebrated Oriental scholar, and an author- 
 ity on Phoenician inscriptions and Coptic 
 literature. His publications in archaeology 
 and hieroglj'phics are still regarded as ex- 
 ceedingly valuable. 
 
 Akerman, John Young (h. 1806, d. 1873), 
 antiquary and nimiismatist. After holding 
 similar posts he became secretary to the 
 Society of Antiquaries in 1848. He was 
 honorary member of many foreign societies, 
 and started the Numismatic Journal in 1836, 
 besides numerous other works on his favour- 
 ite subjects. 
 
 Akhbar Kban {d. 1847), son of Dost 
 Mahomed of Cabul. During the rebellion of 
 1840 he headed the Afghan troops, and after 
 considerable success besieged Jellalabad, but 
 was twice defeated by General Pollock. 
 
 Akiba, Ben Joseph {d. 135), learned 
 Jewish doctor, said to have studied under 
 Gamaliel. After gathering round him vast 
 numbers of disciples, he joined the pseudo- 
 Messiah Bar Cochba, but being defeated by 
 the Romans, was put to death with the 
 greatest cruelty. 
 
 Akimoo, Ivan [b. 1754, d. 1814), Russian 
 painter and director of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts. His works are of considerable 
 merit. 
 
 Alabaster, Wilham (Jb. 1567, d. 1640), 
 divine and poet, and prebendary of St. 
 Paul's. Besides other works he left a 
 pentaglott dictionary, in Hebrew, Chaldaic, 
 Syriac, Talmudico -Rabbinic, and Arabic. 
 
 Ala-ed-Dewlet {d. 1515), Prince of Mer'- 
 ash in the loth and 16th centuries, who made 
 himself master of the vast dominions of the 
 dynasty of Zulkadr. He was slain in battle. 
 
 Alarcon y Mendoza, Don Juan (6. 1590, 
 d. 1639), one of the greatest Spanish dra- 
 matists, and especially successful in delinea- 
 tions of character. Le Menteur of Comeille
 
 Ala 
 
 (15) 
 
 Alb 
 
 is based on one of Alar9on's best plays. 
 Personally he was unpopular, and bis works 
 were neglected for nearly twenty years, 
 
 Alaxd, Delphin {b. 1815), a pupil of 
 Habeneck, and one of the most skilful 
 violinists of the century. In 1848 he was 
 appointed professor of the vioHn in the 
 Conservatoire of Paris. 
 
 Alarlc I. (d. 410), King of the Visigoths, 
 had served in the Roman army, but on the 
 death of Theodosius headed his countrymen 
 in revolt against Rome. After fruitless at- 
 tempts on Greece and Italy, he was successful 
 in 402 in reaching Rome, which he thrice 
 besieged, finally taking and pillaging the 
 city. He died at Cosenza, and was buried 
 in the bed of the Basento. 
 
 Alaxic II. succeeded to the throne in 
 484, but was slain in battle with the Franks 
 under Clovis. To him is due the code of 
 laws known as Breviarium Alaricianiim. 
 
 Alasco, John (b. 1499, d. 1560), PoHsh 
 theologian and scholar, and one of the early 
 Protestant reformers. He was a friend of 
 Zwingli, Erasmus, and Melauchthon, and 
 did much to further the Reformation, especi- 
 ally in Holland. 
 
 Al-ashari (Abu - 1 - hassan) (b. 860, 
 d. 935), founder of the sect of Asbarites ; 
 his doctrines spread through Syria, Egypt, 
 and Spain. 
 
 Alaux, Jean (b. 1786, d. 1864), French 
 painter, and pupil of Vincent and Guerini, 
 He was patronised by Louis Philippe, and 
 his works are still at Versailles, St. Cloud, 
 and Fontainebleau, the best known being 
 Pandora and The Fight of the Centaurs and 
 Lapithce. 
 
 Alava, Miguel Ricardo d' (J. Vittoria, 
 1771, d. 1843), Spanish soldier, who in 
 1807 took the side of France, and became a 
 member of the Assembly of Bayonne, but 
 about 1811 changed sides, and obtained 
 considerable distinction under the Duke of 
 Wellington. He was afterwards President 
 of the Cortes, and adopted the cause of 
 Maria Christina, but finally withdrew to 
 France, where he died. 
 
 Alava y Nerarete, Don Ignacio {d. 1817), 
 a Spanish naval officer, who served under 
 Admiral Cordova in the war with England, 
 and was present at the battle of Trafalgar. 
 He was afterwards appointed commander- 
 in-chief at Cadiz, and died there. 
 
 Alban, Saint, a Roman soldier martyred 
 in Britain about 285, and in honour of whom 
 a monastery was founded at Verulam. 
 
 Albani, Annibale {h. 1682), cardinal, and 
 chief librarian of the Vatican. 
 
 Albani, Alessandro, his brother, cardinal, 
 and patron of learning. 
 
 Albani, Emma (i^. circa 1847), whose real 
 name is La Jeunesse, a native of Canada, 
 is a brilliant operatic singer. She married 
 Mr. Ernest Gye. 
 
 Albani, Francesco (6. 1578, d. 1660), 
 historical and portrait painter, who worked 
 at Rome, Florence, and Bologna. Of his 
 numerous works, chiefly on sacred subjects, 
 many are still in the galleries of Rome and 
 Munich. 
 
 Albani, Giuseppe [b. 1750), president of 
 the Annona, and auditor-general of the 
 Apostolic Chambers. 
 
 Albany, Leopold George Duncan Albert, 
 Duke of [b. 1853, d. 1884), fourth son of 
 Queen Victoria. In spite of early delicacy 
 he was unusually accomplished and culti- 
 vated. He married in 1882 the Princess 
 Helene of Waldeck, by whom he ha4 two 
 children. 
 
 Albany, Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess 
 of (A. 1753, d. 1820), the daughter of Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus of Stolberg-Goderu. She 
 was married in 1772 to Charles Stuart, the 
 Young Pretender, but separating from him, 
 put herself imder the protection of Alfieri, 
 with whom she lived till his death in 1803. 
 
 Albatenius, an Arabian astronomer of 
 the 9th century, whose works were much 
 read and valued by his successors. 
 
 Alber, Erasmus, Superintendent-General 
 of Neubrandenburg, one of the most learned 
 men of the age of Luther, and a zealous 
 supporter of the Reformer's doctrines. 
 
 Alberico da Barbiano, celebrated con- 
 dottiere in the 14th century, who formed a 
 company of free lances and took service 
 under Urban VI., Gian Galeazzo Visconte, 
 and others. 
 
 Alberoni, Giulio {b. 1664, d. 1752), car- 
 dinal, and first minister of Spain. Whilst 
 secretary to the Duke of Vendome he in- 
 gratiated himself with Philip V., and 
 formed schemes for the extension of 
 Spanish power, but his projects failing, he 
 was dismissed and exiled, and retired to 
 Rome, where he died. 
 
 Albert (I'Ouvrier), a French button-maker 
 and journalist, who took part in the insur- 
 rection of Paris in 1848, started the Atelier, 
 and became a member of the Provisional 
 Government. He was afterwards aiTested 
 and imprisoned. 
 
 Albert, Francis Charles Augustus Em- 
 manuel, Prince Consort of England [h. 1819, 
 d. 1861), was the second son of Ernest, Duke 
 of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. After his first visit
 
 Alb 
 
 (16) 
 
 Alb 
 
 to England in 183G, Prince Albert spent 
 some time at tlie University of Bonn, and in 
 European travels, and on his return to 
 England in 1830 the arrangements for his 
 marriage with the Queen were made, the 
 ceremony being performed at St. James's 
 Palace, Feb. lOth, 184ii. In the very difficult 
 situation iu which he was now placed Prince 
 Albert's conduct was sometimes miscon- 
 strued, but the news of his death from 
 typhoid fever on Dee. 14th, 1861, was 
 received with unfeigned sorrow by the 
 nation at large. He was the chief promoter 
 of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and being 
 a man of wide intelligence and benevolent 
 feeling, took part in most of the public 
 movements of his day. 
 
 Albert Edward, Prince of "Wales (b. 1841), 
 eldest son of Queen Victoria, studied at 
 the Universities of Edinburgh, Oxford, and 
 Cambridge. In 1862 he married the Princess 
 Alexandra of Denmark, by whom he has 
 issue two sons and three daughters. The 
 anxiety manifested by the nation during 
 his dangerous illness in 1871 led to the 
 memorable public thanksgiving early in 
 the following year, when the Queen and 
 Prince made a royal progress to St. Paul's 
 Cathedral. The prince has visited India, 
 America, and Palestine. He sits as Duke of 
 Cornwall in the House of Lords, where he 
 made his maiden speech iu 1884. During 
 many years of the Queen's reign the burden 
 of court or public ceremonial has fallen 
 almost entirely on his shoulders, and the 
 tact and grace with which he acquits him- 
 self of his functions have won for him a 
 very large degree of popularity. 
 
 Albert Victor, eldest son of the above {b. 
 1864, d. 1892), created Duke of Clarence and 
 Avondale 1890. Was for a time in the 
 navy, and served on board H.M.S. £ac- 
 chante ; afterwards joined the 10th Hussars, 
 in which he became captain. 
 
 Albert, Duke of Saxony {h. 1443, d. 1.500), 
 ruled for a time jointly with his brother 
 Ernst. In 1485 they divided the kingdom, 
 and Albert took Meissen, and was the 
 founder of the present reigning family of 
 Saxony. 
 
 Albert, first Duke of Prussia (*. 1490, d. 
 1568), received the territory of Lower 
 Prussia as an hereditary fief from the King 
 of Poland, in return for military services he 
 had rendered. He adopted and diffused the 
 doctrines of Luther, and founded the uni- 
 versity of Konigsberg. 
 
 Albert I., Duke of Austria and Emperor 
 of Germany (*. 1248, d. 1308). Upon the 
 deposition of Adolphus of Nassau, Albert 
 was elected emperor, and after slaying 
 Adolphus at the battle of Gelheim, he 
 was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. After a 
 
 succession of wars he was killed by his 
 nephew, John of Swabia. 
 
 Albert II. of Austria (J. 1298, d. 1358), 
 surnamed the Wise, succeeded his father in 
 the dukedom, but declined the imperial 
 crown. He established peace with the 
 neighbouring powers, but was defeated by 
 the Swiss at Morgarten. 
 
 Albert III. of Austria (i. 1349, d. 1395). 
 On the death of Albert II. his sons suc- 
 ceeded jointly to his dominions, and on the 
 division amongst the survivors in 1379, 
 Austria fell to Albert. He was an active 
 and vigilant prince, and a patron of the fine 
 arts. 
 
 Albert IV., Duke of Austria, surnamed 
 "the Pious" {h. 1379, d. 1414), son of the 
 preceding, allowed his cousin Wilhelm to 
 share his dukedom, and was named suc- 
 cessor to the thrones of Hungary and 
 Bohemia, but was poisoned in 1414 by the 
 Margrave of Moravia. 
 
 Albert v., Duke of Austria, and II. of 
 Germany {h. 1397, d. 1439), succeeded his 
 father in the dukedom, and obtained 
 Moravia by marriage. In 1438 he was 
 crowned King of Hungary, and elected 
 Emperor. He was a wise and judicious 
 prince, but his reign was marred by a cruel 
 war with the Hussites. He died suddenly 
 whilst repulsing an invasion of the Turks. 
 
 Albert I., Margrave of Brandenburg {h. 
 1106, d. 1170), the son of Otto, received 
 Brandenburg in return for Alsatia and 
 Bavaria, and was driven from his territories 
 by Henry the Lion, but was restored in 1142. 
 
 Albert II., of Brandenburg, succeeded his 
 brother. Otto II., in 1206. He acquired 
 Lower Alsatia and part of Pomerania, and 
 died 1221. 
 
 Albert III., of Brandenburg [h. 1414, d. 
 1486), a man of such strength and skill that 
 he acquired the appellations of "Achilles" 
 and "Ulysses." 
 
 Albert IV., of Bavaria (*. 1447, d. 1508), 
 surnamed ' the Wise." A learned and 
 prudent prince, he largely increased and 
 consolidated his dominions, and concluded 
 a compact by which the duchy should 
 descend intact to the eldest son. 
 
 Albert V., of Bavaria, suniamed "the 
 Magnanimous " (6. 1528, d. 1579), a noble 
 patron of the fine arts, and a man of great 
 piety, who largely endowed religious com- 
 munities. 
 
 Albert I., Duke of Brunswick, surnamed 
 " the Great " {h. 1236, d. 1278), a brave and 
 warlike prince, who liberated Queen Mar- 
 garet of Denmark, and was for some time 
 regent of that country.
 
 Alb 
 
 (17) 
 
 Alb 
 
 Albert II., Duke of Brunswick {d. 1318), 
 son of the preceding, assumed the govern- 
 ment in 1382. He quarrelled with his 
 brothers, and was of extravagant habits. 
 
 Albert L, Archbishop of Magdeburg, a 
 monk of Treves, and indefatigable mission- 
 ary, who endeavoured to establish Chris- 
 tianity ia Russia. 
 
 Albert II., Archbishop of Magdeburg in 
 1205. For his services to Otto of Brunswick 
 he received a large grant of laud, over 
 which he ruled with prudence and ability. 
 He died in 1233. 
 
 Albert V., Archbishop of Magdeburg (h. 
 1489, d. 1545). He was also Commissioner 
 of Indulgences, and thus became involved 
 in controversy with Luther and the re- 
 formers, who attacked him vigorously. 
 
 Albert II., of Mecklenburg (d. 1412), 
 and King of Sweden (1363), was in- 
 volved in disastrous wars, and finally 
 defeated and imprisoned at Falkopping in 
 1388. Being unable to pay the ransom 
 demanded, he abdicated, and died iu a 
 convent. 
 
 Albert V., of Mecklenburg {d. 1.547), ruled 
 jointly with his brother Heiurich. He 
 actively opposed the Lutheran doctrines, 
 and took arms on behalf of the Catholics, 
 while Heinrich fought on the side of the 
 Protestants. 
 
 Albert, Friedrich Rudolph {b. 1817), 
 Archduke of Austria, son of the Archduke 
 Charles, took part in the battle of Novara, 
 1849, and in 1866 defeated the Italians at 
 Custozza. After Sadowa he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, 
 which post he held till 1869. 
 
 Albert or Albert!, Heinrich {b. 1604, 
 d. 1651), a musician and poet, appointed 
 Kapellmeister at Kunigsberg in 1626. 
 He was an excellent lyrical poet, and 
 introduced into his country many improve- 
 ments of the Italian school. 
 
 Albert!, Benedetto, a Florentine of the 
 14th centurj', remarkable for his moder- 
 ation. At first he joined Salvestro de 
 Medici, but when the populace proceeded 
 to extremities, took the part of the higher 
 classes ; but finding favour with neither 
 side, went abroad and travelled in the Holy 
 Land. 
 
 Albert!, Leon Battista {b. 1404, d. 
 1472), Italian scholar, mathematician, 
 architect, painter and sculptor. One of 
 his best works is the exterior of the 
 church of San Francesco at Rimini ; he 
 also wrote treatises on architecture and 
 painting. 
 
 Albert!, Salomon {h. 1540, d. 1600), an 
 eminent x^hysician and anatomist; he held 
 
 the chair of anatomy and philosophy at 
 Wittenberg. 
 
 Albertoll!, II Cavaliere Gioconda {b. 
 1742, d. 1840), an eminent Italian architect 
 who especially excelled in ii'teriors. The 
 Palazzo Reale in Naples, and the imperial 
 villa of Maria Theresa at Monza were 
 decorated by him. 
 
 Albertrandy, Jan Chrzciciel {b. 1731, 
 d. 1808), Polish antiquary and numismatist 
 of the 18th century. He was director of 
 the antiquities of King Stanislaus, and 
 founder of the society of " Les Amis des 
 Sciences." 
 
 Albertus Magnus {b. 1193, d. 1280), a man 
 of great sanctity and learning, was ap- 
 poLated Bishop of Ratisbon, and assisted at 
 the General Council of Lyons in 1274. He 
 left numerous works, and amongst his 
 scholars was the famous Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 Albery, James [b. 1832, d. 1889), dramatic 
 writer, wrote The Two Roses {\ilQ),- Pink 
 Dominoes (1877), and other pieces. 
 
 Albini, Franz Joseph {b. 1748, d. 1816). 
 Originally intended for the law, he early 
 showed great aptitude for politics, and was 
 employed on affairs of importance by the 
 Emperor Joseph II. and afterwards by the 
 Elector of Mayence. He ably represented 
 the Elector at the Congress of Kastadt 
 (1797), showed himself a skilful general ia 
 encounters with Augereau (1800), and on 
 the death of the Emperor Frederick secured 
 the accession of Dalberg. 
 
 Albinus, Bernard {b. 1653, d. 1721), a 
 German physician and medical writer of 
 repute. He was physician to the Elector 
 Frederick William of Brandenburg, and 
 from 1702 occupied the chair of anatomy 
 and surgery at the university of Leyden. 
 
 Albinus, Bernard Siegfried {b. 1697, d. 
 1770), son of the preceding, and reader of 
 anatomy and surgery at Leyden. He also 
 held the chairs of anatomy, surgery, and 
 therapeutics, and was considered the best 
 German anatomist of his day. 
 
 Albinus, Clodius [d. 197), an able Roman 
 general, whose victories ia Gaul gained 
 him much renown. On the death of Per- 
 tinax he was one of four competitors for 
 the empire, but was defeated and slain 
 by Severus in a sanguinary battle near 
 Lyons. 
 
 AlWtte, Antoine Louis {b. 1760, d. 1812), 
 a French advocate who took a conspicuous 
 part in the revolution. 
 
 Alboin, King of the Longobards or Lom- 
 bards (d. oli). He gained considerable re- 
 nown iu exploits against the Gepidse, whom 
 he succeeded in exterminating. After making
 
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 himself master of great part of Italy he 
 was murdered at Verona, at his wife's insti- 
 gation. 
 
 Alboni, Maria, Countess de Pepolo {b. 
 1823), a celebrated contralto singer and 
 pupil of Rossini. After singing in various 
 European cities, she came to London in 
 1S47, and her appearance in Covent Garden 
 was a very great success. She married 
 Coxmt de Pepolo, and after his death 
 seldom appeared in public. 
 
 Albornoz, Gil Alvarez {b. 1300, d. 1367), 
 Archbishop of Toledo, fought against the 
 Moors, and took part in the siege of Alge- 
 ciras. Clement VI. made him a cardinal. 
 Innocent VII. despatched him to Rome as 
 cardinal legate, and in 1367 he was legate 
 at Bologna. 
 
 Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg (*. 1736, 
 d. 1809), a famous musical composer, who 
 numbered amongst his pupils Beethoven, 
 Eybler and Weigh His great theoretical 
 work Grundliche Amversung zur Compo- 
 sition has been translated into English. 
 
 Albret, Ciesar Phebus d' (A. 1614, d. 1676), 
 a marshal of France, rendered celebrated 
 by the wit of Scarron and Saint Evremond 
 \mder the name of Miassans. 
 
 Albret, Charles, Sire d'. Constable of 
 France in the 15th century. He com- 
 manded the French troops agaiust the 
 English invaders, but in spite of immensely 
 superior numbers his troops were utterly 
 routed and himself slain at the battle of 
 Agincourt, 1415. 
 
 Albumazar (b. 776, d. 885), Persian as- 
 tronomer of great renown, who lived to an 
 extraordinary old age, and left about fifty 
 works, chiefly on astrology. 
 
 Albuquerque, Alfonse d' (J). 1453, d. 
 1515), Portuguese viceroy of the East Indies, 
 in the place of Almeida. Whilst distingmsh- 
 ing himself by his wise and humane conduct, 
 he succeeded in conquering Goa, Malacca, 
 and Ceylon, and in relieving Malacca from 
 an attack by the Persians. 
 
 Alcaeus, a Greek lyric poet who flourished 
 about 600 B.C., was a native of Mytilene, 
 from which he was banished by Pittacus, 
 but afterwards pardoned. Only fragments 
 of his works remain. 
 
 Alcamenes, a Greek sculptor, the pupil 
 and rival of Phidias. He flourished about 
 400 B.C. 
 
 Alcantara, San Pedro d' {b. 1499, d. 1562), 
 a religious ascetic, who founded a monastic 
 order, and spent his life in penitence and 
 self-denial. He was canonised by Cle- 
 ment IX. 
 
 Alcester, Right Honourable Frederick 
 Beauchamp Paget Seymour, Baron, G.C.B. 
 (b. 1820), entered the royal navy in 1834, and 
 was created full Admiral in 1882. He served 
 with distinction in the Burmese war of 
 1852—3, and in New Zealand, 1860-1, and 
 in 1877 was made a K.C.B., and appointed 
 Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean. 
 In 1880 he commanded the AUied fleet 
 posted on the Albanian coast, and in the war 
 with Egypt (1882) he held supreme com- 
 mand until the arrival of Sir Garnet 
 Wolseley. For his services he received the 
 thanks of Parliament, and was raised to the 
 peerage as Baron Alcester of Alcester. 
 
 Alcibiades (6. 450 b.c, d. 404 B.C.), 
 Athenian statesman, acquired political 
 power after the death of Cleon, and took a 
 large part in the Peloponnesian war. In 415 
 he was appointed one of the leaders of the 
 Sicilian expedition, but was detained in 
 Athens on a charge of sacrilege. He fled 
 to Sparta, and aided that state against 
 Athens. He subsequently took refuge with 
 the Persian Tissaphemes. In 407 he re- 
 turned to Athens, but was again compelled 
 to fly in the following year. He was 
 assassinated in Phrygia while with the 
 Persian satrap Pharnabazus. 
 
 Alciphron, a Greek Sophist, who flourished 
 about 300 B.C. 
 
 Alcmseon, a native of Lydia, who lived 
 between 671 and 631 B.C., and was originally 
 a slave. He was the only lyrical poet of 
 note that Sparta has produced. 
 
 Alcman, or Alcmseon, a native of Crotona, 
 who lived in the sixth century B.C., and was 
 a pupil of Pythagoras. He was a distin- 
 guished anatomist, wrote on physics, medi- 
 cine, and anatomy, and is said to have been 
 the first to dissect the human subject. 
 
 Alcock, John {b. 1430, d. 1500), Bishop of 
 Ely, English ecclesiastic and politician, was 
 Master of the Rolls in 1462, and in 1471 
 went on a mission to Spain. The same 
 year he was made Bishop of Rochester, and 
 in 1477 was elevated to the see of Worcester. 
 In 1485 he was translated to Ely. He 
 founded Jesus College, Cambridge. 
 
 Alcock, Sir Rutherford (*. 1809), served 
 with distinction on the medical stafE of 
 the British auxiliary forces employed in 
 Spain 1832 — 37. In 1844 he was appointed 
 consul at Foo-Chow, afterwards holding 
 several other official posts in China and 
 Japan. In 1876 he was president of the 
 Royal Geographical Society, and in 1882 
 presided over the Health department of the 
 Social Science Congress. 
 
 Alcott, Louisa May (J>. 1833, d. 1888), 
 an American authoress. She began early
 
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 to ■write, but met with no marked success 
 till the publication of Little Women 
 in 1867. She wi-ote many other books, the 
 material for her first vobime, Hospital 
 Sketches, being gathered during her expe- 
 rience as nurse in the military hospital at 
 Washington, where she went in 1862. 
 
 Alcuin, English theologian, especially 
 noted as the coadjutor of Charlemagne 
 in his educational reforms. At the 
 invitation of that emperor he left Eng- 
 land, and settled in France, where he 
 founded several schools ; but on being made 
 Abbot of Tours be abandoned the Court 
 axid devoted himself to theology, 
 
 AldegrafiF, Heinrich {b. 1502, d. 1562), 
 painter and engraver, and pupil of Albert 
 Diirer. Many of his paintings are in the 
 churches and convents of Germany. 
 
 Aldhelm, Saint {b. circa 641, d. 709) first 
 Bishop of Sherborne, and head of the 
 monastic school at Mahnesbury. His great 
 learning attracted many pupils. 
 
 Aldini, Giovanni (b. 1762, d. 1834), an 
 eminent natural philosopher, and nephew of 
 Galvani, whose discoveries he followed up. 
 He was professor of physics at Bologna. 
 
 Aldred, or Ealredus {d. 1096), Archbishop 
 of York in the 1 1th century. He was esteemed 
 by Edward the Confessor, and after the 
 battle of Hastings tendered his allegiance to 
 WilUam the Conqueror, whom he crowned 
 at Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Aldrich, Henry [b. 1647, d. 1710), was 
 educated at Westminster, and Christ Church, 
 Oxford, becoming afterwards dean of his 
 college. He is said to have designed the 
 chapel of Trinity College, and he exercised 
 his musical skill in composing religious 
 services. His System of Logic, written 
 in Latm, was used at Oxford for many 
 years. 
 
 Aldricli, Thomas Bailey (b. 1836), Ameri- 
 can poet and novehst, author of The Bells 
 (1855), Lyrics and Sonnets (1880), Daisy^s 
 Necklace (1857), The Story of a Bad Boy 
 (1869), The Stillwater Tragedy (1880), and 
 other works. 
 
 Aldridge, Ira {d. 1867), a negro trage- 
 dian, known as the "African Roscius." 
 Bom in America, he met with great success 
 on the English stage, especially in the 
 character of Othello. He visited various 
 European countries, and received many 
 decorations. He died on his way to 
 St. Petersburg. 
 
 Aldringer, Johann (d. 1634), a common 
 soldier in the imperial army. During 
 the Thirty Years' war he rose to the 
 
 o2 
 
 position of field-marshal. He was slain 
 at the engagement of Laudschut. 
 
 Aldrovandri, Ulissi {b. 1522, d. 1607), an 
 Italian naturaUst, and author of a valuable 
 and voluminous treatise on natural history. 
 
 Aleandro, Girolamo {b. 1480, d. 1542), a 
 learned cardinal, and Archbishop of Brindisi, 
 and a violent opposer of the reformed doc- 
 trines. He wrote a Greek lexicon and 
 grammar, and a Latiu dictionary. He was 
 taken prisoner whilst with Francis I. at the 
 battle of Pavia. 
 
 Alegre Yves, Baron d' (d. 1512), a French 
 soldier who served in the Italian wars under 
 Charles VIII. and Louis XII., and was 
 made governor of Milan in 1499. He was 
 slain at the siege of Ravenna. 
 
 Alegre Yves, Marquisd' (6. 1653, d. 1735), 
 a brave and skiKul soldier who fought under 
 Marshal Luxemburg at Fleurus, and dis- 
 tinguished himself (1690) by his brave, 
 though unsuccessful defence of Bonn. He 
 was taken prisoner by the English, but 
 subsequently liberated, and made marshal of 
 France in 1724. 
 
 Aleko Pasha, Prince Vogorides (b. 1830), 
 was appointed governor of Eastern Rou- 
 melia in 1879. He firmly opposed the 
 attempts of Russia to gain a footing in that 
 country, and succeeded in obtaining her 
 withdrawal, but was recalled in 1885. 
 
 Aleksaeev, Feodor (6. 1755, d. 1821), a 
 Russian painter who studied at St. Peters- 
 burg and Venice, and attained considerable 
 eminence in architectural painting. 
 
 Aleman, Louis {b. 1390, d. 1459), cardinal, 
 and Ardibishop of Axles. He was a president 
 of the Council of Basle, and supported the 
 claim of Felix V. to the papal throne. 
 
 Aleman, Mateo (d. 1610), a Spanish writer 
 of the 16th century. His most celebrated 
 work is Guzman de Alfarache. 
 
 Alembert, Jean le Rond d' {b. Paris, 1717, 
 d. 1783), a celebrated scientist and mathe- 
 matician. He early showed great precocity, 
 and in spite of delicate health and the dis- 
 couragement of his Jansenist teachers, 
 acquired an insatiable love for study, and 
 especially for mathematics. He tried, but 
 in vain, to devote himself to the study of 
 medicine, as being more lucrative. His 
 tastes lay in other directions, and a clever 
 treatise on the integral calculus procured his 
 admission to the Academy of Science. Soon 
 after, when only 26 years of age, he enunci- 
 ated the great principle of the conservation 
 of energy, which underlies every problem of 
 applied mathematics, and upon the recogni- 
 tion of which that science made great 
 advances. D'Alembert soon found himself
 
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 celebrated, and in correspondence with, all 
 the distiuguislied men of his time. He was 
 pensioned by Frederick II. and Louis XV., 
 but disappointment in a protracted love 
 affair gave him a severe shock, and he died 
 after long and severe suffering. 
 
 Aleii9on, Francois, Duke of {b. 15.54, d. 
 1584), took arms against his brother, 
 Henry III., on behalf of the Huguenots, till 
 in 1576, having signed the Catholic League, 
 he took command of the army sent against 
 his fonner partisans. He sued, but in vain, 
 for the hand of Elizabeth of England. In 
 1582 he was acknowledged Duke of Brabant 
 and Count of Flanders, but on his death 
 without issue in 1584 his territories lapsed 
 to the Crown. 
 
 Alessi, Galeazzo (*. 1512, d. 1572), an 
 Italian architect, who built many splendid 
 palaces at Genoa. The church of Santa 
 Maria di Carignao may be considered his 
 masterpiece. 
 
 Alexander, Michael Solomon (b. 1799, d. 
 1845), an eminent rabbi of Jewish ex- 
 traction, but converted to Christianity in 
 1826, and consecrated iirst Bishop of the 
 United Church of England and Ireland in 
 Jerusalem in 1841. 
 
 Alexander, Stephen, LL.D. (b. 1806, d. 
 1883), an American astronomer who filled the 
 chairs of astronomy and mathematics at 
 Princeton till his retirement in 1878. He 
 has written a considerable number of papers 
 on scientific subjects, some of which have 
 been translated. 
 
 Alexander Aphrodiensis, a Carian, one of 
 the most celebrated commentators on Aris- 
 totle. Besides other works, he wrote an 
 inquiry into the opinions of Aristotle on 
 fate and free-will, entitled, A Treatise on 
 Fate. He died in the third century. 
 
 Alexander Balas, a man of low origin, 
 who ascended the throne of the Greek kirig- 
 dom of Syria 150 b,c. He was defeated in 
 a battle with his son-in-law, and subse- 
 quently treacherously murdered. 
 
 Alexander of Cappadocia, Bishop of 
 Cappadocia in the third century. He suffered 
 persecution under the Emperor Septimus 
 Severus. and being translated to the see of 
 Jerusalem, was again thrown into prison, 
 where he died. 
 
 Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), English 
 theologian, lectured at Paris, and after- 
 wards joined the Minorite order of Fran- 
 ciscans. His most celebrated work is 
 Summa Vniversa Theologim. 
 
 Alexander Jagellon, {h. 1461, d. 1506), 
 King of Poland and Duke of Lithuania, 
 succeeded his father in 1501. His short 
 
 reign was marked by a Russian war, and 
 by the incursions of the Turks, who ravaged 
 Lithuania, but were totally defeated at 
 Kieck in 1506. 
 
 Alexander Jannseus, succeeded his brother 
 Aristobulus in 105 B.C. He extended his 
 dominions along the coasts of Palestine, 
 and crushed a rebellion of the Pharisees with 
 great cruelty. 
 
 Alexander Karageorgewitz {p. 1801), 
 son of Kara or Czerni Georges. He was 
 elected Prince of Servia in 1843, and for 
 some years devoted himself to the internal 
 improvement of his country; but his foreign 
 policy provoked much discontent, and in 
 1857 the prince was forced to fly to Austria 
 and his throne was declared vacant. Later 
 he was accused of complicity in the assas- 
 sination of Prince Michel of Servia, and 
 being tried at Pesth, was sentenced to eight 
 years' imprisonment. 
 
 Alexander Nevskoi, Saint (J. 1219, 
 d. riG3), Prince of Novogorod. A brave 
 soldier, his surname of "Nevsky" was 
 given him after a signal victory over the 
 Swedes on the banks of the Neva. He sub- 
 mitted to Batu Khan, the Tartar chief, who 
 confirmed him in his dominions, and also 
 bestowed upon him the sovereignty of 
 Southern Russia. 
 
 Alexander the PapMagonian, a noted 
 impostor of the second century. He was 
 initiated into the art of magic by his friend 
 Apollonius Tyanaeus, and claiming the gift 
 of prophecy, obtained great influence over 
 the people. 
 
 Alexander Severus (6. 205, d. 235), 
 Emperor of Rome, defeated the Persians in 
 232, but was murdered in Gaul by Maximin. 
 
 Alexander I., Prince of Bulgaria (6. 1857), 
 son of Alexander of Battenberg, was elected 
 Hereditary Prince, in compliance with the 
 terms of the Treaty of Berlin, by the Assem- 
 bly of Notables, gathered at Timova, in 1 879. 
 He was at first received with enthusiasm, 
 which, however, soon cooled, and in 1881 he 
 felt obliged to demand the suspension of the 
 Assembly. Other complications arose. In 
 1885 Alexander was invited to add Eastern 
 Roumelia to his original territories, and at 
 the same time Servia declared war. The 
 Servian troops were repulsed, and an arm- 
 istice concluded. An attempt made by the 
 partisans of Russia to kidnap the prince 
 resulted ultimately in his triumphant return 
 to Sophia, but was shortly followed by his 
 abdication in 1886. 
 
 Alexander I., of Macedon, succeeded to the 
 throne B.C. 500. The Persians invaded his 
 kingdom, and compelled him to join them in 
 the invasion of Greece.
 
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 Alexander II., of Macedon {d. 367 B.C.), 
 Bucceeded to the throne B.C. 369. He waged 
 a successful war with Thessaly, but was 
 murdered by his brother Ptolemy. 
 
 Alexander III., of Macedon, sumamed 
 "The Great" (6. B.C. 356, d. B.C. 323), son 
 of Phihp. He was educated partly by Aris- 
 totle, and early gave proofs of skill and 
 courage. A revolt of Thebes at the com- 
 mencement of his reign was promptly 
 quelled with great severity ; then crossing 
 the Hellespont, he marched against the 
 Persians, whom he repeatedly defeated, 
 conquering Phoenicia and Egypt. After the 
 final defeat of Darius at Gaugamela, and 
 the capture of Babylon, Susa, and Perse- 
 polis, Alexander commenced the conquest 
 of India, but after crossing the Indus and 
 penetrating as far as the Ganges, he was com- 
 pelled to return to Babylon, but paused at 
 Susa to celebrate his marriage with the 
 daughter of Darius. He died at Babylon 
 after a reign of about 13 years ; his 
 body was embalmed and taken to Alex- 
 andria, which city had been founded by him 
 and named in his honour. 
 
 Alexander I., Paulovich (l>. 1777, d. 
 1825), Emperor of Russia and King of 
 Poland. He succeeded to the throne in 
 1801, and showed himself a brave and 
 judicious monarch. He entered into a treaty 
 with England, Austria and Sweden to resist 
 the encroachments of France, but was de- 
 feated at the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and 
 Friedland, and compelled to make peace 
 with Napoleon at Tilsit. In 1812 war again 
 broke out, and on the conclusion of peace in 
 1814 Alexander visited England and Poland. 
 He was succeeded oa the throne by his 
 brother Nicholas. 
 
 Alexander II., Nicholavich, Emperor of 
 Russia (/>. 181S, d. 1881), succeeded his father 
 as Czar in 1855. He married in 1841 Maria, 
 daughter of the Grand Duke Louis II. 
 of Hesse Darmstadt. He terminated the 
 Crimean war soon after his accession by 
 the Treaty of Paris. Though trained by his 
 father to a military life, he devoted himself 
 to the internal affairs of his country, 
 improved the popular education, and eman- 
 cipated the Russian serfs. He waged war 
 successfully on Turkey in 1877-8. He was 
 assassinated in the streets of St. Petersburg. 
 
 Alexander III. j^^. 1845), was the second 
 son of the preceding, whom he succeeded 
 to the imperial throne. He married in 1866 
 the Princess Dagmar of Denmark. His 
 reign has not been signalised by any re- 
 forms, and is chiefly notable for the ad- 
 vances made by Russia in Central Asia. 
 
 AlexanderI.,of Scotland(</. 1124), ascended 
 the throne in 1 107. He married the daughter 
 of Henry I. of England, and in spite of 
 
 ecclesiastical disputes respecting the inde- 
 pendence of the Scottish Church, contrived 
 to keep on good terms with his father-in-law. 
 
 Alexander II., of Scotland (6. 1198, d. 
 1249), succeeded his father William the Lion 
 in 1214. He supported the English barons 
 in their revolt against King John, though 
 afterwards consenting to do homage to 
 his successor Henry III. He died whilst 
 attempting to quell a revolt in the Western 
 Highlands. 
 
 Alexander III., of Scotland {b. 1241, d. 
 1286), son of the preceding. While still a 
 child he married Margaret, daughter of 
 Henry III. of England, and afterwards did 
 homage to Edward I. During his reign the 
 great battle of Largs (1 263) was fought be- 
 tween the Scottish and Norwegian troops, 
 and resulted in the withdrawal of the 
 invaders. 
 
 Alexander I. (Pope), Bishop of Rome 
 during the reign of Trajan. He is said to 
 have suffered martyrdom in 117. 
 
 Alexander II. (Pope), Anselmo Badagio 
 {d. 1073), bom at Milan in the eleventh 
 century ; he studied at Bee in Normandy, 
 and took part in the controversies at Milan, 
 and on the death of Nicholas II. in 1061 
 was elected Pope. A rival pope, Honorius 
 II., supported by the emperor, was de- 
 feated, and his claim condemned by the 
 Council of Mantua. 
 
 Alexander III. (Pope), Rolando Ranuc- 
 cio {d. 1181), a member of the Bandinelli 
 family in Sienna ; he held the chair of 
 theology at Bologna, and being elected by 
 a majority in 1159 was acknowledged as 
 Pope by Sicily, England and France. The 
 Emperor Frederick I. supported his rival, 
 and a lengthy war ensued, but after be- 
 sieging Alexandria in vain for seven 
 months, and being defeated at Legnano in 
 1176, the emperor agreed to recognise 
 Alexander. 
 
 Alexander IV. (Pope) (d. 1261), Rinaldoof 
 Anagni, Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, was 
 elected Pope in 1254. He continued the war 
 with the Two Sicilies which his predecessor 
 Innocent IV. had initiated, established In- 
 quisitors in France at the request of St. 
 Louis, and endeavoured to unite the Greek 
 and Latin churches. 
 
 Alexander V. (Pope), Peter Filargo 
 {d. 1410), a Franciscan monk and learned 
 divine who ascended the Papal throne at 
 the age of 70, and died at Bologna ten 
 mouths later. 
 
 Alexander VI. (Pope), Rodrigo Lenzoli 
 (Borgia) {'>. 1431, rf. 1503), a man of dissolute 
 life who was made cardinal and archbishop 
 by his uncle, Pope Calixtus III., and on the 
 death of Innocent VIII. secured his own
 
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 election. He resorted to all sorts of un- 
 justifiable means of raising money, and 
 thus aroused the opposition of Savonarola, 
 who, however, was excommxmicated and 
 put to death. 
 
 Alexander VII. (Pope), Fahio Chigi (J. 
 1599, d. 1667), succeeded to the popedom in 
 1655. He exerted himself nobly during the 
 ravages of the plague in Rome, and did 
 much to improve that city. 
 
 Alexander VIII. (Pope), Pietro Otto- 
 boni {h. 1610, d. 1691), Bishop of Brescia, 
 and afterwards of Frascati : he became 
 Pope in 1689, and succeeded in reforming 
 many abuses and re-establishing friendly 
 relations with France. He placed in the 
 Vatican the fine collections of books and 
 manuscripts left him by the Queen of 
 Sweden. 
 
 Alexandre, Jacques {h. Orleans, 1653, d. 
 1734), a learned Benedictine, who wrote 
 several treatises on horology, and La 1698 
 constructed a clock which showed both the 
 true and the mean time, and was the first 
 of the kind exhibited. 
 
 Alexandrl Basil! {b. 1821), a Roumanian 
 author, who wrote both in prose and poetry, 
 and undertook the management of two 
 theatres at Jassy. He pleaded the cause of 
 his coimtry through the French press, and 
 set the example of emancipatuig serfs. 
 
 Alexis, a comic poet, bom in Magna 
 Grecia about B.C. 394. His plays, which 
 were highly valued by Athenseus, are said 
 to have numbered 245, but only fragments 
 are extant. 
 
 Alexis, Mikhaylovich, sumamed "the 
 Wise" {b. 1629, d. 1676), Czar of Russia, 
 succeeded to the throne in 1645. After 
 the revolt of 1648, consequent upon the 
 favouritism which he exhibited, Alexis 
 devoted himself to the interests of his 
 country, revising the laws, promoting com- 
 merce, and making improvements in both 
 the army and the Church. He also waged 
 war with Poland, and by the peace of 
 Andrusov added to his dominions the Polish 
 territories on the left bank of the Dnieper. 
 
 Alexis, Petrovich (6. 1690, d. 1718), 
 son of Peter the Great. His sad life and 
 miserable death are a dark stain on his 
 father's fame. Never on good terms, the 
 breach between father and son widened 
 with time, and at last, in spite of solemn 
 assurances that he would not be harmed, 
 Peter caused his son to be seized, im- 
 prisoned, and tried, and but too probably 
 l^oisoned in the prison where he died. 
 
 Alexis I., Alexius Comnenus, Emperor 
 of Constantinople (h. 1048, d. 1118), son of 
 John Comnenus ; he served successively 
 
 imder Ducas and Nicephorus III., but 
 his popularity roused the jealousy of the 
 latter, aud Alexis was compelled to fly. 
 The troops, however, proclaimed him em- 
 peror, and Constantinople was taken and 
 Nicephorus deposed in 1081. Alexis suc- 
 ceeded in. protecting his country against 
 the Turks aud the Normans, and died after 
 a busy and intriguing reign. 
 
 Alexis II., Comnenus (6. 1167, d. 1183), 
 Emperor of Constantinople, ascended the 
 throne 1180. His reign was only nominal, 
 the real power being wielded first 
 by his mother, and later by Andronicus 
 Comnenus, who usurped his throne and 
 caused him to be put to death. 
 
 Alexis III., Angelus (d. 1210), deposed 
 his brother Isaac, and assuming the name of 
 Comnenus was proclaimed Emperor of Coa- 
 stantinople in 1195. On the arrival at 
 Constantinople of his nephew, Alexis fled, 
 and died in a monastery. 
 
 Alexis IV., Angelus [d. 1204), son of 
 Isaac, succeeded his uncle in 1203, but 
 after reigning a few months only was mur- 
 dered by Alexis Ducas Murzuphlus. 
 
 Alexis v., Murzuphlus, murderer and 
 successor of the preceding, became Emperor 
 in 1204, but was attacked by crusaders, and 
 afterwards, for his conduct towards Alexis 
 IV., coudemned to be thrown from the 
 Column of Theodosius at Constantinople. 
 
 Alfarabius (d. 950), a celebrated Arabian 
 philosopher, who wrote on numerous sub- 
 jects. After studying at Bagdad, he settled 
 at Damascus. 
 
 Alfaro y Gomez, don Juan d' (6. 1640, 
 d. 1680), a Spanish painter of historical 
 pictures, and a pupil of Velasquez. 
 
 Alfez, Isaac (6. 1013, d. _ 1103). a 
 learned Jewish rabbi, who established a col- 
 lege and synagogue at Lugeua, and is noted 
 as the author of The Lesser Talmud. 
 
 Alfleri, Vittoria (6. 1749, d. 1803), one of 
 the greatest modern dramatists and poets 
 of Italy. Of good birth and independent 
 means, he travelled extensively in Europe, 
 and produced his first tragedy, Cleopatra, in 
 i 1775. This was folio wed by numerous others, 
 ' and meantime Alfieri had been captivated by 
 I the charms of the Countess of Albany, the 
 j wife of the Young Pretender, with whom 
 j he lived until his death. Towards the end 
 of his life he wrote comedies with extra- 
 ordinary rapidity, but his health broke 
 1 down and he died, having done much to 
 j reform and elevate the Italian drama. 
 
 Alfonso I., of Aragon and Navarre, as- 
 cended the throne in 1104. A warlike 
 prince, who successfully waged war with 
 the Moors of Saragossa, slaying their king
 
 Alf 
 
 (23) 
 
 Alf 
 
 and capturing Saragossa. He, however, 
 failed in an attack upon Valencia and 
 Granada, being defeated by the Almora- 
 vides. 
 
 Alfonso n., of Aragon (6. 1152, d. 1196), 
 ascended the throne whilst still a child, 
 but proved a valiant soldier, defeating the 
 Moors of Valencia and Murcia, and assistiug 
 in the taking of Cuenca. 
 
 Alfonso III., of Aragon (6. 1265, d. 
 1291), succeeded to the throne on the death 
 of his father, Pedro III., in 1285. He was, 
 however, compelled to transfer tauch of the 
 royal power to the Cortes. 
 
 Alfonso IV., of Aragon (6. 1299, d. 
 1366), ascended the throne on his brother's 
 abdication in 1327. His reign was chiefly 
 occupied by a war with Genoa. 
 
 Alfonso v., of Aragon. [See Alfonso I., 
 of Naples.] 
 
 Alfonso I., of Asturias and Leon (6. 693, 
 d. 756) , a wise and brave king, who, elected 
 iu 739, succeeded in expelling the Moors 
 from Galicia, Leon and Castile. He also 
 established towns, built churches, and gener- 
 ally improved the internal condition of his 
 country. 
 
 Alfonso II., of Asturias and Leon {d. 842), 
 left a monastery for the throne in 791, 
 He carried on a successful war with the 
 Moors, and made Oviedo his capital. 
 
 Alfonso III., of Asturias and Leon 
 (d. 912), sumamed "the Great," suc- 
 ceeded his father on the throne of Oviedo 
 in 866. His reign was disturbed by wars 
 with the Moors, and by the revolts of his 
 subjects, and after many victories Alfonso 
 abdicated in 910, and died at Zamora. 
 
 Alfonso IV., of Leon (d. 932), sumamed 
 "The Monk," after an xinsatisfactory reign 
 of sixteen years, resigned the throne to his 
 brother Ramiro, and entered a monastery. 
 A few months later he attempted to regain 
 his kingdom, but was defeated, and com- 
 pelled to re-enter the monastery, where he 
 died. 
 
 Alfonso v., of Leon (b. 994, d. 1028). 
 He ascended the throne on his father's 
 death in 999, and ruled well and wisely, at 
 first under the regency of Melendo Gon- 
 zalez, and then alone. He was slain by an 
 arrow at the siege of Viseo. 
 
 Alfonso VI. {b. 1030, d. 1109), of 
 Leon and I. of Castile, ascended the 
 throne of Leon and Asturias on his 
 father's death, while Castile and Galicia 
 fell to his brothers, Sancho and Garcia. 
 A war with Sancho resulted iu Alfouso's 
 defeat and compulsory abdication, but 
 on the death of Sancho he succeeded to 
 
 both kiagdoms. He afterwards carried 
 on a vigorous war with the Moors, and in 
 spite of disastrous defeat at Zalaca, added 
 largely to his dominioas. He died at 
 Toledo, leaving the throne to his daughter 
 Urraca. 
 
 Alfonso VII., of Leon. [See Alfonso I., of 
 Aragon, who claimed the throne of Leon 
 in right of his wife Urraca.] 
 
 Alfonso VIII., of Leon, and II. of Castile 
 {b. 1105, d. 1157), an able and excellent 
 monarch who, on the death of his mother, 
 Urraca, came into possession of the two 
 countries in 1126. He weakened the power 
 of the Moors, and caused himself to be 
 crowned Emperor of Spain. 
 
 Alfonso IX., of Leon (d. 1230), succeeded to 
 the throne in 1188. A war with Alphonse 
 of Castile was ended by the marriage of 
 Alfonso of Leon to his cousin Bereugaria 
 of Castile, but the Pope refused to sanction 
 a marriage of cousins, and laid the kingdom 
 under an interdict. The separation at 
 length took place, and the Pope reconciled 
 the two kings. 
 
 Alfonso X., of Leon and Castile (p. 1226, 
 d. 1284), succeeded to the throne iu 12.52 ; 
 aspired to be emperor of Germany, and in 
 1257 divided the election with Richard of 
 Cornwall. In 1272 he again unsuccessfully 
 attempted to gain the imperial crown. He 
 was driven from the throne by his son 
 Sancho. He was the most learned ruler of 
 his time. 
 
 Alfonso L, of Castile. [See Alfonso VI., 
 of Leon.] 
 
 Alfonso IL, of Castile. [See Alfonso VIII., 
 of Leon.] 
 
 Alfonso ni., of Castile (b. 1155, d. 1214), 
 attacked the invading Moors, but was 
 defeated with great loss at the battle of 
 Alarcos ia 1195 ; some years later he joined 
 the kings of Leon and Navarre against 
 their common foe, and distinguished himself 
 in the brilliant victory of Tolosa, 1212. 
 
 Alfonso X., of Castile. [See Alfonso X., 
 of Leon.] 
 
 Alfonso XI., of Castile (h. 1310, d. 1350), 
 displayed great administrative and martial 
 ability, quelling the internal disturbances of 
 his country, and, in conjunction with the 
 King of Portugal, gaining a brilliant victory 
 over the Moors at Tarifa. 
 
 Alfonso XII. (h. 1857, d. 1885), King of 
 Spain, was proclaimed king iu 1875. His 
 reign was troubled by the continuance of 
 the Carlist war, as well as frequent dis- 
 turbances in the army and elsewhere, aud 
 attempts were twice made on the king's life. 
 He married twice, his second wife being
 
 Alf 
 
 (24) 
 
 Alf 
 
 Maria Christina, daughter of the late Arch- 
 dxike Charles Ferdinaud, of Austria. 
 
 Alfonso XIII., King of Spain {b. 1886), 
 son of the preceding. As direct heir to the 
 throne iu the male line his birth gave great 
 satisfaction, and Queen Christina was ap- 
 pointed regent during his minority. 
 
 Alfonso I., of Naples and Sicily, and V. of 
 Aragon {h. 1385, d. 1458), succeeded his 
 father as King of Aragon in HI (>. He ruled 
 also over Sicily and Sardinia, and taking part 
 •with Joanna of Naples, compelled Louis to 
 raise the siege of that city, but afterwards 
 quarrelled with the queen, and was forced 
 to leave Naples. On the death of Joanna 
 he seized the throne, and was proclaimed 
 king in 1442. 
 
 Alfonso II., of Naples (6. 1448, d. 1495), 
 succeeded to the throne in 1494, but caused 
 himself to be so hated for his cruelty and 
 licentiousness as to be left without followers, 
 and in a panic he abdicated, and took refuge 
 in a monastery, where he died. 
 
 Alfonso I., of Portugal, Dom Alfonso 
 Enrique (b. 1110, d. 1185) ; he succeeded his 
 father as Count of Portugal, and defeating 
 the Moors at Castro-Verde and Camp d' 
 Ourique, was proclaimed king, and crowned 
 in 1143. He established his seat of govern- 
 ment at Lisbon, from which he had driven 
 the Moors, but was afterwards defeated and 
 taken prisoner by his son-in-law, Ferdi- 
 nand II., of Leon. 
 
 Alfonso II., of Portugal (6. 1185, d. 1223), 
 was successful in wars with the Moors, 
 but his extortions drew upon him the wrath 
 of the Pope, who laid his kingdom under 
 an interdict, and terrified Alfonso into res- 
 titution. 
 
 Alfonso III., of Portugal {b. 1210, d. 
 1279), son of the preceding, deposed his 
 elder brother, Sancho, and seized the throne 
 in 1248. He was victorious over the Moors 
 and imin-oved the condition of his people, 
 though, like his father, he quarrelled with 
 the Church, and was worsted in a struggle 
 vrith the Pope. 
 
 Alfonso IV., of Portugal (6. 1290, d. 
 1357), was involved in wars, first with his 
 brother-in-law, Ferdinand IV. of Castile, 
 and later against the Moors, but his reign 
 was on the whole prosperous. The cruel 
 murder of his daughter-in-law, Inez, re- 
 sulted in the rebellion and hostility of his 
 son. 
 
 Alfonso v., of Portugal (b. 1432, d. 1481), 
 on the death of his uncle Pedro, who had 
 acted as regent, took the government into 
 his own hands. He waged war with the 
 Moors, and invaded Africa, but a war with 
 Spain proved unsuccessful, and Alfonso died 
 
 at Cintra, whilst in the act of retu'ing to a 
 convent. 
 
 Alfonso VI., of Portugal (b. 1643, d. 1683), 
 a weak and wicked prince ; the government 
 was at iirst administered wisely by his 
 mother, but in 1662 she retired to a convent, 
 and Alfonso's conduct was then such as to 
 provoke a revolt, and he was deposed in 
 1668, while his brother Pedro assumed the 
 regency. 
 
 Alfonso (I.) d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, Mo- 
 dena and Reggio (6. 1476, d. 1534) ; he was 
 successful iu a war against the Venetians, 
 but was afterwards defeated by the troops 
 of the Pope, and temporarily lost Modena 
 and Reggio. 
 
 Alfonso (II.) d'Este {d. 1597) succeeded 
 his father iu 1599. He imprisoned the poet 
 Tasso iu consequence of the latter "s passion 
 for his sister. 
 
 Alfonso (III.) d'Este (d. 1644) succeeded his 
 father in 1628, but shortly abdicated in 
 favour of his son Francesco, and retired 
 to a Capuchin convent, where he died. 
 
 Alfonso (IV.) d'Este (i. 1634, d. 1662) 
 succeeded his father in 1658. He reigned 
 only four years, but added Correggio to his 
 dominions. 
 
 Alford, The Very Rev. Henry, D.D. 
 (/). 1810, d. 1871), educated at Charmouth 
 and Ilminster, graduated at Cambridge, 
 and took holy orders in 1832; after some 
 years spent in the coiintry he came to 
 London as minister of Quebec chapel 
 (1853), and in 1857 was made Dean of 
 Canterbury. He left several works, of 
 which the chief is his edition of the 
 Greek Testament; he also promoted and 
 assisted in the revision of the Authorised 
 Version. 
 
 Alfragan, a celebrated Arabian astro- 
 nomer, who flourished in the ninth century 
 at the court of Al Mamum, and was the 
 author of Elements of AsLronomy. 
 
 Alfred, a Saxon prince (d. 1036), son of 
 Ethelred II. and Emma, who was induced 
 to contest the English throne with his 
 brother Harold Harefoot, but was seized 
 and cruelly put to death at Ely. 
 
 Alfred the Great (6. Wantage, Berks, 
 849). the youngest sou of Ethel wuLf, king of 
 the West Saxons, succeeded on the death 
 of his brother Ethelred to a throne threat- 
 ened by invasion from without and dissension 
 within. His first care was to drive off the 
 Danes, whom he is said to have encountered 
 in fifty-six battles by land and sea. The 
 great victory of Edington (878) led to the 
 peace of Wedmore, and Alfred was thus for 
 a time free to devote himself to the peaceful 
 reforms for which bis name is renowned.
 
 Alf 
 
 (25) 
 
 Ali 
 
 Prominent amougst these are the establish- 
 meut of social order, the encouragement of 
 learning, and the fomiding of a national 
 fleet. Alfred died in 901, esteemed as a 
 rehgious and industrious man, and a wise 
 and learned king. 
 
 Alfric Ablaas, or the •' Abhot." A volu- 
 minous Saxon writer, who was Abbot of St. 
 Alban's in 'J69. 
 
 Algardi, Allessaudro {d. 1654), a sculptor 
 of Bologna of the seventeenth century. His 
 most famous works are his Altda and St. 
 Leo, and his monument of Leo XI. in St. 
 Peter's, and his group of the Beheading of 
 St. Paul at Bologna. He died in 1654. 
 
 Algarotti, Francesco, Count (d. 1764), 
 son of au Italian merchant ; he was 
 well versed in literature, and studied 
 at Bologna, and afterwards travelled 
 in Europe. Amongst his friends we 
 find many celebrated names, including 
 Voltaire and Pitt, and also Frederick the 
 Great, who made him a count, and on his 
 death erected a monument at Pisa to his 
 memory. 
 
 Algazalli, Abou lb Hamed (6. 1058, d. 
 1111), a distinguished Persian philosopher, 
 and director of the college of Bagdad. He 
 left numerous works, many of which are in 
 the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris. 
 
 Al-ghalib Billah {b. 1195, d. 1273), Mo- 
 hammed Ibn. Yusuf, founder of the dynasty 
 of the Naserites of Granada. 
 
 Al-hakem Ibn Atta, a celebrated impostor 
 of Khorassau in the eighth century, and the 
 subject of Moore's poem, Tlte Vetted 
 Prophet of Khorassnn. He claimed to be 
 the Deity, wore a golden mask, and attracted 
 a considerable following ; but being besieged 
 by the Imperial army, poisoned those with 
 him, burnt their bodies, and himself jmnped 
 into a corrosive fluid which consumed him, 
 leaving no trace. 
 
 Al-hakem BiamriUali (h. 985, d. 1046), 
 sixthCaliph ofEgypt of the Fatimist dynasty. 
 He assumed the government while still a 
 child, and after a reign marked by several 
 acts of oppression, was murdered at the 
 instigation of his sister. 
 
 Al-hakem I. (6. 770, d. 822), third Sultan 
 of Cordova. His conduct was such as to 
 induce repeated revolts, which he suppressed 
 with horrible cruelty, driving some 30,000 
 families into exile. 
 
 Al-hakem II. (6. 913, d. 976), ninth Sultan 
 of Cordova. A man of learning and virtue, 
 his reign may be regarded as the Golden Age 
 of Arabian literature. He also erected many 
 public buildings, and made extensive addi- 
 tions to the great Mosque. 
 
 Al-bazen {d. 1038), an Arabian mathema- 
 tician, who first discovered the effect of 
 refraction in astronomy. 
 
 Ali (6. 1084, d. 1142), second Sultan of 
 Africa and Spain. In war he was generally 
 successful, and won the battle of Ucles 
 in 1109. 
 
 All, sumamed Abu l-Hassan {d. 1351), was 
 Sultan of Africa in the 14th century. He in- 
 vaded Spain, but was totally vanquished 
 there, and, retm-ning home, was defeated 
 and put to death by a rebellious son. 
 
 Ali, sumamed Abu 'l-Hassan, twentieth 
 Sultan of Granada of the dynasty of the 
 Naserites, succeeded to the throne in 1466, 
 and carried on a vigorous war with the 
 Christians. The loss of Alhama filled his 
 subjects with consternation, and internal 
 dissensions breaking out, Ali, shortly before 
 his death, abdicated in favour of his brother. 
 
 Ali Abdul Sbah I., King of Beejapoor 
 (d. 1580), succeeded to the throne in 1557. He 
 restored the Shea in place of the Soonee creed, 
 and at first aUied himself with Ram Raja of 
 Bejanugger, whom he afterwards attacked, 
 and with the assistance of three other kings 
 totally defeated at Talikote. Ali also 
 attacked the Portuguese, but was repulsed 
 with loss. 
 
 Ali Abdul Shah IL (6. 1637, d. 1672), King 
 of Beejapoor, succeeded to the throne in 
 1656. His reign was one of trouble and 
 warfare; his capital was besieged by Au- 
 rimgzebe, and his general, Afzul Khan, 
 treacherously murdered. 
 
 Ali Bey, Pacha of Egypt (6. 1728, 
 d. 1772). A native of Circassia, he 
 was sold into Egypt as a child, but was 
 adopted by Ibrahun, lieutenant of the 
 Janissaries, and soon rose to be a member 
 of the council. He avenged the assassina- 
 tion of Ibrahim with his own hand, and 
 though forced to flee for a time, was recalled 
 aad placed at the head of the government. 
 He died of wounds received whilst crushing 
 a rebellion. 
 
 Ali Hekim Zade (6. 1688, d. 1758), a 
 Turkish minister-iu-chief of the army du- 
 ring the war with Persia in 1732. Three 
 times vizier, he was deposed and exiled, but 
 afterwards was appointed Pasha of Egypt, 
 and on his dismissal retired to Constanti- 
 nople, where he died. 
 
 Ali Ibn Abi Talib {h. 602, d. 661), 
 a cousin and faithful adherent of Mo- 
 hammed, whose daughter he married. 
 He became caliph in 656, and succeeded in 
 repulsing the repeated attacks of his ene- 
 mies. He was a great monarch, and a good 
 and learned man. 
 
 Ali Ibn Hanimud {d.lOll), founder of the
 
 Ali 
 
 (26) 
 
 All 
 
 dynasty of Hammudites. He wrested the 
 crowu of Cordova from Suleymau in 1016, 
 but made himself unpopular, and was 
 assassinated. 
 
 Ali Mustaplia (6. 1542, d. 1599), an his- 
 torian and poet, and member of the corps 
 of the Janissaries. Selim appointed him 
 Pasha of D Jidda. 
 
 Ali Pacha, vizier of Jannina (6. 1744, d. 
 1S22), the sou of an Albanian chief, on being 
 deprived of his territories he placed himself 
 at the head of a band of robbers, which he 
 increased to the number of 2,000, and carried 
 on a constant and cruel warfare for 50 years. 
 He was killed by the Turks, and his head 
 seut to Constantinople. 
 
 Alibert, Jean Louis, Baron (b. 1776, d. 
 1837), physician to Louis XVIII. and 
 Charles X. of France. He was eminent for 
 his general learning, as well as his profes- 
 sional ability. 
 
 Alibrandi, Girolamo (6. Messina 1470, d. 
 1524), a Sicilian painter, called the "Ra- 
 phael of Messina." He was a pupil of 
 Leonardi da Vinci ; his masterpiece is in the 
 church of Candelora in Messina. 
 
 Alice Maud Mary, Princess of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, and Grand Duchess of 
 Hesse Darmstadt (6. 1843, d. 1878), was the 
 third child of Queen Victoria and the Prince 
 Consort. In 1862 she married the Grand 
 Duke of Hesse, and died of diphtheria in 
 1878. Her private letters to the Queen 
 have been published and widely circulated in 
 England. 
 
 Alison, Rev. Archibald {b. 1757, d. 1839), 
 an accomplished scholar and divine, and 
 author of Essays on the Nature and Prin- 
 ciples of Taste. 
 
 Alison, Sir Archibald (p. 1826), son of the 
 preceding. He was educated at the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, and called to the 
 Scottish bar, becoming deputy advocate in 
 1822. But he is best known as an historian, 
 his great work being The History of Europe 
 from the French Revolution to the Eestoration 
 of the Bowbons, in recognition of which he 
 was made a baronet in 1852. 
 
 Alison, WilUamPulteney (6. 1790, d. 1859), 
 brother of the historian. He was a physician 
 and physiologist, did much to bring about 
 the improved poor law of Scotland, and was 
 author of several text-books on physiology 
 and medicine. 
 
 Alkan^ Charles Valentin (b. 1813), an 
 accomiilished pianist and composer, who 
 took the first prize at the Conservatoire when 
 only seven-and-a-half years old. 
 
 Alkemadi, Kornelis van (b. 1654, d. 1737). 
 a Dutch antiquarian and historian, who 
 
 made valuable contributions to these 
 sciences. 
 
 AUam, Andrew (b. 1655, d. 1685), a learned 
 Englishman, who left many works, and 
 assisted in the composition of the Athence 
 Oxo)iienses. 
 
 Allamand, Jean Nicholas Sebastian (6. 
 1713, d. 1787), professor of philosophy in 
 the universities of Franeker and Leyden, 
 and the first to explain the properties of the 
 Leyden jar. 
 
 Allan, David (b. 1744, d. 1796), Scottish 
 painter, studied in Glasgow and Italy, and 
 settling in Edinburgh was appointed mas- 
 ter of the Trustees' Academy. He has 
 been called the " Scottish Hogarth." 
 
 Allan, Sir WilUam, R.A. (6. Edinburgh, 
 1782, d. 1830). He studied painting in 
 Edinburgh and London, and then went to 
 Russia and obtained practice as a portrait 
 painter. In 1838 he was chosen president' 
 of the Royal Academy of Scotland, and in 
 1846 Her Majesty's principal limner for 
 Scotland. His best pictures are historical. 
 
 Alla-oo-deen I., Emperor of Delhi (d. 
 1316), the first Mohammedan invader of 
 the Deccan. He attacked Ram Deo, 
 and obtained the cession of Ellichpoor ; 
 then returning to Delhi, he put his luicle, the 
 emperor, to death, and ascended the throne. 
 His death is attributed to poison, 
 
 Alla-oo-deen II. (d. 1457), tenth king of the 
 Bahmuuy dynasty in the Deccan, succeeded 
 to the throne in 1435. He was a wise and 
 hximane monarch, and effected many im- 
 provements in his kingdom. 
 
 Allatius, Leo [d. 1669), a Greek physician, 
 professor in the Greek college at Rome, 
 and Ubrariau of the Vatican. 
 
 Alle^i, Gregorio (6. 1580, d. 1652), a 
 great musician, composer of the celebrated 
 Miserere ; he held a post in the Pontifical 
 chapel of Urban VIII. 
 
 Allen, Ethan {b. 1737, d. 1789), American 
 revolutionary general, captured Ticonderoga 
 in 1775, but was taken prisoner at Montreal 
 and released in 1778. 
 
 Allen, Harrison {b. 1841). Entering 
 the medical profession, he served with 
 the army of the Potomac, and after- 
 wards in the Washington hospital. Since 
 1865 he has filled chairs of anatomy and 
 zoology at Pennsylvania and Philadelphia, 
 and has published Outlines of Comparative 
 Anaiomij and Zoology, and other works. 
 
 Allen, Joel Asaph {b. Springfield, Mass., 
 1838), naturalist. He was a pupil and 
 assistant of Agassiz, whom he accompanied 
 to Brazil in 1865. He has been connected
 
 AU 
 
 (27) 
 
 Aim 
 
 ■with other exploring parties, and various 
 museums and scientific societies, and has 
 written many papers on zoological subjects. 
 
 Allen, John (b. 1771, d. 1843), Scottish 
 author, travelled with Lord Holland in 
 1801, and was long a resident at Holland 
 House, Loudon. He wrote largely for the 
 Edinburgh Jieview, and was author of 
 several historical works. 
 
 Allen, Oscar Dama (b. 1836), an American 
 chemist. He studied, and afterwards taught 
 in the Sheffield scientific school, and in 1873 
 was appointed to the chair of analytical 
 chemistry and metallurgy. Most of his in- 
 vestigations, which have been principally 
 directed to the rare metals, caesium and 
 rubidium, have appeared in the American 
 Journal of Science. 
 
 AUen, Ralph (b. 1694, d. 1764), philan- 
 thropist, lived chiefly at Bath. He was a 
 friend of Pope, Pitt, and Fielding, and is 
 the original of the latter's " Squire All- 
 worthy." 
 
 Allen, Thomas (b. 1542, d. 1632), English 
 mathematician, antiquarian, and astrologer, 
 studied at Oxford, and spent his life in 
 studious retirement. 
 
 Allen, William {b. 1532, d. 1594), cardinal, 
 an opposer of Protestantism and a supporter 
 of Philip II. in his claim to the English 
 throne. Founded the English college at 
 Douay. 
 
 AUen, Wilham (6. Mass., 1784, d. 1868), 
 an American writer, for some years president 
 of Bowdoin College, and author of an 
 American biographical dictionary, and other 
 works. 
 
 Allen, "William (b. 1770, d. 1843), chemical 
 lecturer at Guy's Hospital, and president of 
 the Pharmaceutical Society. He was a 
 member of the Society of Friends, and origi- 
 nator of many philanthropic schemes. 
 
 Allestre or Allestry, Richard (6. 1619, 
 d. 1680), a Royalist and divine who took part 
 in the Civil wars of the 17th century, and 
 after several reverses was made Regius Pro- 
 fessor of Divinity at Oxford in 1663. He 
 left many works. 
 
 AUeyn, Edward (6. 1566, d. 1626), a 
 celebrated actor, and founder of Dulwich 
 College. His charity was re-constituted by 
 Act of Parliament in 1858, and the new 
 buildings opened in 1870 
 
 AUier, Achilla (b. 1807, d. 1S36), 
 French engraver, and author of L^Ancl 
 Bourbonnais and VArt en Pr 
 
 a 
 
 ien 
 
 fovince. 
 
 Allingham, Mrs. Helen {b. 1848), the 
 eldest child of the late A. H. Paterson, M.D. 
 On her father's death she came to Loadou 
 
 and studied painting in the schools of the 
 Academy. Her sketches in black and white 
 first attracted notice; she afterwards 
 addressed herself to watercolour painting, 
 and has taken several portraits of Thomas 
 Carlyle. 
 
 Allingham, William (b. 1828, d. 1889), a 
 native of Ballyshaniion in the north-west of 
 Ireland, and author of many songs and 
 ballads. While editor of Fraser''s he con- 
 tributed to it several prose articles. 
 
 Allioni, Cario {b. 1725, d. 1804), an 
 Italian doctor of medicine and professor of 
 botany in the university of Turin; his 
 great work Flora Pedemontana, was pub- 
 lished in 1785. 
 
 Allman, George James (6. 1812), an Irish 
 zoologist, graduated at Trinity College, 
 Dublin ; has filled the chair of natural 
 history at the Edinburgh University, and 
 been president of several scientific associa- 
 tions. His writings are chiefly on zoophytes 
 and kindred species, and include a History 
 of the Fresh- Water Polyzoa, and Hijdroida 
 of the " Challenger " Expedition. 
 
 Allman, George Johnston (h. 1824), a 
 distinguished mathematician, and professor 
 of mathematics at Queen's College, Galway. 
 He has published papers on Greek 
 Geometry and on Some Properties of 
 Paraboloids. 
 
 Allman, William (*. 1776, d. 1846), an Irish 
 botanist and mathematician, he graduated 
 at Trinity College, Dublin, and was pro- 
 fessor of botany at the Dublin University 
 from 1809 to 1844. He was the first pro- 
 fessor to introduce the natural method of 
 classification, and is also author of a plan for 
 the Arrangement of Plants. 
 
 Allori, Alessandro, called Bronzino (b. 
 1635, d. 1607), a Florentine painter of 
 history and portraits. A Last Judgment 
 by him, after Michael Angelo Buonarroti, is 
 still at Rome. 
 
 Allorl, Cristofano, called Bronzino {d. 
 1621), son of the preceding, distinguished 
 as a painter of portraits and landscapes. 
 
 Allston, Washington {b. 1779, d. 1843), 
 an American painter ; he studied in London, 
 Paris, and Rome, and was the author of 
 Hints to Young Painters on the Study of 
 Landscape Painting. 
 
 Almada, Alvaro vas d', lived in the 
 15th century, and was created Count of 
 Avranches by Charles VI. of France. He 
 was devotedly attached to Dom Pedro, 
 Regent of Portugal, and on his death in the 
 battle of Alfarrobeira, rushed madly into 
 the fight and was slaiu. 
 
 Almagro, Diego d' (4. 1475, d. 1538), s
 
 Al-M 
 
 (28) 
 
 Alp 
 
 Spanish soldier, the companion of Francesco 
 Pizarro iu the conquest of Peru. In spite 
 of considerable forbearance ou Almagro's 
 side, quarrels between himself and the 
 Pizarro brothers were frequent, and in 
 1538 they had recourse to arms, and on 
 the plain of Las Salinas Almagro was 
 defeated and captured, and afterwards put 
 to death. 
 
 Al-Mahadi, Abu Mohammed Obeydullah 
 {b. 873, (/. 934), founder of the dynasty of 
 the Fatimites in Egypt and Africa. He was 
 proclaimed Sultan in 908, and founded the 
 city of Mehidia. 
 
 Alma-Tadema, Laurence, R.A. {b. 1836), 
 born in Friesland, painter, studied at 
 the Royal Academy of Antwerp, and was 
 afterwards pupil and assistant of Baron 
 Henry Leys. He settled in England, 
 where his pictures found a ready wel- 
 come. He was elected A. R.A. in 1876 and 
 R.A. iu 1879. Among his numerous works 
 are Phidias and the Elgin Marbles (1868), A 
 Boman Emperor (1871), The Sculpture Gal- 
 lery (1875), Sappho (1881), and The Roses of 
 Heliogabalus (1888). 
 
 Almeida, Francesco d' [d. 1510), the first 
 Portuguese viceroy of India. He captured 
 several towns on the east coast of Africa, and 
 after a victory at Calicut fixed his seat of 
 government at Cochin. Before resigning 
 the command to Albuquerque, who was 
 appointed to succeed him, he contrived to 
 defeat and disperse the fleets of Calicut and 
 Egj-pt. 
 
 Almeida, Lorenzo d', called "the Macca- 
 beus of Portugal,'' was the son of the pre- 
 ceding, in whose victories he took part. 
 He was slain in an engagement with the 
 Egyptian fleet in 1508. 
 
 Almeida, Manoel (6. 1580, d. 1646), a 
 learned Portuguese Jesuit, who worked as 
 missionary in India and Abyssinia. 
 
 Almeras, Louis, Baron (6. 1768, d. 1828), 
 a French general who served with gallantry 
 iu the wars of Napoleon, but was taken 
 prisoner during the retreat from Russia. 
 
 Almodavar, Duke of {d. 1794), a Spanish 
 diplomatist and author of the eighteenth 
 century. He was ambassador at the courts 
 of Russia, Portugal, and England, and 
 made a translation of Raynal's History of 
 the East and West Indies. 
 
 Almon, Johu(^». 1738, d. 1805), a political 
 writer and publisher, contributed many 
 articles to the Gazetteer^ and was prosecuted 
 and convicted for selling a reprint of 
 the Letters of Junius. 
 
 Almonde, Philip van {b. 1646, d. 1711), a 
 Dutch admiral, who served under De 
 Ruyter in the war against England. He 
 
 afterwards came to England with William 
 of Orange, and was prominent in the battles 
 of La Hogue and Vigo. 
 
 Almonte, Juan Nepomucenno (6. 1804, d. 
 1869), a Mexican general who served under 
 Santa Anna in the campaign of Texas and in 
 the war with America. In 1862 he was elected 
 president in the place of Juarez, but was 
 unable to form a government. He was 
 afterwards one of the triumvirate intrusted 
 vrith the management of Mexican affairs ; 
 he was favourably treated by Maximilian, 
 but on the execution of the emperor fled to 
 Europe, where he died. 
 
 Almqvist, Karl Jonas Ludwig (6. 1793, 
 d. 1860), a Swedish writer, author of The 
 Book of the Thorn Rose. Guilty of forgery 
 and murder, he was forced to fly, and took 
 refuge in America, where he became secre- 
 tary to President Lincoln, but afterwards 
 returned to Europe, where he died. 
 
 Al-mutassan Bmah [h. VIU, d. 1258), 
 Caliph of the Abbasides, a weak and ostenta- 
 tious king ; he was betrayed by his vizier, 
 Ibn Alkami, imprisoned, and put to death. 
 
 Al-muten Abbi (d. 965). an Arabian poet 
 of great celebrity and highly esteemed by the 
 Sultan of Syria and Egypt. Some of his 
 poems have been translated. 
 
 A. L. 0. E., the nom de plume of Miss 
 Charlotte Tucker, a very prolific writer of 
 moral and religious story-books for children. 
 
 Aloisi, Baldassare (b. 1578, d. 1638), an 
 eminent portrait and historical painter, 
 sometimes called the "Italian Vandyke;" 
 he was a pupil of the Carracci. 
 
 Alompra (6. 1710, d. 1760), founder of the 
 present dynasty of Burmah. Upon the 
 conquest of Burmah by the King of Pegu, 
 Alompra, then a petty chieftain, raised the 
 standard of rebellion, and after many 
 battles secm^ed the independence of his 
 country. He died while preparing to quell 
 an insurrection of the Peguans. 
 
 Alopa, Lorenzo or Laurentius, a learned 
 Venetian, who became celebrated as a printer 
 at Florence, his classical works being 
 especially beautiful and correct. 
 
 Alp-arslan, " the strong lion " (b. 1030, 
 d. 1072), Sultau of the Seljuk Turks; he 
 succeeded to the throne in 1063, and soon 
 commenced a series of brilliant conquests in 
 Asia Minor, Syria, and the province of 
 Gurgistan. An encounter with the Greek 
 emperor resulted in a defeat, which, how- 
 ever, was compensated by a signal victory 
 in 1071. 
 
 Alpedrinha, Cardinal (Jorge da Costa) 
 (h. 1406, d. 1508). a distinguished theo- 
 logian, whose influence over Alfonso V.
 
 Alp 
 
 (29) 
 
 Alv 
 
 was very great. He was made Archbishop 
 of Lisbon, and afterwards cardinal. 
 
 Alphen, Hieronymus van [b. 1746, d. 1803), 
 a German Protestant divine, who filled the 
 chair of theology in the university of 
 Utrecht from 1715 till his death ; he left 
 many works on theological subjects. 
 
 Alphonsus, Abulensis or Tostatus {b. 
 1400, d. 1445), theologian, who distinguished 
 himself by his eloquence at the Council of 
 Basle in 1440. 
 
 Alphonsus, Sancta Maria (AJphonse) 
 (ii. 1396, d. 1456), Spanish historian, canon 
 of the cathedral of Segovia, and after- 
 wards Bishop of Burgos. 
 
 Alpini, Prospero (6. 1553, d. 1616), 
 an Italian physician and botanist ; he tra- 
 velled in Europe afid other countries, and 
 founded the botanical garden of Padua. 
 
 Alpteghin, founder of the Ghaznevide 
 dynasty. A freed slave, he entered the 
 army and was made governor of Kho- 
 rassan, but refusing to recognise Mansur 
 as emperor, headed a revolt, and seized 
 Ghuznee, where he established himself. 
 
 Alquier, Charles Jean Marie (6. 1752, 
 d. Ii526), a French diplomatist and revolu- 
 tionist ; he was sent as ambassador to 
 various countries by the Directory and 
 Napoleon, but on the restoration of the 
 Bourbons was banished till 1818. 
 
 Alsop, Richard (6. 1761, d. 1815), a 
 learned prebendary of Winchester cathedLral, 
 who took part with Boyle ia the controversy 
 with Bentley. 
 
 Alstrbmer, Jonas (J. 1685, d. 1761), a 
 Swede, remarkable for his perseverance and 
 energy. The child of poor parents, he made 
 his way to London, where he acquired a 
 considerable fortune. This he devoted to 
 the good of his country, and succeeded in 
 introducing many new industries, and es- 
 tablishing factories for cotton-printing and 
 stocking- weaving. He also founded the 
 Swedish academy. 
 
 Altdorfer, Albrecht (6. 1488, d. 1538), 
 a Bavarian painter and engraver on wood 
 and metal. His painting of the Battle of 
 Arbela is in the gallery of Munich. 
 
 Althen, Ehan (6. 1711, d. 1744), a Per- 
 sian of great energy and perseverance, 
 who, in spite of many difficulties, succeeded 
 in introducing the cultivation of madder into 
 Avignon. His services, however, were un- 
 recognised, and he died in poverty. In 1821 
 a monument was erected to his memory. 
 
 Alunno, Niccolo (6. 1508, d. 1582), an 
 Italian artist, who painted the altar-piece 
 in the church of St. Nicholas at Foligni. 
 
 Alva, Ferdinand Alvarez de Toledo, Duke 
 of {h. 1508, d. 1582), Spanish governor of 
 the Netherlands under Philip II. of Spain, 
 and notorious for the merciless manner in 
 which he exercised his dictatorial power. 
 Under his rule more than 18,000 persons 
 were sent to the scaffold, and a revolt, headed 
 by the Prince of Orange, broke out, which, 
 after nearly forty years of war, resulted in 
 the independence of the provinces. Alva 
 was recalled in 1573, but he was soon given 
 the command of Portugal, which he quickly 
 conquered. Though his pride and cruelty 
 were excessive, he was undoubtedly the 
 greatest general of his age. 
 
 Alvarado, Alonzo (d. 1554), one of the 
 Spanish couquerorsof Mexico and Peru under 
 Pizarro ; he was defeated and made prisoner 
 by Almagro. He afterwards joined De Cas- 
 tro (1542), and was lieutenant-general of 
 the army which suppressed the rebeUion of 
 Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548. 
 
 Alvarado, Pedro d' {d. 1541), one of the 
 Spanish conquerors of Mexico ; he took part 
 in the expedition and victories of Cortez, and 
 was entrusted vrith the command of the city 
 of Mexico, and afterwards made governor of 
 Guatemala and Honduras. He explored 
 California, and was killed soon after his 
 return in an expedition against XaUsco. 
 
 Alvarez, AfFonso, a popular dramatic 
 writer of Portugal, supposed to have hved 
 in the 15th or 16th century. He was author 
 of many " autos " or religious plays. 
 
 Alvarez, Francisco, a Portuguese tra- 
 veller, who went on an embassy to 
 Abyssinia, and was the first to give to 
 Europe an account of the customs of that 
 country. He died in the 16th century. 
 
 Alvarez, Jose (6. 1768, d. 1827), a 
 Spanish sculptor who worked at Paris, 
 though many of his best works are at Madrid. 
 He showed himself a true patriot, and was 
 imprisoned for refusing to take the oath of 
 allegiance to Joseph Bonaparte as King of 
 Spain. 
 
 Alvarez, Juan, leader of the Mexican 
 revolution of 1855 ; he was proclaimed 
 president by the assembly at Cuemavaca, 
 but resigned within a few weeks in 
 favour of his minister Comonf ort, and taking 
 200,000 dollars, and such arms and ammuni- 
 tion as he could seize, returned with his 
 Indians to South Mexico. 
 
 Alvarez, Manoel (6. 1727, d. 1797), a 
 Spanish sculptor, sumamed "the Greek" 
 from the purity of his style. He was director 
 of the academy of San Fernando, and was 
 chosen to model the equestrian statue of 
 Phihp V.
 
 Alv 
 
 (30) 
 
 Ama 
 
 Alvarez do Oriente, Fernao (6. 1540, 
 d. 159o), a Portuguese poet, whose style 
 very closely resembles that of Camoeus, to 
 whom his principal work, A Lusitani 
 Transformada, is sometimes attributed. 
 
 Alvensleben, Philipp Karl, Count of 
 (6. 1745, (/. 1802), a Prussian diplomatist 
 under Frederick the Great, was employed 
 as ambassador at various European courts, 
 and being ajipointed in 1790 minister of 
 foreign affairs, left an account of the war 
 from the peace of Munster to the peace of 
 Hubertsburg. 
 
 Alviano, Bartolomeo {b. l45o, d. 1515), 
 a Venetian general, celebrated for his exploits 
 against the Emperor Maximilian, especially 
 at the siege of Padua, and in the battles of 
 Lamotte and Marignano. 
 
 Alvinczy, Joseph {d. 1810), an Austrian 
 general, who served in several wars, and 
 was distinguished for his bravery. He 
 was made generalissimo at the coronation 
 of the Empress Maria Louisa in 1808. 
 
 Al-walid I. {d. 715), succeeded his father 
 as caliph in 705. He built many splendid 
 mosques, and during his reign Sardinia and 
 Minorca were added to his dominions, and 
 Spain was conquered. 
 
 Al-walid II. succeeded as caliph in 743. 
 His dissolute conduct produced a revolt, 
 headed by Yezid, son of the preceding, and 
 Al-walid was defeated and beheaded. 
 
 Al-watmk Billah {b. 821, d. 847), Caliph 
 of Bagdad, succeeded in 842. He was a 
 patron of learning and science, and a good 
 sovereign, though somewhat of a gourmand. 
 
 Al-wathik Blllali, Sultan of Morocco in 
 1267. He eugaged iu war with Abu Yusef, 
 by whose assistance he had secured the 
 throne, which, however, resulted in the 
 defeat and death of the Sultan. 
 
 Al-wathik Billali, Sultan of Murcia, 
 succeeded his father iu 1237. He success- 
 fully contested the rival claim of Abu Bekr 
 Aziz, but was defeated and driven from his 
 dominions by Jayme I. of Aragon in 1270. 
 
 'Aly Fehmy Pasha, one of Arabi Pasha's 
 supporters in the Egyptian insurrection in 
 1880. After Tel-el-Kebir he was sentenced 
 to banishment, but was subsequently par- 
 doned. 
 
 Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio, bom in Pavia 
 in the loth century ; was one of the best 
 sculptors of his time, and has left some fine 
 bas-reliefs in the Certosa di Pavia, and at 
 Bergamo. 
 
 Amadeus, Prince {b. 1845), Duke of Aosta, 
 second son of Victor Emmanuel, King of 
 Italy, was chosen king of Spaiu in 1870, 
 abdicated in 1873, and retired to Italy. In 
 
 1888 he married Princess Le'titia, daughter 
 of Prince Napoleon. 
 
 Amadeus I., Count of Savoy, the son of 
 Humbert "of the white hands," and a 
 descendant of Berengarius II., became the 
 ancestor of the house of Savoy. 
 
 Amadeus II., Count of Savoy (d. 1080), 
 nephew of the preceding, and son of 
 Oddo and Adelaide. On the death of her 
 husband in 1060 Adelaide acted as regent 
 for her sons Peter and Amadeus, and on 
 the death of Peter in 1078, Amadeus and 
 his mother ruled jointly. 
 
 Amadeus III., Count of Savoy {d. 1148), 
 grandson of the preceding ; repelled an 
 attack by Guy, Count of Venice, and 
 afterwards joined Louis VII. of France in 
 the crusade of 1147. 
 
 Amadeus IV., Count of Savoy (6. 1179, 
 d. 1253), son of the preceding, succeeded 
 his father in 1233. He aided the Emperor 
 Frederick II. in his wars with Lombardy. 
 
 Amadeus V., Count of Savoy (6. 1249, 
 d. 1323), sumamed "the Great," suc- 
 ceeded as Count of Savoy in 1285, 
 but later he was induced to divide the 
 duchy with his nephew Philip, who was the 
 lawful heir. 
 
 Amadeus VI., Count of Savoy, the 
 "Green Count" (b. 1334, d. 1383), 
 succeeded his father in 1343. He extended 
 his dominions, defeating the French at 
 Arbrette, and compelling the submission 
 of James, Prince of Achaia; and in 1360 
 made a successful expedition to the East. 
 
 Amadeus VII., Count of Savoy (b. 
 1360, d. 1391), the "Red Count," 
 succeeded his father in 1383. He was 
 successful in war with the English and 
 Flemish, and during his rule added Nice to 
 his dominions. 
 
 Amadeus VIII. (6. 1383, d. 1451), "the 
 Pacific," Coimt and first Duke of Savoy, 
 extended his dominions, and received the 
 title of " Duke " from the Emperor Sigis- 
 mund, but in 1434 resigned the sovereignty 
 and retired to the priory of Ripaille. On 
 the deposition of Euganius in 1439 Ama- 
 deus was elected Pope, and took the name 
 of FeUx v., till he again retired in 1449. 
 
 Amadeus IX., Duke of Savoy {b. 1435, d. 
 1472), succeeded his father Louis in 1465. 
 His delicate health compelled the formation 
 of a regency, composed of his wife Yolande 
 and his brothers. 
 
 Amalaric {b. 502, d. 531) was elected king 
 of the Visigoths on the death of his father, 
 Alaric II. He married Clotildis, daughter 
 of Clovis I., but so persecuted her on ac- 
 count of her faith that she appealed to her
 
 Ama 
 
 (31) 
 
 Ama 
 
 brother, Childebert, King of the Franks, 
 who came to her rescue, and defeated and 
 slew Amalaric. 
 
 Amalaswintli, " The Maid of the Amali " 
 {d. 534), daughter of Theodoric, King of the 
 East Goths, was a beautiful and learned 
 woman. She acted as regent duriug the 
 minority of her son AthaMc, but on his 
 death associated with herself in the re- 
 gency her husband's nephew, Theodat. He, 
 however, soon formed designs on the throne, 
 and caused the queen to be put to death. 
 
 Amalek was the son of Eliphaz, and 
 grandsou of Esau, and one of the chieftains 
 of Edom. 
 
 Amalie (b. 1739, d. 1807), the widowed 
 Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, is remembered as 
 the patroness of literature, and her court 
 was the rendezvous of Goethe, Schiller and 
 others. She resigned the government to her 
 son in 1775. 
 
 Amalie, Anna {b. 1723, d. 1787), Princess 
 of Prussia, and sister of Frederick the Great. 
 She was distinguished for her musical talent 
 both as perf onner and composer. 
 
 Amalie, Elizabeth (6. 1602, d. 1651), 
 Landgravine of Hesse-Cassel, was en- 
 dowed with courage, beauty and wisdom. 
 On the death of her husband in 1637 she 
 assumed the regency, and took an active 
 part in the Thirty Years' war, obtaining a 
 peace favourable to the Protestants, as well 
 as an increase of territory. In 1648 she re- 
 signed the government to her son, and spent 
 the rest of her life in retirement. 
 
 Amalric, Amaud (d. 1225), was leader of 
 the crusade against the Albigenses in the 1 3th 
 century, and was rewarded for his services 
 with the Archbishopric of Narbonne. His 
 violence and cruelty were particularly pro- 
 minent at the taking of Beziers, and brought 
 him a severe reproof from the Pope. He 
 quarrelled with his former ally Simon de 
 Montfort respecting his claims to the duchy 
 ©f Narbonne. 
 
 Amalteo, Giambattista lb. 1525, d. 1573), 
 secretary to Pius VII., and one of the best 
 poets of his day. His compositions in Latin 
 and Italian are of high merit. 
 
 Amalteo, Pomponia {b. 1505), painted in 
 oil and fresco. His best work, the Judg- 
 ment of Solomon, is in the church of San 
 Francisco at Udine. 
 
 Amar, Andr^ (6. 1750, d. Paris 1816), a 
 French advocate, who was deputy for Isere 
 in the National Convention in 1792, and 
 voted for the execution of Louis XVI. He 
 exercised his authority in the department of 
 Aiu with great zeal and cruelty, but duriug 
 the reign of Napoleon lived in obscurity. 
 
 Amara Sinha, a famous Hindoo poet, 
 flourished in the 1st century B.C.; of his 
 numerous works only one, the Amara- 
 Kosha, a Sanscrit vocabulary, is extant. 
 
 Amaral, Andreas do {d. 1521), a Portu- 
 guese Knight of St. John of Jerusalem, and 
 Grand Prior of Castile. During the siege 
 of Rhodes he was convicted of carrying on a 
 secret correspondence with the Sultan, and 
 was put to death. 
 
 Amaral, Antonio Castano do (6. 1747, d. 
 1819), a learned Portuguese historian and 
 author of the valuable Memoirs on the 
 Forms of Government and Customs of the 
 Nations that inhabited Portugal. 
 
 Amar-Dvirivier, Jean Augustin {b. 1765, d. 
 Paris 1837), devoted himself to the cause of 
 education in Lyons, and contributed largely 
 to the educational works of his day. In 
 1809 he was appointed conservator of the 
 Mazarin library in Paris. 
 
 Amari, Michele (b. 1806), was borri and 
 I educated at Palermo, and took a keen in- 
 j terest in the politics of his country during 
 j the first half of the century. Being forced, 
 ! for political reasons, to leave his country, he 
 spent some years in Paris, where he studied 
 Arabic, and in 1859 was appointed professor 
 of Arabic in the imperial institute at Flor- 
 ence. In 1862 he was minister of education. 
 His fame, however, rests mainly upon his 
 work as an author; the Historr/ of the 
 \ Sicilian Vespers (1842) has been translated 
 I into English, French, and German, while 
 his greatest work, the Storm dei Miissul- 
 mdni di Sicilia, was not completed till 1872. 
 
 Amaseo, Romolo [b. 1489, d. 1552), scholar 
 and orator, filled the chairs of literae 
 Humauiores in Padua, Bologna and Rome, 
 and left a considerable number of works. 
 
 Amasis, King of Egypt in the sixth cen- 
 tury B.C. He deposed Apries, and is said to 
 have been the first conqueror of Cyrus. He 
 erected the monolith temple at Sais, en- 
 couraged commerce, and enjoyed a pros- 
 perous reign. 
 
 Amat, Feliz (6. 1750, d. 1824), a man of 
 precocious development of mind and body. 
 He was professor, and afterwards director, 
 of the ecclesiastical seminary at Barcelona. 
 In 1803 he was made Abbot of San Ilde- 
 fonso and Archbishop of Palmyra, and 
 though he had actively resisted the Fi'ench 
 in 1790, his conduct towards them in 1808 
 rendered him unpopular, and he retired to a 
 Franciscan convent, where he died. He left 
 many works, amongst them being an eccle- 
 siastical history and a Spanish -Catalan dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 Amati, a Cremonese family, several mem- 
 bers of which (notably Niccolo) in the 16th
 
 Ama 
 
 (32) 
 
 Ame 
 
 aDd 17th centuries were famed as violiu- 
 niakers. 
 
 Amato, Giovanni Antonio d', surnamed 
 II ^'eechio {b. 1475, d. 1555), a distin- 
 guished Italian painter, who worked both 
 in oil and fresco, but confuied himself to 
 sacred subjects. His best work, T/ie 
 Dispute on the Sacrament, is in the cathe- 
 dral at Naples. 
 
 Amato, Giovanni Antonio d' (b. 1535, </. 
 1.598), nephew and pupil of the preceding. 
 His pictures are in the style of Titian and 
 are distinguished by their fine colouring. 
 
 Amaury, Amalricus, a native of Chartres, 
 whose doctrines brought upon him the con- 
 demnation of Innocent III. His dogmas were 
 collected in a book called Fhysion, which 
 is now lost. 
 
 Amaury, Aimfery, or Amalric 1. (6. 1135, 
 d. 1173), King of Jerusalem; succeeded his 
 brother Baldwin III. iu 1162. His reign is 
 a continual record of wars, in which Amaury 
 met with varying fortune, and his last years 
 were spent iu protecting his country against 
 the incursions of Saladin. 
 
 Amaury II., or Aimery de Lusignan {d. 
 1205), succeeded to the throne of Cyprus ou 
 the death of his brother Guy in 1194, and 
 obtained that of Jerusalem iu right of his 
 wife, the daughter of Amaury I. He cap- 
 tured Beyrout from the Saracens, but was 
 compelled to make a truce with the Turks. 
 
 Amaziah, son of Joash and eighth king of 
 Judah. He was victorious over the Edom- 
 ites, but was defeated and made prisoner by 
 Joash, King of Israel. 
 
 Amberger, Christoph {b. 1490, d. 1569), 
 a pupil of the elder Holbein ; he painted in 
 oil and fresco, and many of his works are 
 at Munich and Augsberg 
 
 Ambiorix, King of the Eburones. He 
 headed a revolt of the Belgians against 
 Julius Csesar and was at first successful. In 
 later attacks upon Quintus Cicero and 
 Labienus he was repulsed, but gave such 
 trouble to the Romans that Csesar himself 
 led an army into his territories and 
 ravaged them, but he escaped across the 
 Rhine. 
 
 Amboise, Charles d' (6. 1473, d. 1511), 
 marshal of France, took part in the Italian 
 wars and enjoyed the confidence of Louis 
 XI. 
 
 Amboise, George d' (&. 1460, d. 1510), a 
 French cardinal and minister of state. He 
 was successively Bishop of Moutaubau, 
 Archbishop of Narbonue, and of Rouen, and 
 after acquiring considerable popularity as 
 prime minister under Louis XII. was made 
 cardinal and appointed legate in France, 
 
 where he effected great reforms among the 
 religious orders. 
 
 Ambra, Francesco d' {d. 1558), a Flor- 
 entine poet, wrote three excellent comedies, 
 besides other works. 
 
 Ambrogio or Ambrosio, Teseo (6. 1469, 
 d. 1540), a celebrated Italian orientalist who 
 was appointed by Leo X. professor of Syriao 
 and Chaldee at Bologna, 
 
 Ambrosius, Aurelianus {d. 497), a Brffish 
 prince, who succeeded in deposing Vortigern 
 and being himself proclaimed king in 465. 
 He afterwards fought with the Saxons 
 under Hengist, whom he finally overcame 
 and put to death Ln 489. 
 
 Ambrosius or Ambrose, Saint, Bishop of 
 Milan {h. 333 or 334, d. 397), was remarkable 
 for his calm bravery and impartial adminis- 
 tration of justice. The son of a Praetorian 
 prefect and himself Governor of Liguria, he 
 was called iu 374, whilst still unbaptised, to 
 the bishopric of Milan, and distinguished 
 himself by his opposition to Arianism and 
 Paganism, as well as to the crimes of the 
 Emperor. He was also the first great re- 
 former of church music, and left numerous 
 religious works. 
 
 Ambrosius, Andre Sertis Kamenski (6. 
 1708, d. 1771), was a Russian, who assumed 
 the name Ambrosius when he became a 
 monk, and in 1761 was appointed Arch- 
 bishop of Moscow. He was distinguished 
 for his piety, learning, and active benevo- 
 lence, but in the time of the plague in Mos- 
 cow was seized by the infuriated populace 
 and cruelly put to death. 
 
 Ambrozy, Wenzel Bernard (6. 1723, d. 
 1806), a BcAemian painter of the Venetian 
 school, who was patronised by Maria Theresa 
 and the Emperor Joseph II. 
 
 Ambuehl, Johann Ludwig (6. 1750, d. 
 1800), a Swiss poet, historian, and novelist. 
 
 Ameilhon, Hubert Pascal (6. 1730, d. 
 1811), French historian and philologist. 
 
 Ameipsias, a Greek comic poet, the con- 
 temporary of Aristophanes, in competition 
 with whom he twice gained the prize. Only 
 fragments of his works remain. 
 
 Amelie, Marie (h. 1782, d. 1866), Queen of 
 the French, married Louis Philippe in 1809, 
 was daughter of Ferdinand, first king of 
 the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Amelius, Martin (6. 1526, d. 1590), a dis- 
 tinguished chancellor of Baden and an 
 energetic advocate of the reformed religion. 
 
 Amelotde la Houssaye, Abraham Nicholas 
 [h. 1634, d. 1706), a French writer, who was 
 secretary to the embassy at Venice and 
 wrote a history of the government of that
 
 Ame 
 
 (33) 
 
 Amm 
 
 place, which gave such offence that its 
 author was imprisoned in the Bastille. 
 
 Amelotte, Denys (b. 1606, d. 1678), 
 Superior of the Oratory at Paris, translated 
 the New Testament. 
 
 Amelxinghi, Girolamo, an Italian poet of 
 the sixteenth centuiy, called // Gobbo 
 di Pisa, inventor of the burlesque style 
 of poetry. His principal poem, i« Gigantea, 
 was published iu 1547. 
 
 AmenopMs I., King of Egypt in 1778 B.C., 
 was a warlike prince who reigned twenty- 
 one years. 
 
 AmenopMs n., King of Egypt, ascended 
 the throne iu 1687 B.C. After many years of 
 war he succeeded in expelling the " Shepherd 
 Kings." 
 
 AmenopMs IIL, grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, a celebrated Egyptian king, at 
 first shared his throne with a brother, on 
 whose death he reigned alone, and erected 
 the temple-palace of Luxor and other colossal 
 works. A statue of this king stands in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 AmenopMs IV. succeeded Sesostris on the 
 Egyptian throne in 1322 B.C. 
 
 Amerbach, Boniface (6. 1495, «?. 1562), 
 the youngest son of Johann, and a friend of 
 Erasmus ; he was professor of civil law in 
 the university of Basle, and was a good 
 Latin and Hebrew scholar 
 
 Amerbach, Johann {d. 1515), a learned 
 and wealthy printer of Basle, and the first 
 to use Roman in the place of Gothic and 
 Itahan type. He published excellent edi- 
 tions of the works of St. Augustine and St. 
 Ambrose, and was preparing to print those 
 of St. Jerome at the time of his death. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci (6. Florence, 1451, d. 
 Seville, 1512), was an Italian navigator who 
 visited Brazil in 1503. He had previously 
 made several voyages of exploration, and 
 claimed priority over Cabot and Columbus 
 in reaclung the mainland, named iu his 
 honour America, but the best authorities 
 consider this claim to be unfounded. 
 
 Amerpack, Veit or Veitus (6. 1506, d. 
 1557), a learned professor of philosophy at 
 Ingoldstadt, left many works of value. 
 
 Ames, Fisher (6. 1758, d. 1808), American 
 lawyer and politician who sat in the Massa- 
 chusetts Convention, and was afterwards a 
 member of Congress, and famed for his 
 eloquence. He retired from public life with 
 Washington, and devoting himself to literary 
 pursuits, was elected president of Harvard 
 College iu 1804. 
 
 Ames, Joseph {b. 1689, d. 1759), an iron- 
 monger of London, evinced a great love for 
 antiquities, and wrote an historical account 
 
 of printing in England from 1471 to 1600. 
 He was elected fellow of the Society of An- 
 tiquaries and member of the Royal 
 Society. 
 
 Amherst, Jeffrey, Lord {b. 1717, d. 
 1797), British general, served on the Con- 
 tinent and in America, where he succeeded 
 Abercrombie as commander-in-chief. Here 
 he was remarkably successful, aud after 
 many victories, Montreal surrendered aud 
 Newfoundland was recovered from the 
 French. He was raised to the peerage in 
 1776, and was appointed field-marshal in 
 1796. 
 
 Amici, Giambattista {b. 1784, d. 1863), 
 professor of mathematics at Modena and 
 director of the observatory at Florence, 
 made several important discoveries in botany 
 and zoology. 
 
 Amico, Vito Maria (6. 1693, d. 1762), a 
 Benedictine monk, who was prior of his con- 
 vent and historiographer of Sicily ; he vsrote 
 several works on the histories of his country 
 aud monastic order. 
 
 Amicom or Amigom, Jacopo {b. 1675, d. 
 no2), Italian painter who travelled in 
 Europe, and visited England in 1729. 
 
 Amiot or Amyot, Joseph (6. 1718, d. 
 Pekin, 1794), a Jesuit missionary who went 
 in 1750 to Chhia, and after studying the 
 language and literature, wrote an important 
 history of that coimtry. 
 
 Amleth, Amlod, or Hamlet, a prince of 
 Jutland, the original of Shakespere's tragedy 
 of Hamlet. His history, which is largely 
 fictitious, represents him as slaying his 
 uncle and the courtiers, and after travelliug 
 in England and Scotland, returning to Jut- 
 land, where he was killed by Vigleth. 
 
 Amman, Jost (6. 1539, d. 1591), an ex- 
 tremely prolific and popular designer; he 
 also painted well in oils. 
 
 Ammannati, Bartolomeo (6. 1511, d. 
 1589), an Itahan sculptor, architect, and 
 engineer, a pupil of Bandinelli and of 
 Sansovino. He worked in Rome, Flor- 
 ence, Naples and elsewhere, aud planned 
 the Ponte della Trinita, which bridges the 
 Amo at Florence. 
 
 Ammianus, Marcellinus, an historian of 
 the fourth century, who served in Gaul, 
 Persia, Mesopotamia, aud iu the Persian 
 wars under Julian. His history, which has 
 been praised for its accuracy aud impar- 
 tiality, is a continuation of that of Tacitus 
 to the time of Ammianus. 
 
 Ammirato, Scipione (6. 1531, d. 1601), a 
 Neapolitan historian and genealogist; he was 
 called the modem Livy, and wrote an erudite 
 history of Florence, as well as several 
 biographies.
 
 Amm 
 
 (34) 
 
 Amy 
 
 Ammonio, Andrea (6. 1477, d. 1517), 
 scholar and poet, became secretary for Latin 
 correspondence to Henry VIII., and was a 
 friend of Erasmus and Sir Thomas More. 
 
 Ammonius, a surgeon of Alexandria who 
 flourished in the third century B.C., the in- 
 ventor of lithotrity. 
 
 Ammonius, the son of Hermias, was a 
 celebrated teacher of philosophy at Alex- 
 andria in the sixth century. He was a Neo- 
 Platonist, but wrote several commentaries 
 on Aristotle, whom he greatly admired. 
 
 Amo, Anton Wilhelm (6. 1703), a native 
 of Guinea, was adopted by the Duke of 
 Brunswick and educated at the universities 
 of Halle and Wittenberg, where he distin- 
 guished himself by his talents and learning. 
 He rose to be coimcillor of state in Berlin, 
 but on the death of his adopted father he 
 is said to have returned to the Gold Coast. 
 
 Amontons, Guillaume (6. 1663, d. 1705), 
 a Frenchman learned in natural philo- 
 sophy, whose inventions did much for the 
 promotion of science. He constructed a 
 new thermometer, hygroscope, and other in- 
 struments, and is by some said to have in- 
 vented the telegraph. 
 
 Amoretti, Carlo (6. 1741, d. 1816), Italian 
 naturalist and geographer, wrote at Milan 
 an interesting collection of literary memoirs. 
 His best-known work is A Journey from 
 Milan to the Three Lakes. 
 
 Amorosi, Antonio, an Italian paiater of 
 the eighteenth century, who especially ex- 
 celled in humorous pictures of low life. 
 
 Amory, Thomas (6. 1691, d. 1788), English 
 tumorous writer, author of The Life and 
 Opinions of John Buncle, Esq. 
 
 Amos, one of the minor prophets, was 
 a native of Tekoa, a village about eleven 
 miles south of Jerusalem. 
 
 Amour, Guillaume de Saint {d. 1272), 
 canon of Beauvais, and professor of philo- 
 sophy in the imiversity of Paris, took a 
 prominent part in the dispute between the 
 professors and the Dominicans, and was 
 the chief associate of Robert Sorbonne in 
 founding the establishment of the Sorbonne. 
 
 Ampere, Andre Marie (6. 1775, d. 1836), 
 a distinguished electrician, who may be 
 considered the father of electro-magnetics. 
 He first attracted attention by a treatise on 
 the Theory of Probability, published in 1802, 
 and obtained a post as teacher, and ulti- 
 mately as professor, at the polytechnic 
 school in Paris. In 1820 Orsted's discovery 
 of the effect of voltaic currents upon mag- 
 netic needles was brought to his notice, 
 and Ampere verified and completed this, and 
 showed also the mutual effect of currents 
 
 upon each other, from which he deduced a 
 new theory of magnetiem. The Royal 
 Academy of Sciences recognised his services, 
 and gave his name to one of the electro- 
 magnetic units. Ampere's last great work 
 was the classification of the sciences, but 
 this he did not live to finish. 
 
 Ampere, Jean Jacques Antoine (h. 1800, 
 d. 1SG4), son of the preceding, an historian 
 and literary critic of repute, became pro- 
 fessor of French literary history at the 
 College de France. 
 
 Amphilochus, Saint {d. 399), Bishop of 
 Iconium, and the contemporary and friend 
 of Basil and Gregory Nazianzen. He took 
 part in the Council of Constantinople, and 
 was a zealous opponent of the Ariaus. 
 
 Ampthill, Right Hon. Odo William Leo- 
 pold Russell, Baron (6. 1829, d. 1884), third 
 sou of Major-General Lord George William 
 Russell. He was educated chiefiy on the 
 Continent, and acquired great proficiency in 
 modem languages, and entering the diplo- 
 matic service, was employed in several 
 countries as attache to the English embassy 
 and otherwise. In 1857 he was appointed 
 ambassador to Berlin, and with Lords 
 Beaconsfield and Salisbuiy represented 
 England at the Congress of Berlin, 1878. 
 He was created Baron Ampthill of Ampthill 
 in 1881. 
 
 Amru rbn Othman, a learned Persian of 
 the 8th century, who compiled the Arabic 
 grammar and syntax known as The Book. 
 
 Amru-Ibnu-l-Ass (6. 600, d. 663), an 
 opponent, but afterwards a supporter and 
 general of Mohammed, on whose death he 
 fought in Palestine and Egypt, capturing 
 Jerusalem and Alexandria, and destroying 
 the library at the latter place. 
 
 Amru-1-Kays, a celebrated Persian poet, 
 who wrote one of the Moallakat or poema 
 suspended in the temple at Mecca. 
 
 Amsdorf, Nicholas von (6. 1483, d. 1565), 
 a disciple and supporter of Luther, whom he 
 assisted in the translation of the Bible. He 
 was appointed Bishop of Naumberg in 1524. 
 
 Amulius, King of Alba {d. B.C. 714), de- 
 throned his brother Numitor, and forced the 
 latter's daughter, Rhea Silvia, to become a 
 vestal virgin ; she became, however, mother 
 of Romulus and Remus, who slew the 
 usurper. 
 
 Amussat, Jean Zulema (6. 1796, d. 1856), 
 a French surgeon, eminent for his researches 
 and writings, especially those on the vas- 
 cular system. 
 
 Amynander, a king of Athamania, who 
 lived in the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C., acted 
 as mediator between Philip of Macedon
 
 Amy 
 
 (35) 
 
 Ana 
 
 and the ^tolians, and also took part in the 
 ■wars between Rome and Macedon. 
 
 Amyntas I., King of Macedonia, came to 
 the throne B.C. 610 ; he became tributary 
 for his domioions to the Persians. 
 
 Am3nitas II., King of Macedonia {d. B.C. 
 370) B.C. 394. He was defeated by the Illy- 
 rians, but with the help of Thessaly and 
 Sparta recovered his throne. 
 
 Amyntas III., King of Macedonia, was 
 only an infant ou his father's death, and his 
 xmcle Philip assumed first the regency, and 
 then the throne. He was put to death for 
 conspiring against his cousin Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 Amyot, Jacques (6. 1513, d. 1593), pro- 
 fessor of Greek and Latin at the College 
 of Prance, afterwards preceptor to the sous 
 of Henry II. Charles IX. appointed him 
 Bishop of Auxerre and Grand Almoner of 
 France. His greatest work was a translation 
 of the Lives of Fliitarch. 
 
 Amyrant (Amyraldus), Moise, (6. 1596, r/. 
 1664), a Protestant theologian and professor 
 of the university of Saumur, who excited a 
 violent controversy by a defence of Calvin's 
 doctrine of predestination. 
 
 Anacaona {d. 1503), Queen of Xaraguaia 
 Hayti. Her husband, the chief of Ma^uana, 
 beiug captured and carried off by Colum- 
 bns, she went to her brother the King of 
 Xaragua, who associated her with him in the 
 government. She treated the Spaniards 
 kindly and honourably, but was treacher- 
 ously seized and put to death by Ovando, 
 the Spanish governor. 
 
 Anacletus II., a cardinal of wealth and 
 learning ; he was elected by a minority as 
 Pope, and maintamed his position against 
 Innocent II., till his death m 1138. 
 
 Aoacreon (6. ctrca 560), a Greek lyric poet 
 who lived at Samos under the patronage 
 of the tyrant Polycrates, and afterwards at 
 Athens. His poems were admirably trans- 
 lated by Moore. 
 
 Ananias, High Priest of the Jews, was 
 appointed in a.d. 48, but was deposed before 
 Felix left the province. He was a violent 
 and lawless man and was assassinated by 
 the sicarii at the beginning of the last Jewish 
 war. 
 
 Ananias, an early professor of Christianity 
 who with his wife attempted to deceive the 
 apostles, but was punished with instant 
 death. 
 
 Ana n ias, a Christian of Damascus who by 
 Divine du'ection sought out Saul in his 
 blindness and comforted and healed him. 
 He IS said to have been afterwards Bishop of 
 Damascus, and to have suffered martyrdom. 
 
 D 2 
 
 Ananus, the Elder, or Annas, High Priest 
 under the governorship of Cyrenius, be- 
 fore whom our Lord was first brought by 
 the Jews. He is frequently mentioned by 
 Josephus. 
 
 Ananus, the Younger {d. 67), son of the 
 preceding. He was made High Priest by 
 Agrippa, but after three months, during 
 which he had put James the Less to death, 
 he was deposed. He courageously opposed 
 the Zealots, who had seized the temple and 
 succeeded in gaming the outer court, but 
 was attacked and slain by the Idumeans. 
 
 Anarawd or Anarod {d. 913), a Welsh 
 prince who in 867 succeeded his father 
 Roderick to the throne of North Wales. He 
 received the Britons who were driven from 
 Cumberland, granted them land and assisted 
 them in defeating the Saxons at the battle 
 of Dial Rodri, near Conway. 
 
 Anarcliarsis, a celebrated Scythian philo- 
 sopher, who lived in the 16th century B.C., 
 and whose remarks, as recorded by Lucian 
 and other writers, show him to have been a 
 shrewd and just thinker. He spent some 
 time in Athens, where he became intimate 
 with Solon ; and afterwards visited Croesus, 
 King of Lydia ; but on his return home was 
 put to death by his brother the king. 
 
 Anasco, Juan de, a Spanish adventurer, 
 who under Hernando de Soto assisted in the 
 conquest of Florida. 
 
 Anastatia, Saint, a pious and charitable 
 Christian lady who suffered martyrdom in 
 the Diocletian persecution in 303. 
 
 Anastatius, anti-Pope, Cardinal of St. 
 Marcellus, was set up by the Emperors 
 Lothaire and Louis in opposition to Benedict 
 III. in 855. 
 
 Anastatius Sinaita {d. 593), Patriarch of 
 Antioch, was expelled from his see by Justin 
 II. in 570, but was afterwards restored. 
 
 Anastatius Sinaita {d. G08), the Younger, 
 Patriarch of Antioch and successor of the 
 preceding. He was zealous in his efforts to 
 convert the Jews, who however revolted, 
 and put him to death with great cruelty. 
 
 Anastatius I. (6. 430, «?. 518), Emperor of 
 Constantmople, called Dicorus on account 
 of the different colours of his eyes. Of 
 humble origin, he entered the life-guards 
 of the Emperor Zeno, on whose death in 
 491 he was raised to the throne. A war 
 with Persia and an invasion of the Huns 
 were among the troubles of his reign, while 
 in 514 Vitalianus besieged Constantinople 
 and defeated Anastatius by land and sea. 
 
 Anastatius II. (d. 719), Emperor of 
 Constantinople. On the deposition of the
 
 Ana 
 
 (36) 
 
 Anc 
 
 Emperor Pliilippicus, his miuister Artemis 
 was elected to the throue aud assumed the 
 name of Auastatius. A rival claimant arose 
 iu Theodosius, who besieged and took Con- 
 stautmople, and Auastatius abdicated aud 
 retired to a convent in 716. In an. attempt 
 to regain the throne he was betrayed aud 
 beheaded. 
 
 Anastatius I. (d. 401), Pope, a contem- 
 porary of Chrysostom, Augusttue, and 
 Jerome; he reconciled the Churches of 
 Rome and Antioch, and opposed the opinions 
 of Origen. 
 
 Anastatius II. (d. 498), Pope, was elected 
 in 496, aud vainly endeavoured to create 
 harmony between the Eastern ajid Western 
 Churches. 
 
 Anastatius III. (d. 913), Pope, a man of 
 mild dispositiou and moderate views. 
 
 Anastatius IV. (d. 1154), Pope, a man 
 of wisdom and charity, who succeeded 
 Eugenius III. in 1153. 
 
 Anatolius of Alexandria, Saint, Bishop of 
 Laodicea in the 3rd century, aud oue of the 
 most learned men of his tune. He was the 
 first Christian who taught the philosophy of 
 Aristotle, and is said to have suffered mar- 
 tyrdom. 
 
 Anaxagoras (b. b.c. 500, d. b.o. 428), a 
 celebrated Greek philosopher who taught at 
 Athens, aud numbered amongst his pupils 
 many distinguished men, including Euripides 
 and Pericles, and prgbably Thucydides and 
 Socrates, toeing bamshed on a charge of 
 atheism, he retired to Lampsacus, where he 
 remained undisturbed till his death. He 
 explained his views in a treatise on iVa- 
 iure. 
 
 Anazandrides, a Greek comic poet of the 
 4th century B.C., bom at Rhodes; was 
 accused of libelling the government, and 
 starved to death at Athens. 
 
 Anaxarchus of Abdera (d. b.c. 323), a 
 Greek philosopher of the school of Leucippus 
 and Democritus, and a friend of Alexander 
 the Great. He was cruelly put to death by 
 the tyrant of Cyprus. 
 
 Anaximander (6. 610 b.c, d. 547 b.c.) was 
 the friend and disciple of Thales of Miletus, 
 and was a distinguished astronomer. He 
 first noticed the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
 taught that the moou shines by reflected 
 hght, and that the earth is globular. 
 
 Anaximenes (b. 628 b.c), the pupil and 
 successor of the preceding, regarded air as 
 the primal principle of all things, and Pliny 
 attributes to him the invention of the sun- 
 dial. 
 
 A na xim enes of Lampsacus, a Greek 
 
 historian and philosopher, was the son of 
 Aristocles, and one of the preceptors of 
 Alexander the Great, and wrote a history of 
 the reigns of Philip aud Alexander. 
 
 Anaya y Maldonado, Diego (6. 1360, d. 
 1440), Archbishop of Salamanca, represented 
 Castile at the Council of Constance in 1414, 
 and was afterwards ambassador to France 
 for John II. He founded and endowed the 
 college of Salamanca, the first of the great 
 colleges of Spain. 
 
 Ancelot, Jacques Arsene rran(,ois Poly- 
 carpe {b. 1794, af. 1854), a French dramatist, 
 originally a clerk iu the marine department, 
 who from 1819 to 1829 wi-ote several trage- 
 dies. Was iu receipt of a pension from 
 Louis XIII., which iu 1830 he lost aud was 
 prohibited from writing tragedies, but 
 with the assistance of his wife produced 
 a number of comedies and operettas. In 
 1841 he was elected member of the French 
 Academy. 
 
 Ancelot, Marguerite Virginie Chardon {b. 
 1792, d. 1875), wife of the preceding, whom 
 she considerably assisted in his work, being 
 herself a writer of novels and comedies. 
 
 AncMeta, Jose de (b. 1533, d. 1597), a 
 Portuguese missionary, "the Apostle of 
 Brazil," where he worked indefatigably 
 amongst the Indians. He was also author 
 of a treatise on I'/te Natural Froductions of 
 Brazil. 
 
 AnciUon, Charies {h. 1659, d. 1715), eldest 
 eon of David AnciUon. He was judge 
 of the French refugees at Berlin, and 
 historiographer to the King of Prussia. 
 He left several biographical and historical 
 works. 
 
 Ancillon, David (6. 1617, d. 1692), a French 
 Protestant divine, and uative of Metz, from 
 whence he fled to Berlin upon the revocation 
 of the Edict of Nantes. 
 
 AncUlon, Johann Peter Frederick (6. 
 1766, d. 1837), German preacher and author, 
 and member of the Academy of Sciences iu 
 Berlin, was an advocate of constitutional 
 freedom. In 1831 was placed at the head 
 of foreign affairs. 
 
 Ancina, Giovanni Giovenale {b. 1545, d. 
 1604), was professor of medicine iu the uni- 
 versity of Turin, but determined in 1572 to 
 devote himself to theology, aud in 1602 was 
 appointed Bishop of Saluzzo. 
 
 Anckwitz, Nicholas (b. 1750, d. 1794), 
 Polish diplomatist, a talented but vicious 
 man, was accused by the populace of 
 accepting bribes from Prussia, aud put to 
 death. 
 
 Ancus Martins {d. b.c. 616), fourth king
 
 And 
 
 (37) 
 
 And 
 
 of Rome, and grandson of Numa Pompilius. 
 He did much in the interests of religion and 
 laws, built the town of Ostia, defeated the 
 Latins in a sanguinary battle, and had a 
 prosperous reign of twenty-four years. 
 
 Andelo, or Andelau, Herman Peter von, 
 a German jurist of the loth century, who 
 studied at Padua, and was the first to com- 
 pile a system of German law. 
 
 Andersen, Hans Christian (6. 1805, d. 
 1875). The son of poor parents, was bom 
 at Odensee in Funen ; he early showed a 
 strong inclination for the stage, and at 
 fourteen went to Copenhagen, where he 
 obtained an engagement at the theatre 
 royal. His voice soon broke down, but 
 through the kindness of Conference Coun- 
 cillor Collia he was admitted to the 
 grammar school at Slagelse. His first 
 prose work, a book of travels, was published 
 in 1828, and was followed by others, as well 
 as novels and poems. He is best known for 
 his fairy tales, which are full of charm. 
 
 Anderson, Adam (6. 1692, d. 1765), the 
 historian of commerce. His great work, 
 published in 1764, gives accounts of the 
 commercial progress and social and indus- 
 trial development of all civilised countries 
 from the earliest times to 1762. 
 
 Anderson, Sir Edmund (6. 1530, d. 1605), 
 an English lawyer. Chief Justice ia the Court 
 of Common Pleas in 1582, and a patient and 
 impartial judge in civil cases, though his 
 adhesion to the Established Church led him 
 into too great severity towards sectarians. 
 
 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D. {b. 
 1837). A well-known lady physician, 
 studied medicine at the Middlesex, St. 
 Andrew's (Ediaburgh), and London hos- 
 pitals, and in 1865 received the diploma of 
 L.S. A., and was appoiated medical attendant 
 to St. Mary's dispensary. Li 1870 she was 
 made visitiag physician to the East London 
 hospital for children, and obtained the 
 degree of M.D. at the university of Paris. 
 The following year she was married to Mr. 
 J. G. S. Anderson, but continued to practise 
 in London, and was appoiated senior physi- 
 cian to the new hospital for women, and 
 dean of the London school of medicine for 
 women. 
 
 Anderson, Sir George William, K.C.B. 
 
 (6. 1791, d. 1857), son of a London merchant, 
 entered the Indian Civil Service, and was 
 employed by Elphiastone in drawing up 
 The Bombay Code of 1827. In 1841 he 
 became Governor of Bombay, but after 
 holding similar posts in Mauritius and 
 Ceylon, resigned in 1855 ; he was knighted 
 in 1849. 
 
 Anderson, James {b. 1662, d. 1728), a 
 Scottish genealogist and antiquary, who 
 
 was educated for the law, but devoted 
 himself entirely to antiquities. In spite of 
 great poverty, Anderson contrived to finish 
 his collection of the ancient charters and 
 great seals of Scotland, but it was not pub- 
 lished till some years after his death. 
 
 Anderson, Johann (6. 1674, d. 1743), a 
 German diplomatist and naturalist who was 
 employed in matters relating to commerce 
 and navigation. 
 
 Anderson, John (6. 1726, d. 1796), pro- 
 fessor of Oriental languages and afterwards 
 of natural philosophy in the University of 
 Glasgow, and founder of the Anderson 
 University in that city. 
 
 Anderson, John {d. 1820), a Scottish mer- 
 chant of htimble birth who settled in Ireland, 
 where he acquired a large fortune, much of 
 which he expended upon the town and 
 neighbourhood of Fermoy. He declined a 
 baronetcy, which however was conferred 
 upon his son. 
 
 Anderson, Martin Brewer (6. 1815), an 
 American educator, who graduated at 
 Waterville college, where he was subse- 
 quently professor of rhetoric. In 1853 he 
 became president of the university of 
 Rochester; he obtained repute as a powerful 
 pubUc speaker, and used his eloquence with 
 effect during the Civil war. 
 
 Anderson, Mary {b. 1859), bom at Sacra- 
 mento, California, well known as an actress 
 of great beauty and considerable dramatic 
 taste, at sixteen years of age made her 
 debut at Louisville as Juliet. She met with 
 great success both in the United States and 
 in London. 
 
 Anderson, Nils Johann (6. 1821, d. 1880), 
 a Swedish botanist, who left nimierous tech- 
 nical works. 
 
 Anderson, Robert, M.D. (6. 1750, d. 1830), 
 a Scottish surgeon who devoted himself to 
 literature, and published a Complete Edition 
 of the Poets of Great Britain from the time 
 of Chaucer, with biographical and critical 
 notes. 
 
 Anderson, Robert (6. 1770, d. 1833), a 
 ballad writer of humble birth, whose later 
 productions were in the Cumberland dialect. 
 His most popular ballad was Betiy Brown 
 (1801), his earhest Lucy Gray, of which the 
 name and metre were borrowed by Words- 
 worth. 
 
 Anderson, Robert {b. 1800, d. 1871), an 
 American general, who served under Lincoln 
 in the Black Hawk war, and distinguished 
 himself in the Mexican war (1846-7) in the 
 battle of El Molino del Rey. On the out- 
 break of the Civil war he was appointed to 
 the defence of Charleston harbour, and 
 held Fort Sumter for two days against the
 
 And 
 
 (38) 
 
 And 
 
 Confederates ; failing health prevented his 
 taking further part in the war. 
 
 Anderson, Eobert Bum (6. 1833, d. 1860), 
 a British officer, who distuiguished himself 
 during the Indian Mutiny. He afterward 
 served in China, but being sent with other 
 officers to negotiate with the Chinese com- 
 missioners, was treacherously seized, carried 
 to Pekui, and so cruelly tortured that death 
 ensued in a few days. 
 
 Anderson, William (6. 1757, d. 1837), a 
 painter of marine subjects, 
 
 Anderton, Henry, a painter of portraits 
 and landscapes in the 17th century; his 
 painting of Mrs. Stuart, afterwards Duchess 
 of Eichmond, was well known. 
 
 Anderton, James, author of several con- 
 troversial treatises, flourished in the early 
 half of the 17th century, and wrote under 
 ihQ pseudonym of "John Brereley." 
 
 Andocides (6. 467 b.c, d. 397 B.C.), 
 Athenian orator, one of the ten whose 
 works were contained in the Alexandrine 
 Canon. He was four times driven from 
 Athens, and finally died in exile. 
 
 Andrada, Antonio (6. 1580, d. 1633), a 
 Portuguese Jesuit who went as missionary 
 to India, and penetrated to Thibet, where 
 he was well received and built a church. 
 Died at Goa. 
 
 Andrada, Jacinto Freire d' (6. 1597, d. 
 1657), a Portuguese author of high repute; 
 he was offered, but declined, the bishopric 
 of Viseu. His greatest work is the Life of 
 Dom Jodo de Castro. 
 
 Andrada E. Silva, Jose Bonifacio d' (6. 
 1765, d. 1838), a Brazilian statesman, who 
 travelled and studied in Europe, and became 
 professor of metallurgy and geognosy at 
 Coimbra, and general iutendant of the Por- 
 tuguese mines. Eeturning to Brazil in 
 1819, he took an active part in poUtics, and 
 was for a time minister of the interior to 
 Dom Pedro I., and afterwards guardian and 
 tutor to his successor, Dom Pedro II., tiU 
 1833, when he was displaced, and he retired 
 to Paqueta, where he died. 
 
 Andral, Gabriel (6. 1797, d. 1853), a dis- 
 tinguished French physician and author, 
 who in 1839 was elected to the chair of 
 pathology and therapeutics in the Academy 
 of Medicine at Paris. 
 
 Andrassy, Julius, Count (6. 1823, d. 1890), 
 an emiueut Hungarian, who in 1847 entered 
 the Hungarian Diet as member for his 
 native town of Zemplin. In politics a 
 Liberal, he supported the policy of Kossuth 
 as well by his eloquence, which was con- 
 siderable, as by his activity in organisation, 
 and in the field. Upon the collapse of the 
 
 Hungarian insurrection he was sentenced 
 to death, but escaping to France, passed 
 seven years (1849 — 1856) in that country, 
 and in England. Appointed premier of the 
 first separate Hungarian cabinet, by a series 
 of wise and liberal measures he transformed 
 Hungary from a turbulent and revolu- 
 tionary province to the most trustworthy 
 portion of the empire. Through his 
 influence Austria and Hungary refused 
 to take part with France in the Franco- 
 German war, from which two important 
 results followed : Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 were annexed to the empire, and Germany 
 found herself compelled to effect an Austrian 
 alliance. Andrassy took a leading part in 
 the Berlin Conference (1878), but in the 
 following year resigned office suddenly and 
 xrnexpectedly, and retired into private life, 
 from which he was never recalled to power. 
 
 Andre, Christian Karl {b. 1763, d. 1831), 
 a German educational writer, who worked 
 at Schnepfenthal and Briinn, and left nu- 
 merous and valuable works. 
 
 Andre, Johann (6. 1741, d. 1799), an 
 eminent musical composer and publisher, 
 was director of the opera at Berlin, and 
 kapellmeister to the Prince of Prussia and 
 the Margrave of Brandenburg. 
 
 Andre, Johann Anton {b. 1775, d. 1842), 
 son of the preceding, also a composer and 
 pubUsher of music. 
 
 Andr^, John {b. 1751, d. 1780), a British 
 soldier who served in the war with America, 
 and rose to the rank of major. He con- 
 ducted the negotiations with Benedict Ar- 
 nold for the betrayal of West Point, but being 
 discovered in disguise, was arrested and put 
 to death as a spy. His remains lie in West- 
 minster Abbey, where a cenotaph was erected 
 to his memory. 
 
 Andr6, Yves-Marie (6. 1675, d. 1764), a 
 French philosopher and man of letters, who 
 was suspected by his brother Jesuits of Car- 
 tesian tendencies, and narrowly escaped a 
 prosecution. His works, which have been 
 republished, include a treatise of great merit, 
 Siir le Beau. 
 
 Andrea Fisano (6. 1270, d. 1345), an 
 Italian architect and sculptor, who pro- 
 duced many fine works in Florence, his 
 greatest being the bronze figures in relief 
 for the baptistery of St. John's. 
 
 Andrea del Sarto, or Vannucci, an Italian 
 painter of humble birth ; he was a pupil of 
 Peter da Cosimo. He worked at Florence 
 and in France, where Francis I. loaded him 
 with honours. 
 
 Andrese, Abraham {d. 1607), was conse- 
 crated Archbishop of Upsala in 1594, after 
 which he crowned Sigismund. He was a
 
 And 
 
 (39) 
 
 And 
 
 reformer, and under the regency of Duke 
 Charles was thrown into prison, where he 
 died. 
 
 Andreae, Jacob (6. 1528, d. 1590), a 
 Lutheran divine who took a prominent part 
 in the religious controversies of Germany. 
 He was a prolific writer, and drew up the 
 Formula Concordia, or summary of faith for 
 the Lutheran Church. 
 
 Andreas, Johannes, or Giovanni (6. 1272, 
 d. 1348), filled the chair of canon law at 
 Bologna, and enjoyed the highest reputa- 
 tion as a teacher and author. 
 
 Adreani, Andrew (6. 1540, d. 1623), an 
 Italian painter and engraver, whose prints 
 are numerous and valuable. 
 
 Andreas, Archbishop of Crayna in Carin- 
 thia {(i. 1484), who made zealous but un- 
 successful attempts to reform the Church 
 in the 15th century. For his boldness in 
 rebuking Pope Sixtus IV. and the cardinals 
 he was imprisoned, but on his release re- 
 newed his exertions, was excommunicated, 
 and imprisoned. 
 
 Andreini, Francesco, an actor and writer 
 of comedies in the 16th century, and head 
 of the company known as " De' Gelosi." 
 
 Andreini, Giovanni Battista (6. 1568, d. 
 1652), son of the preceding, di-amatic author 
 and performer ; Milton's Paradise Lost is 
 said to have been suggested by his drama of 
 L''Adaino. 
 
 Andreini, Isabella {b. Padua, 1562, d. 1604), 
 a distinguished poetess and actress, remark- 
 able alike for her beauty and blameless life. 
 
 Andrelini (d. 1518), Publio Fausto, an 
 Italian poet, was professor of classical 
 literature in Paris, and patronised by 
 Charles VIII. 
 
 Andreossy, Antoine Fran9ois, Comte d' 
 (6. 1761, d. 1828), a French ofiicer of en- 
 gineers, and a learned and honourable man. 
 He served in the wars under Napoleon, and 
 was afterwards employed diplomatically, 
 and was one of the commissioners appointed 
 to negotiate an armistice after the battle of 
 Waterloo, and took office imder Louis 
 XVIII. 
 
 Addreozzi, Gaetano (6. 1763, d. 1826), a 
 popular Italian composer, who wrote many 
 operas and several oratorios. 
 
 Andres, Juan (6. 1740, d. 1817), a learned 
 Spanish Jesuit, who devoted himself to 
 literature and literary history. 
 
 Andres de Uztarroz, Juan Francisco (6. 
 1606, d. 1653), a learned Spanish historian, 
 was appointed chronicler of Aragou iu 
 1647, and left many valuable works. 
 
 Andrew, Saint, one of the twelve apostles, 
 who before his call was a discijjle of John 
 the Baptist. He was the means of bringing 
 his brother, Simon Peter, to Christ, and is 
 said to have preached the Gospel in various 
 countries, and to have been at last crucified 
 at Patrae in Achaia. 
 
 Andrew, Yui-evich (6. 1110, d. 1174), a 
 brave and ambitious Russian prince, who 
 distinguished himself in wars against Kiev, 
 and steadily extended the boundaries of his 
 kingdom. 
 
 Andrew I. [d. 1061), King of Hungary, 
 ruled at first in conjunction with his brother 
 Leventa, whom he survived, but iu 1060 
 was defeated and dethroned by another 
 brother, Bela. 
 
 Andrew IL (6. 1175, d. 1235), King of 
 Hungary, succeeded to the throne on the 
 death of his infant ward and nephew 
 Ladislaus in 1205. At the command of the 
 Pope he undertook a costly crusade to the 
 Holy Land, but effected nothing. In 1222 
 he pubhshed the famous "Golden Bull," 
 the charter of Hungarian freedom. 
 
 Andrew III. {d. 1301), grandson of the 
 preceding, ascended the throne in 1290, 
 and defeated the rival claimants supported 
 by Germany and the Pope, but died whilst 
 preparing to resist another attack. 
 
 Andrewes, Lancelot, Bishop of Winches- 
 ter {b. 1555, d. 1626), an eminently learned 
 and pious man, and one of the greatest 
 preachers of his day. He assisted m the 
 translation of the Bible, and besides sermons 
 and lectures left a popular Manual of 
 Frivate Devolions. 
 
 Andrews, James Pettit (6. 1737, d. 1797\ 
 an historical and imscelianeous writer, 
 author of The History of Great Britam and 
 Anecdotes Ancient and Modern. 
 
 Andrews, Stephen Pearl (6. 1812, d. 
 1886), an American lawyer and linguist, 
 who introduced phonography into America, 
 and devoted many years of his life to an 
 attempt to evolve a "scientific" and 
 " universal language," which he termed 
 Alwato. 
 
 Andrieu, Bertraud (t. 1761, d. 1822), an 
 eminent French medallist, who did much to 
 elevate his art, and was made Chevalier of 
 the Order of St. Michael. 
 
 Andrieux, Francois Guillaume Jean Stan- 
 islas (6. 1759, d. 1833), an eminent Freuch 
 writer, was secretary to the Freuch Aca- 
 demy, and professor of literature in the 
 College of France. He left numerous 
 works. 
 
 Andronicus Comnenus (6. 1110, d. 1185), 
 Emperor of Constantinople, after quarrels
 
 And 
 
 (40) 
 
 Ang 
 
 and reconciliations ■with Manuel Comnenus, 
 ascended the throne in 1183, putting to 
 death Alexis II. ; was killed during an 
 insurrection roused by his cruelty. 
 
 Andronicus of Rhodes, a peripatetic phi- 
 losopher of the 1st century B.C. 
 
 Andronicus, Johannes Callistus, a scholar 
 of Thessalouica who taught at Bologna and 
 Rome, and tiually in Paris, whei-e he became 
 professor of Greek. He followed the phi- 
 losophy of Aristotle. 
 
 Andronicus, Marcus Livius, a native of 
 Tareutum, who wi'ote Latin dramas in the 
 3rd century B.C. ; he translated the Udijs- 
 sey and wrote several popular poems. 
 
 Andronicus I. {d. 1235), Emperor of Tre- 
 bizond, succeeded to the throne in 1222. 
 He was defeated and made tributary by 
 Ala-ed-diu. 
 
 Andronicus II. {d. 1267), Emperor of 
 Trebizond, succeeded to the throne in 1263. 
 
 Andronicus III. (d. 1332), Emperor of 
 Trebizond, succeeded his father, Alexis II., 
 in 1330, and during his short reign put two 
 uncles to death. 
 
 Andronicus II. (Palaeologus) (i^. 1260, d. 
 1332), called "the Elder," Emperor of 
 Constantinople ; ruled jointly with his 
 father Michael for ten years, but in 1283 
 assumed the entire power. His reign was 
 disturbed by the dissensions of the Greek 
 and LatLa Churches, the inroads of the 
 Turks and the revolt of the Emperor's 
 grandson, who seized the crown in 1328, 
 when he took refuge in a monastery, where 
 he died. 
 
 Andronicus III. (Palasologus) (b. 1295, d. 
 1341), called " the Younger," the grandson 
 of the preceding, whom he deposed, was a 
 brave and popular prince, though his early 
 history is marred with crime : he was de- 
 feated in a war with Servia and Turkey. 
 
 Andros, Sir Edmund {b. 1637, d. IIIZ), 
 an English oificer who served in the 
 "wars with the Dutch, and afterwards went 
 as governor to various provinces of North 
 America. He was recalled in 1698 from 
 Virginia, but was afterwards appointed 
 Lieutenant-Governor of Guernsey. 
 
 Androuet-Ducerceau, Jacques, a French 
 architect of the 16th century, who studied in 
 Italy, aud was employed by Henry III. and 
 Henry IV. to erect several of the public 
 buildings of Paris. The Pont Neuf and the 
 gallery of the Louvre were begun by 
 him. 
 
 Andry, Charles Louis Francois (6. 1741, 
 d. 1829), a distinguished and benevolent 
 French physician, who held an appointment 
 
 at the Foundling hospital of Paris, and was 
 consulting physician to Napoleon. 
 
 Andry, Nicolas, or De Boisregard (6. 1658, 
 d. 1742), a physician of reputation, one of 
 the editors of the Jourmd dc.s Sqavants, 
 and dean of the faculty of medicine in the 
 Royal College at Paris. 
 
 Aneau, Barthelemy, a native of Bourges, 
 principal of the College of the Trinity at 
 Lyons, in the 16th century, but was sus- 
 pected of favouring the reformers, and was 
 seized and put to death by the mob. He 
 <ra islated Sir Thomas More's Utopia. 
 
 Anel, Dominique (6. 1679, d. 1730), a 
 celebrated surgeon, who performed success- 
 fully several new and difficult operations, and 
 tinally settled in Paris, where he had a large 
 practice as an oculist. 
 
 Aneurin, a Welsh poet of the 6th century, 
 known as the author of Gododin, Another 
 poem. Verses on the Months, is also attri- 
 buted to him. 
 
 Anfossi, Pasquale (6. 1729 or 1736, d. 
 1795), an Italian opera writer and pupil of 
 Piccini, travelled in Europe, and was ap- 
 pointed maestro di capella to St. Giovanni 
 Laterano. His most popular opera was 
 Vliicognita Perseguitata (1773), his great 
 Olimpiade meeting with but a poor re- 
 ception. 
 
 Ange, Joseph de Saint (6. 1636, d. 1697), 
 a French Carmelite friar, who spent many 
 years in missionary labours in the East, and 
 finally returning to France was made prior 
 of the convent of Perpignan. 
 
 Angela of Brescia or Merici (6. 1511, d. 
 1540), a Franciscan nun, foundress of the 
 order of Ursulines at Brescia. 
 
 Angeli, Filippo d' (b. 1000, d. 1640), 
 called Napoletan, a painter of battles and 
 landscapes, who resided at Rome and 
 Florence under the patronage of Cosimo 
 II. 
 
 Angelic, or Delli Angeli, Pietro (b. 1517, 
 d. 1596), a renowned Italian scholar, known 
 as Petrus Borgaeus, who in 1549 was ap- 
 pointed professor at Pisa. Being pensioned 
 by Heniy III. of France he was enabled 
 to devote the end of his life to literature, 
 and left many works in prose and 
 poetry. 
 
 Angeloni, Luigi (6. 1758, d. 1842). an 
 Italian republican and political writer, 
 one of the tribunes under the Roman re- 
 public in 1798. He afterwards went to 
 Paris, but was expelled, and took refuge in 
 London, where he died. 
 
 Angely, Ludwig (6. circa 1775, d. 1835), 
 a popular German dramatic writer, and
 
 Ang 
 
 (41) 
 
 Ani 
 
 director of the Konigstadter theatre at 
 Berlin. 
 
 Angerstein, John Julius (6. 1735, d. 
 1822), a Russian merchant whose fine 
 collection of pictures was purchased by the 
 English Government, and formed the 
 nucleus of the National Gallery. 
 
 AngMera, Pietro Martire {b. 1455, d. 
 1526), historian and diplomatist, resided 
 chiefly in Spain. 
 
 Angilbert or Engilbert, Saint {d. 814), 
 Abbot of Centule, near Abbeville, the pupil 
 of Alcuiu, and the friend and confidential 
 adviser of the Emperor Charlemagne, whose 
 daughter Bertha he is said to have married. 
 
 Anglada, Joseph (&. 1775, d. 1833), pro- 
 fessor of chemistry at the university of 
 Montpellier, and remembered for his inves- 
 tigations respecting "glairiue," and the 
 analysis of medical springs ; he also left a 
 valuable work on Toxicology. 
 
 Angouleme, Charles de Valois, Due d' 
 (6. 1573, d. 1650), natural sou of Charles 
 IX., was grand prior of the order of the 
 Knights of Malta in 1589, but afterwards 
 left the order, and distinguished himself, 
 as Count of Auvergne, at the battles 
 of Ivry and Pontaiue-Franrioise. Being 
 concerned in several plots, he was sen- 
 tenced to perpetual imprisonment in the 
 Bastils, but on the death of Henry IV, 
 was released, and again served in the army, 
 and commanded at the siege of iiochelle. 
 
 AngoulSme, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, 
 Due d' {h. Hid, d. 1844), dauphin of France 
 and son of Charles X. He married his cousin, 
 the daughter of Louis XVI., in 1799. At 
 the restoration he was made Grand Admiral 
 of France, and opposed the Bonapartists 
 with promptness and vigour. He showed 
 great coolness and gallantry in Spain in 
 1823, whither he led an army against the 
 Constitutionalists. On the death of his 
 father in exile he resigned all right to the 
 succession in favour of his nephew, the Duke 
 of Bordeaux. 
 
 Angouleme, Marie Therfese Charlotte, 
 Duchesse d' (6. 1778, d. 1851), daughter of 
 Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, and 
 wife of the preceding ; she shared the im- 
 prisonment of her parents, and kept a diary, 
 from which the details of that time are 
 known. After some months of solitary con- 
 finement she was released in exchange for 
 the commissioners of the convention, mar- 
 ried her cousin, and accompanied Louis 
 XVIIL on his public entry into Paris in 
 1814. 
 
 Angstrom, Anders Jonas (6. 1814, d. 
 1874), a Swedish astronomer, and professor 
 of physics at Upsala, who made important 
 discoveries by means of the spectroscope. 
 
 He showed that the fixed lines of the spec- 
 tra depend only upon the nature of the 
 luminous substance, and was the first to 
 notice, though he did not explain, the 
 "Frauenhofer lines" of the solar spec- 
 trum. 
 
 Anguier, Fran9ois (6. 1604, d. 1669), 
 a celebrated French sculptor, who visited 
 England and Rome, where he attained a 
 high reputation ; Louis XII. appointed him 
 keeper of the Cabinet of Antiquities. 
 
 Anguier, Michel (6. 1612, d. 1686) , brother 
 of the praceding, also noted as a sculptor, 
 was rector of the Academy of Arts in Paris. 
 
 Anguisciola, Sofonisba (6. 1535, d. 1620), 
 a native of Cremona, and a porti-ait painter 
 of much renown; she painted Philip II. of 
 Spain and many of his court, and on her 
 marriage she received a munificent dowry 
 and an increased pension. 
 
 Anhalt-Bemburg, Hiristian I., Duke of 
 (6. 1568, d. 1630), to(ii a leading part in the 
 contests which led to the Thirty Years' 
 war, and as commander-in-chief of Fre- 
 derick V. of Bohemia, fought successfully 
 against the imperial forces till defeated at 
 Prague in 1620. 
 
 Anhalt-Bemtourg, Christian II., Duke of 
 (6. 1599, d. 1656), son of the preceding, 
 with whom he took part in the battle of 
 Prague, and was made prisoner, but par- 
 doned by the emperor. He succeeded his 
 father in 1630. 
 
 Anlialt-Dessau, Leopold (6. 1676, d. 
 1747), a Prussian field-marshal, who dis- 
 tinguished himself in the war of the Spanish 
 succession. He also obtained victories in 
 behalf of Frederick II. over the Austrians 
 and Saxons, and concluded the war by the 
 peace of Dresden. 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau, Leopold Frederick Pranz 
 d' (6. 1740, d. 1817), served under Frederick 
 II. in the Seven Years' war, and did much 
 to reform the laws and promote agriculture 
 in his principality. 
 
 Anhalt Zerbst-Dessau, George IV. (6. 
 1507, d. 1553), took holy orders, and became 
 one of the eminent divines and reformers 
 of his day. 
 
 Anilseus and Asinseus, two Babylonian 
 Jews, who in the 1st century a.d. headed a 
 band of freebooters, and were persuaded by 
 Artabauus, King of Parthia, to enter his 
 service. Asinaeus met his death by poison 
 at the hands of his brother's wife, while 
 Anilseus with many of his followers was 
 slain by Mithridates, whom they had pre- 
 viously attacked and imprisoned. 
 
 Animuccia, Giovanni (6. 1500, d. 1571), 
 a celebrated Italian composer, maestro di
 
 Ani 
 
 (42) 
 
 Ann 
 
 capello of the Vatican, may be cousidered 
 the founder of the oratorio. 
 
 Anisson, an ancient family of Lyons, 
 renowned as tj'pographers, the most dis- 
 tinguished member being Etienne Alexandre 
 Jacques, known as Auisson-Duperou (1748- 
 17t)i), inventor of the "presseaun coup;" he 
 was put to death during the republic. 
 
 Ankarkrona, Theodor {b. 1687, d. 1750), 
 distinguished Swedish naval officer and man 
 of science. 
 
 Ankerstrom, Johann Jakob (6. 1761, 
 d. 1792), a Swedish noble, remembered as 
 the assassin of Gustavus III. of Sweden ; he 
 was detected, tortured and beheaded. 
 
 Anna Comnena (&. 1083, d. 1148), daugh- 
 ter of the Emperor Alexis Comnenus I., 
 conspired on her father's death to place 
 her husband, Nicephorus Bryeunius, on the 
 throne. She failed in this, however, and 
 devoting herself to literature, wrote a his- 
 tory of her father's reign, entitled the 
 Alexias. 
 
 Anna Ivanovna, Empress of Russia (6. 
 1693-4, d. 1740), daughter of Ivan Alexo- 
 witch, succeeded to the throne on the death 
 of Peter II. in 1730, but allowed the govern- 
 ment to be really in the hands of her 
 favourite, Bireu, who ruled cruelly and 
 tyrannically. 
 
 Anna Petrovna {h. 1708, d. 1728), the 
 eldest and favourite daughter of Peter the 
 Great, and mother of Peter III. The order 
 of St. Anne was instituted in her honour. 
 
 Anna of Austria, Queen of France (6. 
 1601, d. 1666), was the eldest daughter of 
 Philip III. of Spain, and was married in 
 1615 to Louis XIII. of France. On the 
 death of Louis in 1643, Anna acted as 
 regent, with Cardinal Mazarin as her chief 
 mmister; she provoked the famous wars 
 of the " Fronde," in which she was ulti- 
 mately victorious. In 1661 she resigned 
 the government to her son, and passed the 
 rest of her life in retirement. 
 
 An-nasir Lidinillah Mohammed {d. 
 1215), fourth Sultan of Africa and Spain, of 
 the dynasty Almohades, succeeded to the 
 throne in 1199. He was continually en- 
 gaged in war, and finally beiug defeated at 
 Las Navas by the united forces of Castile, 
 Navan-e 'and Aragou, fled to Africa, where 
 he died. 
 
 An-nasir, Abdul Abbas Ahmed (6. 1156, 
 d. 1225), Caliph of the Abbasides, began to 
 reign in 1180 ; he was a pious, learned, and 
 just piince. 
 
 Anne, Queeu of Great Britain {h. 1664, d. 
 1714), was the second daughter of James II. 
 by his first wife, Anne Hyde. She married 
 
 Prince George of Denmark, and succeeded 
 to the throne on tlie death of her brother- 
 in-law, William III., in 1702. Her reign is 
 distinguished abroad by the brilliant ex- 
 ploits of the British army in the Low 
 Countries tmder Marlborough, and in Spain 
 under Lord Peterborough ; the victories of 
 Blenheim, Oudenard, and Malplaquet being 
 won in the war of the Spanish succession ; 
 while at home, though political contentions 
 ran high, the legislative union of England 
 and Scotland was effected, and many emi- 
 nent names adorn the list of contemporary 
 writers, notably Addison, Pope, and Steele. 
 The queen, who was weak and yielding, 
 was controlled at first by the imperious 
 Duchess of Marlborough, and afterwards 
 by Abigail Hill (Mrs. Masham). 
 
 Anne of Beaujeu (6. 1461, d. 1522), eldest 
 daughter of Louis XI., acted as regent 
 during the minority of Charles VIII., and 
 displayed great energy and decision of 
 character. 
 
 Anne of Bohemia (6. 1367, d. 1394), "the 
 good Queen Anne," was wife of Richard II. 
 of England, and a protector of Wiclif and 
 his followers. 
 
 Anne of Bretagne (6. 1476, d. 1514), 
 daughter and lieiress of Francis II. of 
 Bretague ; though married by procuration 
 to Maximilian, King of the Romans, she 
 married Charles VIII. (1491), and Louis XII. 
 of France (1499). She displayed consider- 
 able justice and ability in the management 
 of her own dominions, 
 
 Anne of Cleves (6. 1516, d. 1557), daughter 
 of John III., Duke of Cleves, and fourth 
 wife of Henry VIII. of England, from whom 
 she was shortly divorced, but lived con- 
 tentedly in England, where she died. 
 
 Anne of Denmark (6. 1574, d. 1619), 
 daughter of Frederick II. of Denmark, 
 and wife of James VI. of Scotland and I. 
 of England. 
 
 Anne of Warwick (6. 1454, d. 1485), the 
 widow of Edward of Lancaster, son of 
 Henry VI., was first married to Edward of 
 Lancaster, son of Henry VI., and then 
 against her will to Richard III., with whom 
 she was crowned with great ceremony in 
 1483. Her death is attributed to poison. 
 
 Annese, Gennaro, a Neapolitan gun- 
 smith, who succeeded Masauiello as leader 
 of the populace in the insurrection of 1648. 
 He at first joined the Duke of Guise, and 
 afterwards betrayed him to the Spaniards, 
 and was himself soon after seized and 
 beheaded. 
 
 Annesley, Arthur (6. 1614, d. 1686), Earl 
 of Anglesey, took part in the Civil wars of 
 Charles I., and went as commissioner for
 
 Ann 
 
 (43) 
 
 Ans 
 
 the Parliamentary party to Ireland. He 
 afterwards supported Monk in his efforts 
 for the Eestoratiou, and filled high offices 
 under Charles II., by whom he was created 
 Baron Aunesley. He had some literary 
 ability and wrote a Sistory of the Wars 
 in Ireland. 
 
 Anno or Hanno, Saint, Archbishop of 
 Cologne in the 11th century; he had great 
 influence over the Emperor Henry III., in 
 whose name he for some time administered 
 the government. 
 
 An-nuwajrri (6. 1283, d. 1332), a learned 
 Arab writer, who left many works, amongst 
 them being a valuable historical cyclo- 
 pedia. 
 
 Anquetil, Abraham Hyacinthe (6. 1731, 
 d. 1805), a French orientalist, who for 
 purposes of study went to India as a private 
 soldier, and took part in the capture of 
 Pondicherry. On his return to France he 
 was appointed oriental interpreter in the 
 king's library. His principal work was a 
 translation of the Zend-Avesta, published in 
 1771. 
 
 Aasaldo, Andrea (b. 1584, d. 1638), an 
 eminent Genoese painter ; his principal 
 works are in the churches and palaces of 
 Genoa. 
 
 Ansaloni, Giordano (d. 1634), a Sicilian 
 missionary of the order of preachers, who 
 went to Japan, and adopting the dress and 
 language of the people, passed for two 
 jeais for a Japanese priest, but was at 
 length discovered and put to death. 
 
 Anscaxius, Saint (6. 801, d. 864), a Bene- 
 dictine monk who did much to promulgate 
 Christianity in Denmark and Sweden, and 
 has been called "the Apostle of the North." 
 He was afterwards made Bishop of Ham- 
 burg. 
 
 Anselm, Saint {b. 1034, d. 1109), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury during the reigns of 
 William Kufus and Henry I., to which post 
 he was summoned from his position as 
 Abbot of Bee in Normandy. He was a man 
 of great piety and intellectual power, and 
 firmly resisted the efforts of the king to 
 despoil the Church of her dignity or 
 revenues. He died at Canterbury and was 
 canonised in the reign of Henry VII. 
 
 Anselme of Laon (d. 1117), an eminent 
 teacher of theology in the 11th century, and 
 said to have studied under Auselni at Bee, 
 taught for some time in Paris, and then 
 returning to his native town of Laon, made 
 the school of theology there the most re- 
 nowned in Europe. 
 
 Anselmi, Michael- Angelo (6. 1491, d. 1554), 
 an Italian painter in the style of Correggio, 
 
 several of whose pictures are in the churches 
 of Parma. 
 
 Anselmo, Saint (6. 1036, d. 1086), Bishop 
 of Lucca, supported Gregory VII. against 
 the autipope, Guibert, and left a collection 
 of canons in thirteen books. 
 
 Ansiauz, Jean Joseph Eleonor Antoine 
 (6. 1764, d. 1840), one of the best 
 portrait and historical painters of the 
 modern Freneh school ; he studied at Ant- 
 werp, and in Paris under David. In 1801 
 his Sappho and Leda attracted attention, 
 and he afterwards painted an Assumption 
 and other fine historical works, as well as 
 portraits of many prominent men. 
 
 Aaslo, Reinier (6. 1626, d. 1669), a Dutch 
 poet of reputation ; he was patronised by 
 Christina of Sweden and Innocent X., and 
 spent the end of his life in Rome, where he 
 became a Roman Catholic. Among his early 
 productions were a Martyrdom of St. Stephen 
 and a poem on the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew's Day. 
 
 Anson, George, Lord (6. 1697, d. 1762), an 
 eminent naval commander, whose popular 
 Voyage Round the World has undergone 
 several translations. He entered the navy 
 in 1711, seeing much active service, and 
 in 1739 was appointed to the command of a 
 squadron despatched to the Philippine Is- 
 lands. The ships were badly equipped, and 
 of three vessels which reached Juan Fer- 
 nandez two were destroyed as unsea- 
 worthy. With his one remaining ship, 
 The Centurion, he eventually reached 
 Manilla, succeeded in capturing the great 
 Spanish galleon Acupulco, and returned to 
 England with £500,000 in prize-money. 
 Here he was eagerly welcomed, at once 
 appointed rear-admiral, and henceforth had 
 a large share in the direction of naval af- 
 fairs. In 1746 he was appointed to the 
 command of the Chaimel fleet, and the 
 following year defeated the French off 
 Cape Finisterre, for which service he was 
 raised to the peerage. He possessed con- 
 siderable administrative ability, and waa 
 made admiral of the fleet in 1761. 
 
 Anson, George (6. 1797, d. 1857), an 
 English general, commander-in-chief of the 
 Indian army at the time of the mutiny. Ho 
 collected a force at Umballah for the re- 
 lief of Delhi, but died wliile on the march. 
 
 Anspach, Elizabeth Berkeley, Margravine 
 of {b. 1750, d. 1828), was married first to 
 Lord Craven (1767), and secondly to the 
 Margrave of j^spach in 1791. In 1821 she 
 gave shelter to Queen Caroline of England; 
 she left some amusing memoirs. 
 
 Ansted, David Thomas (6. 1814, d. 1880), 
 a geologist of some repute, whose writings 
 did much to popularise geology.
 
 Ans 
 
 (44) 
 
 Ant 
 
 Anster, John, LL.D. {b. circa 1806, d. 
 1867), au Irish poet who contributed largely 
 to periodical literatui-e, and made an excel- 
 lent translation of Goethe's Faust. He 
 held the chair of civil law in the Univer- 
 sity of Dublin. 
 
 Anstey, Christopher (5. 1724, d. 180.5), 
 author of the New Bath Guide, a very 
 popular poem. 
 
 Antagoias, a Greek poet of the 3rd 
 century B.C. He was author of a poem 
 called Thebais and other works, all of 
 which are lost except a few epigrams. 
 
 Antalcidas, a Spartan politician, who 
 effected the peace between Greece and Ar- 
 taxerxes II. (b.o. 387) which is known by 
 his name. 
 
 Antar, or Antarah Ibn Sheddad, Arabian 
 poet and warrior, who acquired great dis- 
 tinction in the forty years' wars against 
 the Beni Dhobyan, while his great work, 
 a poem, was highly esteemed by Mahomet, 
 and has been translated into Latin, German, 
 and Enghsh. 
 
 Antenor, a wise Trojan chief, who re- 
 ceived the ambassadors Menelaus and 
 Ulysses, and is charged with having betrayed 
 Troy to the Greeks, especially as his own 
 house was imtouched by the enemy. He 
 is said to have afterwards founded some 
 towns on the west coast of the Adriatic. 
 
 Anthemius, Emperor of the West in the 
 5th century, a distinguished general, quar- 
 relled with his son-in-law, Ricimer, who 
 led an army against Rome, and defeated 
 and slew Anthemius. 
 
 Anthemius, a native of Lydia, and an 
 eminent architect and sculptor. He was em- 
 ployed by Justinian, and designed the famous 
 church of Saint Sophia at Constantinople. 
 
 Antheric, King of the Lombards {d. 590), 
 surnamed Flavius, was engaged in wars 
 during his reign of six years, and defeated 
 an invasion of the Franks under Childebert 
 in 588, but died during a second, having 
 done much to consolidate his dominions. 
 
 Antbon, Charles, LL.D. (6. 1797, d. 
 1867), American classical scholar, was called 
 to the bar in 1819, but forsook law for clas- 
 sics, which he taught in New York. He 
 was a voluminous writer, and author of A 
 Classical Dictionary and numerous other 
 text-books, as well as of an edition of 
 Horace. 
 
 Antigonus, King of Judsea {d. b.c. 37), 
 eon of Aristobulus II., was driven from his 
 throne by Antipater, and regained Jeru- 
 salem only to be besieged by Herod, when 
 he was compelled to surrender, and was 
 put to death. 
 
 Antigonus (Cyclops or "one-eyed ") (d. 
 B.C. 301), a distinguished general of Alex- 
 ander the Great, on whose death he became 
 Governor of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, 
 and after defeating and slaying Eumenes, 
 and waging other successful wars, assumed 
 the title of king. His ambitious schemes 
 united his rivals, and he was slain in battle 
 at Ipsus. 
 
 Antigonus Doson {d. b.o. 220), King of 
 Macedonia, and grandson of Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, was appointed regent during 
 the minority of Philip, son of Demetrius 
 II., but assumed the government, married 
 the queen-dowager Chrysses, and treated 
 Philip as his son and heir. He co-operated 
 with the Achean league against Sparta, of 
 which the victory of Sellasia made him 
 master ; and he also repelled an invasion of 
 the lUyrians. 
 
 Antigonus Gonatas, King of Macedonia 
 id. B.C. 239), and sou of Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes, ascended the throne B.C. 277, six 
 years after his father's death. He was 
 twice driven from his throne, first by 
 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, and then by 
 Alexander, son of Pyrrhus. 
 
 AntiUon, Isidore d' (6. 1760, d. 1820), a 
 learned Spaniard, who defended Saragossa 
 against the French, but was afterwards 
 forced to fly before them. His liberal 
 opinions drew upon him the displeasure of 
 Ferdinand VII., and he was arrested, but 
 died before his trial. He left several works, 
 the most valuable being a geography of 
 Spain and Portugal, 
 
 Antimachus, an epic poet of Clares, in 
 Greece, author of Thebais and the 
 Lyde. 
 
 Antimaco, Marc Anthony (6. 1473, 
 d. 1552), a learned Italian, who taught 
 Greek at Ferrara and Paris, and left some 
 Latin poems and translations from the 
 Greek. 
 
 Antinous, a favourite page of the Emperor 
 Hadrian, was drowned in the Nile. 
 
 Antioclius I., King of Commagene, in 
 Syria. In B.C. 64 Pompey concluded a 
 peace with this state, and increased its 
 territories. 
 
 Antiochus IV., of Commagene, suman/ed 
 Epiphaues, was sometimes king, sometimes 
 governor, according as Commagene was 
 created a province or a kingdom. He aided 
 Nero against the Parthians, and Titus 
 against the Jews, but was deposed in 72. 
 
 Antioclius I., of Syria (Soter) (d. B.C. 
 261), was constantly engaged in wars, and 
 finally killed in battle with the Gauls. The 
 story of his passion for his stepmother, whom
 
 Ant 
 
 (45) 
 
 Ant 
 
 his father gave him to save his life, is well 
 known. 
 
 Antiochus II., of Syria {d. B.C. 246), 
 brother of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded. He engaged in a war with 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, which was ter- 
 minated by the marriage of Antiochus and 
 Berenice. He died of poison. 
 
 Antiochus Hierax (6. 260 e.g., d. 227 b.c), 
 second sou of the preceding, and King of 
 Cilicia. He is sometimes called Antio- 
 chus III., though he never succeeded La 
 driving his brother Seleucus CalUnicus from 
 the throne. 
 
 Antiochus III., King of Syria {d. B.C. 187), 
 sumamed the Great, succeeded his brother 
 in 223 B.C. He was contiuually engaged 
 in war, and though at tirst defeated by the 
 Egy]3tians at Raphia, he was afterwards 
 victorious, and gaiaed the provinces of 
 Coele-Syria and Palestine. He was worsted 
 in his wars with the Romans; and was 
 killed by the citizens of Elymius while pil- 
 laging the temple of Jupiter. 
 
 Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, King of Syria, 
 son of the preceding, succeeded his brother 
 B.C. 175. A cruel and vicious prince, he 
 carried on a war with Egypt, and his con- 
 duct to the Jews provoked the Maccabsean 
 revolt. 
 
 Antiochus V.,of Syria, sumamed Eupator 
 (6. 172 B.C., d. 162 B.C.), son of the preced- 
 ing, whom he succeeded when only eight 
 years old, but was slain two years after his 
 accession, and his throne seized by Deme- 
 trius. 
 
 Antiochus VI., of Syria, was the son of 
 Alexander Balas, who had fled with him to 
 Arabia. In 144 B.C. Antiochus was brought 
 back, and set up by the Syrians and Jews 
 as a rival to Demetrius Nicator. He reigned 
 only two years, being assassinated in 142 b.c. 
 
 Antiochus VII., of Syria {b. 164 B.C., d. 
 129 B.C.), was sumamed Sidetes. Whilst 
 his brother Demetrius Nicator was a pri- 
 soner in Parthia, Antiochus married his 
 wife and seized his throne, but after several 
 victories over the Parthians, was beaten and 
 slain by Demetrius. 
 
 Antiochus VIII. (fi. 141 b.c, d. 96 b.c), 
 sumamed Grypus, was the son of Demetrius 
 Nicator and Cleopatra. He married the 
 daughter of his ally, Ptolemy Physcon, and 
 was successful in his Syrian wars. His 
 half-brother, Cyziceuus, laid claim to his 
 throne, and after reigning jointly with him 
 for five years, Antiochus was assassinated. 
 
 Antiochus IX., sumamed Cyzicenus, was 
 defeated by his rival Seleucus in B.C. 9.5, and 
 slew himself rather than fall into the hands 
 of his enemy. 
 
 Antiochus X. (6. Ill b.c, d. 75 b.c), sur- 
 named Eusebes, son of the preceding, de- 
 feated and slew Seleucus, whose brothers 
 then became his rivals, till Tigranes, King 
 of Armenia, assumed the crown in 83 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus XI. (Epiphanes), (6. 118 B.C., 
 
 d. 93 B.C.), a son of Antiochus Grypus, 
 during the reign of the preceding gained 
 possession of a part of Syria, and assumed 
 the title of king. He was defeated by 
 Antiochus X., and drowned in the Orontes. 
 
 Antiochus XII. (Dionysius) (6. 112 b.c, «?. 
 85 B.C.), youngest sou of Antiochus Grypus. 
 He reigned in Damascus, and was slain in 
 battle with Aretas, King of the Ai-abians. 
 
 Antiochus XIII. (Asiaticus), son of Antio- 
 chus Eusebes, assumed the government upon 
 the withdrawal of the Armenian troops B.C. 
 69, but his kingdom was reduced to a pro- 
 vince B.C. 65, and he died in 49 B.C. 
 
 Antipater (6. b.c 390, d. 319 b.c), the 
 Macedonian, the friend and minister of 
 Philip and Alexander the Great, duiing the 
 absence of the latter was appointed regent 
 of Macedonia and Greece, and in that 
 capacity defeated the Greeks. On the 
 death of Alexander Antipater received the 
 government of Macedonia. 
 
 Antipater {d. b.c 4), eldest son of Herod 
 the Great. His life is a series of conspiracies 
 and crimes; he compassed the death of his 
 half brothers, but being detected in a plot 
 against his father's life, was tried before 
 the Roman governor of Syria, and con- 
 demned to death. 
 
 Antipater of Idumea {d. b.c 43), father 
 of Herod the Great, took part in the dis- 
 putes between Hyrcanus II. and Aris- 
 tobulus II. He assisted in placing Hyr- 
 canus on the throne of Judaea b.c 63, and 
 contrived to get the power in his own hands. 
 He was afterwards appointed Procurator of 
 all Judaea. 
 
 Antiphanes, an Athenian poet of the 
 4th century B.C., and a prolific writer of 
 middle comedy. 
 
 Antiphilus, a native of Eg3rpt of the 
 4th century B.C., and one of the greatest 
 painters of the age, visited Greece, and 
 painted portraits of Phihp of Macedou and 
 Alexander the Great, and on his return to 
 Egypt painted Ptolemy, the son of Lagos. 
 
 Antiphon {b. b.c. 479, d. B.C. 411), the 
 Rhamuusian, an Athenian orator, who 
 taught at Athens, and is said to have num- 
 bered Thucydides among his pupils. He 
 oijposed the tyranny of the Four Hundred, 
 and was put to death upon the restoration 
 of the popular government.
 
 Ant 
 
 (46) 
 
 Ant 
 
 Antiquus, Johannes {h. 1702, d. 1750), a 
 Dutch painter of portraits and historical 
 pieces. He studied at Amsterdam, and 
 after travelling in Italy, finally settled at 
 Breda. 
 
 Antisthenes, a Greek philosopher, a pupil 
 of Socrates, and founder of the Cynic school. 
 He was opposed to speculative inquiries, and 
 taught that viiiue was the one thing needful. 
 
 Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre 
 (i. 1518, d. 1562), succeeded his father to 
 the duchy of Vendome, and acquired Na- 
 varre in right of his wife, Jeanne d' Alhret. 
 Though at first inclined to favour the Re- 
 formers, political considerations induced 
 him to banish the Lutheran preachers, and 
 as Lieutenant-General of France to oppose 
 the progress of the Reformation. In 1562, 
 while commanding the royal army, he was 
 fatally wounded at the siege of Rouen. 
 
 Antommarclii, Francesco {d. 1838), a 
 Corsican surgeon, assistant of the celebrated 
 anatomist Paolo Mascagni at Florence, was 
 for some time physician to Napoleon at St. 
 Helena, and after the ex-emperor's death, 
 published a cast of his head, which occa- 
 sdoned much dispute as to its genuineness. 
 
 Anton, Karl Gottlieb von (i. 1751, <i, 1818), 
 an erudite German historian, and one of the 
 best critics of his time. 
 
 Anton, Ulrich, Duke of Saxe-Coburg- 
 MeLningen (b. 1687, d. 1763), ancestor of 
 the house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a brave 
 soldier and accomplished scholar, served 
 with distinction in the imperial army, and 
 did much to encourage literature and art. 
 
 Anton I., Clemens Theodor, King of 
 Saxouy {h. 1755, d. 1836), succeeded to the 
 throne in 1827, was of a retired and un- 
 ambitious disposition, and being childless 
 associated his nephew, Friedrich Augustus, 
 with him in the government. Large reforms 
 were carried out during his reign. 
 
 Antonelli, Giacomo {b. 1806, d. 1876), a 
 man of humble birth, who attracted the 
 notice of Gregory XVI., and after holding 
 various posts, was made a cardinal in 1847 
 by Pius IX. , over whom he had great in- 
 fluence. It was by his advice that the 
 flight to Gaeta was undertaken, and on the 
 return of the Pope to Rome he was named 
 secretary of state for foreign affairs, and 
 spent the remainder of his life steadily 
 opposing Italian unity and the abandon- 
 ment of Rome by the Pope. 
 
 Antoni, Alessaudro Vittorio Papacino d' 
 {b. 1714, d. 1786), an artillery officer of great 
 skill and learning ; in 1755 he was appointed 
 director of the royal school of artillery, 
 Turin, and in experimenting with gun- 
 powder made important discoveries. 
 
 Antonia, the Younger (b. B.C. 36, d. A.D. 
 37) , daughter of Mark Antony by his wife 
 Octavia, sister of Augustus, was the wife of 
 Drusus, mother of Claudius, and grand- 
 mother of Cahgula. 
 
 Antoniano, Silvio, Cardinal (b. 1540, a 
 1603), a precocious genius, who at seven 
 teen was professor of classical literature at 
 Ferrara, and afterwards lectured at Rome. 
 
 Antonilez, Jose {b. 1636, d. 1676), a 
 Spanish painter of landscapes, portraits, 
 and historical pieces. 
 
 Antonilez de Sarabia, Francesco (d. 1700). 
 nephew and pupil of the preceding, fol- 
 lowed the style of Murillo, and acquired 
 considerable reputation as an historical and 
 landscape painter. 
 
 Antonina {b. 499, d. 565), wife of Belisa- 
 rius, her second husband, over whom she 
 possessed great influence, and after whose 
 death she founded a convent, where she died. 
 
 Antoninus, Saint (b. 1389, d. 1459), Arch- 
 bishop of Florence, belonged to the order of 
 the Dominicans , he left several works. 
 
 Antoninus Pius, Titus (6. 86, d. 161), 
 Emperor of Rome, succeeded his friend 
 Hadrian in 138, and enjoyed a prosperous 
 and uneventful reign of twenty- three years. 
 
 Antonio, Dom (6. 1531, d. 1595), an 
 illegitimate son of Dom Luis of Portugal, 
 who asserted his legitimacy and consequent 
 right to the throne in the room of his uncle 
 Dom Henrique, on whose death he was pro- 
 claimed Mng at Lisbon. He was defeated 
 by his rival, the Duke of Alva, at Alcantara 
 in 1580, and help from France and England 
 proving equally imsuccessful, Antonio re- 
 tired to Paris. 
 
 Antonio, Nicholas (6. 1617, d. 1684), 
 Spanish bibliographer, lived for many years 
 at Rome, and afterwards held office at 
 Madrid. 
 
 Antonio of Padua, Saint {b. 1195, d. 
 Padua, 1231), a Franciscan monk, and a 
 disciple of St. Francis of Assisi ; numerous 
 miracles are attributed to him, and he is the 
 patron saint of Padua. 
 
 Antonio Veneziano (6. 1310, d. 1384), 
 Venetian painter in fresco who takes the 
 foremost place amongst his coaternporaries, 
 and left several works at Venice, Florence, 
 and Pisa. 
 
 Antonius, Caius, sumamed Hybrida (d. 
 ctrca 45 B.C.), was the sou of Antonius the 
 orator, and colleague of Cicero in the 
 consulship. He took part with Sulla in 
 the war against Mithridates, but oppressed 
 and plundered the people, and some time 
 afterward was banished by the senate.
 
 Ant 
 
 (47) 
 
 Apo 
 
 Antonius, Marcus, the triumvir (6. 83 B.C., 
 d. 30 B.C.), after serving as a soldier in 
 Syria, joined Julius Caesar in Gaul, became 
 his warm partisan, and being elected consul 
 with him in B.C. 44, offered him the kingly- 
 title, which however he declined. After the 
 murder of Ceesar, Antony was opposed and 
 defeated by Octavius (Augustus), but the 
 rivals came to terms, and with Lepidus 
 formed the second triumvirate. Under 
 their government Brutus and Cassius were 
 defeated and slain at Philippi, and Antony 
 was mainly respousible for the death of 
 Cicero. The civil war ended in his defeat 
 at Actimn, and the triumph of Octavius. 
 Whilst in Egypt Antony met and was 
 charmed by Cleopatra, and for her sake he 
 shamefully divorced his second wife, the 
 sister of Octavius, and he died in Egypt by 
 his own hand. 
 
 Antonius, Marcus, the orator (p. 143 B.C., 
 d. 87 B.C.), one of the greatest orators of 
 Kome; he served as quaestor and praetor, 
 and for his services in Cilicia was awarded a 
 triimiph. He was beheaded by Marius. 
 
 Antonius or Antony, Saint, an Egyptian 
 Christian, and the reputed founder of mon- 
 asticism, lived for many years in seclusion, 
 and his biographer Athanasius records the 
 popular story of his temptation and actual 
 conflict with the devil. His fame drew 
 crowds to hear him preach and reached the 
 Emperor Constantine ; he died at the ad- 
 vanced age of 105, leaving directions for a 
 secret burial. 
 
 Antonius Nebrissensis {b. 1444, d. 1522), 
 an emiueut Spanish ^vi-iter, studied in Italy, 
 was appointed professor at the university 
 of Alcara de Henares. 
 
 Antraigues, Emmanuel Loms Henii de 
 Launy, Count d' {b. Hob, d. 1812), a French 
 political adventurer, who was exiled as a 
 Royalist, and becoming possessed of some 
 information respecting the treaty of Tilsit, 
 entered into a correspondence vrith Canning, 
 but was betrayed and murdered by his ser- 
 vant. 
 
 Anund or Amund (d. 760), King of 
 Sweden, called Braut-Anund from the num- 
 ber of public roads he constructed. He 
 made other peaceful improvements, and 
 was a brave and valiant prince. 
 
 An\md or Amund, King of Sweden, as- 
 cended the throne about 830, and as a viking 
 invaded the neighbouring states and is said 
 to have defeated Ethelwulf of England. 
 He was slain in battle with his brother 
 Sivard. 
 
 Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (6. 
 1697, d. 1782), a geographer of great emi- 
 nence ; he was encouraged in his studies by 
 the A.hh6 de Longuerue, and appointed to 
 
 superintend the geographical studies of the 
 Dukes of Chartres and Orleans. 
 
 Anwari, a Persian poet of the 12th century, 
 and author of Team of Khorassan, one of 
 the most beautiful poems in the Persian lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Aoust, Jean Marie, Marquis d' (6. 1740, d. 
 1812), a republican noble who voted for the 
 death of Louis XVI., and xmder the Con- 
 sulate was appointed mayor of Quincy. 
 
 Apelles, the greatest of the ancient painters, 
 flourished in the 4th century B.C. He was a 
 friend of Alexander the Great, who forbade 
 any other to take his portrait. The pictures 
 of Alexander and Antigones by Apelles were 
 very celebrated, but his masterpiece was the 
 Venus Anadyomene, which was taken to 
 Rome by Augustus. 
 
 Apjohn, James, M.D. (6. 1795), an 
 eminent chemist, professor in the Royal 
 College of Surgeons in Ireland, and after- 
 wards at Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 Apocaucus, Alexis, commander-in-chief 
 of the Byzantine armies in the 14th cen- 
 tury. He was the rival of his benefactor 
 John Cantacuzenus in the struggle for the 
 empire, and though at first successful, was 
 eventually defeated and assassinated in 
 1347. 
 
 ApoUinaris, Bishop of Laodicea {d. 392), 
 a learned man, and zealous opponent of the 
 Arians, is remembered in connection with 
 the lieresy that bears his name. 
 
 Apollodorus of Athens, a famous gram- 
 marian and author of a standard work on 
 heathen mythology. 
 
 Apollodorus of Carystus, a distinguished 
 comic poet of the school of middle Attic 
 comedy, in the 4th century B.C., and author 
 of forty-seven comedies, of which only frag- 
 ments of a few remain. 
 
 Apollodorus of Damascus, a great archi- 
 tect of the 2nd centuiy, worked at Rome 
 for the Emperor Trajan, and built the 
 forum and column which bear that monarch's 
 name, but his greatestwork wasa huge bridge 
 over the Danube at its confluence with the 
 Alt. He was banished and put to death by 
 Hadrian. 
 
 Apollonius Dyscolus(the Morose), a native 
 of Alexandria and a great grammarian of 
 the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus, whose 
 most valuable work is On the Construction of 
 an Oration. 
 
 Apollonius Pergaeus, "the great geo- 
 meter," was a native of Perga in Pam- 
 phylia, and flourished in the 2nd century 
 B. 0. He was author of a treatise on conio 
 sections which is still extant.
 
 Apo 
 
 (48) 
 
 Aqn 
 
 ApoUonius Rhodius, a Greek epic poet of 
 the 3rd ceutury B.C., author of the Argo- 
 tiautica, was iu his later years keeper of 
 the library at Alexandria. 
 
 ApoUonius Tyanseus, a Pythagorean phi- 
 losopher of the 1st ceutury who professed 
 miraculous powers, and attracted numerous 
 disciples. 
 
 Apollos or ApoUonius, a Jew of Alex- 
 andria, who was converted to Christianity 
 about 54, and acquired great reputation as 
 a teacher. He is twice alluded to in St. 
 Paul's Epistles. 
 
 Apostool, Samuel (6. 1638), a Dutch Men- 
 nonite divine of Amsterdam, who entered 
 into a controversy with Galenus, which 
 gave rise to the rival sects of Apostoolians 
 and Galenians. 
 
 Appendlni, Francesco Maria (6. 1768, d. 
 1837), historian, a native of Piedmont, de- 
 voted himself to teaching, and settled iu 
 Dalmatia. He published a history of the 
 Republic, and several educational works in 
 Slavonic. 
 
 Apperley, Charles James (6. 1777, d. 
 1843), English authority on horses, who con- 
 tributed to the Sporting Magazine and other 
 papers, and wrote imder the pseudonym of 
 " Nimrod." 
 
 Appert, Benjamin Nicholas Marie (6. Paris 
 1797), a philanthropic educationalist, who 
 did much for the education of soldiers and 
 the poor. 
 
 Appiani, Andrea (6. 1754, d. 1817), a 
 Milanese painter, pupil of Cavalier Guidei, 
 whose style almost rivals that of Correggio. 
 He excelled in oil and fresco, and several of 
 his compositions are iu the churches and 
 palaces of Milan. Died in poverty. 
 
 Appiani, Andrea (6. 1812), grandson of 
 the preceding, maintained the artistic repu- 
 tation of his family, and gained several 
 medals both at Rome and Milan. 
 
 Appiano, Gherardo (d. 1405), Captain- 
 General of Pisa in 1398. He sold the re- 
 public the following year to the Visconti, 
 and retired to Piombino, where he died. 
 
 Appiano, Vanni d', bom in the 14th cen- 
 tury, of humble parents, went to Pisa and 
 attached himself to the family of Giam- 
 bacorti, and was beheaded by Charles IV. of 
 Germany. His descendants were princes of 
 Piombino and Elba. 
 
 Appianus, a native of Alexandria, lived 
 in the 2nd century, and was the author of a 
 history of Rome in the Greek language. 
 
 Appius Claudius. [&« Claudius.] 
 
 Applegarth, Augustus {d. 1871), inventor 
 
 of the steam press, and other important 
 improvements in the art of printing ; he 
 also designed the peculiarly inimitable bank 
 note used by the Bank of England, as well 
 as methods for printing silk and cotton 
 simultaneously in several colours. 
 
 Apraxin, Eeodor, or Theodor (6. 1671, d. 
 1728), a Russian noble, the favoui-ite of 
 Peter the Great, to whom he was of great 
 service in naval affairs. He was brave, 
 prudent, and victorious in battle, and at- 
 tained to the highest honours, though twice 
 convicted of misappropriation of the public 
 funds. 
 
 Apraxin, Stepan (6. 1702, d. 1758;, com- 
 mander of the Russian army against Fre- 
 derick the Great, whose troops he defeated 
 in 1757, but purposely failing to follow up 
 his advantage was tried and put to death. 
 
 Apres de ManneviUette, Jean Baptists 
 Nicolas Denis d' (6. 1707, d. 1780), distin- 
 guished French hydrographer, served in 
 various parts of the world, and published 
 the results of his observations in the Nep- 
 tune Orientale, and other valuable works. 
 
 Apries, King of Egypt in the 6th century 
 B.C., and eighth king of the Saite dynasty. 
 The Pharaoh-hophra of Scripture. 
 
 Apsyrtus, a distinguished veterinary sur- 
 geon of the 4th century. He was a native 
 of Bithynia, and served under Constantino 
 the Great in his Danubian campaign. 
 
 Apthorp, East, D.D. (h. 1733, d. 1816), 
 a learned theologian, who was educated in 
 England, where he held several livings ; he 
 engaged with Gibbon in a controversy 
 respecting Christianity. 
 
 Apuleus, or Appuleius, Lucius, a phi- 
 losopher and Platouist of the 2nd century, 
 whose most celebrated work is the Meta- 
 morphoses, or the Golden Ass, which 
 includes the beautiful story of Psyche, and 
 seems to be intended as a satire on the 
 crimes and follies of the age. He was bom 
 in Numidia, studied at Carthage and Athens, 
 and finally at Rome. 
 
 AquUa, a native of Sinope, of the reign of 
 Hadrian, who was converted to Christianity 
 and afterwards to Judaism. He studied 
 Hebrew, of which he made himself master, 
 and translated the Old Testament into 
 Greek. 
 
 AquUa, a Christian Jew of Pontus, who 
 took refuge iu Corinth when Claudius ex- 
 pelled the Jews from Rome, and meeting 
 there with St. Paul, worked with him at 
 their common trade of tent-making. With 
 his wife Priscilla, Aquila was instrumental 
 in converting Apollos to Christianity, and is 
 said to have suffered martyrdom.
 
 Aqn 
 
 (49) 
 
 Ara 
 
 Aqvula, Caspar (6. 1488, d. 1560), the 
 Latinised name of Adler, a Reformer, and 
 friend of Luther, whom he assisted in his 
 translation of the Old Testament. His 
 opinions exposed him to much persecu- 
 tion, but he spent the end of his life in 
 peace. 
 
 AquUa, Serafino deU' (6. 1466, d. 1500), 
 an Italian poet, of the school of Dante and 
 Petrarch; he was patronised by Ferdinand 
 of Naples, and was the friend of Cardinal 
 Ascanio Sforza. 
 
 Aquin, Louis Claude d' (6. 1698, d. 1772), 
 a precocious musical geuius, who at eight 
 years old had learned all that his master 
 could teach him. Handel went to Paris to 
 hear him. 
 
 Aquinas, Thomas, Saint (6. circa 1227, d. 
 1274), a celebrated scholastic divine, called 
 the "angelic doctor," a member of the order 
 of Dominicans, studied at Cologne under 
 Albertus Magnus, whom he afterwards ac- 
 companied to Paris. At the age of twenty- 
 four he lectured in that city on philosophy 
 and theology, endeavouring to show the 
 accord of religion and reason, and acquiring 
 the highest reputation. He died in 1274, 
 while on his way to the Council of Lyons, 
 and was canonised in 1323 by John XXII. 
 Of his works, which occupy seventeen 
 volumes folio, the principal is his Suinma 
 Theolog'ice. 
 
 Araby, Ahmed Pasha, " Araby the Egyp- 
 tian" (6. 1839), is the son of a village 
 sheykh, and claims to be descended from 
 Mahommed. After studying at the military 
 school at Cairo, he served vmder Said Pasha 
 in Abyssinia and the Soudan, being the 
 first native Egyptian to attain the raik of 
 lieutenant-colonel. With two others he led 
 the first military demonstration of 1881, and 
 became the acknowledged spokesman of the 
 National party ; and as head of the second 
 military demonstration he secured his three 
 demands, the fall of Eiaz, an increase of the 
 army, and a liberal constitution. He was 
 shortly afterwards appointed minister of 
 war, and as commander-in-chief under the 
 provisional government of Cairo he con- 
 ducted the defence of Egypt from July to 
 September. He was, however, defeated by 
 Sir Garnet Wolseley at Tel-el-Kebir (1882), 
 and surrendered himself to the British, 
 who persuaded him to accept perpetual 
 exile, and he left Egj^pt for Ceylon in 1883. 
 
 Arago, Dominique Francjois (6. 1786, d. 
 1853), a celebrated French astronomer and 
 politician, who accompanied Biot to the 
 Eastern Pyrenees in 1806, and on his return 
 journey met with a series of dangerous ad- 
 ventures. In 1809 he was elected member 
 of the Academy of Sciences, and distin- 
 guished himself by his researches in the 
 
 undulatory theory of light, galvanism, mag- 
 netism, astronomy, etc. As a poUtician he 
 took a prominent part in the July revolu- 
 tion of 1830, and in 1848 he was appointed 
 minister of war and marine. Aiter the 
 coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon he refused 
 to take the oath of allegiance, though still 
 retaining the personal friendship of the 
 emperor. 
 
 Arago, Etienne (6. 1802), brother of the 
 preceding, a dramatist and politician, was 
 editor of the Figaro, and director oJE the 
 theatre du Vaudeville, and in 1848, as head 
 of the post-office, introduced the cheap 
 postal system. His opposition to Napoleon 
 drove hun into exile, but he returned, and 
 was for a short time mayor of Paris (1870), 
 and in 1878 was appointed archivist to the 
 Ecole des Beaux Aits. 
 
 Aragona, TuUia d', an accomplished and 
 learned poetess of the 16th century, a native 
 of Ferrara, who, besides some elegant son- 
 nets, wrote several poems and a romance. 
 
 Arakclieev, Alexay Andrewich (6. 1769, 
 d. 1833), a Russian count, who rose from 
 the ranks to the position of major-general, 
 and to whom Alexander entrusted the ad- 
 ministration of mihtary affairs. He suc- 
 ceeded in effecting great reforms in the 
 army, -and showed both zeal and cruelty in 
 his scheme for the development of military 
 colonies. 
 
 Aram, Eugene (6. 1704, d. 1759), notorious 
 for his learning and his tragical end, was 
 the son of a Yorkshire gardener, and became 
 proficient in ancient languages, studying 
 also literature and mathematics. For many 
 years he was a schoolmaster in London aud 
 elsewhere, but in 1759 he was arrested for 
 the murder of Daniel Clark, a shoemaker of 
 Knaresborough, about thirteen years pre- 
 viously, and in spite of an able defence, 
 was condemned and executed. 
 
 Aranda, Pedro de Bolea, Count of (6. 
 1718, d. 1799), prime minister of Sjiain under 
 Charles III., showed firmness and vigour in 
 effecting reforms and improvements. He 
 was finally displaced by Godoy, and retired 
 to Aragon, where he died. 
 
 Arantius, Giulio Cesare Aranzio (6. 1530, 
 d. 1589), professor of anatomy and medicine 
 in the University of Bologna, was known 
 for his investigations respecting the human 
 foetus, on which he published a valuable 
 work. 
 
 Arany, Janos (6. 1819, d. 1882), Hun- 
 garian poet of humble birth. He was the 
 author of a popular satire on the Lnst 
 Constitution, aud of a trilogy called 
 Toldi ; and became a professor of liter- 
 ature, and member of the Hungarian 
 Academy.
 
 Ara 
 
 (50) 
 
 Arc 
 
 Aratus of Sicyon (6. 271 B.C., d. 213), 
 one of the auiliors of the Achaean con- 
 federation, drove Nicholas, tyrant of Sicyon, 
 from the city, but was liimself defeated by 
 Cleomenes III. qf Sparta. He is said to 
 have been poisoned by order of Philip II, of 
 Macedonia. 
 
 Aratus of Soli, a Greek poet and as- 
 tronomer of the 3rd century, author of 
 two poems on astronomical subjects entitled 
 J'lucHomena and Diosenieia, 
 
 Araujo d' Azevedo, Antonio, Count of 
 Barca (6. 1754, d. 1817), a learned Potuguese 
 diplomatist, who became head of the admin- 
 istration iu 1806, but mismanaged affairs, 
 and upon the invasion of the French fled 
 with the royal family to Brazil, where he 
 did much to promote art and commerce. 
 
 Arbaces, a Median general, who in the 
 9th ceutiuy B.C. joined Belesis, a Chaldean 
 priest, in a revolt against Sardanapalus, and 
 on the defeat and suicide of that monarch 
 assumed the sovereignty, and reigned with 
 justice and moderation for twenty-eight 
 years. He is generally considered the 
 founder of the Median kingdom. 
 
 Arbasia, Cesare {d. 1601), an Italian 
 painter in fresco and oils, worked at Malaga 
 and Cordova. 
 
 Arbetio, a Eoman general of low birth, 
 who rose to be consul and magister 
 equitimi. He defeated the Alemanni, and 
 in his old age led an army against Pro- 
 copius, the usurper of the throne of Valens. 
 
 Arborio, Mercui-iano, Coimt di Gattinara 
 (6. 1 10.5, d. 1530), an eminent statesman and 
 diplomatist, was employed by the Emperor 
 Maximilian, and afterwards by Charles V., 
 who reposed unlimited confidence in him, 
 and raised him to the post of chancellor of 
 the empire. Towards the Reformers Ar- 
 borio advised conciliation ; he was made a 
 cardinal in 1529. 
 
 Arborio di Gattinara, Luigi (6. 1781, d. 
 1820), an accomplished man and elegant 
 scholar ; he early entered the Church, and 
 is known as the Abb^ di Br^me, and a con- 
 tributor to the Milan journal II Concili- 
 atore. 
 
 Abrissel, Robert (6. 1047, d. 1117), vicar- 
 general of the diocese of Rennes; his at- 
 tempts to reform the morals of both clergy 
 and laity were so badly received that he re- 
 tired into seclusion, but his well-known piety 
 and eloquence induced Urban II. to com- 
 mission him to preach before the world. In 
 1101 he founded the celebrated Abbey and 
 Order of Fontevrault. 
 
 Arbuthnot, Alexander (6. 1538, d. 1583), 
 a Scottish divine and poet; he was originally 
 educated for the law, aud took an active 
 
 paat in the reUgious controversies of his 
 time. 
 
 Arbutlinot, Sir Alexander (h. 1796), a gal- 
 lant naval officer, who served at Trafalgar 
 and elsewhere, and accompanied the British 
 Legion to Spain. 
 
 Arbuthnot, General Sir Hugh, K.C.B. 
 [h. 1781), a distinguished soldier, who was 
 present at the siege of Copenhagen, and 
 served in the Peninsula under Moore and 
 Wellington. For his services at Busaco he 
 received a gold medal. 
 
 Arbuthnot, John (6. 1673, d. 1735), a 
 Scottish physician and miscellaneous writer ; 
 appointed in 1709 physician to Queen Anne, 
 was a contemporary and friend of Pope 
 and Swift, and author of a witty political 
 pamphlet, 'The History of John Bull, and 
 other works. 
 
 Arbuthnot, Mariot (6. 1711, d. 1794), a 
 British admu-al who served with distinction 
 under Hawke in the war with the French. 
 The taking of Charleston and capture of 
 several French vessels, earned him the 
 thanks of Parliament ; he was made full 
 admiral in 1793. 
 
 Arcadius (6. 383, d. 408), Emperor of the 
 East, aud elder son of Theodosius I., a weak 
 prince, was ruled by his successive favour- 
 ites, Rufinus and Eutropius, and after their 
 deaths gave liimself up to the influence of 
 his wife Eudoxia, who is notorious as a 
 persecutor of St. Chrysostom. 
 
 Arcesilaus (6. 316 b.c., d. 241 e.g.), a 
 Greek philosopher, who founded the second 
 or middle academy, and taught in Athens, 
 He maintained the delusiveness of the 
 senses and the impossibility of attaining 
 to truth. 
 
 Arcesilaus, a sculptor of Rome during the 
 last days of the republic ; he was patronised 
 by LucuUus, and his works were eagerly 
 sought after, but none have survived. 
 
 Arcesilaus I. {d. 583), King of Cyrene, of 
 the dynasty of the Battyadse, succeeded to 
 the throne b.c. 599, and reigned peacefully 
 for sixteen years. 
 
 Arcesilaus II., King of Cyrene, sumamed 
 Chalepus, succeeded to the throne about 
 560 B.C. He failed to quell a revolt of the 
 Libyans, and was put to death by Learchus 
 about 550 B.C. 
 
 Arcesilaus III., King of Cyrene (d. 614 
 B.C.), a cruel monarch, whose submission to 
 Cambyses provoked an insurrection. The 
 king took refuge in Barca, where he was 
 slain. 
 
 Arcesilaus IV., King of Cyrene {d. 431 
 B.C.), last of the dynasty of Battyadse, aud
 
 Arc 
 
 (61) 
 
 Arc 
 
 a contemporary of Pindar. His severity 
 resulted in his assassination. 
 
 Arch, Joseph (6. 1826), leader of the 
 English agricultural labourers' movement 
 in 1872, and president of their union. In 
 1885 he was returned to Parliament as 
 member for the north-west division of 
 Norfolk, but was not re-elected the follow- 
 ing year. 
 
 Archadelt, Jacques, a Flemish musician 
 of the 16th century, whose madrigals were 
 the most popular of his time. 
 
 Archagathus, a Greek physician and sur- 
 geon, who practised at liome in the 3rd 
 century B.C., and was the first to introduce 
 there the systematic practice of medicine. 
 
 Archdale, George (6. 1848), a Scottish 
 chemist, who went to the United States in 
 1881, and made important investigations 
 respectiag the manufacture of starch. 
 
 Archdale, J'ohn, was appointed English 
 governor of North Carolina in 1695. He 
 introduced the culture of rice, and during 
 the two years he held of&ce did much to 
 improve the condition of the colonists. He 
 left an historical and descriptive account of 
 Garohna. 
 
 ArcMaU, Mervyn (6. 1723, d. 1791), a 
 learned Irish divine and antiquary, author 
 of a history of the abbeys, priories, etc., 
 of Ireland, entitled Monasticum Hiber- 
 
 Axchelaus {d. a.d. 7), son of Herod the 
 Great, succeeded to the government of 
 Judaea, Idumea, and Samaria, and was re- 
 cognised as ethnarch of those countries by 
 the Eoman emperor, B.C. 3. Numerous 
 complaints of his tyrannical rule induced 
 Augustus to deprive him of his office, and 
 bauish him to France, where he died. He 
 rebuilt Jericho, and founded the town of 
 Archelais. 
 
 Archelaus {d. 399), Eling of Macedonia, 
 was an illegitimate son of Perdiccas II., 
 to whose thi-one he succeeded in 413 B.C. 
 He then married Cleopatra, his father's 
 widow, having previously murdered the 
 legitimate son of Perdiccas, as well as his 
 uncle and cousin. He ruled successfully, 
 and was killed while hunting, whether by 
 accident or design is unknown. 
 
 Archelaus, a Cappadocian, the distin- 
 guished general of Mithridates VT., flou- 
 rished in the 1st century B. c. After defeating 
 Nic miedes III. at Amnias, B.C. 88, he sailed 
 to Greece, captured Delos and other towns, 
 and induced Achaia, Lacedemou, and Boeo- 
 ti;i to form an alliance with Mithridates 
 against Rome. Sulla besieged liira in the 
 Piraeus, and compelled him to withdraw his 
 
 forces. Returning to the contest with a 
 still larger army, Archelaus was again de- 
 feated and forced to retire, when, acting 
 upon iastructions received from Mithri- 
 dates, he concluded peaoe with SuUa, but 
 upon terms unsatisfactory to the king, and 
 he finally deserted to the Romans, after 
 which little is known of him. 
 
 Archelaus I., son of the preceding, and 
 high priest of the goddess Enyo at Comana 
 in Pontus, who in right of his wife Berenice, 
 Queen of Egj^t, assumed the sovereignty of 
 that country also. He was defeated and 
 slain by Aulus Gabioius, pro-consul of 
 Syria, about B.C. 56. 
 
 Archelaus II., son of the preceding, and 
 higli priest of Comana, was defeated by 
 Cicero in a war with Cappadocia, and in 
 B.C. 47 was deposed by Julius Caesar. 
 
 Archelaus, King of Cappadocia {d. a.d. 
 17), son of the preceding, supported Antony 
 against Octavius, and on the accession of 
 Tiberius was induced to come to Rome, 
 where he was detained till his death. 
 
 Archelaus of Miletus first introduced 
 physical philosophy into Athens. He was 
 the pupil of Anaxagoras, and is said to have 
 been the preceptor of Socrates. 
 
 Archenholz, Johann Wilhelm (6. 1741, d. 
 1812J, a German soldier, traveller, and 
 voluminous writer, was author of a History 
 of the Seven Tears'' War, and of the popular 
 England und Italien. 
 
 Archer, JohnWykeham (6. 1808, d. 1864), 
 an English engraver and painter, who 
 adopted the pseudonym of "Mr. Zigzag the 
 
 Elder." 
 
 Archer, Sir Symon (6. 1581, d. circa 
 1688), an English antiquary who assisted 
 Dugdaleinhis Antiquities of Warwickshire, 
 and was knighted by James I. 
 
 Archer, Thomas, English architect, de- 
 signed, amongst other works, the churches 
 of St. P hili p at Birmingham and St. John 
 at Westminster, and died ia 1743. 
 
 Archiac, Etienne Jules Adolphe, Desmier 
 de St. Simon, Viscount d' (6. 1802), an 
 eminent French geologist, author of a 
 History of Geology from 1834 to 1851. 
 
 Archibald, Hon. Sir Adams George [h. 
 1814), Canadian jurist, was for sotne years 
 member of the executive council of Nova 
 Scotia, and several times employed as 
 delegate. He held many pohtical posts, 
 and was one of the directors of the Cana- 
 dian Pacific Railway (1873). He was also 
 governor of Manitoba, and afterwards of 
 Nova Scotia, and was knighted in 1885. 
 
 Archidamus I., King of Sparta, ascended
 
 Arc 
 
 (52) 
 
 Ard 
 
 the throne about b.o. 630, and enjoyed a 
 peaceful and uneventful reign. 
 
 ArcMdamus II., King of Sparta {d. b.o. 
 427), ascended the throne B.C. 469, took an 
 important part in the Peloponnesiau war, 
 and three times invaded Attica. 
 
 ArcMdamus III., King of Sparta {d. b.c. 
 338), a warlike prince, who took part in 
 many wais, and defeated the Thebans 
 under Epaminondas. He was slain in 
 battle with the Lucanians. 
 
 ArcMdamus IV., Iving of Sparta, and 
 grandson of the preceding, was defeated 
 near Mautinea by Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
 B.C. 296. 
 
 Archidamus V., King of Sparta, succeeded 
 his brother Agis IV. B.C. 240, but was soon 
 after assassinated. 
 
 ArcMgenes, a Greek physician of the 1st 
 century a.d. He came to Rome during the 
 reign of Domitian, and enjoyed a consider- 
 able reputation. 
 
 ArcMlocus of Paros, a lyric poet of the 
 7th century B.C., and one of the earliest 
 writers of elegiac poetry. He was killed in 
 war with the people of Naxos. 
 
 ArcMmedes (6. b.c. 287, d. b.c. 212), was 
 educated under Conon at Alexandria, 
 and early devoted himself to the mathe- 
 matical investigations for which he is 
 famed. He was the friend, and perhaps the 
 relative, of Hieron II., King of Syracuse, in 
 whose service he constantly exercised his 
 ingenuity. He was amongst those slain in 
 the general massacre which followed the 
 taking of Syracuse, having been, says the 
 story, too intent on some geometiical prob- 
 lem to give that explanation of his identity 
 which would have secured Ms safety. His 
 tomb, marked as he had directed by a cy- 
 linder with inscribed sphere, was discovered 
 by Cicero (75 B.C.) . Of Ms numerous works, 
 nine of the most important are extant, in- 
 cluding treatises on hydrostatics, the mea- 
 sure of the circle and the quadrature of the 
 parabola, and show their author to have 
 been undoubtedly the greatest mathema- 
 tician of antiquity. 
 
 Archytas, an accomplished and learned 
 Pythagorean philosopher, and a skilled 
 military commander who is said never to 
 have lost a battle. He vsrote many 
 treatises, and according to Horace was 
 drowned off the coast of Apulia. 
 
 Arciszewsld, Krzysztof (r/. 1656), a Pohsh 
 general, who joined the French army, and 
 took part in the siege of Rochelle, in 1G28. 
 He afterwards went to Brazil in the service of 
 the Dutch West India Company, and was 
 distinguished for Ms bravery and judgment. 
 
 He finally returned to Poland, where he was 
 appointed master of the ordnance. 
 
 Arckenlioltz, Johann (6. 1695, d. 1777), a 
 Swedish Finlander, whose Considerations 
 on France and its Relations to Sweden led 
 to his dismissal from Ms post in the chan- 
 cery at Stockholm. He was ultimately 
 appointed royal Mstoriographer at Stock- 
 holm. 
 
 Arco, Giambattista Gherardo d' (6. Arco, 
 1739, d. 1791), one of the greatest political 
 economists of Ms time; he left numerous 
 and valuable worl<s, and was governor of 
 the Duchy of Mantua. 
 
 Arcon, Jean Claude Eleanore Lemichaud 
 d' (6. 1733, d. 180U), a distinguished FT-ench 
 military engineer, who conceived the idea 
 of employing floating batteries for the 
 attack on Gibraltar in 1782. He also served 
 in the Republican army wMch invaded 
 Holland, and captured Breda and other 
 places. 
 
 Arcos, Rodrigo Ponz de Leon, Duke of, a 
 Spanish nobleman who so mismanaged the 
 government of Najjles under Philip IV. 
 as to provoke two rebelhons, wMch were 
 vrith difficulty suppressed, and he was re- 
 called in dii^grace. 
 
 Arctinus of Miletus, an epic poet of 
 Greece, who Uved in the 8th century B.C., 
 and wrote a conlinuation of the Iliad, and 
 the Destruction of the Ilion. 
 
 Ardemans, Teodoro (6. Madrid, 1664, d. 
 1726), a painter and architect of considerable 
 merit, many of whose architectural works 
 are to be found in Madrid. 
 
 Arden, Richard Pepper, Lord Alvanley, 
 {h. 1745, d. 1804), an eminent English 
 lawyer, and an able judge ; in 1801 he 
 succeeded Lord Eldon as chief justice of the 
 Court of Common Pleas, vdth the title of 
 Baron Alvanley. 
 
 Ardem, John, a London surgeon of the 
 14th century, said to have been the first to 
 introduce a rational practice. He was a 
 skilful operator, and made many improve- 
 ments in surgery. 
 
 Arditi, Luigi (6. 1822), Italian com- 
 poser, studied at Milan. After visiting 
 America he came to England, and was 
 conductor of the splendid orchestra of Her 
 Majesty's theatre (1857—1878). His waltzes 
 are extremely popular. 
 
 ArdsMr Babegan, a descendant of Darius, 
 and one of the wisest and most valiant of the 
 Persian kings. He defeated and slew Ms 
 predecessor, Ardavan, seized his throne, and 
 after thirty years of victorious warfare 
 established his sway from the Euphrates 
 to the Oxus. In the internal admimstration
 
 Ard 
 
 (63) 
 
 Arf 
 
 of his kingdora he proved vigilant and just ; 
 he died or abdicated about '260. 
 
 Arduin or Ardoin, Marquis of Ivrea (d. 
 1015), was elected King of Italy in 1002, 
 and for thirteen years maiatained his claim 
 in opposition to Henry II. of Germany and 
 others. Worn out at length by repeated 
 reverses, and the desertion of his friends, 
 he retired to the monastery of St. Benigno, 
 where he died. 
 
 Areinberg, Johann von Ligne {d. 1568), 
 served in the Spanish army during the war 
 of Independence in the Netherlands. He 
 was defeated at the battle of Groningen, 
 where, after exhibitiug the greatest personal 
 valour, he fell covered with wounds. 
 
 Aremberg, Leopold Philip Karl Joseph 
 von Ligne, Duke of (6. 1690, d. 1754), dis- 
 tinguished himself under Prince Eugene at 
 the battle of Belgrade. After the peace of 
 Utrecht he devoted himself for a time to 
 literature, but afterwards commanded the 
 forces of Maria Theresa, in Flanders, in the 
 war of the Austrian succession. 
 
 Arena, Bartolomeo (6. 1760, d. 1829), a 
 Corsicau advocate, a violent repubUcau, and 
 the enemy of Paoli. He was one of the Five 
 Hundred in 1798, and being charged with 
 an attempt to stab Bonaparte, retired to 
 Leghorn, where he died. 
 
 Arena, Giuseppe (rf. 1801), brother of the 
 preceding, served in the French army, and 
 distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon. 
 He was arrested on a charge of conspiring 
 against the life of the First Consul, and 
 beheaded. 
 
 Arends, Jan (6. 1738, d. 1805), a Dutch 
 painter, pupil of Ponse, painted marine 
 and other subjects. 
 
 Arents, Albert (6. 1840), an eminent 
 metallurgist ; he was educated in Germany, 
 but in 1882 was elected member of the 
 American Institute of Mining Engineers. 
 He is the inventor of the siphon tap for 
 lead f irmaces, the Eureka lead furnace, and 
 the well-known roasting furnace which bears 
 his name. 
 
 Areschong, Johan Erhard (6. 1811, d. 
 1887), an emnient Swedish botanist, for some 
 time professor of botany at Upsala. He is 
 especially devoted to the study of the 
 marine algae, and is author of Symbolce 
 Algarum HcandinavicB, and other works. 
 
 Areskin, Eobert (d. 1718), Scottish physi- 
 cian, went to Russia, and under the patron- 
 age of Peter the Great did much for the 
 advancement of medicine in that country. 
 
 Areson, Jon (6. 1484, d. 1550), a violent 
 opponent of the reformed rehgion, was 
 aiter much opposition consecrated bishop 
 
 of Holum. He led an armed expedition 
 into the diocese of Skalholt, and captured 
 and ill-treated its Protestant bishop, Einars- 
 son, and continued his depredations till he 
 himself was made prisoner, and beheaded. 
 He ii\troduced the printing press into Ice- 
 land, and was the best Icelandic poet of his 
 time. 
 
 Aretseus of Cappadocia, an eminent 
 physician of the 1st or 2nd century of the 
 Christian era, whose one extant work is 
 very valuable, and has gone through various 
 
 editions. 
 
 Aretas II., King of Aiabia Petraea in the 
 1st century B.C., was victorious in an ex- 
 pedition against Judaea, but was defeated 
 by the Romans under the legate Scaurus. 
 
 Aretas III., King of Arabia Petraea and 
 father-in-law of Herod Antipas, against 
 whom he waged a successful war. 
 
 Aretino, Leonardo (Bruni) (6. 1369, d. 
 1444) a scholar and author, whose reputa- 
 tion was such that in 1405 he was appointed 
 secretary of correspondence to Innocent 
 VII., and remained for many years in his 
 service and that of the three succeeding 
 popes. The end of his Ufe was spent in 
 Florence, of which city he was appointed 
 chancellor. 
 
 Aretino, Pietro (Bacci) (6. 1492, d. 
 1556), an adventurer who in his time ac- 
 quired an imdeserved reputation as a writer 
 and politician. He was a self-educated but 
 audacious man, and contrived to ingratiate 
 himself with several princes and noblemen, 
 fLnaliy settling at Venice, where he devoted 
 himself to the acquisition of wealth. 
 
 Aretius, Benedict (6. 1505, d. 1574), a 
 Swiss theologian and botanist ; he embraced 
 the opinions of Calvin, and devoted his 
 leisure to botany, on which he wrote many 
 works. He was the first to describe the 
 plant Aretia Helvetica, which was named in 
 his honoiir. 
 
 Arezzo, Guittone d" {d. 1294), an Italian 
 noble, known as Fra Guittone, who may be 
 regarded as one of the founders of Italian 
 poetry and perf ecter of the sonnet. 
 
 Arezzo, Tommasi (,6. 1756, d. 1832), a 
 distinguished Italian ecclesiastic, who was 
 employed by Paul I. on an important 
 mission to Russia ; he was also employed 
 by Napoleon, who imprisoned him for re- 
 vealing his plans ; he was made a cardinal 
 in 1816, and vice-chancellor of the Church 
 in 1830. 
 
 Arfe, Henrique de, with his son Antonio, 
 was a celebrated worker in silver in the 
 16th century. He settled in Spain, and 
 wrought silver tabernacles for the cathedrals 
 of Leon, Cordova and Toledo.
 
 Arf 
 
 (54) 
 
 Arg 
 
 Arfe, Juau de (b. 1535, d. 1595), grandson 
 of the preceding, surpassed his father and 
 grandfather in the beauty and elegance of 
 his work. The beautiful silver tabernacles 
 in the cathedrals of Avila and Seville are his 
 work. 
 
 Arfian, Antonio de, a Spanish artist in 
 the sixteenth centuiy, who esi^ecially ex- 
 celled in fresco. 
 
 ArgaU, Sir Samuel (6. 1572, d. 1639), 
 English deputy governor of Virginia 
 (1617—1619), whose tyranny and rapacity 
 resulted ia his recall two years after his 
 appointment. He afterwards took part in 
 an expedition against the Algerines, and 
 was knighted in 1623. 
 
 Argand, Aim^ {b. 1755, d. 1803), a chemist 
 of Geneva, inventor of the Argand lamp, 
 which he brought out in England in 1782. 
 The patent was also claimed by a French- 
 man, Ambroise Lange, and finally taken 
 out in France in their joint names, the 
 priority of invention being conceded to 
 Argand. The French Eevolution, how- 
 ever, deprived him of all profit from his 
 patent. 
 
 Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm Auguste 
 (6. 1799, d. 1875), German astronomer of 
 repute, published iu 1843 an atlas of those 
 stars which are visible to the naked eye 
 (Uranometria Nova). He also continued 
 Bessel's work, fixing the position of some 
 22,000 stars in the zone 45° to SO''. 
 
 _ArgeUati, Filippo (6. 1685, d. Milan, 
 1755), a learned and eminent printer and 
 author, whose name was especially asso- 
 ciated with the printiug of Muratori's 
 Rerum Italicarum Seriptores. 
 
 Argens, Jean-Bapfiste de Boyer, Marquis 
 de (6. 1704, d. 1771), a witty French writer, 
 who attracted the attention of Frederick II. 
 of Prussia, and spent some years at Berlin, 
 but having incurred that monarch's dis- 
 pleasure, and forfeited his pension, he re- 
 turned to Provence, where he died. Among 
 his best known writings are the Lettres 
 Juives, and the Lettres Cabalistiques. 
 
 Argensola, Bartolome Leonardo y (6. 
 1564, d. 1631), a Spanish poet and man of 
 letters, whose Runas obtained for him 
 the title of "The Phoenix of Castilian 
 poetry." 
 
 Argensola, Lupercio Leonardo y (6. 1563, 
 d. 1613), brother of the preceding; he was 
 patronised by.Philip III. His tragedies are 
 highly spoken of by Cervantes, and he also 
 wrote lyrical and historical works. 
 
 Argeutelle, Louis Marc Antoine {h. 1777, 
 d. 1828), a celebrated French modeller, who 
 made a valuable collection of wax models of 
 
 the India flora. His secret unfortunately 
 perished with him. 
 
 Argenterio, Giovanni (6. 1513, d. 1572), 
 " The Great Physician," practised at Lyons 
 and Antwerp, acquiiing so great a reputa- 
 tion that he was invited to Italy, and tilled 
 the chair of medicine at Naples, Pisa, Rome, 
 and TurLu. 
 
 Argentre, Bertrand d' (6. 1519, d. 1590), a 
 learned jurist and historian of Brittany, 
 author of a History of Brittany, and other 
 works. 
 
 Argote de Molina, Gonzalo (h. 1549, d. 
 1590), a Spanish historian, and author of 
 some valuable works on the geography of 
 the East. In early hfe he served in thu 
 army, but afterwards devoted himself to> 
 literature, and died in poverty. 
 
 Arguelles, Augustin (6. 1775, d. 1844), a 
 distinguished Spanish statesman whosb 
 speeches and writings against the French 
 obtained for him the title of "Divino." 
 In 1814 he was amongst the proscribed, 
 and condemned to the galleys, but some 
 six years later was made Minister of the 
 Interior. His royalist principles induced 
 him to retire to London, till the amnesty of 
 1832, after which he became a member of 
 Cortes, and tutor to the young queen and 
 her sister. 
 
 Argyll, Archibald Campbell (6. 1598, d. 
 1661), eighth Earl of; a popular Highland 
 leader, who took part in the Civil wars of 
 the 17th century. At first he sided with the 
 Covenanters, whose forces he commanded 
 for a short time, but on the execution of 
 Charles I. he broke with the English 
 parliament, and did all in his power to pro- 
 mote the Restoration. In spite of this 
 he was committed to the Tower by Charles 
 II. on a charge of high treason, and exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 Argyll, Archibald (d. 1685), ninth Earl of, 
 son of the preceding, and a staunch royalist. 
 He refused, however, to give complete 
 compliance with the requirements of the Test 
 Acts, and at the instigation of the Duke of 
 York was tried for high treason, and sen- 
 tenced to death in 1681, but succeeded in 
 escaping to Holland. Returniag to Scotland 
 at the head of a considerable force, he was 
 taken prisoner, and executed on his former 
 sentence. 
 
 Argyll, John, second Duke of (6. 1678, d. 
 1743), a distinguished statesman and soldier, 
 who served with distinction under Marl- 
 borough in the Low Countries. As a poli- 
 tician he assisted in effecting the union 
 between England and Scotland, and also 
 promoted the accession of George I. He was 
 afterwards appointed commander-in-chief
 
 Arg 
 
 (55) 
 
 Ari 
 
 in Scotland, and defeated the Earl of Mar 
 at Sherift'muir in 1715. 
 
 Argyll, George Douglas Campbell, eighth 
 Diike of (b. 1823), author and politician, was 
 bom at Ardenlaple Castle, Dumbartonshire. 
 As Marquis of Lome he took a strong 
 interest in the question of ecclesiastical pa- 
 tronage then agitated in the Scottish Church, 
 and which occasioned the secession of the 
 Free Kirk, being a supporter of Dr. 
 Chalmers and the evangelical party. He 
 became duke in 1847, and in 1851 chancellor 
 of the University of St. Andrew's. In the 
 followiag year he was appointed Lord Privy 
 Seal in the Cabinet of Lord Aberdeen, ia 
 1856 Postmaster-General, and agaiu in 1859 
 Lord Privy Seal in the Administration of 
 Lord Palmerston. From 1868 to 1874 he 
 was a member of Mr. Gladstone's Govern- 
 ment as Secretary of State for India, and 
 for the third time accepted the office of Lord 
 Privy Seal in 1880, but resigned on certain 
 clauses of the Irish Land BUI which he 
 considered destructive of ownership. Be- 
 sides much he has \vritten of the laud ques- 
 tion, a subject with which he is intimately 
 acquaiuted, his principal works are a history 
 of the Scottish Church, and, in religious and 
 scientific inquiry, the Reign of Law (1866), 
 and the Unity of Nature (1844). 
 
 Ari, or Ara (&. 1068, d. 1148), surnanied 
 *' the Learned/' an Icelandic historian, and 
 pupU of Hall Thorariusson, whose history 
 and chronology are very valuable. 
 
 Ariadne, Empress of the East in the 
 filth and sixth centuries, was the daughter 
 of Leo I., and on his death, and that 
 of her infant son, vigorously maintained 
 the claims of her husband, Zeno, to the 
 throne, who died in 491, and she then 
 married his successor, Anastatius I., over 
 whom she had great influence. 
 
 Arialdus {d. 1066), a deacon of Milan in the 
 11th century, who, in company with Landul- 
 f us, determinedly opposed the marriage and 
 simony of the clergy. Though excommu- 
 nicated, their sentence was annulled on 
 appeal, but a violent agitation at Milan 
 induced the archbishop to lay that city under 
 an interdict, when the terrified people turned 
 against Arialdus, who was arrested, and 
 murdered. 
 
 Ariamnes I., King or Satrap of Cappa- 
 docia, was the father of Ariarathes I., and 
 reigned fifty years. 
 
 Ariamnes II., King of Cappadocia, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Ariarathes II. , and asso- 
 ciated in the government his son, Aria- 
 rathes III. 
 
 Ariarathes I., King of Cappadocia (6. b.o. 
 404, d. B.C. 322), succeeded his father, Ari- 
 amnes L ; he was unmolested by Alexander 
 
 the Great, though afterwards attacked and 
 defeated by Perdiccas, who caused him to 
 be crucified. 
 
 Ariarathes II., King of Cappadocia, 
 nephew of the preceding, upon whose death 
 he fled to Ardoates, King of Armenia, who 
 supplied him with the means of expelling 
 the Macedonians and regaining his kingdom. 
 
 Ariarathes III., King of Cappadocia {d. 
 B.C. 22U), son of Ariamnes II. ; he married 
 Stratonice, daughter of Antiochus II. of 
 
 Syria. 
 
 Ariarathes IV., King of Cappadocia (d. 
 B.C. 163), son of the preceding, aided 
 Antiochus III. against the Romans, but 
 afterwards formed an alliance with them. 
 
 Ariarathes V., King of Cappadocia (d. b.o. 
 130), called at first Mithridates, and sur- 
 uamed Philopater, was driven from his 
 throne by Holofernes and fled to Home, 
 but was afterwards restored in conjunction 
 with his rival, but soon regained entire 
 possession. 
 
 Ariarathes VI., King of Cappadocia (d. 
 B.C. 96), sou of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded, was assassinated at the instigation 
 of his father-in-law, Mithridates. 
 
 Ariarathes VII., King of Cappadocia, son 
 of the preceding, was placed on the throne 
 by Mithridates, as a means of securing it 
 for himself. He, however, resisted, and 
 raised an army, but was assassinated by 
 Mithridates. 
 
 Ariarathes VIII., King of Cappadocia, 
 sou of Ariarathes VI., was attacked by 
 JNIithridates and driven from the throne. 
 
 Ariarathes XI., King of Cappadocia (d. 
 B.C. 36), son of Aiiobarzanes II., succeeded 
 to the throne B.C. 42, but was deposed and 
 put to death by Antony. 
 
 Arias Montanus Benedictus, Benito Arias 
 Moutano (6. 1527, d. 1598), a learned biblical 
 scholar, who in 1568 superintended the 
 printing of the great polyglot Bible. 
 
 Aribert, Duke of Aquitaine (d. 630), and 
 son of Clotaire II. of France, obtained pos- 
 session of Aquitaine on his father's death, 
 and held it till his death. 
 
 Aribert I., King of the Longobards (d. 
 661), elected in 653, devoted himself to the 
 conversion of his Arian subjects to the or- 
 thodox faith. 
 
 Aribert II., King of the Longobards, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne in 701, and the following 
 year was attacked by Linitpert, whom he 
 defeated and put to death. In712, however, 
 he was defeated by Ansprand, and drowned 
 in the Ticino.
 
 Ari 
 
 (56) 
 
 Ari 
 
 Arigisius I., Duke of Beneventum, a war- 
 like and able prince, who ruled from 591 
 to 641. 
 
 Arigisius II., Duke of Beneventum, a man 
 of learning and ability, assumed the title 
 of priuce iu 774, but two years afterwards 
 submitted to Charlemagne. 
 
 Ariobarzanes I., King of Cappadocia, 
 sumamed Philoromaeus, was elected in B.C. 
 93, and after being four times driven from 
 his throne, and as often restored by the 
 Romans, abdicated in favour of his son, 
 B.C. 63. 
 
 Ariobarzanes II., King of Cappadocia, 
 son of the preceding, died by violence before 
 B.C. 51. 
 
 Ariobarzanes III., King of Cappadocia 
 (a'. B.C. 42), sou of the preceding, was favour- 
 ably treatet by Ccesar, who increased his 
 dominions, though he had previously assisted 
 Pompey. He was put to death by Cassius. 
 
 Ariobarzanes I., King or Satrap of Pontus, 
 who may be confounded by Xenophon with 
 another of the same name, was betrayed by 
 his son, Mithridates I., to the King of 
 Persia. 
 
 Ariobarzanes II., King of Pontus, and 
 Bon of Mithridates I., in 362 B.C. revolted 
 from Artaxerxes II. of Persia, and estab- 
 lished his independence. 
 
 Ariobarzanes III., King of Pontus {d. 
 B.C. 240), succeeded his father, Mithridates 
 III., B.C. 266. With assistance from the 
 Gauls he defeated an invasion of the 
 Egyptians. 
 
 Ariosti, Attilio (6. Bologna, 1660, d. 1740), 
 a musical composer, the friend and rival of 
 Handel. He was for some years in the 
 service of the Electress of Brandenburg, and 
 twice visited England, on one occasion being 
 employed mth Handel at the Royal Aca- 
 demy of Music. Of the fifteen operas he 
 composed, the most popular was his Corio- 
 lanus. 
 
 Ariosto.Lodovico (S.Reggio, 1474, rf. 1533), 
 one of the foremost poets of Italy, and author 
 of the great epic poem Orlando Furioso, 
 which was written in his intervals of leisure 
 whilst employed by Cardinal Ippolyto of 
 Este in various political negotiations. The 
 Orlando celebrates the achievements of the 
 Paladins of Charlemagne in the wars be- 
 tween the Christians and Moors; besides 
 this work he produced two comedies and 
 some sonnets and other small pieces. 
 
 Ariovistus [Ehrenvist], a chief of the 
 Suevi in the first century B.C., who gained 
 many victories over the Sequani and .^dui, 
 till forced by Julius Caesar across the 
 Bhine. 
 
 Arista, Mariano (6. 1802, d. 1855), a Mexi- 
 can general who distinguished himself in 
 tlie Mexican wars of Independence. In 
 the war with the United States he com- 
 manded at Palo Alto and Resaca de la 
 Pahna, and in 1850 was elected President 
 of Mexico, but resigned his office in 1853, 
 and was banished shortly afterwards. 
 
 Aristagoras of Miletus, governor of Mi- 
 letus during the absence of Histiseus. An 
 expedition against Naxos having failed, he 
 instigated a revolt against Persia, and 
 with the aid of the Athenians attacked 
 Sardis, which he captured and burnt, but 
 was shortly afterwards killed at the siege 
 of AmphipoUs. 
 
 Aristarchus tlie Grammarian, a native 
 of Saniothrace, and a renowned grammarian 
 and critic of the 2ud and 3rd centuries B.C., 
 was tutor to the son of Ptolemy IV., but 
 his great work was a critical examination of 
 the 'ireek classics, the present form of the 
 Odyssey and Iliad being attributed to him. 
 
 Aristides, a Greek orator of the 2nd 
 century B.C., was a native of Bithynia, but 
 settled in Smyrna, where he taught oratory. 
 
 Aristides, sumamed The Just, the son ot 
 Lysimachus, of a noble Athenian family, was 
 one of the ten Athenian generals at Mara- 
 thon, and the next year was chief Archon. 
 Though banished through the influence and 
 jealousy of Themistocles, was recalled three 
 years later, upon the invasion of Greece 
 by the Persians, and was present at the 
 battles of Salamis(B.o. 480) and Platsea (B.C. 
 479), the victory of his countrymen being 
 largely due to him. It was principally ow- 
 ing to his high reputation for integrity that 
 the Confederate States with two exceptions 
 appealed to the Athenians to lead them. 
 He died about 468 B.C., in such poverty 
 that he was buried at the public expense. 
 
 Aristides of Thebes, a Greek painter of 
 the 4th century B.C., whose pictures fetched 
 immense prices. 
 
 Aristion, a native of Athens, and teacher 
 of philosophy in the 1st century B.C. He 
 headed a revolt of the Athenians against 
 Rome, and being appointed general, used his 
 power for purposes of tyranny and plunder. 
 On the arrival of Siilla, B.C. 87, Aristion 
 was besieged at Athens and put to death. 
 
 Aristippus, a Greek philosopher, native 
 of Cyrene, and pupil of Socrates. He dif- 
 fered materially from his great master, 
 and founded the school of the Cyrenaics, 
 teaching by precept and example that 
 pleasure is the only end of action. 
 
 Aristobulus I., sumamed Philhellene, 
 high priest of the Jews, B.C. 107; assumed 
 the title of king, and defeated Antiochua
 
 Ari 
 
 (67) 
 
 Arl 
 
 CyziccDUS at the siege of Samaria. He 
 also caused the death of his mother, and 
 afterwards of his brother Autigonus, who 
 had been associated with him in the 
 govermnent. 
 
 Aristobulus 11. {d. b.c. 49), high priest 
 and kiug of the Jews, son of Alexander 
 Januaeus, usurped his brother's throne, but 
 was attac*ked by Pompey, who took Jeru- 
 salem, and carried hin to Rome. After 
 various attempts to regain the throne, he 
 died of poison. 
 
 Aristobulus of Cassandrea, a Greek his- 
 torian of the 4th century B.C. ; one of the 
 generals of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Aristocles, bom at Messene, a peripatetic 
 philosopher of the 2nd century, and author 
 of several philosophical works. 
 
 Aristodemus, a contemporary of Tar- 
 quinius Superbus, tyrant of Cuma in Cam- 
 pania, and a brave and victorious general. 
 He proclaimed a democratic government, 
 but assumed absolute power and ruled with 
 great sevei'ity. 
 
 Aristogeiton, an Athenian patriot, famed 
 ia Greek song as one of the assassins of the 
 tyrannical Hipparchus ; he was captured 
 and put to death, but a statue was erected 
 to his memory by the Athenians. 
 
 Aristoplianes (6. circa e.g. 448), the cele- 
 brated Greek comic poet, the contemporary 
 of Socrates, Demosthenes, and Euripides, 
 and a prolific and brilHant writer of satirical 
 plays. For purity and elegance of style he is 
 unsurpassed, and his works present a vivid 
 picture of Athenian Life and maimers, ridi- 
 culing the evils of the time, and many of 
 the leading men, especially Socrates in The 
 Clouds, and Cleon, the popular favourite, 
 in The Knights. Of his fifty-four plays 
 only eleven remain. Nothing is known of 
 his personal Hf e. 
 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium, a great gram- 
 marian and critic of the third century B.C., 
 and author of the Greek system of punc- 
 tuation and accentuation ; he was superin- 
 tendent of the library at Alexandria. 
 
 AristotUe, Bastiano da San Gallo {h. 
 1481, d. 1551), an Italian painter and archi- 
 tect; he was a pupil of Perugino and 
 Michael Angelo, and was remarkable for 
 his skill ia perspective. 
 
 Aristotle (6. b.c. 384, d. b.c. 322), bom at 
 Stagira, in Macedonia, one of the greatest 
 intellects that the world has known, and 
 founder of the peripatetic school of phi- 
 losophy, possibly so called from its great 
 master's habit of walking up and down 
 while lecturing. A pupil of Plato, who 
 called him the "mind" of his school, 
 Aristotle became exceedingly proficient in 
 
 physics, metaphysics, rhetoric, poUtics, 
 ethics, and natural history, while of logic 
 he justly claims to be the founder. His 
 fame reached Phihp of Macedon, who 
 appointed him tutor to his son, Alexander 
 the Great, aud when no longer required in 
 that capacity, Aristotle returned to Athens 
 and estabHshed a school in the Lycetmi. 
 An accusation of impiety, and perhaps poU- 
 tical sympathy with Macedonia, induced 
 him to retire to Chalcis, where he died in the 
 sixty-third year of his age. The philosophy 
 of Aristotle has exercised an inunense influ- 
 ence over the world, and till the advent of 
 the revival of learning and the Reformation, 
 its power in Europe was supreme. 
 
 Aristoxemus, a native of Tarentum in 
 the 4th century B.C., and the earliest Greek 
 writer on music whose works are extant. 
 As a peripatetic philosopher he had a great 
 reputation. 
 
 Arius {d. 336), theologian and heresiarch, 
 was a presbyter of Alexandria in the 4th cen- 
 tury, whose teaching denied the divinity of 
 Christ. This doctrine was pronounced here- 
 tical, and Arius and his followers excom- 
 municated, and at the great CouncU of 
 Nicsea (325), at which the Emperor Con- 
 stantine was present, and Athanasius, after- 
 wards bishop of Alexandria, took a leading 
 part ; these decisions were confirmed, and 
 the Nicene Creed dra-wn up for the future 
 guidance of the Church. Arius several 
 times applied for readmission to the Church, 
 which was about to be granted when he 
 died suddenly. 
 
 Arktiarov, Nikolai Petrovich (6. 1742, d. 
 1814), a general in the Russian army, who, 
 vmder the Emperor Paul, was governor- 
 general of St. Petersburg. 
 
 Arkwright, Sir Richard (6. 1732, d. 
 1792), a Lancashire barber, renowned as 
 the inventor of the spinning-frame. Of 
 humble birth, he exhibited considerable 
 mechanical skill, joined with the greatest 
 industry. In 1767 he attempted to solve 
 the problem of perpetual motion, and soon 
 after, with the help of a clockmaker named 
 Kay, his spinning inventions began to take 
 shape. He then entered into partnership 
 with a firm of stocking-manufacturers, and 
 his invention was patented in 1769, and 
 though many difficulties arose,from infringe- 
 ments of the patent, the hostihty of the 
 work-people, and disputes to his claim as 
 the inventor of his machines, Arkwright was 
 enabled to rise from poverty, and was 
 chosen to present a congratulatory address 
 to George ill. in 1786, on wiiich occasion he 
 was knighted. 
 
 _Arlaud, Jacques Antoine (6. 1688, d. 
 1746), a Swiss miniature and portrait 
 painter, who was patronised by the Duke of
 
 Arl 
 
 (58) 
 
 Arm 
 
 Orleaus. In 1721 he visited England, where 
 he was warmly received, and employed to 
 paiut the portrait of Cai'oliue, Princess of 
 Wales. His niastei'piece was a Leda, 
 copied by liiin in Paris, with which he 
 refused t > part, and tiually destroyed by 
 cutting it to pieces. Some fragments are 
 still preserved in the public library at 
 Geneva. 
 
 Arlincourt, Charles Victor Prevot, Vicomte 
 d' {h. 17S;i, d. 1856), poet, attracted the at- 
 tention of Napoleon by a poem entitled Une 
 Matinee de Charlemagne, which secured for 
 him several appointments. On the restora- 
 tion he devoted himself to Utei-ature, and 
 published many poems and romances, of 
 which Le Solitaire was the most popular. 
 
 ArlottO, Mainardi (6. 1395, d. 1483), 
 " Arlotto il Piovano," or, "the Curate," a 
 witty Italian priest of humble birth, who 
 travelled largely in Europe ; his bon-mots 
 have been collected under the title of 
 Facetice Piacevole. 
 
 Armagnac, Bernard, Count d', a man of 
 noble family, and of almost absolute 
 power over his own territories in G-ascony. 
 Bold and ambitious, he largely increased 
 his possessions, and after the mirrder 
 of the Duke of Orleans in 1407, took a 
 prominent part in the party rivalries of the 
 country, and having gained possession of 
 Paris, caused himself to be appointed con- 
 stable of France. His crueltj' and violence, 
 however, made him hated by the people, 
 who betrayed the city to the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, 1417, and Armagnac was imprisoned 
 and afterwards masbacred by the mob. 
 
 Armagnac, George d' (6. 1501, d. 1585), 
 Cardinal d' Armagnac ; an able and learned 
 man, who was employed diplomatically 
 by Francis I. and Charles IX., and was 
 ultimately made archbishop of Avignon. 
 
 Armagnac, Jean I., Count of, a distin- 
 guished French soldier of the 14th century; 
 he served against the English, and also 
 under the Black Prince in Spain. 
 
 Armand, Pierre Damian (6. 1778, d. 1855), 
 an Italian soldier, who distinguished himself 
 in the wars of the French Republic, serving 
 under Massena in 1799 ; he was afterwards 
 engaged in the Italian struggles for liberty, 
 and on his return to France was appointed 
 librarian to St. Cloud. 
 
 Armansperg, Joseph Lud wig (6. 1787, d. 
 1853), a Bavarian statesman, who as min- 
 ister of finance (1826 — 1831) succeeded in 
 establishing the financial credit of his coun- 
 try. Upon the accession of Ludwig's second 
 son, Oth>, to the throne of Greece, Ar- 
 mansperg accompanied him as President of 
 the Regency (1833), but was dismissed in 
 1837, and retired to Bavaria, where he died. 
 
 Armati, Salvino [d. 1317), a native of 
 Florence, said to have invented spectacles 
 in the 13th century. 
 
 Armellini, Carlo (6. circa 1780, d. 1863), 
 an Italian patriot, who with Mazziui and 
 Saffi formed the Triumvirate in Rome, 
 1849. Upon the restoration of the Pope's 
 authority he was driven into exile. 
 
 Armfelt, Carl (6. 1666, d. 1736), a skilful 
 and determined Swedish general, who op- 
 posed the Russian invasions under Peter the 
 Great. 
 
 Armfelt, Gustave Mauritz (6. 1757, d. 
 1814), a distinguished Swedish general and 
 politician, who experienced several reverses 
 of fortune, and was twice compelled on 
 account of his intrigues to take refuge ia 
 Russia, where he died. 
 
 Arminius or Hermann (6. b.c. 16, d. a.d. 
 20), "the deliverer of Germany," son of a 
 chief of the Cherusci, was sent to Rome as 
 a hostage, and entered the Roman army, 
 where he attained high rank. He, however, 
 revolted from Rome, and becoming one of the 
 most powerful leaders of the German tribes, 
 defeated and slew Varus, and for some time 
 baiiled Germanicus, but was twice defeated 
 by the Romans. He was assassiuated by one 
 of his own coimtrymen. 
 
 Arminius, Jacobus, Jakob Harmensen 
 (6. 1560, (/. 1609), founder of the sect 
 of Arminians. He studied at Geneva 
 under Beza, but his adoption of the philo- 
 sophical views of Peter Ramus brought him 
 into disrepute, and he retired to Bale, and 
 was ordaiued minister at Amsterdam (1588). 
 He was chosen to defend Beza's doctrine of 
 predestination, but the study of the subject 
 resulted in his own conversion. In spite 
 of fierce opposition to his doctrine, in 1603 
 he was professor of theology, and in 1606 
 rector magnificus at Leyden. 
 
 Armitage, Edward (6. 1817), an historical 
 and mural painter, and a pupU of Paul 
 Delaroche, whom he assisted in the famous 
 Heinicycle. His first exhibit was Pro- 
 metheus Pound (1842), and he has since 
 won many prizes, and has been a con- 
 stant exhibitor in the Royal Academy and 
 elsewhere. He executed two frescoes. The 
 Thames with its Tributaries, and the 
 Death of Marmion, in the upper wait- 
 ing hall of the Palace of Westminster, as 
 well as mural paintings elsewhere. R.A. 
 1872. 
 
 Armstead, Henry Hugh (6. 1828), de- 
 signer, modeller, and chaser in gold, 
 silver, and jewellery, but best known 
 as a sculptor. Besides the marble work of 
 the south and east sides of the podium of 
 the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, and 
 the four large bronze figures of Chemistry,
 
 Arm 
 
 (5^) 
 
 Am 
 
 Astronomy, Medicine, and Ehetoric, he has 
 designed and executed many statues and 
 decorative work of various kinds. R.A. 
 1879. 
 
 Armstrong, Sir Alexander (6. 1822), 
 K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., honorary phy- 
 sician to the Queen and Prince of Wales. 
 He was knighted in 1871, and has written 
 on subjects connected with the polar regions, 
 vfhere he spent five consecutive years, having 
 been surgeon of H.M.S. Investigator, during 
 the discovery of the north-west passage by 
 Sir Robert McClure in 1853-54. 
 
 Armstrong, John (6. 1784, d. 1829), an 
 eminent physician and lecturer on medicine ; 
 his works on brain fever and puerperal fever 
 are especially valuable. 
 
 Armstrong, Johnnie, famous Scottish 
 freebooter, celebrated in minstrelsy, was 
 put to death by James V. 
 
 Armstrong, William (Kinmount Willie), 
 a famous border freebooter of the 16th 
 centuiy, was captured by the English dur- 
 ing a truce, but was rescued by the Scots 
 under Lord Buccleuch, in the daring exploit 
 knovra as the " Raid of Carlisle." 
 
 Armstrong, William George, Baron (6. 
 ISIO), inventor of the weU-known breech- 
 loading gun adopted by the British Govern- 
 ment, was educated for the law, and entered 
 a firm of solicitors, which he left in 184(5, and 
 established the Els wick Eugiueering Works 
 on the Tyne. In 18.)y he was knighted, and 
 appointed chief engineer of ordnance, but 
 in 1863 he resigned that post, and retired 
 to Elswick, where he has since devoted 
 himself to the manxifacture of ordnance. 
 Created a peer 1887. 
 
 Amaldo of Brescia, a monk of 
 the 12th century, was banished by In- 
 nocent II. for his bold attempts to reform 
 ^ne lives of the clergy, and took refuge 
 with Abelard and then at Zurich. On the 
 death of the Pope he went to R )me, and 
 encouraged a revolt against the temporal 
 rule of the Church (1143-1154), but was 
 made prisoner and then cruelly put to 
 death. 
 
 Amaldus, Villanovanus (Amauld)(6. 1240, 
 d. 1313), a celebrated physician and chemist, 
 who, in spite of his reputed heresy, was 
 summoned to the deathbed of Pope Clement 
 v., but died on his way. 
 
 Amason, Jon (6. Hof, Iceland, 1819), an 
 eminent historian and author of many tales 
 and Icelandic legends. 
 
 Amaud, Franc^ois {h. 1721, d. 1784), a 
 French writer and critic, and a great 
 authority on music, wjis one of the con- 
 ductors of the Journal Etranger and Gazette 
 Litter aire. 
 
 Amaud, Fran9ois Thomas Marie de Bacu- 
 lard d' (6. Paris, 1718,rf. 1805), aman of pre- 
 cocious intellect, and of considerable celebrity 
 as a miscellaneous writer. He was impri- 
 soned during the Reign of Terror, but after- 
 wards released. 
 
 Amaud, Henri (&. 1641, d. 1721), pastor 
 and leader of the Vaudois Protestants, 
 whom after incredible hardships he suc- 
 ceeded in bringing back to their native Pied- 
 moutese valleys, just at the time when Victor 
 Amadeus II., having broken with France, 
 was glad not only to cease his persecutions, 
 but even to engage their services. But 
 though he led a detachment against the 
 French, on the renewal of peace the Vaudois 
 were again diiven from their homes and 
 forced to take shelter with the Duke of 
 Wurtemburg, where he spent the rest 
 of his days in the compilation of his His- 
 tory of the Glorious Return. 
 
 Arnauld, Angelique (6. 1624, d. 1684), 
 Abbess of Port Royal, and niece of the cele- 
 brated Mere Angelique, was a woman 
 of great piety, learning, and fortitude, and 
 nobly sustained the courage of her nuns un- 
 der the persecutions to which they were 
 subjected. 
 
 Amauld, Antoine (6. 1612, d. 1694), sur- 
 named "le Grand," a doctor of theology, 
 and member of the Sorbonne, and a power- 
 ful advocate of the Jansenists. During 
 twelve years of comparative seclusion he 
 alone, or with Nicole, Pascal, or Lancelot, 
 composed those works on logic, metaphysics, 
 and theology, whichmade Port Royal famous, 
 and when " the Peace of the Church " was 
 obtained he attacked the Calviuists, against 
 whom he and Nicole directed their great 
 work, Perpetuite de la Foi. In 1679 he was 
 forced to flee, and took refuge, at Brussels, 
 where he died. 
 
 Amauld, Jacqueline Marie (Mere Angel- 
 ique) (6. 1591, d. 1661), sister of theprecediug; 
 she was made abbess of Port Royal in her 
 eleventh year, and was distinguished as well 
 for her kindness and benevolence as for her 
 piety, and the strict discipline she main- 
 tained. 
 
 Arnauld, Jeanne Catherine Agnes (La Mere 
 Agnes) (6. 1593, d. 1671), sister of the pre- 
 ceding ; at five years old she was made abbess 
 of St. Cyr, which post she resigned and joined 
 her sister at Port Royal, where she was 
 several times elected abbess. 
 
 Arnault, Vincent Antoine (6. 1766, d. 
 1834), a French dramatic writer, author of 
 the tragedies of Marius and Lucrece and 
 other works. He escaped from France 
 duiiug the revolution, was afterwards em- 
 ployed by Bonaparte, and in 1883 became 
 secretary to the Academic Fraaijaise.
 
 Am 
 
 (60) 
 
 Arn 
 
 Amd or Amdt. Johann (6. 1555, d. 1621), 
 Gerinau theologian and distinguished re- 
 former, was author of an admirable trea- 
 tise Uii True C/iristianitt/, and was finally 
 appointed superintendent-general of the 
 Lutheran Chvu'ch at Zelle. 
 
 Ame, Cecilia (d. 1776), wife of the follow- 
 ing, whom she married in 1740. She was one 
 of the best vocalists of her day, and as Miss 
 Young appeared at Drury Lane in 1730. 
 
 Ame, Thomas Augustine {b. London, 
 1710, d. 1778), a distinguished musical 
 composer, who relinquished the study 
 of law for that of music. His genius first 
 showed itself in the music of Co)nus, 
 1788, and among other popular productions 
 of this writer is the well-known Utile 
 Britannia from The Masque of Alfred, Ar- 
 taxerxes, and Love in a Village. 
 
 Amgrim, Jonasen, an Icelandic historian 
 of the 16th and 17th centuries ; a pupil of 
 Tycho Brahe. 
 
 Amgrimsson, Eystein (d. 1361), an Ice- 
 landic poet, author of a poem in honour of 
 the Virgin Mary, The Lily, said to be 
 the finest in the language. 
 
 Arnlieiin or Arnim, George, Baron von 
 (h. 1581, d. 1641), a distinguished general and 
 politician, who took part in the Thirty Years' 
 war, serving successively under Gustavus 
 Adolphus, Wallenstein, and the Elector of 
 Saxony. After gaining the decisive victory 
 of Liegnitz (1634) he retired to his estates, 
 but was seized and imprisoned by the King 
 of Sweden ; he escaped, however, but died 
 soon after. 
 
 Arnim, Anna Elizabeth von (Bettina) 
 {b. 1785, d. 1859), the friend of Goethe, a 
 clever but eccentric German poetess and 
 writer, who published in 1837 her corre- 
 spondence with Goethe, Correspondence with 
 a Child. 
 
 Arnim, Harry Karl Edouard, Count von 
 (6. 1824, d. 1881), a Prussian diplomatist, 
 ambassador at Rome 1864, whose support of 
 Dr. D61 linger, and resolute opposition to the 
 doctrine of Infallibility whilst at Rome, in- 
 duced tlie government to bestow upon him 
 the title of count. He was afterwards sent 
 as ambassador of the German Empii-e to 
 Paris, but on his recall various charges in 
 connection with his discharge of the duties 
 of that office were brought against him, and 
 80 aggravated by a violent attack upon the 
 govemmf nt made by an anonymous writer, 
 presumably the count himself, that he 
 was tried on a charge of high treason and 
 insolent libel, and sentenced in absence to 
 five years' penal servitude. He was at the 
 time Uving in Lausanne, and prudently re- 
 mained in exile till his death, aU attempts 
 at reconciliation proving futile. 
 
 Arnim, Lud\vig Joachim von {b. 1781, d. 
 1831), an eminent German poet and miscel- 
 laneous writer, who in conjunction with 
 Clemens Brentano produced the famous 
 collection of songs entitled Des Knaben 
 Wunderhorn. 
 
 Arnold, Arthur {b. 1833), politician, author, 
 and social reformer, first became prominent 
 during the cotton famine. He was the first 
 editor of the Echo, which under his manage- 
 ment had a wide circulation; he has also 
 written several articles and books, and was 
 elected member for SaKord in 1880. 
 
 Arnold, Benedict {b. 1740, d. 1801), 
 American general, a brave but unprincipled 
 man. At fifteen he enlisted in the English 
 army, but soon deserted, and adopted a 
 mercantile life. In the Anglo-American 
 war Arnold took an extremely active part, 
 his skill and gallantry being especially 
 exhibited in the siege of Quebec and the 
 victories of Ridgefield and Benis. Mean- 
 while a party hostile to him had been 
 growing up ; his due promotion was de- 
 ferred, several serious charges were brought 
 against him, the fortunes of the Americans 
 grew worse and worse, and he became 
 affected with the prevalent spirit of de- 
 sertion. Accordingly he entered into 
 negotiation with the Biitish commander, 
 and treacherously asked and obtained the 
 command of West Point, with the intention 
 of surrendering it to the enemy ; the capture 
 of Andre betrayed his dupUcity, and the 
 traitor fled in disgrace to the English army 
 at New York. Here he was appointed 
 brigadier- general, and after serving against 
 his countrymen, retired to London. 
 
 Arnold, Christoph {b. 1646, d. 1695), a 
 German farmer who devoted his leisure to 
 astronomy, and made some remarkably exact 
 calculations ; he discovered the comet of 
 1683. 
 
 Arnold, Sir Edwin, K.C.LE., {b. 1832), 
 journalist and poet, educated at King's 
 College, London, and Oxford, where 
 he won the Newdigate prize in 1852. 
 He was for several years principal 
 of the Government Sanscrit college at 
 Poonah, Bombay Presidency, but resigned 
 his post in 1861, when he first became con- 
 nected with the Daily Telegraph, for which 
 he has continued to vsrrite ever since, 
 being appointed editor. His Light of Asia 
 '(1879) achieved extraordinary popularity, 
 and obtained him a high place amongst the 
 poets of the day. 
 
 Arnold, Duke of Gueldres {b. 1410, d. 
 1473), was engaged in continual warfare 
 with Duke Adolphus of Berg, and his suc- 
 cessor Gerhard V., who inflicted a crushing 
 defeat on him upon St. Hubert's Day, 1444. 
 He afterwards had much trouble with hia
 
 Am 
 
 (61) 
 
 Aro 
 
 rebellious son, Adolphus, and finally sold hifl 
 duchy to Charles the Bold in 1472. 
 
 Arnold, Joliann Gottfried {b. Hohenlohe, 
 1773, d. LSOl), musician and composer, es- 
 pecially skilled on the violoncello. 
 
 Arnold, John {b. 1744, d. 1799), an English 
 chronometrician, inventor of the detached 
 escapement, the compensation balance, and 
 the cylindrical balance-spring. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew {b. 1822, d. 1888), eldest 
 son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, was educated 
 at Winchester, Rugby, and Balliol CoUege, 
 Oxford, and was a distinguished critic, poet, 
 scholar, and theologian. He was elected 
 Fellow of Oriel CoUege 1845, and iu 1851, 
 after having been for some time private 
 secretary to Lord Lansdowne, he was ap- 
 pointed Lay Inspector of Schools under the 
 Committee of Coimcil on Education, in 
 which capacity he twice visited the Con- 
 tinent for the purpose of collecting informa- 
 tion, and which appointment he resigned in 
 1886. His poetic activity was manifested in 
 early life; for ten years (1857-1867) he held 
 the chair of poetry at Oxford, and amongst 
 his productions may be noted his Newdigate 
 prize poem Cromwell (1843), The Strayed 
 Keveller, and a volume of New Foems pub- 
 lished in 1869. As a critic he holds a very 
 high place. His later works were chiefly 
 theological, being attempts to grapple with 
 the supernatural aspects of Christianity 
 from a rationalistic standpoiut. St. Paul 
 and Protentantism (1871), Literature and 
 Dogma (1873), and God and the Bible (1875) 
 are among his writings. 
 
 Arnold, Samuel {b. 1740, d. 1802), a 
 prolific musical composer, who, after hold- 
 ing various appointments, in 1793 became 
 organist of Westminster Abbey. Both his 
 operas and his oratorios were well received, 
 and he produced numerous glees, songs, and 
 other minor pieces. 
 
 Arnold (Strutthan von Winckekied), an 
 heroic native of Unterwalden, who sacri- 
 ficed his life for his country at the battle 
 of Sempach, 1386, by throwing himself on 
 the Austrian spears and thus breaking the 
 ranks of the enemy. 
 
 Arnold, Thomas, D.D. (Jb. 1795, d. 1842), 
 was educated at Winchester, and Corpus 
 Christi College, Oxford. In 1815 he became 
 Fellow of Oriel, obtaining in that year the 
 Chancellor's prize for the Latin and in 1817 
 for the English essay. After taking holy 
 orders, he passed nine years at Laleham, 
 near Staines, in literary occupations, and in 
 preparing young men for the universities. 
 Appointed head master of Rugby school in 
 1828, ho raised that institution beyond all 
 precedent, both by the remarkable success 
 of his pupils and by the iatroductiou of new 
 
 branches of study into the Rugby course. 
 He was of the Broad Chui-ch school of 
 thought, and a vigorous opposer of the then 
 new Tractarian movement. In 1841 he was 
 appointed professor of modem history at 
 Oxford. The best known of Dr. Arnold's 
 works are his edition of Thucydides, his 
 History of Rome (unfinished), and his ser- 
 mons delivered in the chapel of Rugby 
 schooL 
 
 Amolfo di Lapo {b. 1232, d. 1300), 
 architect and sculptor, a pupil of Nicolo 
 Pisano, erected many fine works in Florence, 
 especially the Santa Croce church and the 
 duomo. 
 
 Arnot, Hugo (PoUock) {b. 1749, d. 1786), a 
 Scottish advocate, author of a History of 
 Edbiburgh, 1779 ; he made also a valuable 
 collection of the celebrated criminal trials 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Amott,Neil,Dr. (*. 1788, d. 1874), Scottish 
 surgeon, inventor of the stove which bears 
 his name, and author of the Elements of 
 Physics and other kindred works. 
 
 Amoul or Amulf (6. 1040, d. 1124), Bene- 
 dictine monk of Beauvais, came to England 
 with Lanfranc in 1072, and was afterwards 
 made bishop of Rochester, 1114. 
 
 Amould, Ambroise Marie (6. 1750, d. 
 1812), French writer on political economy, 
 opposed the National Convention of the 
 Five Hundred. In 1798 was a member of 
 the Council of Ancients and afterwards sup- 
 ported Bonaparte, who made him chan- 
 cellor of state. 
 
 Amould, Jean Fran9ois Mussot (6. 1743, 
 d. 1795), French actor, brought out numer- 
 ous dramatic pieces, and a greatly improved 
 combination of ballet and pantomime. 
 
 Amould, Madelaine Sophie (6. Paris, 1740, 
 d. 1803), singer and actress, made her debut 
 in 1757. Her salo?is were celebrated. 
 
 Amulf or Amoul (d. 899), Duke of Carin- 
 thia, King (887) and finally Emperor of 
 Germany, was the natural son of Carloman, 
 King of Bavaria. He displayed the highest 
 military abilities, overran Lombardy, and 
 afterward sacked Rome (896). 
 
 Aromatari, Giuseppe (6. 1586, d. 1660), 
 Italian physician and naturalist. 
 
 Aroudj (6. 1473, d. 1518), the first Turk- 
 ish sovereign of Algiers, for some years a 
 private, afterward entered the service of 
 the Bey of Tunis, and was invited to the 
 assistance of the Algerines. Entering the 
 town, Aroudj caused the governor to be 
 killed and himself proclaimed king, but 
 was soon afterwards "slain in an encounter 
 with the Spaniaxda.
 
 Arp 
 
 (62) 
 
 Ars 
 
 Arpad (6. 8G9, d. 907), son and successor 
 of tlio Magyar chief, Salmutz or Almus, 
 who invaded Hungary. Arpad extended 
 his conquests, and was recognised as king 
 of Hungary, and thus became founder of 
 the dynasty of the Arpades. 
 
 Arpino. Giuseppe Cesare, Cavaliere de (6. 
 15G0. d. 1640), studied under Eoncalli and 
 Muziano, and became the first painter at 
 Rome, and was patronised by Henry IV. of 
 France and Clement VIII. Among his pic- 
 tures are The Ascension at San Giovanni in 
 Laterano, The Rape of ike Sabines, and The 
 Combat of the Horatii. 
 
 Ar-radhi BiUaJi (6. 909, d. 940), twentieth 
 cahph of the Abbasides, succeeded in 934, 
 but the administration was usurped by 
 Bahkam, under the title of Chief of the 
 Amirs. 
 
 Ar-rashid, Abu Mohammed Abd-1-Wahed 
 II. {d 1242), an African sultan of the 
 dynasty of the Almohades in the 13th cen- 
 tury, attacked and defeated Yahya Annasir, 
 and took Morocco ; for his cruelty he was 
 driven from his throne, while Yahya was 
 proclaimed sultan, but shortly afterward 
 the latter was defeated and slain, and Ar- 
 rashid regaining his throne, enjoyed a peace- 
 ful reign. 
 
 Arrhenuis, Clas (6. 1627, d. 1695), Swedish 
 historian and professor of logic and meta- 
 physics at the university of Upsala. 
 
 Arrhidseus (d. b.c. 317), natural son of 
 Philip of Macedon, on the death of Alex- 
 ander the Great was proclaimed King of 
 Macedon. Eoxana claimed the throne for 
 her son Alexander IV. ; Arrhidasus and his 
 wife Eurydice were made prisoners, and put 
 to death by Olympias. 
 
 Arriaga, Juan Chrisostome (&. 1808, d. 
 1825), Spanish composer and violinist; his 
 career was terminated by a premature 
 death. 
 
 Arrianus, Flavius, Governor of Cappa- 
 docia in the reign of Hadrian, but remem- 
 bered chiefly for his numerous works of 
 history, philosophy, and travels. 
 
 Arribas, Pablo Antonio (6. 1771, d. 1828), 
 Spanish lawyer, procurator-general of the 
 Alcades del Corte imder Charles IV., took 
 office imder Joseph Bonaparte, but on the 
 accession of Ferdinand VII. retired to 
 France, where he died. 
 
 ArrigM de Casanova, Giovanni, Duke of 
 Padua {b. 1778, d. 1853), a general of 
 Napoleon, served in Egypt and Italy, and 
 almost all Napoleon's wars, and was made 
 Governor of Corsica. After the final abdi- 
 cation of Napoleon he was banished from 
 France, but aUowed to return in 1820. 
 
 AiTigoni, Carolo {d. circa 1743), Floren- 
 tine nmsician and composer, and one of the 
 most skilful lutists of his age. 
 
 Arrowsmitll, John (6. 1790, d. 1873), geo- 
 grapher and chartologist, was one of the 
 founders of the Royal Geographical Society, 
 whose gold medal he received in 1863. 
 
 Arsaces I., founder of the Parthian Em- 
 pire and the dynasty of the Arsacidae. 
 Varying accounts are given of his invasion 
 of Parthia, and he is said to have founded 
 the city of Dora. 
 
 Arsaces II. (Tiridates), brother of the 
 preceding, twice defeated Seleucus Calli- 
 nicus, and extended his authority over the 
 whole of Hyrcania. 
 
 Arsaces III. (Artabanus I.), son and suc- 
 cessor (B.C. 217) of the preceding, invaded 
 Media, but was repulsed, and peace con- 
 cluded B.C. 210. 
 
 Arsaces IV. (Priapatius), son of the pre- 
 ceding, reigned, according to Justin, for 
 fifteen years early in the 2nd century b.c. 
 
 Arsaces V. (Phraates I.), son of the pre- 
 ceding, conquered the Mardi, and left Jus 
 throne to his brother. 
 
 Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.), a brave 
 and able prince, who extended his domi- 
 nions from the Caucasus to the Euphrates. 
 
 Arsaces VII. (Phraates 11.), son of the 
 preceding, was victorious over Antiochus 
 VII., but was himself defeated and slain by 
 some Scythian rebels. 
 
 Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.), son of 
 Arsaces IV. and nephew of the preceding, 
 whom he succeeded, was mortally wounded 
 whilst repelling a Scythian invasion. 
 
 Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.), siu^amed 
 "the Great," son of the preceding, first 
 established political relations with Rome. 
 
 Arsaces X., supposed to have been a 
 son of Arsaces V., and the same as 
 Mnascires. 
 
 Arsaces XI. (Sanatroeces), after many 
 years of exile, was restored to his throne by 
 the Scythians when eighty years old (circa 
 B.C. 77). 
 
 Arsaces XII. (Phraates III.) (rf. B.C. 60), 
 son of the preceding, whom he succeeded 
 B.C. 70. He refused to take part in Arme- 
 nian wars against Rome, and after ten years 
 was murdered by his sons, Mithridates and 
 Orodes. 
 
 Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates III.) suc- 
 ceeded his father, but was expelled and put 
 to death by his brother Orodes. 
 
 Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) (d. b.c. 37),
 
 Ars 
 
 (63) 
 
 Ars 
 
 brother of the preceding, defeated the 
 Romans under Crassus, and sent a large 
 army across the Euphrates and overran 
 Syria. He was murdered by liis son 
 Phraates, whom he had associated with 
 himself in the government. 
 
 Arsaces XV. (Phraates IV.) {d. a.d. 4), 
 son of the preceding, began his reign by 
 murdering his father, his thirty brothers, 
 and his own grown-up son. He was success- 
 ful in repulsing Antony and in crushiag a 
 rebeUion, but was at last poisoned by his 
 wife Thermusa and her son. 
 
 Arsaces XVL (Phraataces) emulated the 
 crimes of his father, and with his mother 
 was put to death by the people, though 
 Josephus says he was only expelled. 
 
 Arsaces XVII. (Orodes II.) was elected 
 by the people as successor to the preceding, 
 but met a violent death a few months after 
 his accession. 
 
 Arsaces XVIII. (Vonones) (rf. a.d. 19), a 
 son of Phraates IV., who had spent some 
 time ia Rome as a hostage, and there con- 
 tracted Roman habits and customs, which 
 made him hated by the people. These 
 offered the throne to Artabanus, whUe 
 Vonones was elected to the vacant throne 
 of Armenia (a.d. 16), but was soon after 
 removed and slaia by order of Germanicus. 
 
 Arsaces XIX. (Artabanus III.) succeeded 
 to the throne a.d. 16, and on the death of 
 Germanicus seized also the government of 
 Armenia for his son ; he was twice expelled 
 from the throne and as often restored. 
 
 Arsaces XX. (Gotarzes), son of the pre- 
 ceding, put to death his brother Artabanus 
 and his family, and other cruelties provoked 
 a revolt iu favour of Bardanes, and Gotarzes 
 was forced to retire to Hyrcania. On the 
 death of Bardanes he again contested the 
 throne, this time with Meherdates, whom he 
 defeated. 
 
 Arsaces XXI. (Bardanes) {d. a.d. 47), 
 brother of the preceding. His cruelty pro- 
 voked his assassination. 
 
 Arsaces XXIL (Vonones II.), Satrap of 
 Media and successor to the preceding. 
 
 Arsaces XXIII. (VologesesT.) {d. a.d. 90), 
 placed his brothers, Pacorus and Tiridates, 
 on the thrones of Media and AiTaeuia, and 
 defeated Paetus, the Roman general, but 
 was afterward on terms of friendship with 
 Vespasian and Titus. 
 
 Arsaces XXrV. (Pacorus), son and suc- 
 cessor of the preceding, ruled for about 
 twenty years. 
 
 Arsaces XXV. (Chosroes) {d. circa B.C. 
 122), brother of the preceding, invaded 
 
 Armenia, but was defeated by the Emperor 
 Trajan and driven from his throne, which, 
 however, he regained on the death of that 
 monarch. 
 
 Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses 11.) (rf. e.g. 
 189), son of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded, in 161 made war with Rome, but 
 having been defeated by Cassius a peace 
 was arranged which lasted till his death. 
 
 Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses III.), suc- 
 ceeded his father a,d. 189, and engaged in 
 wars with Rome. 
 
 Arsaces XXVIII. (Artabanus IV. ) was in- 
 volved in a war with Rome, and afterward 
 with Persia, and was captured and put to 
 death by Artaxerxes. 
 
 Arsaces I., King of Armenia, son of Ar- 
 saces XIX., by whom he was placed on the 
 throne a.d. 35, but was soon after murdered 
 through the instrimientality of Mitlmdates. 
 
 Arsaces II. was placed on the throne by 
 his brother, Arsaces XXVIII., in a.d. 222, 
 and reigned nearly forty years. 
 
 Arsaces III. {d. a.d. 370), the son and 
 successor of Tiridates III. , was defeated in 
 a war with Sapor, King of Persia, who im- 
 prisoned him. He was slain by a faithful 
 servant at his own request. 
 
 Arsaces IV. {d. a.d. 389) lost much of 
 his territory to Theodosius the Great, and 
 Sapor III. , but retained the western part. 
 
 Arsemus, Greek scholar and philologist 
 of the 17th century, attempted church 
 reforms in Russia, which caused his banish- 
 ment iu 1649 as a heretic, but was after- 
 ward recalled. 
 
 Arsenius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 born iu early part of 13th century {d. 1273), 
 in 1259 was appointed by the emperor, 
 Theodore Lascaris II., joint guardian with 
 George Muzalon of his son, John Lascaris. 
 On the death of Muzalon Arsenius was in- 
 duced to admit Michael Palseologus to co- 
 guardianship, and that craftj- man soon 
 assumed the puiple, and put out the eyes 
 of the young prince. Arsenius then ex- 
 communicated him, when Michael retaliated 
 by deposing the prelate and banishing Viini 
 to the island of Marmora. 
 
 Arsenius, Saint (6. Rome, 354, d. 449), a 
 pious ascetic, who spent forty years in se- 
 clusion and abstinence in the desert of 
 Scethis, in Libya, and at Troy in Egypt 
 where he died. 
 
 Arsenne, Louis Charles (6. Paris, 1790, d. 
 1855), a French reHgious painter, author of 
 a manual on painting and sculpture. His 
 best known pictures are the Holy Women at 
 the Tomb of Christ, and Jesus in the Garden,
 
 Ars 
 
 (64) 
 
 Art 
 
 Ar^.Tan (Abu-l-ModhafFer Zein-ed-din) 
 (d. 1172), Sultau of Persia and nephew and 
 successor of Soliman. 
 
 Arslan Shall, fifth sultan of the Seljuk 
 dynasty of Korman, an able prince, enjoyed 
 a long and prosperous reign. 
 
 Artabanus, a Hyrcanian, a captain of the 
 body-guard of Xerxes, endeavoured to 
 secure the throne for himself, and slew- 
 Xerxes and Darius, but was himself slain 
 while attempting the life of Artaxerxes. 
 
 Artabazus, a Persian general, Satrap of 
 Western Asia, who served with distinction 
 under Artaxerxes II., but obstinately re- 
 volted from Artaxerxes III. However, after 
 having been twice defeated and pardoned, 
 he became a loyal partisan of the throne, 
 and was rewarded by Alexander with the 
 satrapy of Bactria. 
 
 Artaphemes, Satrap of Sardis, son of 
 Hystaspes and brother of Darius, several 
 times assisted the Athenians, and in the 
 government of the troublesome province of 
 Ionia showed himself both wise and 
 prudent. 
 
 Artasires, King of Armenia ; his cruel and 
 vicious government provoked a revolt, and 
 he was deposed a.d. 428. 
 
 Artaud (Artaldus) {d. 961), a Benedictine 
 mouk of the 10th century, who was made 
 Archbishop of Remis. He was compelled 
 to abdicate by Heribert, Count of Vermaji- 
 dois, but afterwards restored. 
 
 Artavasdes (Ardawazt) (d. b.c. 31), suc- 
 ceeded his father, Tigranes, to the throne of 
 Greater Armenia B.C. 36. He deserted his 
 ally, Antony, when invading Parthia, who 
 retaliated by enticing him into his camp, 
 and carrying him to Alexandiia, where he 
 was put to death. 
 
 Artavasdes (Curopalates), Emperor of 
 Constantinople, son-in-law of Constantine 
 v., headed the revolt of the orthodox 
 Christians, and was proclaimed emperor at 
 Constantinople. He was, however, besieged 
 by Constantine, who took the city and put 
 Ajtavasdes to death. 
 
 Artavasdes, King of Media {d. b.o. 21), 
 was continually at war with Armenia, and 
 was afterward made prisoner by Artaxias, 
 but recovered his liberty. 
 
 Artavasdes II., King of Armenia, was 
 placed on the throne by Augustus B.C. 6, 
 but expelled by his own people. 
 
 Artavasdes III., King of Armenia, joined 
 Sapor I. in his war with the Romans 
 A.D. 260. 
 
 Artazerxea L {d. b.o. 425), somamed 
 
 Makiokeir, King of Persia B.C. 465, quelled 
 an Egyptian revolt in 456, but was defeated 
 by the Athenians 449. 
 
 Artaxerxes II. (6. 455, d. 362 b.c.) (Mne- 
 mon), King of Persia, succeeded his father, 
 Darius II., B.C. 405. At the battle of 
 Cunaxa he crushed a revolt of his brother 
 Cyrus, assisted by ten thousand Greeks. He 
 also engaged in wars with the Greeks, with 
 Cyprus, and with Egjrpt, while his last days 
 were disturbed by the misconduct of his 
 son Darius. 
 
 Artaxerxes III., or Ochus {d. b.o. 339), 
 son and successor of the preceding, to secure 
 his position put the rest of his family to 
 death, and after a troubled reign was 
 poisoned by his eunuch Bagoas. 
 
 Artaxias I., or Artaxes, a general oi 
 Antiochus the Great, on whose defeat (b.c. 
 190) he set up an independent kingdom in 
 Armenia, and buUt its capital, Artaxias. 
 He was conquered by Antiochus IV. (b.c. 
 165) and died shortly afterwards. 
 
 Artaxias II., King of Armenia (d. B.o. 20), 
 was driven from his throne by Antony, but 
 with the aid of the Parthians regained it, 
 and afterwards defeated the Medes. 
 
 Artaxias III., King of Armenia {d. circa 
 A.D. 35), was placed on the throne by Ger- 
 manicus (a.b. 18). 
 
 Arteaga y Alfaro, Matias (d. 1704), 
 Spanish painter and engraver, pupil of 
 Valdez, founder of the Academy of Seville. 
 
 Artedl, Peter (6. 1705, d. 1735), Swedish 
 naturalist, a fellow student of Linnaeus. 
 His works were edited and pubUshed by 
 Linnaeus. 
 
 Artemidorus, Daldianus, a learned Ephe- 
 sian of the '2nd century, author of acelebrated 
 book on dreams entitled Oneirocritica. 
 
 Artemidorus of Ephesus, a geographer 
 of the 1st century B.C., of whose work 
 Periphis only fragments are extant. 
 
 Artemisia, Queen of Halicamassus in 
 Caria, was one of the allies of Xerxes at the 
 battle of Salamis B.C. 480, where she fought 
 with courage and dexterity. 
 
 Artemisia, Queen of Halicamassus, wife 
 and successor of Mausolus, to whose mem- 
 ory she erected a splendid monument, which 
 has given to similar erections the name of 
 "mausoleum." 
 
 Artemius {d. 362), a Roman commander 
 in Egypt under Constantine and Julian, 
 who is named both as a Christian martyr 
 and a tyrant. He was put to death by 
 
 Juli:Ml. 
 
 Artemon, a hereaiarch of the 3rd centuiy
 
 Art 
 
 (65) 
 
 Ary 
 
 who denied the divinity of Christ ; his fol- 
 lowers were called Artemonites. 
 
 Arteveld, Jacob van (d. 1345), popular 
 Flemish leader in the 14th century, assisted 
 Edward III. in his French wars, and for 
 nine j'ears was practically ruler of Flanders. 
 He determined to convert his country into 
 a kingdom, and offered the crown to the 
 Prince of Wales, which led to a tumult in 
 which he was slain. 
 
 Arteveld, Philip van (d. 1382), son of the 
 preceding, headed a revolt of the people of 
 Ghent against Count Louis II. of Flanders, 
 and though victorious at Bruges was de- 
 feated and slain at the decisive victory of 
 Eooseheck. 
 
 Arthur, the real or fabulous King of Bri- 
 tain and favourite hero of romance, probably 
 flourished at the beginning of the 6th century 
 and ruled over the south-western portion of 
 the island. He is said to have gained twelve 
 great victories over the Anglian invaders; 
 but success abroad was accompanied by 
 treachery at home, where his nephew 
 Modred seduced Queen Guinevere and 
 raised the standard of rebellion. At Cam- 
 Ian was fought that battle round which ro- 
 mance has so thickly gathered, and in which 
 Arthur was slain. 
 
 Arthur, Chester Allan {b. 1830, d. 1886), 
 twenty-first president of the United States, 
 took a leading part in the Civil war, and 
 from 1871-1878 was collector of the port of 
 New York city. When Garfield was 
 elected president he was vice-president, 
 and on the former's assassination succeeded 
 to the presidency. 
 
 Arthur, Timothy Shay {b. 1809, d. 1885), 
 an American writer who first became known 
 in the literary world as the editor of the 
 Athenian. He wrote many tales, chiefly 
 in support of temperance or some other 
 moral trait; of his two hundred volumes 
 more than half have been republished in 
 England. 
 
 Arthur I., Duke of Brittany (6. 1187, d. 
 1 203) , son of Geoffrey, the third son of Henry 
 II. of England, and on the death of Richard 
 I. next heir to the English crown, which 
 however was seized by Henry's fifth son 
 John, who imprisoned and put him to 
 death. 
 
 Arthur II., Duke of Brittany (6. 1262, d. 
 1312), son of John II. and Beatrice of 
 England. 
 
 Arthur ni, Duke of Brittany (fi. 1393, d. 
 1456), constable of France and one of the 
 ablest captains of his age, was made prisoner 
 at Agincourt, and carried to London. In 
 1456 he succeeded his nephew Pierre to the 
 Duchy of Brittany. 
 
 Artiga, Don Francisco d', a Spanish 
 painter of the 17th century, was a native 
 of Huesca. 
 
 Artigas, Fernando Jose (b. 1760, d. 1826), 
 first a smuggler in Monte Video, afterward 
 a prominent figure in the revolution, in 
 which he was for a time paramount, but 
 in 1820 his fortune turned and he fled 
 to Paraguay, where he remained till hia 
 death. 
 
 Artois, Jacques Jan van (6. 1613, d. 1665), 
 a Belgian landscape painter of great merit. 
 
 Artot, Joseph (6. 1815, d. 1845), Belgian 
 viohnist, who at seven years old astonished 
 Europe by his proficiency; he also visited 
 America. 
 
 Arundel, Bichard, Lord, a partisan of the 
 Stuarts in the Civil war, took part in many 
 battles, and shared with his father the 
 governorship of Pendennis Castle ; after the 
 Restoration he was raised to the peerage. 
 
 Arundel, Thomas, first Lord Arundel of 
 Wardour, distinguished himself in the war 
 with Hungary and was made a count of the 
 Holy Roman Empire by Rudolf II. ; he was 
 raised to the peerage in 1605. 
 
 Arundel, Thomas, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury (6. 1353, d. 1413), second son of Robert 
 Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel; in 1388 was 
 translated from Ely to York, and in 1396 
 to Canterbury ; in 1397 he was charged 
 with high treason and banished by Richard 
 II., but adopted the cause of Henry IV., and 
 thus on the accession of that monarch 
 secured his own restoration. He was a 
 determined opponent of the Lollards, and 
 was mainly instrumental in procuring the 
 statute De heretico comburendo. 
 
 ArvldsEon, Truls (6. 1680, d. 1705), copper- 
 plate engraver of Sweden, who was con- 
 versant with many European and Oriental 
 languages. He proposed to pubhsh what he 
 considered the original music of the Psalms 
 of David, but died after completing the first 
 seven. 
 
 Arvleux, Laurent d' (6. 1635, d. 1702), 
 French Oriental traveller and linguist, 
 whose researches threw much light on the 
 customs and literature of the East. 
 
 Aryabhatta or Arjabahr, Hindoo mathe- 
 matician of the 1st century, the earliest 
 writer among his countrymen on algebra 
 and on astronomy, in which subject his ideas 
 were far in advance of his age. 
 
 Arysdaghes or Aristakes, Saint (d. 389), 
 Patriarch of Armenia in the 3rd century, 
 and son of St. Gregory. After many years 
 spent in ascetic seclusion he was called to 
 Uie goTemmeut of the Ghuxch. He was
 
 Arz 
 
 (66) 
 
 Ash 
 
 murdered by a chief whom he had ad- 
 monished. 
 
 Arzachel, Abraham, astronomer, a native 
 of Toledo, lived in the 11th century, and 
 attained great renown. 
 
 Asa, son of Abijah, and third King of 
 Judah, restored the worship of Jehovah, 
 and with it the prosperity of his country. 
 He defeated the invader Zerah, with great 
 loss, and compelled Baasha, King of Israel, 
 to withdraw from Eamah. 
 
 Asadi of Tus, chief poet of Mahmud of 
 Ghizni in the 10th century, and author of 
 Crushtasp Nama, and other poems. 
 
 Asam, Cosmos Damian {d. 1739), a distin- 
 guished fresco-painter, a native of Bavaria, 
 studied at Rome. 
 
 Asam, Egid, brother of the preceding, 
 eminent as a sculptor and worker in stucco, 
 ■wrought in conjunction with Cosmos ; 
 many of their works are at Munich. 
 
 Asan L, Kin g of Bulgaria, a powerful 
 chieftain of the 12th century, who with 
 his brother Peter secured the independence 
 of their country ; he was poisoned after a 
 reign of nine years. 
 
 Asan II. (d, 1241), son of the preceding, was 
 engaged for seven years in a struggle with 
 the usurper Vorylas, was at length suc- 
 cessful, and also conquered a great part of 
 Macedonia and Thrace. 
 
 Asan IIL, last King of Bulgaria of the 
 Asanian dynasty, after a reign of two 
 years was dethroned by Tesher, and fled to 
 Constantiaople, where he died. 
 
 Asbury, Francis (6. 1745, d. 1816), the 
 "Pioneer Bishop," an English Methodist 
 preacher who imdertook an evangelistic 
 mission to America in 1771 by the wish of 
 John Wesley. In 1784 he was ordained 
 Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 of America. Thenceforth his life was 
 devoted with untiring energy to the organ- 
 isation and extension of that church. 
 
 Ascanius, the son of ^neas, the foimder 
 of Alba Longa, and reputed ancestor of the 
 Julian family in Rome. 
 
 Ascliam, Robert (6. 1515, d. 1568), who 
 was educated at Cambridge, was among the 
 first to introduce the study of Greek, and 
 was also eminent as a Latin writer. He 
 directed the studies of Prince Edward and 
 of Princess Elizabeth, and became Latin 
 secretary to King Edward. Although a 
 Protestant, he held the same ofi&ce to Queen 
 Marjr. He wrote upon archery, his favourite 
 pastmie, upon the affairs of Germany, and 
 a treatise on education of remarkable vigour 
 and accuracy. 
 
 Aschback, Joseph (6. Nassau 1801, d. 
 1882), German historian, held the chairs of 
 history at Frankfort and at Bonn, and was 
 author of histories of the West Goths, the 
 Emperor Sigismund, and the Iberian Penin- 
 sula under the dominion of the Almoravides, 
 and the Almohades. 
 
 Asclepiades, Bithynus, an eminent Greek 
 physician of the 1st century B.C., lived in 
 Rome, where he enjoyed an extraordinary 
 reputation. Fragments of his works still 
 exist. 
 
 Asclepiodorus, one of the great painters 
 of Greece, was a native of Athens, and a 
 contemporary of Apelles. 
 
 Asdrubal. [See Hasdrubal.] 
 
 Asellio, Gasparo (b. 1581, d. 1626), a 
 noted physician of Cremona, and professor 
 of anatomy at Pavia. 
 
 Asellio, Publius Sempronius, a military 
 tribune, who served under Scipio Africanus 
 at the siege of Numantia, b.c. 133, and wrote 
 a history of the war. 
 
 Asfandiyar, or Asfundiyar, a Persian 
 hero of the 5th century B.C., whose history 
 is largely mythical. The son of Darius 
 Hystaspes, he is said to have introduced the 
 religion of Zoroaster, and by his prowess to 
 have kept in check the hostile Tartar king 
 Arjasp. Jealous of his influence, Darius 
 imijrisoned him, but the inroads of Arjasp 
 compelled his release, and Asfandiyar then 
 commenced a series of brilliant victories, 
 only terminated by his death in battle. 
 
 Asfeld, Claude Fran9ois Bidal, Marquis d' 
 (6. 1G67, d. 1743), a distinguished French 
 soldier, defended Namur against William 
 III. of England, and served in Spain, Italy, 
 and Germany, but after the peace of Vienna, 
 1735, retired to Strasburg, of which city he 
 was appointed governor. 
 
 AsgiU, John (6. circa 1658, d. 1738), a 
 barrister and religious writer whose eccentric 
 views made considerable stir, and caused 
 him to be expelled from the House of Com- 
 mons. He died in the Fleet prison. 
 
 Ash, John, M.D. (6. 1723, d. 1798), ac 
 eininent physician who practised in Bir- 
 mingham and London. He was the founder 
 of the "EumeUan" ("well-ashed") Club, 
 of which his friends Johnson and Reynolds 
 were members. 
 
 Ashary {d. 940), a celebrated Mussulman, 
 founder of the sect of the Asharites, who 
 affirm the actions of the Almighty to be 
 circimiscribed by immutable laws. He died 
 at Bagdad. 
 
 Aflbbumham, John (6. 1604, d. 1671), an 
 adherent of the Stuarts in the Civil wars.
 
 Ash 
 
 (67) 
 
 Asp 
 
 He was a member of the Long Parliament, 
 and in 1647 only escaped arrest by fleeing to 
 France, where he jouied the queen. He 
 was afterwards suspected of iafidelity in 
 connection with the suiTender of the king to 
 Colonel Hammond, and his principles were 
 the cause of his being twice imprisoned. On 
 the Restoration he was appointed groom of 
 the bed-chamber to Charles II. 
 
 Ashtourton, Alexander Baring, Baron (b. 
 1774, d. 1848), son of Sir F. Baring, suc- 
 ceeded to the headship of the great 
 financial firm in 1810, was president of the 
 Board of Trade in Peel's ministry in 1834, 
 and in 1842 negotiated the Ashburton treaty 
 with the United States. 
 
 Ashbury, Joseph (6. 1638, d. 1720), a 
 celebrated actor, was originally in the 
 army, and began his stage career as an 
 amateur, but encouraged by his success, 
 engaged a company, and opened the theatre 
 in Smock Alley, Dublin, which he conducted 
 with success till his death. 
 
 Ashe, Andrew (b. 1758, d. 1838), a cele- 
 brated flute-player and an excellent per- 
 former on the violin. He studied in Hol- 
 land, and performed both in Dublin and 
 London. 
 
 Ashe, St. George (6. 1658, d. 1717), vice- 
 chancellor of Trinity College, Dublin, and 
 tutor to Dean Swift, in whose Tripos he 
 is represented by '* Sainty Ashe." During 
 the disturbances of the reign of James II. 
 he escaped abroad, but returned to Ireland 
 after the Act of Settlement, and was 
 appointed to the bishoprics of Cloyne, 
 Clogher, and Derry. 
 
 Ashik (6.1518, d. 1571), a Turkish poet, 
 patronised by Soliman II. and SeUm II. ; 
 he wrote more than four hundred biogra- 
 phies of other poets of his own race. 
 
 Ashmole, Elias (6. 1617, d. 1692), astrolo- 
 ger and antiquary, held the appointment of 
 Windsor Herald, and published the Histoiy 
 of the Order of the Garter. He left many 
 works, and presented to the University of 
 Oxford his valuable collection of coins, 
 specimens, and manuscripts. 
 
 Ashmun, Jehudi (6. 1794, d. 1828), Ameri- 
 can philanthropist, founder of the colony of 
 Liberia. 
 
 Asliraf, the second Afghan King of 
 Persia, succeeded to the throne in 1725, but 
 was defeated and slain by Nadir Shah. 
 
 Ashworth, Caleb, D.D. {b. 1722, d. 1775), 
 a dissenting minister of great learning and 
 piety, and master of the Academy at 
 Daventry. He was author of a Hebrew 
 grammar, and a treatise on trigonometry. 
 
 Asioll, Bonifazio (6. 
 f2 
 
 1769, d. 1832), 
 
 musical composer, worked at Correggio, 
 Venice, and MUan, where he was maestro 
 di capella, 
 
 Asjadi, Persian poet of the 11th century, 
 famed for the brightness and purity of ms 
 verses. 
 
 Askew or Ascue, Anne (5. 1529, d. 1546), 
 daughter of Sir William Askew, was a con- 
 vert to the reformed faith during the per- 
 secutions of Bishop Bouner, who caused her 
 to be burnt at Smithfield. 
 
 Asoka, Behar, or Magadhain, a cele- 
 brated Buddhist King of ludia, ascended 
 the throne B.C. 264, being then of the 
 Brahminical faith, but he was shortly 
 afterwards converted to Buddhism, of which 
 he became a most zealous propagator, 
 sending missionaries to China, Burmah, 
 Ceylon, and even, it is affirmed, to Europe 
 and Egypt. His kingdom extended from 
 the Cabul river to Bengal, and from 
 Nepal on the north to the Deccan on the 
 south. Prom the celebrated edicts, graven 
 upon rocks and sandstone pillars in various 
 parts of the country, it is clear that this, the 
 first Indian monarch of whom we have 
 satisfactory records, was both wise and 
 benevolent. 
 
 Aspasia, an Ionian woman of remarkable 
 talents and beauty, resided at Athens, 
 where all foreign women were ex- 
 cluded from the protection of the marriage 
 laws, and hence she occupied the posi- 
 tion of a courtesan. Her house was the 
 constant resort of the best and most dis- 
 tinguished men of Greece, including So- 
 crates, Alcibiades, and Anaxagoras, whilst 
 with Pericles she formed a close and lasting 
 intimacy, and it was through his eloquence 
 she obtained her acquittal from the charges 
 of impiety and immorality brought against 
 her. After the death of Pericles, 429 B.C., 
 Aspasia attached herself to Lysicles, whom 
 she raised from obscurity to prominence. 
 
 Aspasia, a native of Phocsea, was highly 
 esteemed by Cyrus, but after the battle of 
 Cunaxa fell into the hands of Artaxerxes II. , 
 who appointed her priestess of Anaitia in 
 Ecbatana, where she died. 
 
 Aspegren, Gustav Casten (6. 1791, d. 
 1828), a Swedish naturalist of humble birth, 
 and a well-known contributor to the fauna 
 of Sweden. 
 
 Asper, Hans (6. 1499, d. 1571), a Swiss 
 portrait and animal painter of great excel- 
 lence, being esteemed but little inferior to 
 his master Holbein. 
 
 Aspertini, Amico (6. 1417, «?. 1552), Italian 
 painter, known as "Amico of the Two 
 Brushes," from his dexterity in painting 
 with both hands together.
 
 Asp 
 
 (68) 
 
 Ast 
 
 Aspinwall, William (6. 1743, d. 1823), an 
 emiueut Americau physician, one of the first 
 to introduce vaccination iu the place of in- 
 oculation. He served as army surgeon 
 during the revolutionary war. 
 
 Asquini, Fabio, Count (6. 1726, d. 
 1818), an Italian agriculturist, and author 
 of several treatises, introduced the mul- 
 berry, silkwoi-m, and potato into the pro- 
 vince of Friuli, and also drew attention to 
 the advantages of turf as fuel. 
 
 Assad-ed-doulah {d. 1029), a valiant Arab 
 chief, the conqueror of Aleppo and Balbec. 
 
 AssaM, George (6. 1788), a Roumanian 
 poet and statesman, who, as " Alviro," 
 was elected member of the Academy 
 of Rome in 1811. He also took part 
 in politics, and held office as chief 
 minister of public instruction in 1856. He 
 was author of a volume of poems, and a 
 Mistori/ of Russia. 
 
 Assamli Ibn Malek, a brave and able 
 Moorish governor of Spain, who pushed his 
 conquests across the Pyrenees, and was 
 killed at the siege of Toulouse in 721. 
 
 Assarotti, Ottavio Giovanni (6. 1753, 
 d. 1829), an Italian philanthropist, who de- 
 voted himself to the education of children, 
 and opened the first school in Italy for 
 deaf mutes. 
 
 Asselyn, Jan (6. 1610, d. 1660), Flemish 
 painter, many of whose pictures are in 
 the Louvre, was a pupil of Vander- 
 velde, and especially skilled in painting 
 animals. 
 
 Assemani, Giuseppe Simone (6. 1687, 
 d- 1768), a learned Syrian Maronite, was 
 archbishop of Tyre, and librarian of the 
 Vatican. He was author of a valuable 
 account of the Syrian writers, and other 
 voluminous works. 
 
 Assemani, Giuseppe Luigi, or Aloysio 
 (6. 1710, d. 1782), nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, learned in oriental languages ; his 
 great work was the Codex Liturgieus, which 
 was left imfinished at his death. 
 
 Asseola (6. 1800, d. 1838), an Indian chief 
 of the Seminoles, who successfully resisted 
 an attempt of the United States to remove 
 his tribe to the west of the Mississippi, 
 ia 1835, till treacherously captured by 
 General Jesup, while protected by a flag of 
 truce. 
 
 Asser (6. Babylon, 333, d. 437), a cele- 
 brated Jewish rabbi, author of the Tabmcd 
 of Babylon. 
 
 Asser, John {d. 910), a learned monk of St. 
 David's, Wales, bishop of Sherborne, was 
 the author of a History of Kitig Alfred. 
 
 Assheton, William (6. 1641, d. 1711), a 
 learned EngHsh divine, remembered for his 
 efforts to establish a plan for the mainte- 
 nance of the widows of the clergy. 
 
 Asshod I., surnamed Medz, or the " Great 
 King of Armenia," established the kingdom 
 after the overthrow of the Ai-sacidae. 
 
 Asshod II. {d. 928), surnamed Ergathi, 
 King of Armenia, grandson of the preceding, 
 ascended the throne in 914, but was for many 
 years engaged in struggles with the Arabs. 
 
 Asshod III. {d. QTt), King of Armenia, 
 sm-uamed Oghormaz, succeeded his uncle, 
 the preceding, in 952. He was of a peace- 
 ful nature, but gained honour as an ally of 
 Greece against the Mohammedans. 
 
 Asshod IV. {d. 1039), King of Armenia, 
 usurjied his brother John's kingdom, but 
 was afterwards compelled to become the 
 vassal of the Emperor Basil II, 
 
 Assolant, Jean Baptiste Alfred (6. 1827, 
 d. 1886), French romance, social and politi- 
 cal writer. 
 
 Assoucy, Charles Coypeau (6. 1604, d. 
 1679), a name rendered unenviably no- 
 torious by a distich of Boileau. He was for 
 some time in the service of the royal family, 
 whom he amused with his music and buf- 
 foonery, but while he called himself the 
 " Emperor of Burlesque," the world knows 
 him only as the "Ape of Scarron." 
 
 Asso y delRio, Ignacio Jordan de, aSpanish 
 jurist of the 18th century, author of a 
 valuable work on the Institutes of the 
 Civil Law of Spain, and other treatises on 
 law and botany. 
 
 Ast, George Anton Frederick (6. 1778, 
 d. 1841), distinguished German scholar, 
 professor of classical literature at Landshut 
 in 1815, and at Munich in 1826. 
 
 Asta, Andrea dell' (6. 1673, d. 1721), a 
 Neapolitan painter of historical subj ects ; 
 his pictures of The Nativity and The Wise 
 Men's Offerings are in the church of 
 St. Augustine, at Naples. 
 
 Astbury, John (6. 1678, d. 1743), an En- 
 glishman, who made great exertions for 
 the improvement of pottery. By feigning 
 weakness of intellect for two years he at- 
 tained menial employment in the potteries 
 of the German brothers Elers, and dis- 
 covered their secret methods. 
 
 Astell, Mary {h. 1668, d. 1731), a well- 
 read English authoress, who attained con- 
 siderable celebrity, due in great part to her 
 strenuous advocacy of High Church princi- 
 ples. Besides several essays, she published 
 a book entitled The Christian Religion at 
 professed by a Daughter of England.
 
 Ast 
 
 (69) 
 
 Ath 
 
 Astley, Sir Jacob, first Lord Astley of 
 Reading, a brave Royalist soldier, took part 
 in the engagement at Edgehill (1642), and 
 at the fatal battle of Naseby was in com- 
 mand of the one successful wing of the 
 army. 
 
 Astley, PhiUp (6. 1742, d. 1814), a re- 
 nowned equestrian, who served with dis- 
 tinction in the Seven Years' war, and 
 opened in 1763 his celebrated amphitheatre, 
 which was twice burnt down ; he left some 
 excellent manuals on horsemanship. 
 
 Astor, John Jacob (6. 1763, d. 1848), bom at 
 Wallendorf , an American merchant prince of 
 German descent, who traded in New York, 
 and realised an immense fortune. He left 
 large bequests in charity and to the famous 
 Astor Library, founded by him in New 
 York. 
 
 Astorga, Antonio Pedro Alvarez Osorio, 
 Marquis of, an eminent Spanish statesman, 
 who as viceroy of Naples (1672-1675) did 
 much to check the disorder of the country. 
 After the revolt of Messina he was recalled 
 to Madrid, but received an appointment 
 at court. 
 
 Astros, Paul Therese David (b. 1772, d. 
 1851), a French prelate, who firmly sup- 
 ported the Church, and after the restoration 
 was made an archbishop and cardinal. 
 
 Astruc, Jean (6. 1684, d. 1766), an emi- 
 nent French physician and Biblical critic, 
 author of a celebrated treatise, De Morbis 
 Venereis, and other works. He settled in 
 Paris, and was appointed physician to the 
 king. 
 
 Astyages, last king of the Medes, and 
 eon of Cyaxares. He reigned from 594 B.C. 
 to 559 B.C. 
 
 Asula, or Asola, Giovanni Matteo, a 
 native of Verona, and a popular musical 
 composer of the 16th century. 
 
 Atahuallpa {d. 1533), the last of the Incas 
 of Peru, succeeded his father, Huayna Capac, 
 in 1525, on the throne of Quito, whilst his 
 half-brother, Huascar, although the right- 
 ful heir, obtained only the kingdom of 
 Peru. The two brothers engaged in a 
 struggle for supremacy, in which Huascar 
 was defeated. The Spaniards under Pizan-o, 
 taking advantage of these internal dissen- 
 sions, invaded Peru, and by an act of 
 deliberate perfidy obtained possession of 
 the person of Atahuallpa, and attempted to 
 compel him to acknowledge the king of 
 Spain as master, and to embrace the Chris- 
 tian religion. His refusal was made a pre- 
 text for a massacre, and the imprisonment 
 of their king, whom the Spaniards induced 
 to raise an enormoiis treasure in the hopes 
 of regaining his throne. After a mock 
 
 trial, however, he was condemned and 
 strangled at the stake. 
 
 Ataide, or Atayde, Dom Louis de (6. 1520, 
 d. 1580), a Portuguese nobleman, who was 
 knighted for his gallantry against the Turks. 
 He also distinguished himself as ambassador 
 to Charles V. and as viceroy of India. 
 
 Ataiilf, or Adaiilf {d. 415), king of the 
 Visigoths, succeeded his brother-in-law, 
 Alaric, in 410. He conquered Aquitania, 
 and accomplished his purpose of marrying 
 Placida, daughter of Theodosius, but died 
 a year after by the hand of an assassin. 
 
 Atlialiah, wife of Jehoram, King of 
 Judah, was an unscrupulous and ambitious 
 woman, who, on the death of her son, 
 Ahaziah, secured the throne to herself by 
 the murder of all the royal princes except 
 Joash ; but after reigning six years she was 
 deposed and put to death. 
 
 Atha MeUc (6. 1226, d. 1283), a Persian 
 statesman, governor of Bagdad, is re- 
 membered chiefly as author of a great 
 History of the Conquest of the World. 
 
 Athanasius, Saint (6. 296, d. 373), the 
 great bishop of Alexandria, first came into 
 prominence at the Council of Nice 325. 
 On the death of Alexander in the following 
 year, Athanasius succeeded to the see of 
 Alexandria, but of the forty-six remaining 
 years of his life, twenty were spent in 
 banishment. In spite of repeated refuta- 
 tions of the iniquitous charges brought 
 against him, his enemies were perpetually 
 conspiring for his overthrow, and he was five 
 times driven from his bishopric. His leisure 
 was devoted to the valuable writings which 
 have helped to make his name famous, 
 especially the Apology, addressed to the 
 Emperor Constantine. 
 
 Athelstan, or .ffithelstan (6. 896, d. 940), 
 King of the West Saxons and Mercians, 
 the son and successor of Edward the Elder, 
 proved a vigorous and able monarch, 
 whose authority was recognised by tlie other 
 kings of Britain, while the great victory of 
 Brunanburh in 937 practically established 
 the supremacy of the "West Saxon throne. 
 
 Athenseus, a learned Egyptian of the 3rd 
 century, author of the J)eipnosophists, in 
 which, under the fiction of describing a 
 banquet, he discusses the chief personages, 
 arts and sciences of the age, and quotes 
 some seven hundred writers and fifteen 
 hundred works. 
 
 Athenais, or Eudoxia (d. 460 a.d.), 
 daughter of Leontius, an Athenian physi- 
 cist, left in penury, went to Constantinople 
 to appeal to Theodosius II., whom she 
 married. Being divorced, she returned to 
 Jerusalem, where she died. She translated
 
 Ath 
 
 (70) 
 
 Att 
 
 the first eight of the Old Testament books 
 into Greek. 
 
 Athenas, Piene Louis (6. 1752, d. 1829), 
 French chemist, devoted himself to the 
 improvement of the agriculture and the 
 commerce of his country. He introduced 
 the method of obtaining soda from sea-salt, 
 and established the manufacture of sul- 
 phuric acid from sulphur and potassium 
 nitrate. 
 
 Athenion (d. b.c. 101), a Cilician leader 
 m the second Servile war of SicUy, in the 
 2nd century B.C. 
 
 Athenodorus Cananites, a Stoic philo- 
 sopher, and a pupil of Posidonius, was 
 the friend and adviser of Octavianus, who 
 finally conferred on him the government of 
 Tarsus. 
 
 Atherstone, Edwin (&. 1778, d. 1872), 
 novelist and poet, was author of the Last 
 Bays of Herndaneum (1821), Israel in 
 Egypt (1861), and other poems, as well as 
 two romances. The Sea-Kings in England, 
 and The Handwriting on the Wall. 
 
 Athias, Joseph {d. 1700), a Jewish printer 
 of Amsterdam, who pubUshed the Bible in 
 Hebrew, English, Spanish, and German. 
 
 Atkins, John, an English naval surgeon 
 of the ISth century. Besides works on 
 surgery, he left an account of his travels to 
 Brazd and the West Indies. 
 
 Atkiiis, Eobert (6. 1626, d. 1685), an 
 English divine and eminent preacher, was 
 chaplain to OUver Cromwell, but withdrew 
 from the Church on the passing of the Act 
 of Uniformity. 
 
 Atkinson, James (6. 1780, d. 1852), an 
 English surgeon in the Indian army, who de- 
 voted his leisure to the acquisition of Eastern 
 languages, and in 1818 was appointed pro- 
 fessor of Persian at Fort William. He 
 translated several Persian works, and left 
 valuable records of the campaign of 1839-40. 
 
 Atkinson, Thomas Witlam (6. 1799, d. 
 1861), an English author and artist, 
 travelled in Siberia and China, and pub- 
 lished richly illustrated narratives of his 
 adventures. 
 
 Atkyns, Sir Robert (6. 1621, d. 1709), an 
 Enghsh judge of the Court of Common 
 Pleas; he was made chief baron of the 
 Exchequer in 1689. 
 
 Atondo y Antillon, Isidoro, a Spanish 
 admiral who sailed to California in 1688, 
 and founded a colony in the Bay of St. 
 Bruno. 
 
 Atreus, legendary King of Mycenae, suc- 
 ceeded his father Pelops, was father of 
 
 Agamemnon and Menelaus, and was slain 
 by iEgisthus, son of Thyestes, whom he 
 had put to death. 
 
 Atrocianus, Johannes, a German poet, 
 philologist, and botanist of the loth cen 
 tury. 
 
 Atsiz {d. 1156), founder of the Khwarizm 
 monarchy, and originally cupbearer to the 
 Sultan Sandjar, by whom he was appointed 
 governor. He, however, obstinately re- 
 volted, attempted the life of the Sultan, and 
 in 1 138 established his own independence. 
 
 Attala, Saint, a disciple of St. Colum- 
 banus, whom he succeeded as abbot of the 
 monastery of Bobbio in Italy. He died in 
 the 7th century. 
 
 Attains, son of Andromenes, one ol 
 the generals of Alexander the Great, 
 whom he accompanied in the expedition to 
 India. On the death of the king, Attalua 
 at first joined the revolt against Perdiccas, 
 but later became his ally. He maintained a 
 warlike career to his death, about B.o. 300. 
 
 Attains, Flavius Priscus, an Ionian, who 
 was created Emperor of the West by Alaric 
 in 409, but in a few months he was deposed, 
 and died in banishment at Lipari. 
 
 Attains I., King of Pergamus (d. 197 
 B.C.), assisted the .ffitolians, and afterwards 
 tlie Romans in their wars with Philip of 
 Macedon. He was a patron of literature 
 and formed a library at Pergamus, 
 
 Attains II. (d. 138 b.c), King of Per- 
 gamus, sumamed Philadelphus, son and 
 successor of the preceding, was driven from 
 his throne by Prusias of Bithynia, but 
 recovered it with some help from the 
 Romans. 
 
 Attains ni. {d. B.C. 133), sumamed 
 Philometer, King of Pergamus, nephew and 
 successor of the preceding. His first act of 
 royalty was to put to death his nearest 
 relatives and friends, and from his other 
 acts he appears to have been insane. He 
 bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. 
 
 Attar, or Khojah Attar {d. 1513), a native 
 of Bengal, who as vizier to the young Shah 
 of Ormuz was virtual ruler of the kingdom. 
 He was compelled by Albuquerque in 1507 to 
 acknowledge the supremacy of Portugal. 
 
 Attar ferid Ud-din (6. 1120, d. 1221), a 
 Persian poet, who devoted his life to works 
 of piety and the composition of moral and 
 mystical poems, was slain in extreme old 
 age by the Moguls who invaded Khorasan. 
 
 Atterbury, Francis (6. 1662, d. 1732), a 
 celebrated EngUsh prelate ; he was educated 
 at Westminster and Christ Church, Ox- 
 ford, and distinguished as a scholar and
 
 Att 
 
 (71) 
 
 Aub 
 
 controversialist. In 1691 he came to Lon- 
 don as chaplain to William and Mary, 
 and Queen Anne ; he was promoted to the 
 bishopric of Eochester and deanery of West- 
 minster. On the death of the queen he 
 became compromised by his advocacy of 
 the cause of the Pretender, refusing to sign 
 the loyal declaration of the bishops 
 (1715). In 1722 he was committed to the 
 Tower on a charge of secretly corre- 
 sponding vdth the Pretender, and the fol- 
 lowing year was deprived of his dignities 
 and outlawed, when he retired to Paris, but 
 stiU continued his intrigues. He died a broad, 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Atthalin, Louis Marie Jean Baptists, 
 Baron (6. 1784, d. 1856), a French general, 
 who served under Napoleon, and in 1830 
 went as ambassador to BerUn. 
 
 Atticus {d. 425), a celebrated patriarch of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Atticus, Titus Pomponius (6. B.C. 109, d. 
 B.C. 32), an eminent Roman, of patrician 
 birth, great wealth, and high intellectual 
 ability, and remembered as the friend of 
 Cicero, who wrote to him the celebrated 
 series of letters. He spent many years in 
 Athens, but returned to Eome before his 
 death. 
 
 Attila (Etzel) (*. 406, d. 453), the 
 celebrated King of the Huns, and one 
 of the most famous conquerors of the 
 5th century, whose terrible victories won 
 him the surname of "the Scourge of 
 God." After ravaging the East, and 
 laying Theodosius the Yoimger under 
 tribute, he entered Gaul at the head of 
 600,000 men, but was defeated with loss by 
 Aetius and Theodoric at the battle of 
 Meri. Thence, passiug into Italy, he de- 
 stroyed Aquileia, and was only deterred 
 from advancing on Rome by the entreaties 
 amd persuasions of St. Leo. 
 
 Attiret, Jean Denis (6. 1702, d. 1768), a 
 French Jesuit and painter, who was sent as 
 missionary to China, and stood high in the 
 favour of the Emperor Kien Long. 
 
 Attwood, George (6. 1745, d. 1807), an 
 eminent Enghsh mathematician, Fellow 
 and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 and inventor of the widely-known machine 
 which illustrates the uniform force of gravity 
 at the earth's surface. 
 
 Attwood, Thomas (6. 1767, d. 1838), 
 organist and composer, studied in Italy 
 under Mozart, and was afterwards organist 
 at St. Paul's Cathedral and the Chapels 
 Royal. 
 
 Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit (6. 1782, d. 
 1871), French composer, was intended for a 
 biisiness career, and it was not until he met 
 
 with Scribe, in 1823, that his long course of 
 successful composition commenced. La 3fu' 
 ette de Portici, or Masaniello, as it is called in 
 England, was brought out in 1828. He pro- 
 duced many other works which enjoy a 
 European reputation, his last being Le 
 Reve d' Amour (1870), composed shortly 
 before his death. 
 
 Auberlen, Samuel Gottlob (6. 1758), com- 
 poser, was musical director and organist to 
 the cathedral of Ulm, to which post he 
 attained in his sixtieth year, after many 
 years of privation and hardship. 
 
 Aubert, Jacques {d. 1586), a French 
 physician of Lausanne in the 16th century, 
 and author of numerous professional 
 treatises. 
 
 Aubert, Jean Ernest (&. 1824), a French 
 engraver and lithographer, and pupil 
 of Delaroche and Achille Martinet, has 
 produced many works, and gained medals 
 for engraving, lithography, and painting. 
 
 Aubert, Jean Louis (6. 1731, d. 1814), 
 known as " the Abbe Aubert," professor of 
 French Uterature at the Royal College of 
 Paris, and one of the most celebrated fabu- 
 lists of France. He was author of the popu- 
 lar Fables Nouvelles (1756), and also of 
 some poems, of which the best is Fsyche. 
 
 Aubert, Saint (Aulbertus), a missionair 
 bishop of Cambrai and Arras in the 7tb 
 century. He was greatly assisted by his 
 patron Dagobert. 
 
 Aubert du Bayet, Jean Baptists Annibal 
 (6. 1759 d. 1797), an American soldier, who, 
 after serving in the war of Independence, 
 came to France as a violent revolutionist, 
 and commanded the army of the Moselle. 
 He was also minister of war 1796, and am- 
 bassador to the Porte. 
 
 Aubespine, Charles del'. Marquis of Ch^- 
 teauneuf (6. 1580, d. 1653), French statesman, 
 was employed on several occasions as am- 
 bassador by Henry IV. , and became Oarde 
 
 des Sceaux in 1630. 
 
 Aubeterre, David Bouchard, Vicomte d' 
 {d. 1593), governor of Perigord under 
 Henry III. and Henry IV., was killed at 
 the siege of L'Isle. 
 
 Aubignac, Fran(;ois Hedelin, Abbe d' (6. 
 1714, d. 1788), a learned and voluminous 
 writer, was tutor to the Due de Fronsac, 
 nephew of Richelieu, who obtained for him 
 the abbacy of Aubignac. 
 
 Aubign^, Jean Henri Merle d' (b. 1794, d. 
 1872), Swiss theologian and writer, studied 
 at Leipsic and Berlin, and became professor 
 of church history at Geneva in 1830. He 
 was author of The History of the Reformation 
 of the Sixteenth Century, and other works.
 
 Anb 
 
 (72) 
 
 And 
 
 Aubign6, Theodore Agrippa d' (b. 1550, 
 d. ItJoO), a man of extraordiuary talents and 
 learning, and a brave and dashing soldier, 
 sided with the Huguenots in the religious 
 •wars of France, and after the capitulation 
 of Rochelle entered the service of Henry of 
 Navarre. He spent the end of his life in 
 Switzerland, where he continued an active 
 supporter of the Protestant cause, and left 
 many works, including an Universal History. 
 
 Aublet, Jean Baptiste Christophe Fusee 
 (6. 1720, d. 1778), a French botanist, whose 
 collections of plants are in the British Mu- 
 seum, established a botanic garden in the 
 Isle of France, and wrote The History of 
 the Plants of French Guiana. 
 
 Aubrey, John (6. 1626, d. 1697), English 
 antiquarian and miscellaneous writer, one 
 of the iirst members of the Royal Society, 
 •wrote the Ferambulation of Surrey, and 
 other curious works, and contributed to 
 Anthony Wood's Athence Oxonienses. 
 
 Aubriet, Claude (6. 1651, d. 1743), a 
 French miniature and natural history 
 painter, made the dra'wings for Tourne- 
 fort's Elements of Botany, and succeeded 
 Joubert as royal painter in the Jardin des 
 Plantes in Paris. 
 
 Aubriot, Hughes {d. 1382), Provost of 
 Paris under Charles V., designed the famous 
 prison of the Bastille, in which, in 1381, he 
 was confined on a charge of heresy, but 
 was released by a popular insurrection of 
 the"Maillotins." 
 
 Aubusson, Pierre d' (6. 1423, d. 1481), one 
 ©f the most famous of the Grand Masters 
 of Rhodes, and especially reno-wned for his 
 exploits against the Turks, who attacked 
 Rhodes, but were repulsed •svith great loss. 
 
 Aucher-Eloy, Peter Remi (6. 1793, d. 1838), 
 a French botanist and traveller, who spent 
 some time in Spain, and made a valuable 
 collection of the plants of that country. 
 He afterwards travelled in Russia, Turkey, 
 and Persia. 
 
 Auchmuty, Sir Samuel (6. 1756, d. 1822), 
 son of a New York clergyman, entered 
 the EngUsh army, and during the American 
 revolution served under Sir William Howe. 
 He also saw active ser^vice in India, and in 
 South America, whither he sailed in 1806, 
 "with the reinforcements despatched to 
 Buenos Ayres. He afterwards held the ap- 
 pointment of commander-in-chief in Madras 
 and in Ireland. 
 
 Auckland, George Eden, Earl of (6. 1784, 
 d. 1849), was governor- general of India 
 during the disastrous Afghan war (1839-42), 
 •was recalled on the change of ministry 
 in 1841, and in 1846 was appointed first lord 
 of the Admiralty. 
 
 Auckland, William Eden, Baron {h. 1744, 
 d. 1814), iu 1784 represented England at 
 the French court, and afterward in Spain, 
 and was postmaster-general from 1798- 
 1801. 
 
 Audseus, founder of the sect of the Au- 
 dseans in the 4th century, a native of Meso- 
 potamia, was distinguished for his holy life 
 and his zeal in opposing the corrupt and 
 licentious lives of the clergy. 
 
 Aude, le Chevalier Jean (6. 1755, d. 1841), 
 a dramatic author of repute, some tima 
 private secretary to Buffon. 
 
 Audebert, Jean Baptiste (6. 1759, d. 1800), 
 a distinguished French miniature and 
 natural history painter, 
 
 Audififret, Hercule (6. 1603, d. 1659), an 
 eloquent French ecclesiastic and author, 
 general of the congregation of the Brothers 
 of the Christian Doctrine. 
 
 Audififret Pasquier.Edme Armand Gaston, 
 
 Due d' {b. 1823), a French politician, who, 
 as president of the right centre, was one of 
 the chief agents in effecting the downfall of 
 M. Thiers. He was a supporter of Marshal 
 MacMahon, president of the senate 1876-9, 
 and in 1878 was elected member of the 
 French Academy. 
 
 Audin, J. M. V. (h. 1793, d. 1851), a 
 French historian and biographer, of •the 
 period of the Reformation. 
 
 Audley, Thomas, Baron Audley of Wal- 
 den [b. 1488, d. 1554), Lord Chancellor of 
 England, and a Knight of the Garter ; 
 an unscrupulous and dexterous tool of 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Audoin, or Alduin, King of the Lombards 
 in the 6th century, assisted Justinian in a 
 war with the Gepidse. 
 
 Audoin, Jean Victor (6. 1797, d, 1841), a 
 distinguished French entomologist, author 
 of the Histoire des Insectes Nuisibles d la 
 Vigne. 
 
 Audoin, Pierre (6. 1768, d. 1822), French 
 engraver to Louis XVIII., executed over 
 100 works. 
 
 Audovere {d. 580), the first wife of 
 Chilperic I., King of France, who repu- 
 diated her and put her to death. 
 
 Audran, Girard (6. 1640, d. 1703), the 
 most celebrated of the family of artists of 
 that name, and one of the greatest historical 
 engravers, was a pupU of Le Brun at 
 Paris, and afterwards studied at Rome. 
 
 Audrein, Yves Marie, a French theologiaii 
 and revolutionist, who voted for the king's 
 death, but in 1800 was waylaid and mur- 
 dered by Chouans as a regicide.
 
 And 
 
 (73) 
 
 Aug 
 
 Audubon, John James {b. 1780, d. 1851), a 
 celebrated American naturalist of French 
 descent, a pupil of the great painter 
 David ; from his childhood he was devoted 
 to natural history, but it was not until 1830 
 that the first of the four volumes of his 
 great work, 2'he Birds o/Amey-ica, appeared. 
 This magnificent collection of plates, which 
 was sold for 1,000 dollars a copy, was quickly 
 followed by explanatory letterpress under 
 the title of Amerua7i Ornithological Bio- 
 graphij. Audubon also projected a simi- 
 lar work on the Quadrupeds of America, 
 but much of this work was done by his 
 eons, John and Victor. 
 
 Aue, Hartmann von der (6. 1170, d. 1235), 
 a celebrated German Minnesinger, who 
 accompanied Frederick Barbarossa on his 
 crusade in 1189. His great work Irain, ou 
 le Chevalier Bu Lion, is taken from the 
 time of King Arthiir. 
 
 Auenbrugger, Von Auenbrug Leopold (6. 
 1722, d. 18i»9), physician to the imperial 
 hospital of Vieima, and celebrated as the 
 inventor of the method of percussion in 
 investigating diseases of the chest, on which 
 he published a treatise in 1761. 
 
 Auerbach, Berthold (6. 1812, d. 1882), 
 German novelist, was a native of the Black 
 Forest ; his reputation was established by 
 the publication in 1843 of his Village 
 Tales from the Black Forest, and this was 
 followed by a nimiber of other popular 
 novels. Among his earlier works were a 
 translation of Spinoza's writings, and an 
 essay on modem Jewish literature. He 
 died at Cannes shortly after the publication 
 of Brigitta. 
 
 Auersperg, Adolph WOhelm, Prince (b. 
 1821, d. 1886), Austrian statesman, in 1871 
 was Austrian prime miniater, resigning in 
 1879. 
 
 Auersperg, Anton Alexander, Count {b. 
 1806, d. 1876), Austrian poet and politician, 
 author of several ballads and romances in 
 verse, and an advocate of progress and 
 representation. 
 
 Aufrecht, Theodor (6. 1822), a native of 
 Leschnitz in Silesia, an eminent Sanscrit 
 scholar, who held the chairs of Sanscrit at 
 Edinburgh (1862-75) and Bonn, and is 
 author of many valuable works on that lan- 
 guage and literature. 
 
 Aufresne, Jean Rival {h. 1720, d. 1806), an 
 eminent actor, who performed in France 
 and Prussia, and spent the end of his life in 
 Russia under the patronage of Catherine II. 
 
 Augereau, Pierre Francois Charles, Due 
 de Castigliono and Marshal of Franco {b. 
 1757, d. 1816), a soldier of obscure birth who 
 joined the republican army of France, served 
 
 in Italy under Napoleon, and was appointed 
 to the command of the army of Holland and 
 the Lower Rhine. In 1804 he was made 
 marshal and duke, was present at the battles 
 of Linden, Jena, and Eylau, and after an 
 unsuccessful campaign in Spain took part 
 in the battle of Leipsic. In 1814 he was 
 compelled to evacuate Lyons, and a coolness 
 arose between him and Napoleon, and on 
 the abdication of the Emperor Augereau 
 gave his adhesion to the Boui'bons. 
 
 Augier, Guillaume Victor Emile (6. 1820, 
 d. 1889), a French dramatic author, wrote 
 several excellent comedies, including Ga- 
 brielle (1849) and Les Fourchambatdt (1878), 
 and was elected to the Academy in 1858. 
 
 Augusta, Jan (6. 1500, d. 1575), father of 
 the modem sect of Moravians, and a friend 
 of Luther and Melancthon, was chosen 
 bishop of the churches of Bohemia, and on 
 the banishment of his sect by Ferdmand I., 
 was captured and cruelly tortured, but was 
 released on the death of that monarch, 1564. 
 
 Augustenburg, Christian August, Duke 
 of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg (o. 1798, 
 d. 1869), succeeded to the dukedom in 1814, 
 and during the war of 1848-1851 was a 
 leader in the rebellion against the Danish 
 crown, to which in 1852 he sold his property 
 in the duchies. He abdicated in favour of 
 his son. 
 
 Augustenburg, Frederick Karl, Duke of 
 Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg {b. 1829, d. 
 1880), in 1863 claimed the right to the 
 duchies which his father had renounced, 
 and was supported by Prussia and Austria ; 
 but the Prussian crown lawyers decided 
 that after the treaty of 1852 the Augusten- 
 burg family had no claim to a right of 
 succession to the duchies. 
 
 Augusti, Christian Johann Wilhelm (6. 
 1771, d. 1841), a German theologian and 
 author, professor of Oriental literature, and 
 afterwards of theology, at the University of 
 Jena, and later (1811) at Breslau, of which 
 vmiversity he became rector. He went in 
 1819 to Bonn, and finally to Coblentz. 
 
 Augusti, Friedrich Albert (6. 1686, d. 
 1792) (Joshua Ben- Abraham Herschel), a 
 German Jew, well versed in the Scriptures, 
 was converted to Christianity in 1722, and 
 remained steadfast in spite of persecutions. 
 
 Augustin, Jean Baptiste Jacques {h. 
 1759, d. 1832), miniature painter to Louis 
 XVIII., for his truth to nature was highly 
 esteemed, and effected a revolution in his 
 art. 
 
 Augustine, Saint Aurelius Augustinus (6. 
 354, d. 430), the most distingmshed of the 
 Laliu fathers of the Christian Church, was 
 born at Tagaste in Numidia. While a
 
 Aug 
 
 (74) 
 
 Aug 
 
 student at Carthage he fell into habits of dis- 
 sipation, to the great distress of his wadowed 
 mother Monica, whose prayerful anxiety for 
 her son is one of the most touching records 
 of Christian biography. After an interval 
 in which his mind sought relief in philo- 
 sophy, and later in the peculiar doctrines of 
 the Manichseans, he left Africa for Italy, 383. 
 At Milan he obtained the professorship of 
 rhetoric, but resigned it on his conversion 
 to Christianity, receiving baptism together 
 with his son at the hands of Bishop Am- 
 brose, 387. Returning to Africa he sold his 
 patrimony to benefit the poor, and after some 
 years of religious seclusion became Bishop 
 of Hippo, 391. His life thenceforth is an 
 unceasing record of labour and controversy 
 with the schismatics of his time. In 429 
 the incursions and ravages of the Vandals 
 under Genseric reached the gates of Hippo, 
 and Augustine died in the third month of 
 the siege, worn out vnth hardships endured 
 in the cause of his people. His two greatest 
 works are the Confessions, an account of his 
 own reUgious struggles, and The City of God. 
 
 Augustine or Austin, Saint (d. circa 607), 
 first Archbishop of Canterbury, was sent 
 from Rome by Pope Gregory I., in 596, to 
 convert the English to Christianity. He 
 was well received by Ethelbert, Iving of 
 Kent, and established himself at Canter- 
 bury, where he founded a monastery on the 
 site of the present cathedral, and vigorously 
 pushed his missionary labours. 
 
 Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus 
 (6. B.C. 63, d. A.D. 14), the first Roman em- 
 peror, was the son of Octavius by Alia, a 
 daughter of Julia, the sister of C. Julius 
 Caesar. At the age of nineteen, upon re- 
 ceiving the news of his great-uncle's mur- 
 der, he set out for Italy, and joining the 
 repubhcan party defeated Antony, and 
 returning to Rome compelled the Senate to 
 elect him consul. Subsequently an arrange- 
 ment was eifected between Augustus, An- 
 tony, and Lepidus to divide the Roman 
 world between them. The battle of 
 Phihppi left Augustus and Antony with 
 no opponent but Pompey, and a rupture 
 which again broke out between them was 
 healed by the marriage of Antony with 
 Octavia, sister to Augustus, when a new 
 division of the provinces was made, the 
 west falling to Augustus and the east to 
 Antony, while Lepidus obtained Africa. 
 Pompey and Lepidus fell next before the 
 power of Augustus, and Antony, who had 
 repudiated his wife to marry Cleopatra, was 
 completely defeated in a fight near Actium, 
 B.C. 31. Upon the death of Antony, Augus- 
 tus became undisputed master of the world 
 at the age of twenty-three, and remained 
 such till his death. 
 
 Augrustus, Duke of Saxony (6. 1614, d. 
 
 1680), was elected archbishop of Magdeburg 
 in 1 628, and the following year was driven 
 from his see by the Emperor Ferdinand II., 
 but regained his dominions in 1638, and in 
 1648 was acknowledged sovereign Prince of 
 Magdeburg. On the death of his father, in 
 1656, he succeeded to large possessions in 
 Thuriugia. 
 
 Augustus, Frederick, Duke of Sussex {b. 
 1773, d. 1843), sixth son of George III., 
 married Lady Augusta Murray in 1793, was 
 a liberal in politics and addicted to liter- 
 ature. 
 
 Augustus, Friedrich "Wilhelm Heinrich, 
 Prince of Prussia (6. 1790, d. 1843), nephew 
 of Frederick II., distinguished himself as 
 an officer in the Prussian army, especially 
 during the campaigns of 1813-1815. 
 
 Augustus, "WUhelm, Prince of Prussia (6. 
 
 1722, d. 1758), distinguished himself greatly 
 in the first Silesian war, and in the Seven 
 Years' war, especially at the battle of 
 Lowositz 1756, but withdrew from the army 
 after the defeat at Kollin. 
 
 Augustus I., Elector of Saxony (6. 1526, 
 d. 1586), succeeded his brother Moritz in 
 1553, and proved severe and intolerant, 
 though possessed of considerable legislative 
 ability. He defeated and imprisoned his 
 rival, John Frederick, largely extended his 
 dominions, and drew up the code of laws 
 known by his name, and though a zealous 
 supporter of Lutheranism, persecuted the 
 followers of Melancthon. 
 
 Augustus II., Frederick, Elector of 
 Saxony (Augustus I. of Poland) (6. 1670, 
 d. 1733), a prince remarkable for personal 
 strength and beauty, and for the luxury 
 and corruption of his court, succeeded his 
 brother John George IV. in 1694, and three 
 years later, with the aid of Austria and 
 much bribery, procured his own election to 
 the throne of Poland. He then joined him- 
 self with Russia and Denmark against 
 Sweden, but was defeated at Clissow and 
 again at Pultusk, and driven from his 
 throne in 1706. On the downfall of Charles 
 XII. Augustus was recalled to Poland, 
 which he filled with Saxon troops, till a, 
 revolt of the Poles imder LedekusM com- 
 pelled the withdrawal of these in 1716. 
 
 Augustus ni., Frederick, Elector of 
 Saxony (Augustus II. of Poland) (6. 1696, 
 d. 1763), son of the preceding, whom ha 
 succeeded in 1733, being supported by the 
 Russians against* his rival Stanislaus; his 
 reign proved disastrous for Poland. He 
 was embroiled with Frederick II. of Prussia, 
 from whom he had to purchase peace. 
 
 Augustus I., Frederick (Jb. 1750, d. 1827), 
 first king of Saxony, joined the league
 
 Aug 
 
 (75) 
 
 Aur 
 
 formed by Fredeiiek the Great in 1778. 
 After Jena he followed Napoleon, and lost 
 portion of his kingdom by the battle of 
 Leipsic. 
 
 Augustus II., Frederick {b. 1797, d. 1854), 
 nephew of the preceding, and an able soldier, 
 succeeded in 1836, and in 1848 made con- 
 siderable concessions to popular demands. 
 
 Aulaf or Aulaf (d. circa 925), a Danish 
 invader of the British Islands in the 10th 
 centuiy ; aided by the Scots and Welsh he 
 attacked Athelstan of England, but was re- 
 pulsed, and forced to retire to Ireland. 
 After the death of Athelstan, Aulaf several 
 times invaded England with varying suc- 
 cess. 
 
 AuIOQ, Jean, maitre d'hotel to Jeanne 
 d'Arc, whom he served faithfully, distin- 
 guishing himself at the siege of Orleans, 
 and afterward sharing the "Maid's" im- 
 prisonment, 
 
 Aulus Gellius, Roman critic and gram- 
 marian, bom in the reign of Trajan, author 
 of the Attic Nights. 
 
 Amnale, Charles, Duke d' {d. 1631), 
 one of the supporters of the league, was 
 governor of Paris in 1588, which he held, 
 but lost the battles of Senlis, Argues, and 
 Ivry. He died in exile at Brussels. 
 
 Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis 
 d'Orleans, Due d' (6. 1822), fourth son of 
 Louis PhiUppe, and heir of the house of 
 Conde, entered the French army at seven- 
 teen, and was appointed governor of Algeria 
 in 1847. On hearing of the revolution of 
 the following year he withdrew to England, 
 but in 1871 returned to France as a member 
 of the National Assembly, and won great 
 popularity. Declining to present himself 
 for re-election in 1876, he devoted himself 
 to military duties till deprived of his com- 
 mand and finally expelled from France in 
 1886. The duke has written several im- 
 portant political pamphlets, as well as a 
 Ristory of the Frinces of the House of Conde. 
 
 Amnont, Jacques, Due d' {d. 1799), com- 
 mandant of the battalion of the National 
 Guard placed over Louis XVI. in 1791. 
 Though suspected of assisting in the king's 
 escape, he was afterwards appointed to the 
 command of Lille. 
 
 Aungerville, Richard. [See Bury, Rich- 
 ard de.] 
 
 Avinoy, Marie Catherine, Countess d' {b. 
 1650, d. 1705), a popular French novelist, 
 and authoress of several volumes of fairy 
 tales. 
 
 Anrellanus, Claudius or Lucius Domitius, 
 Emperor of Rome (6. 212, d. 275), the sou 
 
 of a peasant, entered the Roman army, his 
 exploits in which attracted the notice of thd 
 Emperors Valerian and Claudius, and on the 
 death of the latter in 270 he was proclaimed 
 emperor. His short reign was a series of 
 brilliant victories : the Goths and Vandals 
 were subdued, the Alemanni, who threatened 
 Rome itself, were exterminated, Palmyi-a 
 was sacked, and in the splendid triumph of 
 Aurelian were led captive Tetricus, the ex- 
 Emperor of Gaul, Britain and Spain, and 
 Zeuobia, the renowned Queen of the East. 
 A formidable rebelUon at home was crushed 
 with terrible sternness, and the emperor's 
 severity made him feared even by his friends, 
 who, as they deemed in pure self-defence, 
 conspired against him and put him to death. 
 
 Aurelius, Antoninus Marcus (6. 121 a.d., 
 d. 180), Emperor of Rome, was the adopted 
 son of Antoninus Pius, to whose throne he 
 succeeded in 161, and took as associate 
 Lucius Verus. Most of his reign was dis- 
 turbed by wars with the Gei-mans. Aurelius 
 was distinguished for his love of truth and 
 his adhesion to the Stoic school of philo- 
 sophy, and his Meditations still exist, and 
 give a trustworthy record of his private 
 opinions. 
 
 Aurelius, Victor Sextus, a Roman his- 
 torian of the 4th century, and the reputed 
 author of Origo Gentis Romance, and other 
 works. 
 
 AureUes de Paladine, Louis Jean Bap- 
 tiste d' {b. 1804, d. 1877), French general, 
 served in Africa, Rome, at the Crimea. 
 Commanded the army of the Loire in the 
 Franco -German war with some success at 
 Orleans, but was compelled to retire. In 
 1871 was elected to the National Assembly, 
 and took part in the peace negotiations with 
 Germany. Was chosen life senator in 1875. 
 
 Aureolus, Caius, a Dacian of himible 
 birth, became one of the most able generals 
 of Valerian, and during the reign of Gal- 
 lienus the army of the Upper Danube re- 
 volted, and proclaimed Aureolus emperor, 
 and though defeated and wounded, he suc- 
 ceeded in compassing the death of Gallienus. 
 This, however, only resulted in the appear- 
 ance of a still more formidable opponent in 
 Claudius, who defeated and linally put him 
 to death. 
 
 Auria, Vincenzo (6. 1625, d. 1710), an 
 Italian antiquary and poet ; author of his- 
 tories of the Eminent Men of Sicily (1704), 
 the Viceroys of Sicily (1697), and other 
 works. 
 
 Auriac, Bernard d', a troubadour of the 
 13th century, author of a Hymn to the 
 Virgin, and other poems, to be found in 
 M. Rayuouard's collection. 
 
 Aurifaber, Johann (6. 1519, d, 1575), a
 
 Anr 
 
 (76) 
 
 Anv 
 
 Lutheran divine, and friend and private 
 secretary of Luther. 
 
 Auriferi, Bernardino (b. 1739. d. 1706). a 
 Franciscan monk of Palermo, who applied 
 himself to the study of botany, and wrote 
 the Hortus Panormitanus. 
 
 Aurivillius, Magnus (6. 1673, d. 1740), 
 a learned Swedish divine, who accompanied 
 Charles XII. on his expeditions. 
 
 Aurogallus, Matthaeus (6. 1480, d. 1543), 
 an accomplished German linguist, who 
 assisted Luther in his translation of the 
 Bible, and wrote a history of Bohemia. 
 
 Aurungzebe, or Aurangzeb (6. 1618, d. 
 1707), the famous Mogul Emperor of Hin- 
 dostan, son of Shah Jehan, early professed 
 great piety, but his ambition led him to 
 secure for himself his father's throne, by 
 fostering family dissensions, and murder- 
 ing those of his relatives who stood in his 
 way. He extended his dominions by con- 
 quests in Thibet, Golconda, and the Mah- 
 ratta territory. He died at Aunmgbad, 
 rendered miserable by remorse and mistrust 
 of all about him. 
 
 Ausonius, Decimus Magnus (6. 309, d. 
 394), a Latin poet, professor of gram- 
 mar and rhetoric, and tutor to the two 
 sons of Valentinian I., and subsequently 
 prefect of Latium, Libya, and Gaul, and 
 proconsul of Asia. 
 
 Austen, Sir Francis William (6. 1774, d. 
 1865), a distiuguished naval officer, in 1799 
 commanded the Petrel, afterwards served 
 imder Nelson in the West Indies, and in 
 1809 brought to a successful termination a 
 dispute with the Chinese. He was created 
 admiral in 1848, and a K.C.B. in 1860. 
 
 Austen, Jane (6. 1775, d. 1817), novelist, 
 bom at Steventon, Hants, of which parish 
 her father was rector. Her principal pro- 
 ductions are Pride and Prejudice (composed 
 1796, published 1813), Sense and Sensibility, 
 (1811), and Emma (1816). They are dis- 
 tinguished for originality, naturalness and 
 fidelity of delineation, qualities in whicli 
 the literature of her time was most defi- 
 cient. Her family moved successively to 
 Bath and Chawton, and she died at Win- 
 chester and was buried in the cathedral. 
 
 Austin, Alfred (6. 1835), critic, journalist, 
 and satirical poet, was educated for the 
 bar, but resigned that profession for litera- 
 ture. As a strong Conservative, is one of the 
 editors ot the National Review, and has 
 acted as correspondent to the Standard. 
 
 Austin, Coe Finch (6. 1831, d. 1880), an 
 American botanist, a recognised authority 
 on mosses, on which he has left a valuable 
 work, entitled Mucin Appalachani (1870). 
 
 Austin, Horatio Thomas, a British naval 
 officer, who took part in the Arctic expe- 
 ditions of the nineteenth century. He 
 was lieutenant of the Pury on Captain 
 Parry's voyage in 1824, and in 1850 com- 
 mauded the party in search of Sir John 
 Franklin. 
 
 Austin, John (&. 1790, d. 1859), eminent 
 EngUsh jurist, served first in the army and 
 was called to the bar in 1818. From 1828 
 to 1835 professor of jurisprudence at Uni- 
 versity College, and his chief work is The 
 Province of Jurisprudence determined. 
 
 Austin, Mrs. Sarah Taylor (6. 1793, d. 
 1867), an English writer, and translator 
 from the German and French ; her version 
 of Ranke's History of the Popes is especially 
 excellent. 
 
 Austin, Stephen T. {d. 1836), was the 
 founder of the State of Texas. He drove 
 the Mexicans out of Texas, and obtained its 
 independence. 
 
 Austin, William (b. 1778, d. 1841), an 
 American writer, author of Letters from 
 London ; Peter Pugg, the Missing Man, and 
 other works. 
 
 Austin, William, M.D, (6, 1753, cf.l793), an 
 eminent physician and chemist, who made 
 several important contributions to medical 
 science, and published the Analysis of Gases 
 in the Philosophical Transactions. 
 
 Autenrieth, Johann Friedrich Ferdinand 
 von (1772-1835), a German physician, who 
 graduated at Stuttgard, and after travelling 
 in Europe and America settled at Tiibingen, 
 where he filled the chair of anatomy, phy- 
 siology, and surgery. 
 
 Autichamp, Charles de Beaumont, Count 
 d' {h. 1770, d. 1852), a French royali§t and 
 a leader of the Vendeans in 1793. He also 
 took part under La Rochejaquelein in the 
 disastrous insurrection of 1815, and after 
 the restoration was raised to the peerage. 
 
 Auton, or Anton, Jehan d' (6. 1466, d. 
 1527), a French Benedictine monk; his 
 verses secured him the favour of Anne of 
 Brittany, and he was appointed historio- 
 grapher to Louis XII., whose life he 
 wrote. 
 
 Autophradates, a Persian general under 
 Artaxerxes III. and Darius II. ; imder the 
 former he took prisoner Artabazus, satrap of 
 Lydia, and as commander of the fleet of the 
 latter compelled the submission of Mitylene 
 and Tenedos. 
 
 Autreau, Jacques (6. 1656, d. 1745), a 
 French painter and dramatist. 
 
 Auvergne, Antoine d' (6. 1713, d. 1797), 
 musical director of the opera of Paris in
 
 Auv 
 
 ( 77) 
 
 Ave 
 
 1770, and composer of several successful 
 operas. 
 
 Auvergne, Bernard II., Count d' (d. 886), 
 a distinguished French soldier of the 9th 
 century, guardian and supporter of Louis 
 
 in. 
 
 Auvergne, Edward d' , an English historian 
 of the 17th century, accompanied William 
 III. to the Netherlands, and wrote an ac- 
 count of his campaigns. 
 
 Auvergne, Gui II., Count d' (d. 1224), a 
 turbulent French noble, who took the part 
 ot Eichard I. of England, and was engaged 
 in continual struggles with his brother 
 Robert and with Philip Augustus of France. 
 
 Auvergne, Guillaimie d' (d. 1249), a 
 learned bishop of Paris and professor of 
 theology in the Sorbonne. 
 
 Auvergne, Martial d' (b. Paris, 144Q, d. 
 1508), a lawyer, wit, and poet of consider- 
 able celebiity, author of Xes Arrets 
 d' Amour. 
 
 Auvergne, Theophile Malocorret, De la 
 Tourd' (6. 1743, d. 1800), a brave soldier 
 and accomplished scholar of singularmodesty 
 and benevolence, served under the Due de 
 Crillon in the campaign of Minorca, and 
 afterwards joined the revolutionary army, 
 and became captain of the " Imperial 
 Column." After bestowing his pension in 
 charity, he went as substitute for a young 
 conscript, but was killed at the battle of 
 Oberhausen. Auvergne was an excellent 
 linguist, and left a Glossaire Folyglotte of 
 forty-five languages. 
 
 Auvlgny, Jean du Castre d' (6. 1712, d. 
 1743), a French author, who worked with 
 Desfontaines and Hazier ; he was killed at 
 the battle of Dettingen. 
 
 Auvray, Felix (5. 1800, d. 1833), a French 
 historical painter, was a pupil of Baron 
 Gros. 
 
 Auwera, Johan Georg Wolfgang von {d. 
 1756), a court sculjitor at Wurzburg, ex- 
 celled in colossal ligures. 
 
 Auxentius (6. 310, d. 374), a supporter 
 of Ariauisra, and zealous opponent of 
 Athanasius. He succeeded Dionysius as 
 bishop of Milan, and though condemned for 
 heresy retained the see till his death. 
 
 Auzanet, Barthelemi (6. 1591, d. 1673), an 
 eminent French lawyer, who was employed 
 in connection with a scheme for establislung 
 a uniform system of jurisprudence through- 
 out the kingdom. 
 
 Auzou, Louis Napoleon (6. 1806), a French 
 ecclesiastic and refoi-mer, founder of the 
 "French Catholic Church." He renounced 
 
 his opinions in 1839, and retired to a re- 
 ligious house. 
 
 Auzout, Adrien, a native of Rouen, flour- 
 ished in the 17th century, was a skilful tele- 
 scope-maker, and invented the movable wire 
 micrometer. 
 
 Auzoux, Theodore Louis (6. circa 1797, 
 dt 1880), a French physician and anatomist, 
 who greatly f acihtated the study of tmatomy 
 by his exact and delicate models of the 
 humaji body. 
 
 AvalOS, Alfonse d', Marquis del Vasto {d. 
 1546), a Spanish soldier of the 16th century, 
 who served under Charles V., and contri- 
 buted much to the victory of Pavia. He 
 had also estates in Italy, and after fighting 
 against the French and Turks was ap- 
 pointed governor of Milan in 1537, in which 
 capacity he was defeated by the French at 
 Ceresole in 1544. 
 
 AvalOS, Ferdinando d'. Marquis of Pes- 
 cara (6. 1490, d. 1525), cousin of the pre- 
 ceding, was the virtual commander of the 
 Spanish forces at the battle of Pavia, at 
 which he received wounds from the effects 
 of which he ultimately died. 
 
 Avalos, Ruy Lopez d'. Count of Ribadeo, 
 was Great Constable of Castile in the reign 
 of Juan II., but in 1420 joined Enrique, 
 Infante of Aragon, against that monarch, 
 and was forced to flee to Valencia. 
 
 Avanzi, Jacopo di Paolo d' (Jacopo da 
 Bologna), an Italian painter of the 14th 
 century ; most of his works, which were 
 highly esteemed, are now lost. 
 
 Avanzi Til, Guiseppe (6. 1753, d. 1827), an 
 eminent Italian mathematician. 
 
 Avaray, Autoine Louis, Due d' (6. 1759, 
 d. 1811), a faithful servant and friend 
 of Louis XVIII., planned and successfully 
 carried out the escape of that prince. 
 
 Avaux, Claude de Mesmes, Cormt d' (6. 
 1595, d. 1650), a French diplomatist em- 
 ployed by cardinals Richelieu and Mazaiin ; 
 through his negotiations the peace of West- 
 phaha was concluded in 1648. 
 
 Aved, Jacques Andre Joseph (6. 1702, d. 
 1766), one of the best portrait painters of 
 his time, was portrait painter to Louis XV. 
 
 Aveiro, Jose de Mascarenhas, Duke of 
 (6. 1708, d. 1759), an unscrupulous and 
 ambitious Portuguese, who became the 
 favourite of Joam V. Disappointed at 
 losing his influence on the accession of Jose 
 I. , he formed a conspiracy against the life 
 of the new king, but was discovered and put 
 to death. 
 
 Aveis L, Sultan of Persia (rf. 1347), wac
 
 Ave 
 
 (78) 
 
 Avi 
 
 an able and just prince; he considerably 
 increased liis dominions. 
 
 Aveis II., Sultan of Persia (d. circa 1410), 
 and son of the preceding, on whose death 
 he murdered an elder brother and seized the 
 throne. His cruelty raised him many ene- 
 mies, who, with the assistance of Tamer- 
 lane, drove him from the country ; he fled 
 to Egj-pt, where he died. 
 
 Avellar, Francisco Gomez (6. 1739, d. 
 1816), bishop of Algarve, an able and learned 
 divine, who iu addition to the bishopric held 
 the post of governor and captain -general 
 of Algarve, and discharged his multifarious 
 duties with prudence and vigour. 
 
 Avellino, Onofrio (6. 1674, d. 1741), 
 Itahan portrait painter of note ; his principal 
 work was the frescoes on the ceiling of 
 the church of St. Francesco di Paolo in 
 Kome. 
 
 Avelloni, Francesco (6. 1756, d. 1837), a 
 prolific Italian dramatist who wrote many 
 successful plays, both in prose and verse. 
 
 Avempace or Aven Pace, a corruption of 
 Ibn Bajeh, a Spanish Mahometan, renowned 
 for his learning in medicine, poetry, mathe- 
 matics, and music. 
 
 Aventinus, Johannes Thurmayer (6. 1476, 
 d. 1534), " the father of Bavarian historio- 
 graphy," was tutor to the sons of Albert 
 the Wise, and left an erudite history of his 
 country. 
 
 Avenzoar, a corruption of Ibn Zohr, a 
 distinguished Moorish family of Seville. Of 
 its members two especially are renowned, 
 Abu Merwan Abdul-Malek, an eminent 
 physician who flourished ia the 12th cen- 
 tury, and who left the Teisir and other 
 valuable medical works ; and Abu Bekr, his 
 son, who excelled in medicine, theology, and 
 poetry. 
 
 Averdy, Clement Charles Fran9ois de 1' 
 (6. 1720, d. 1793), comptroller- general of 
 the French finances in 1759, and author of 
 Bome wise refoims in that department. 
 He was accused of monopoly during the 
 Eeign of Terror, and guillotined. 
 
 Averrhbes (6. circa 1120, d. 1198 or 
 1206) (Ibn-Roshd), the great Arabian philo- 
 sopher, of good birth, and a pupil of 
 Avenpace and Avenzoar. He devoted his 
 life to the study of Aristotle. He was ban- 
 ished for awhile from Cordova, and his 
 views were condemned by the University 
 of Paris in 1240. 
 
 Aversa, Tommaso {d. 1663), a Sicilian 
 poet and dramatist of the 17th century, 
 whose first work, Pyramo e Thisbe, at- 
 tracted considerable attention, entered the 
 Church, and devoted himself to hterature. 
 
 Avesne, Fran^jois {d. 1662), a French 
 writer, and disciple of Simon Morin. His 
 outspoken opinions concerning the rights of 
 the people displeased the queen-regent, and 
 he was imprisoned tUl 1652. 
 
 Avezac, Pierre Valentin d', de Castera (6. 
 1719, d. 1781), a West Indian of French ex- 
 traction, who amassed a considerable fortune 
 in San Domingo, and successfully attempted 
 the fertilisation of the Plain of the Fond, at 
 a cost of £30,000. 
 
 Avezac-Macaya, Marie Armand Pascal d' 
 
 (h. 1799, d. 1875), a French geographer and 
 ethnologist. Was secretary of the Geo- 
 graphical Society and head of the Depart- 
 ment of Marine. Besides other works he 
 has published an account of his African ex- 
 plorations. 
 
 Avianus, Flavins, a Latin poet and fabulist, 
 whose fables are often printed with those of 
 ^sop. He probably lived prior to the reign 
 of Theodosius. 
 
 Aviau duBois de Sanzay (6. 1736, d. 1826), 
 Archbishop of Bordeaux, who devoted him- 
 self to deeds of benevolence and piety, and 
 fixmly maintained the rights of the Church 
 against Napoleon. 
 
 Avicebron (Solomon Ibn Gebirol), a 
 Spanish Jew of the 11th century, and author 
 of the Fons Vitce referred to by Albertus 
 Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 Avlceima (Ibn Sina), (6. 980, d. 1037), the 
 celebrated Arab physician, a native of Bok- 
 hara, was author of the. world-famed Book 
 of the Canon of Medicine. 
 
 Avidius Cassius, a Roman general under 
 
 Antoninus Pius and AureUus, and after- 
 wards governor of Syria. He aspired to 
 the imperial throne, and was proclaimed 
 by the army, but was assassinated before 
 any action took place. 
 
 Avienus, Rufus Festus, Roman versifier 
 and geographer, and twice proconsul under 
 Theodosius. 
 
 AvUa, Alonso, a Spanish hidalgo, who ac- 
 companied Cortes to Mexico, and took part 
 in the great battle of Ceutla (1519). Re- 
 turning to Spain in 1525, he was captured 
 by a French privateer, 
 
 Avila, Don Sancho de (6. 1523, d. 1583), 
 a Spanish soldier, who served in various 
 countries, and ably seconded the Duke of 
 Alva in the Netherlands. He accomplished 
 the arrest of Count Egmont in 1567, and 
 marred his otherwise splendid victory at 
 Mook by the horrible butchery which fol- 
 lowed. He afterwards headed the mutiny 
 of the army, and was present at the battle 
 of Alcantara.
 
 Avi 
 
 (79) 
 
 Aym 
 
 Avila y Zuniga, Luis d' (b. 1500), a Span- 
 ish historian, and a f avoiirite of Charles V. , 
 who employed him as ambassador to the 
 popes Paul IV. and Pius IV. 
 
 Aviler, Augustin Charles d' (6. 1653, d. 
 1700), a French architect. 
 
 Avison, Charles (6. 1710, d. 1770), an 
 English musical composer, was a pupil of 
 Geminiani, and in 1752 published an £ssay 
 on Musical Expression. 
 
 Avitus, Alcimus Ecdicius (<f. 525), bishop 
 of Vienne, known as Saint Avitus, was an 
 able and vigorous opponent of Ajrianism, 
 and an author of some note. 
 
 Avitus, Marcus Mascilius, Emperor of the 
 West {d. 457) in the 5th century, was de- 
 scended from an honourable family of 
 Auverge, distinguished as a soldier and 
 diplomatist, and on the death of Ma.ximus 
 was raised to the throne. In 456 he was 
 deposed by the Senate. 
 
 Avogadro di Quaregna, Amadeo (6. 1776, 
 d. 1856), an Italian physicist, remembered 
 in connection with the important chemical 
 hypothesis enunciated by him in 1811, and 
 still known by his name. 
 
 Avrigny, Charles Joseph Loeillard (6. 1760, 
 d. 1823), a French dramatist, historian, and 
 poet. 
 
 Avrigny, Hyacinthe Eobillard d' (6. 1675, 
 d. 1719), a French Jesuit and historian, 
 author of an ecclesiastical and a general 
 history of Europe from 1600 to 1716. 
 
 Avril, Jean Jacques [b. Paris, 1744, d. 
 1832), an eminent French engraver, and 
 member of the French academy of painting. 
 
 Avril, Jean Jacques, the Yoimger (6. 1771, 
 d. 1831), son and pupil of the preceding, 
 also was an engraver of repute. 
 
 Awadi of Maragha, a Persian poet of the 
 13th century, and author of the celebrated 
 Jam-i-Jam, in which he expounded the 
 doctrines of the Suffites. 
 
 Awdeley, Awdly, or Audley, John, an 
 English poet of the loth century, known as 
 " the blind Awdeley" ; after a youth wasted 
 in excesses he entered a convent, and ap- 
 plied himself to the reformation of church 
 discipline. 
 
 Axayacatl (d. 1477), seventh king of 
 Mexico, of the Aztec race, and second son 
 of Montezuma I. 
 
 Axel, or Absaion (b. Iceland, 1128, d. 
 1201), Archbishop of Lund, and Primate of 
 Denmark, known for his valiant defence of 
 the rights of Denmark af^'ainst Germany, 
 and also as a naval commauder. 
 
 Azen, Petrus {h. 1635, d. 1707), a native 
 of Holstein, eminent as a jurist, historian, 
 and philologist. 
 
 Axular, Pierre, a Gascon of the 17th cen- 
 tury, and author of Guerko Guero, the 
 most remarkable work in the Basque lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Ayala, Pedro Lopez d' (6. 1332, d. 1407), 
 a Spanish statesman, soldier, and poet, and 
 author of a history of Castile. 
 
 Ayala, Sebastiano (6. 1744, d. 1817), a 
 learned SicUian Jesuit, known both as an 
 author, scientist, and politician. 
 
 Ayeshah (6. 610, d. 677), the "Mother 
 of the Faithful," was the favourite wife of 
 Mohammed, who married her in her ninth 
 year. Her influence after the prophet's 
 death was immense. She caused the assass- 
 ination of Caliph Othman, but was defeated 
 by Ali at the battle of Basrah. 
 
 Aylmer, John (6. 1521, d. 1594), one of 
 the most distinguished divines of the Re- 
 formed Church, and bishop of London in 
 the reign of Elizabeth. Originally tutor to 
 Lady Jane Grey, on the accession of Mary 
 he was deprived of his preferment, and 
 driven into exile, but on her death was re- 
 ceived into the royal favour. 
 
 Aylmer, Matthew, Lord (6. 1643, d. 1720), 
 a British admiral, who distinguished him- 
 self in the service of Charles II., and after 
 the battle of La Hogue was made rear- 
 admiral of the Red, and was raised to the 
 Irish peerage in 1718. 
 
 AylofFe, Sir Joseph (6. 1708, d. 1781), an 
 eminent English antiquary of the 18th cen- 
 tury, and one of the keepers of the state 
 papers. He was author of the Calendars of 
 Ancient Charters and other works. 
 
 Ajnnar or Aimar-Vemai, Jacques (6. 
 1662), a French peasant who claimed to dis- 
 cover criminals, lost property, etc. , by means 
 of a divining rod, and created much excite- 
 ment till discovered in 1693 to be an im- 
 postor. 
 
 A3anard, Antoine, Baron (6. 1773, d. 1861), 
 a French general who served in Italy, Ger- 
 many, and Spain, and was raised to the 
 peerage by Napoleon. He commanded at 
 Lyons in 1834, and suppressed the insur- 
 rection of that city with terrible severity. 
 
 Ayme, Jean Jacques (Job Ayme) (6. 1752, 
 d. 1818), an active but moderate revolu- 
 tionist, experienced several vicissitudes of 
 fortune, but in 1804 was appointed director 
 of the de[)artment of Bourg en Bresse. 
 
 Aymon or Haimon, Prince of the Ardennes 
 in the time of Charlemagne, whose four BonB 
 are renowned in chivalrous legend.
 
 Ayo 
 
 (80) 
 
 Azi 
 
 Ayolas, Juan d', a Spanish explorer of La 
 Plata and Paraguay in the 16th century, 
 who pushed as far aa Candelaria, in Para- 
 guay, but was treacherously slain. 
 
 Ayrault, Pierre (b. 1536, d. 1601), a French 
 advocate, and president of Angers during 
 the war of the League ; besides several pro- 
 fessional treatises, he wrote one on parental 
 rights, addressed to his son Rene, who, to 
 his father's intense grief, became a Jesuit. 
 
 Ayrer, Jacob {d. 1605), an early German 
 dramatist of considerable talent. 
 
 Ayrton, Edmund (6. 1734, d. 1808), an 
 English musician, the friend and pupil of 
 Dr. Nares, whom he succeeded as ' ' master 
 of the children of his majesty's chapels." 
 
 Ayscough, Samuel (b. 1745, d. 1804), as- 
 sistant librarian at the British Museum, and 
 a diligent bibUographer and compiler of 
 catalogues. 
 
 Ayscue, Ayscough, or Askew, Sir George, 
 a British admiral of the 17th century, sided 
 with the Parliament during the Civil war, 
 and did good service in their behalf, but 
 on the Restoration transferred his allegiance 
 to the Stuarts, and was made prisoner by 
 the Dutch in 1666. 
 
 Asrton or Aytoun, Sir Robert (6. 1570, d. 
 1638), a Scottish poet and courtier, who 
 attracted the notice of James I. by a poem 
 on his accession to the English throne. 
 
 Aytoun, William Edmonstoone (6. 1813, 
 d. I860), a Scottish poet and professor of 
 literature at the University of Edinburgh. 
 Amongst his works are the La>/s of the 
 Scottish Cavaliers (1848), an edition of the 
 Scottish Ballads (1858), and Bon Gaul- 
 tier's Book of Ballads, which he brought 
 out in conjunction vsdth his friend. Sir 
 Theodore Martin. He was also a most 
 brilliant contributor to Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine. 
 
 Ayub Khan (6. circa 1849), Ameer of 
 Afghanistan, on the abdication of his 
 brother Yakub Khan (1880) advanced upon 
 Candahar, and totally defeated General 
 Burrows at Maiwand, but on the arrival of 
 General Roberts by a forced march from 
 Cabul his own forces were routed and 
 himself compelled to flee. The following 
 year another brilliant victory preceded a 
 second defeat near Candahar, and Ayub 
 withdrew to Persia, where, on the Russian 
 advance on Penj-deh (1885), he was re- 
 tained as prisoner of state at the request of 
 the English minister, escaped in 1887, and 
 was recaptured. 
 
 Ayynb-ibn-habib, distinguished Mahome- 
 tan general of the eighth century, who 
 served with success in Africa and Spain, 
 
 and became governor of the latter country 
 till deposed by Omar LI. in 715. 
 
 A3ryub-ibn-Sliadlii {d. 1173), a Moslem 
 chief, father of Saladiii (Salahuddin), and 
 founder of the dynasty of the Ayj'ubites. 
 
 Azais, Pierre Hyacinthe (6. 1766, d. 1845), 
 a distinguished French moralist, who during 
 the revolution was compelled to flee to the 
 Pyrenees, where he devoted himself to study, 
 and wrote his great work, Bes Gompensa- 
 tions dans les Destinees Humaines. In 1806 
 he went to Paris, where his lectures were 
 very popular. He spent the end of his life 
 in retirement, on a pension procured through 
 the interest of Madame de Stael and others. 
 
 Azambusa, Diego d', a Portuguese travel- 
 ler, who was entrusted in 1481 by King Joam 
 II. with the establishment of a colony on 
 the coast of Guinea. 
 
 Azanza, Don Miguel Jose d' (6. 1746, d. 
 1826), a Spanish politician, who filled several 
 important posts both in Spain and Mexico, 
 and, though loyal to Fernando VII., ac- 
 cepted office under Joseph Bonaparte. 
 
 Azara, Don Felix d' (&. 1746, d. 1811), a 
 Spanish naturalist and traveller, author of 
 a Natural Sistory of Paraguay and other 
 works. 
 
 Azara, Don Josef Nicolas d' (6. 1731, d. 
 1804), a Spanish diplomatist and author. 
 
 Azari, Shaikh (6. 1388, d. 1460), a Persian 
 poet, known as the "king of the poets." 
 
 Azariah de Rossi, an Italian Jew of the 
 16th century, and one of the most learned 
 rabbis of lus time. His great work Meor 
 Enajim {The Light of the Eyes) deals 
 with historical events. 
 
 Azeglio, Cesare TaparelU, Marchese d' (6. 
 Turin, 1763, d. 1830), the friend and adviser 
 of Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, 
 entered the army, and served in the war vdth 
 France in 1792; he received in 1814 an 
 appointment in the court at Turin. He 
 edited a Conservative journal, L'Amico 
 d'ltalia. 
 
 Azeglio, Massimo Taparelli, Marchese d' 
 (&. 1798, d. 1866), an Italian novelist and 
 patriot, and painter of historical pictures. 
 In 1848 he joined the patriot army, was 
 seriously wounded at Vicenza, and was ap- 
 pointed President of the Council by Victor 
 Enmianuel (1849-1852). 
 
 Azevedo, Ignazio de (6. 1527, d. 1570), a 
 Portuguese Jesuit, who went as missionary 
 to Brazil, but on his second journey there 
 was captured by a vessel of the Queen of 
 Navaues, and put to death . 
 
 Azizi, Kara - Chelebizade (Abdul A2U
 
 Azo 
 
 (81) 
 
 Bab 
 
 Effendi) (6. 1591, d. 1657), Turkish historian 
 and poet, conspired against Ibraham I., and 
 was patronised by Mohammed IV. 
 
 Azo, Fortius {d. 1200), a distinguished 
 professor of jurisprudence at Bologna. 
 
 Azor, Juan (6. 1533, d. 1603), a Spanish 
 Jesuit and professor of theology at Alcala 
 and Rome. One of his works, The Tnstitu- 
 ciones Morales, attracted considerable notice 
 from its questionable morality, but was 
 authorised by Clement VIII. 
 
 Azpilcueta, Martin (6. 1493, d. 1586), a 
 native of Navarre, renowned reviver of the 
 study of canon law. 
 
 Azuni, Domenico Alberto (6. 1749, d. 
 1827), an Italian jurist and antiquary, in 
 1807 was judge at Genoa, and later judge 
 and director of the university library at 
 CagUaii. 
 
 Azurara or Zurara (Gomez Eannes), a 
 
 Portuguese historian of the loth century, 
 who was appointed keeper of the Portuguese 
 archives. 
 
 Azz-ed-din, Kilij-Arslan (d. 1192), fifth 
 sultan of the Seljukian dynasty, succeeded 
 his father on the Turkish throne in 1156, and 
 proved a wise and energetic ruler. 
 
 Azzo I., Alberto, Marquis of Este {d. 
 1029), a turbulent prince, who was deposed 
 and imprisoned in 1014 for supporting the 
 attempt of Ardonius on the throne of Italy. 
 On the accession of Conrad II. he made 
 strenuous efEorts to secure the independence 
 of Italy. 
 
 Azzo II., Marquis d'Este {d. 1097), son of 
 the preceding, one of the greatest princes 
 of his house. 
 
 Azzoni-Avogarl, Eambaldo degli (6. 1719, 
 d. 1790), an Italian antiquary, founded a 
 public library in his native town of Treviso. 
 
 Baader, Francis Xavier (S. 
 German theologian. 
 
 1765, d. 1841), 
 
 Baan, Jacob, son of Joannes van Baan 
 (b. 1673, d. 1700), also a good artist. 
 
 Baan, Joannes van {b. 1633, d. 1702), a 
 Dutch painter of note, was invited to 
 England by Charles II., whose portrait he 
 painted. He refused a commission from 
 Louis XrV. from patriotic motives. His 
 life was twice attempted by jealous 
 rivals. 
 
 Baasha, the son of Ahijah, held a high 
 command in the army of Israel, and after 
 mui-dering Nadab, the king, seized upon 
 the throne, reigning for 24 years. To 
 secure his title he murdered every member 
 of the house of Jeroboam. 
 
 Bab a, Ali {d. 1718), was elected Dey 
 of Algiers in 1710, after the revolution in 
 which Ibrahim Dey was killed. At great 
 sacrifice of life Baba liberated Algiers from 
 the dominion of Turkey, and its indepen- 
 dence was maintained imtil the French in- 
 vasion in 1830. 
 
 Babbage, Charles [b. 1792, d. 1871), 
 English mathematician, a prolific author, 
 graduated at Cambridge, and was afterwards 
 Lucasian professor there for 11 years. He 
 conducted much valuable research, his chief 
 efforts being devoted to the construcrion of 
 a calculating machine, in which, however, 
 
 he was not wholly successful. In 1832 he 
 stood for Finsbury, but was defeated. 
 
 Baber, Zuheir-Ed-Din Mohammed (b. 
 1483, d. 1530), conqueror of India, and 
 founder of the great Mogul dynasty. Sixth 
 in descent from Tamerlane, he succeeded 
 his father in the government of Ferghana 
 in his twelfth year. His early life was one 
 of strange vicissitude ; his frequent expe- 
 ditions against Samarcand being followed by 
 insurrections at home which drove him into 
 exile. Flying at last to Cabul, he was pro- 
 claimed ruler there, and after 20 years of 
 troubled government he marched into India, 
 and gained a splendid victory over Ibra- 
 him Lodi. A subsequent victory over the 
 federated Rajput princes placed all India 
 practically in his hands. He left a memoir 
 of his Hfe. 
 
 Babeuf, Fran?ois Noel (b. 1764, d. 1797), 
 a violent French revolutionist, known as 
 " Caius Gracchus," from the pseudonym 
 used by him in his writings in the Tribun du 
 Peuple. He organised the " Societe du Pan- 
 theon,'''' which, by promoting armed in- 
 surrection, was to proclaim the constitution 
 of 1793. The conspiracy having been be- 
 trayed, he was guillotined. 
 
 Babi, Jean Francois [b. 1759, d. 1796), 
 French revolutionary ofiicer, who com- 
 mitted the most violent excesses at Toulouse 
 duiing the Reign of Terror. He was
 
 Bab 
 
 (82; 
 
 Eac 
 
 executed for participating in Babeiif's con- 
 Bpiracy. 
 
 Babinet, Jacques (b. 1794, d. 1872), 
 French physicist and astronomer, after 
 occupj'ing professorial chairs at Fontenoy 
 and Poitiers, became professor of phy- 
 sics at the college of St. Louis, Paris, a 
 position which he held for 49 years. He 
 made many inventions in machinery, and 
 was a very popular lecturer. His Caries 
 Homolograjjhujues, drawn on a new system 
 of projection, and his predictions of the 
 failure of the Atlantic Cable, excited much 
 attention. 
 
 Babington, Anthony (^. 1586), an English 
 Roman Catholic gentleman, of good familj^, 
 known to history by the plots which he 
 formed to liberate Mary Queen of Scots 
 and to assassinate Elizabeth. These were 
 discovered by Walsingham's spies, and 
 Babington, escaping for a time, was finally 
 executed at Tyburn. 
 
 Babington, William {b. 1756, d. 1833), 
 mineralogist, chemist, and geologist, prac- 
 tised as a physician in Loudon, and was 
 largely instrumental in foimding the Him- 
 terian Society and the Geological Society 
 of London. 
 
 Babini, Matteo {b. 1754, d. 1816), an 
 Italian singer, who obtained a great reputa- 
 tion aU over Europe, being received with 
 distinction at many courts. 
 
 Babois, Marguerite Victoire {b. 1760, d. 
 1839), a French poetess of some note, and 
 niece of the poet Ducis. 
 
 Babrius, a Greek poet, who lived about 
 the 2nd or 3rd century, known for his 
 rhythmical versions of ^sop^s Fables. 
 
 Babylas, Saint, a Bishop of Antioch, who 
 suffered martyrdom in the Decian perse- 
 cution of 251. He refused the Roman 
 emperor PhiUp entrance to the church 
 after he had ordered the death of Gallus. 
 His remains were first laid outside Rome, 
 and afterwards, by the order of the Emperor 
 Julian, conveyed to Antioch. 
 
 BaccMni, Benedetto (b. 1651, d. 1721), a 
 learned Benedictine monk, and a preacher 
 celebrated throughout Italy. He was a 
 great Greek and Hebrew scholar, a good 
 Unguist, and a musician. In 1685 he be- 
 came counsellor of the Inquisition at Parma; 
 in 1688 theologian to the Duke of Parma ; 
 and subsequently librarian and historian to 
 the Duke of Modena. He filled the chair 
 of sacred Uteratuxe in the university of 
 Bologna, and was the author of numerous 
 Works. 
 
 Bacchylides, a celebrated Greek lyrical 
 poet, who lived in the 5th century b.o. He 
 
 wrote in the Doric dialect, and was the 
 great rival of Pindar. His poems have 
 nearly all been lost. 
 
 Baccio della Porta {b. 1469, d. 1617), a 
 Florentine painter of great repute, better 
 knovsm as Fra Bartolommeo. From study- 
 ing the works of Leonardo da Vinci in his 
 house near the Porta San Pietro he obtained 
 the sobriquet, ' ' della Porta. ' ' He there exe- 
 cuted the frescoes of the Last Judgment, 
 which were afterwards finished by his friend 
 Albertinelli. Coming under the influence 
 of Savonarola, he was so affected by the 
 cruel death of the great preacher that he 
 entered the convent of Prato in 1500 as a 
 Dominican monk. For four years he aban- 
 doned painting, and when he resumed, in 
 obedience to the superiors of his Order, he 
 devoted himself entirely to religious sub- 
 jects. His fame spread rapidly, and drew 
 to him young Raphael, the two painters 
 exercising a great influence over each other. 
 Baccio visited Rome, and returning to the 
 convent, produced his chef d^ceuvre, St. 
 Mark. His artistic power was increasing 
 when he died at the early age of 48. His 
 St. Feter and his St. Faul were finished by 
 RaphaeL 
 
 Bacli, Alexander, Baron {b. 1813), 
 Austrian statesman, a member of the 
 Vienna bar, figured in the revolutionary 
 movement of 1848, and became minister of 
 justice in the first liberal cabinet, in which 
 position he occupied himself with judicial 
 reforms. By supporting the veto of the 
 Crown he lost his popularity, and was 
 driven to flight by insurrection. Later he 
 occupied other ministerial posts, and from 
 1859 to 1865 he was plenipotentiary to the 
 Vatican. 
 
 Bach, Johann Christian (fi. 1735, d. 
 1782), eleventh and youngest son of Sebas- 
 tian; when 19 years of age went to 
 Milan, where he was appointed organist in 
 the cathedral. In 1762 he came to London, 
 made a considerable reputation as a com- 
 poser and player, and was appointed organist 
 and composer to the queen. Intemperate 
 habits finally undermined his constitution, 
 and he died in London. 
 
 Bach, Johann Christoph {b. 1732, d. 
 1795), ninth son of Sebastian; like his 
 brother, abandoned law for music, and 
 obtained the post of kapellmeister to the 
 Duke of Schaumberg-Lippe. 
 
 Bach, Johann Sebastian (b. 1685, d. 
 1750), the greatest of a large family of dis- 
 tinguished musicians. When he was ten 
 years of age his father died, and he went to 
 live at Ordruff with his brother, who placed 
 great obstacles in the way of his musical 
 studies. On the death of this brother young 
 Bach earned a livelihood at Liineberg by
 
 Bac 
 
 (83) 
 
 Bac 
 
 singing. He devoted himself entirely to 
 music, and when 18 years old appeared 
 at Weimar as a vioUnist. Next year he 
 obtained a post as organist at Amstadt, 
 where his powers of execution began to 
 attract attention, and ia 1708 he returned to 
 Weimar as an organist. Here he first be- 
 came known as a composer, and his fame 
 spread so rapidly that he was appointed 
 kapeUmeister and director of Court con- 
 certs by the Prince of Anhalt-Cothen. 
 Soon afterwards he was induced to chal- 
 lenge Marchand, a French organist of great 
 repute, to a public contest of skill on the 
 organ. Marchand disappeared quietly be- 
 fore the appointed day, but Bach's per- 
 formance gained for him the highest place 
 as a musician. In 1723 he went to 
 Leipzig as director of the school of music 
 of St. Thomas's, a post which he occupied 
 to the end. The Duke of Weissenfels and 
 Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King 
 of Poland, both appointed Bach honorary 
 kapellmeister to their Courts, and iu 1747 
 he was invited by Frederick the Great to 
 Potsdam, where he performed with great 
 eclat. Eetitming to Leipzig, he devoted 
 himself to composition, but too close work 
 brought on cataract of the eyes. Two un- 
 successful operations were performed, and 
 his health rapidly declined. 
 
 Bach, Karl PhiHpp Emanuel {b. 1714, 
 d. 1788), second son of the above, aban- 
 doned law for the study of music, in which 
 he succeeded so well that he was called to 
 Berlin, where Frederick, the Prince Eoyal, 
 made him kapellmeister. After residing in 
 Berlin for 29 years, he succeeded, in 1767, 
 Telemann at Hamburg. 
 
 Bach, Victor [b. 1770, d. 1799), a French 
 revolutionist and physician, and a mem- 
 ber of the Convention. FaUing to realise 
 his pohtical aspirations, he committed 
 suicide. 
 
 Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann (J. 1717, 
 d. 1784), eldest son of Sebastian; aban- 
 doned the law for music, and in 1747 
 became organist in the church of Notre 
 Dame at Halle, a post which he held for 
 20 years. After an unsettled life, he went 
 to Berlin, where he died in penury, brought 
 on by intemperance and indolence. 
 
 Bachaumont, Franqois le Coigneux de 
 (*. 1624, d. 1702), French wit and satirist, 
 famous for his inveterate hostility to Car- 
 dinal Mazarin. A notorious ban vivant, he 
 was converted in later Ufe to serious and 
 religious habits. 
 
 Bachaumont, Louis {d. 1771), a French 
 writer known to the world as the author 
 of Les Memoires Secrets pour servir de 
 VHistoire de la Republique des Lettres, a 
 record of scandal and gossip connected with 
 o2 
 
 Paris celebrities of the day. The work was 
 continued by others. 
 
 Bache, Alexander Dallas {b. 1806, d. 1867), 
 distinguished American scientist, and a 
 great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin, 
 graduated at West Point, and became a 
 lieutenant of engineers. From 1827 to 1836 
 he was mathematical professor at Pennsyl- 
 vania University, and then, being appointed 
 president of the projected Girard College, 
 he went to Europe to examine and report 
 upon the educational systems of various 
 countries. In 1843 he was appointed super- 
 intendent of the U.S. coast survey, and 
 his work in this capacity earned for him a 
 great reputation. He occupied several dis- 
 tinguished positions under government, and 
 did much to encourage scientific research. 
 On his death he left $42,000 to the National 
 Academy of Science. 
 
 Bache, Franklin Q). 1792, d. 1864), cousin 
 of above, served as a surgeon in the U.S. 
 army until 1814. He filled the chairs of 
 chemistry in the Franklin Institute of 
 Pennsylvania, and the Jefferson Medical 
 College of Philadelphia, and in 1853 was 
 chosen president of the American Philoso- 
 phical Society. 
 
 Bachelier, Jean Jaques {b. 1724, d. 1805), 
 French painter, who, having obtained 
 wealth by his art, endowed a free school of 
 design, which was opened in 1766, and 
 proved very successful. He introduced the 
 celebrated Sfevres china designs, and was 
 director of the manufactory for over 40 years. 
 
 Bachelot de la Pylair, Auguste Jean 
 Marie (b. 1786, d. 1856), French naturalist 
 and conchologist, travelled through Asia 
 and America in the pursuit of his favourite 
 studies, and returned with a splendid collec- 
 tion of plants and shells, which he presented 
 to the Paris natural history museum. 
 
 Bachelu, Gilbert Desir^ Joseph {b. Ylll, 
 d. 1849), a French soldier, and officer of the 
 Legion of Honour, served with distinc- 
 tion in many of the Napoleonic campaigns, 
 rising to the rank of lieutenant-general in 
 1813. He joined Napoleon on his escape 
 from Elba, and fought at Quatre Bras and 
 Waterloo. After the second restoration he 
 was banished, but in 1817 he was recalled, 
 and later in Mf e became a deputy. 
 
 Bachman, John (b. 1790, d. 1874), 
 American clergyman, author, find man of 
 science, in 1815 became pastor of the German 
 Lutheran church at Charlestown, a post 
 which he filled till his death. He colla- 
 borated with Audubon in the production 
 of The Birds of America, and was chiefiy 
 responsible for The Quadrupeds of America. 
 
 Bachmann, Jaques Joseph Antoine Leger, 
 Baron de {b. 1733, d. 1792), a Swiss of high
 
 Bac 
 
 (84> 
 
 Bac 
 
 lineage, who entered the French service and 
 became commander of the famous Swiss 
 guards in Paris. He defended the king 
 with great gallantry against the revolution- 
 ary mob in 1 792 ; but being taken prisoner, 
 he was guillotined. 
 
 Baciccio {b. 1639, d. 1709), more pro- 
 perly, Giovanni Battista Gauli : an Italian 
 painter, bom in Genoa, went to Rome when 
 still a boy, and was fortunate in attracting 
 the interest of influential persons. His first 
 picture gave him a reputation, and after 
 executing commissions for Prince Pamfili, 
 he was permitted by Alexander VII. to 
 luidertake the decoration of the Chiesa di 
 Gesu. On this work, which occupied five 
 years, the reputation of the painter mainly 
 rests, although it by no means exhausted 
 his genius and industry. 
 
 Baciocclii, Maria Anna Eliza (b. 1777, d. 
 1820), eldest sister of Napoleon the Great, 
 secretly married Felix Pascal Baciocchi, 
 a captain of infantry of good birth. While 
 he served with the army, securing rapid 
 promotion, she resided in Paris, where her 
 salons were celebrated for their brilliance. 
 When Napoleon became Emperor, he created 
 for her the principality of Piombino and 
 Lucca ; and in 1809 made her Grand Duchess 
 of Tuscany. On the fall of the Empire she 
 and her husband left Italy, and she died at 
 Trieste. 
 
 Back, Sir George (b. 1796, d. 1878), an 
 English Arctic explorer, entered the royal 
 navy in 1808; was taken prisoner in 
 the French war, and did not recover his 
 freedom for five years. In 1818 he volun- 
 teered to accompany Franklin in the Trent, 
 and in the following year he took part in 
 Franklin's land expedition from Hudson's 
 Bay to the Coppermine river. He rendered 
 distinguished services, in the face of the 
 greatest hardships, and in 182o he again 
 accompanied Franklin on an Arctic expedi- 
 tion, and again with distinction to himself. 
 In 1833 he took command of an expedition 
 to relieve Sir John Boss, and, although 
 unsuccessful, he made several valuable dis- 
 coveries. On his return, in 1835, he was 
 made post-captain, and in 1836 he set out 
 on yet another Arctic expedition, returning 
 in the following year. In 1837 he was 
 knighted, and in 1859 he was made a rear- 
 admiral. He left a legacy for the advance- 
 ment of Ai'ctic exploration. 
 
 Backhusen (or Backhuysen), Ludolph (b. ' 
 1631, d. 1709), a famous Butch marine 
 painter. Among many celebrated visitors to 
 his studio were Prince Frederick of Prussia 
 and Peter the Great. 
 
 Bacon, Anne (6. 1528, d. 1600), the daugh- 
 ter of Sii' Anthony Cooke, an eminent 
 scholar, the wife of Sir Nicholas Bacon, and 
 
 the mother of Francis Bacon. Her corre- 
 spondence with her son possesses much 
 interest. 
 
 Bacon, Anthony {b. 1558, d. 1601), elder 
 brother of Francis Bacon ; went to France, 
 acting as a semi-official agent for Bur- 
 leigh, and his wit and learning gained for 
 him the intimacy of men of influence and 
 note. On his recall he became secretary to 
 the Earl of Essex, and entered the House of 
 Commons. 
 
 Bacon, Delia (b. 1811, d. 1859), known as 
 a supporter of the theory of the Baconian 
 authorship of Shakespeare's plays. 
 
 Bacon, Francis {b. 1561, d. 1626), Baron 
 Verulam, and Viscount St. Albans, was 
 the eighth child of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the 
 Lord Keeper, his mother, Anne Cooke, being 
 Sir Nicholas's second wife. At 13 he was 
 sent to Cambridge, but though he read 
 widely he did not take a degree; and 
 after three years' residence at the Uni- 
 versity he went to Paris in the suite of 
 Sir Amyas Paulet, Elizabeth's ambassa- 
 dor. His experiences in Paris formed the 
 basis of his treatise, afterwards published, 
 Of the State of Europe. His father dying, 
 he returned to England in 1580, and applied 
 to Lord Burleigh, his uncle on his mother's 
 side, for public employment. Burleigh, 
 however, for his son's sake, was jealous of 
 Bacon, and the disappointed young man 
 turned to the study of law. He next sought 
 and obtained the favour of the Earl 
 of Essex, who unsuccessfully endeavoured 
 to obtain the post of attorney-general for 
 him, and who befriended him in many ways. 
 In 1590 he became counsel extraordinary to 
 the queen, and having entered Parliament 
 he took a prominent part in its debates, and 
 greatly offended the queen by opposing the 
 Court on the question of subsidies. When 
 Essex was tried for treason in 1600, 
 Bacon took an active part in the prose- 
 cution of his friend and patron. On the 
 accession of James I. his promotion 
 became more rapid. He was knighted 
 in 1603, and secured the hand of a rich 
 alderman's daughter; he became Solicitor 
 General in 1607, Eegistrar of the Court of 
 Star Chamber in 1608, and Attorney General 
 in 1613. Three boroughs now simultaneously 
 returned him to Parliament, and although 
 custom forbade an attorney-general to sit in 
 the House, a special exception was made in 
 his behalf. He strongly supported the king's 
 schemes for the union of En.'^land and Scot- 
 land, and, indeed, showed great subserviency 
 both to the Crown and Buckingham, his 
 conduct in several notorious cases not re- 
 dounding to his credit. In 1617 he became 
 Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and in 1619, 
 Lord Chancellor, with the title of Baron 
 Verulam, being created Viscount St. Albana
 
 Bac 
 
 (85) 
 
 Bad 
 
 in the following year. In 1621 Parliament 
 instituted an inquiry into the state of the 
 Bench, with the result that Eacon was im- 
 peached for taking bribes. He confessed, 
 with qualifications, to 23 acts of corruption 
 charged against him, and was sentenced to 
 a hoavy fine, imprisonment during the king's 
 
 Eleasure, and deprivation of all rights to 
 old oifice or sit in Parliament. The fine 
 was remitted, the imprisonment lasted but 
 two days, he was summoned to the next 
 Parliament, though he did not appear, he 
 was allowed to return to Court, and his 
 titles were not taken from him. He retired 
 from public life, drawing a pension of £1,200, 
 and, still visited by men of leading, he de- 
 voted himself to Uterature and science. He 
 died, from the effects of a chill, in 1626, at 
 the Earl of ArundeFs house at Highgate. 
 Controversy has never ceased to rage on 
 Bacon's conduct in public life, and he has 
 not lacked many able apologists. Among his 
 many great works mention must be made 
 of the Essays Q.b^l), Advancement of Learn- 
 ing (1605), Novum Organum (1620), History 
 of the JReign of Henry VII. (1622), and De 
 Augmentis Scientiarum (1623). 
 
 Bacon, John (d. 1346), an English monk 
 (generally known as Baconthorp) of great 
 erudition, became principal of the Car- 
 mehtes, and was the leader of the followers 
 of Averrhoes. 
 
 Bacon, John, E.A. {b. 1740, d. 1799), an 
 English sculptor, gained a prize from the 
 Society of Arts when only 18, and secured 
 niue other first prizes afterwards. A student 
 at the Eoyal Academy, he took the first gold 
 medal for sculpture in 1769, and ia 1770 he 
 obtained publicity and the patronage of the 
 king by his statue of Mars. 
 
 Bacon, Sir Nicolas (*. 1510, d. 1579), Lord 
 Keeper of the Great Seal to Elizabeth, studied 
 at Cambridge, where he began his friend- 
 ship with Lord Burleigh, and after visiting 
 France, took up the profession of the law. 
 He obtained the favour of Henry VIII. , and 
 was appointed Attorney of the Court of 
 Wards, a post which he held until the ac- 
 cession of Mary. Elizabeth made him a 
 member of the Privy Council, and Lord 
 Keeper of the Great Seal in 1558, and 
 showed many other marks of her favour and 
 confidence. He offended the queen by his 
 attitude on the question of the succession, 
 but by Burleigh's influence was soon re- 
 stored to favour, and in 1568 presided over 
 the Commission for investigating the charge 
 against Mary Queen of Scots of murdering 
 her husband. In 1577 Elizabeth visited him 
 at his residence in Hertfordshire. 
 
 Bacon, Phanuel (A. 1700, d. 1783), an 
 English clergyman and dramatist, who ob- 
 tained some celebrity in his day. 
 
 Bacon, Roger {b. 1214, d. 1292), an 
 English monk and scientific investigator, 
 studied at Oxford and Paris, where he 
 graduated in theology, and in 1240 entered 
 the order of Franciscans, settling at Oxford. 
 A man of wide erudition, he devoted hinaseLf 
 to physical science, in which he made many 
 remarkable discoveries. He created enmity 
 by his demands for reform among the 
 clergy, and was accused of sorcery, with 
 the result that he was forbidden to teach 
 in the university and was practically out- 
 lawed. The Papal Legate in England 
 became interested in Bacon, and on his 
 elevation to the Papal chair as Clement 
 IV., sent for his works, notwithstanding 
 the prohibition against them which the 
 superiors of the Franciscan Order had is- 
 sued. Bacon sent the Upus Majus, the 
 Opus Minus, and the Opus Tertiuin, and 
 some scientific instruments; but Clement 
 soon after died, and again Bacon was ac- 
 cused of sorcery, this time at Paris before 
 Jerome d'Esculo, General of the Franciscan 
 Order. He went to Paris to answer the 
 charge : but his works were condemned, and 
 he was imprisoned for 10 years. When 
 liberated, through the intercession of in- 
 fluential English nobles, his health was 
 shattered, and he died in England in the 
 following year. His works are very numer- 
 ous, displaying both the greatest eriidition 
 and sagacity and strange credulity and 
 superstition. 
 
 Bacsanyl, John Q>. 1763, d. 1845), Hun- 
 garian patriot and poet, helped to found 
 the first literary review in Hungary, but 
 the venture was suppressed and he was 
 imprisoned for conspiracy. During Napo- 
 leon's occupation of Vienna he had to fly 
 from France for his advocacy of the national 
 cause. 
 
 Badajos, Juan de, a Spanish architect, 
 bom in the latter part of the 12th century, 
 who, among other works, helped in the pre- 
 paration of plans for Salamanca cathedral. 
 
 BadaloccMo, Sisto {b. 1581, d. 1647), an 
 Italian paiater and engraver of merit. 
 
 Badby, John {d. 1410), an English martyr 
 and artisan, was burned at the stake as a 
 Lollard. 
 
 Badcock, Samuel (5. 1747, <?. 1788), a man 
 of letters, at first a dissenting minister, 
 joined the Church of England in 1787. 
 He gained a great reputation by a brilliant 
 criticism of a work by Dr. Priestly, and he 
 also joined in the " Rowley " controversy. 
 He was the author of Memoirs of the 
 Wesley Family. 
 
 Baden, Frederick William Louis, Grand 
 Duke of (A. 1826), in 1852 became re- 
 gent, his elder brother being insane, and in
 
 Bad 
 
 (86) 
 
 Bag 
 
 1856 he succeeded to the Duchy, and mar- 
 ried a daughter of William I. of Prussia. 
 He took part in the Franco- German war. 
 In 1855 he banished the Jesuits. 
 
 Baden, Jacob {b. 1735, d. 1804), a Danish 
 philologist, filled several high educational 
 posts, wrote much, and founded the Danish 
 Critical Journal. 
 
 Badens, Frans (6. 1571, d. 1603), Dutch 
 painter, celebrated for his portraits and 
 historical pieces. 
 
 Badger, George Percy {b. 1815, d. 1888), a 
 clergyman and orientalist, took orders in 
 1842, and was sent to the East; was ap- 
 pointed government chaplain at Bombay 
 and Aden, and acted as interpreter to 
 diplomatic missions in Arabia, Persia, East 
 Africa and Egypt. He wrote many works 
 on the East. He was made a D.C.L. by the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Badia y Lablich {b. 1766, d. 1818), a 
 Spanish traveller, who, under the name of 
 Ali Bey, and as a true believer, travelled 
 all through the Mohammedan East with- 
 out ever arousing suspicions of his actual 
 identity. He even went to Mecca as a 
 pilgrim, and was received with honour at 
 Constantinople. Returning to Spain, he 
 took service under the French invader, and 
 in 1814 went to Paris, where he published 
 the account of his travels. Proceeding 
 again to the East under another name, he 
 died at Aleppo of dysentery or poison. 
 
 Badie, Louis Augustin de la {b. 1696, d. 
 1765), a French soldier who fought with 
 distinction in the War of Succession. He 
 served last in Germany in 1761, and was 
 then created field marshal. 
 
 Badius, Conrad, son of Jodocus Badius, 
 and also a printer. Religious persecution 
 drove him from Paris to Geneva. 
 
 Badius, Jodocus {b. 1462, d. 1535), one 
 of the first of French printers, learnt the 
 process of printing in Italy, and set up in 
 Lyons in 1491 as a printer and teacher of 
 Greek and Latin. Later he went to Paris, 
 where he printed many of the classics. 
 
 Baeck, Abraham {b. 1713, d. 1795), a 
 Swedish physician and naturalist, tra- 
 velled in Germany, England and France, 
 acquired considerable reputation, and finally 
 was appointed Royal physician. He wrote 
 many valuable treatises on natural history. 
 
 Baehr, Johann Christian Felix {b. 1789, 
 d. 1872), a German philologist, occupied 
 several high educational posts, edited many 
 Greek classics, and wrote much on historical 
 and philological questions. 
 
 Baer, Karl Ernst von (b. 1792, d. 
 1876), a Russian scientist, took a medical 
 
 degree, and practised in Vienna, but soon 
 abandoned medicine for natural science. 
 He held professorial chairs at Konigs- 
 berg, and devoted himself to the study 
 of embryology, on which he became a 
 great authority. In 1834 he was appointed 
 librarian of the St. Petei-sburg academy 
 of science, and in 1851 he undertook an 
 investigation of Russian fisheries on behalf 
 of the government. He has made many 
 valuable contributions to scientific litera- 
 ture. 
 
 Baert, Alexander Balthasar Francois de 
 Paule, Baron de {b. 1750, d. 1825), a French 
 geographer who spent many years in Eng- 
 land, Russia and Spain, was a member of 
 the legislative assembly, and fled to the 
 United States during the Reign of Terror. 
 He wrote several books on geography and 
 history. 
 
 Baffin, WilHam {b. 1584, d. 1622), 
 an English Arctic explorer, accompanied 
 Captain James Hall on his fom-th Arctic 
 voyage in 1612 ; in 1614 he joined an ex- 
 pedition to Spitsbergen, and in 1615 he set 
 out in the Discovery to fijid the north-west 
 passage, the attempt being renewed the next 
 year. Though unsuccessful, Baffin pene- 
 trated farther north than any navigator 
 before him, and published charts and jour- 
 nals of the voyages. He was killed at the 
 siege of Ormuz. 
 
 Baffo, a Venetian lady of the 15th cen- 
 tury, who, taken prisoner by pirates, came 
 under the notice of Sultan Amurath III., 
 and became his favourite wife, bearing him 
 Mohammed III. She exercised a great 
 influence over both her husband and her 
 son, and earned for herself the surname 
 Sajie, or " the Pure." 
 
 Bagard, Caesar {b. 1639, d. 1709), aFrench 
 sculptor, known as "le grand Csesar." A 
 large part of his work is to be found in the 
 churches of Nancy, his native tovm. 
 
 Bage, Robert (fi. 1728, <;. 1801), an Eng- 
 lish novelist ; originally a paper maker, his 
 want of success induced him to turn to 
 fiction, in which he exhibited such talent 
 that Sir Walter Scott wrote his biography. 
 
 Bageliot, Walter {b. 1826, d. 1877), 
 economist and writer ; educated at London, 
 took a distinguished London degree, and 
 having been called to the bar, undertook the 
 management of his father's bank at Lang- 
 port. While thus engaged he contributed 
 brilliant essays to periodicals, and wrote 
 several works on politics and economics, of 
 which the chief are Lombard Street and The 
 English Constitution. For the last seven- 
 teen years of his life he edited the Economist. 
 
 j Bagettl, Giuseppe Pietro (*. 1764, d.
 
 Bag 
 
 (87) 
 
 Bah 
 
 1831), a landscape painter, who, in 1807, 
 was commissioned at Paris to execute a 
 series of water-colour di-awings of French 
 victories. 
 
 Bagford, John {b. 1650, d. 1716), a shoe- 
 maker of slender education, who devoted 
 himself to collecting literary curiosities, old 
 prints, etc. , in which he became a couuois- 
 seur. His large collection was bought by 
 Lord Oxford, and is now in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 Bagge, Jakob {b. 1499), a Swedish ad- 
 miral, after serving on laud under Gus- 
 tavus Vasa, entered the navy, and in 
 1555 commanded an expedition against the 
 Russians with entire success. He defeated 
 the Danes at Bamholme, but was taken 
 prisoner in 1564, and died in confinement. 
 
 Bagger, Johann {b. 1646, d. 1693), a 
 Danish scholar and divine, after being pro- 
 fessor of Oriental languages at the Lund 
 university, was created Bishop of Zea- 
 land when only 29 years old. He revised 
 the rites of the Lutheran Church, and wrote 
 much in Danish and Latin. 
 
 Baggessen, Zeus (6. 1764, d. 1826), a 
 Danish man of letters whose lyric verse 
 gained him a reputation in Copenhagen, 
 which he left in 1788 for Germany, after- 
 wards travelling much in Switzerland and 
 France. While abroad he wrote in the 
 German language with great success. 
 
 Baggowoth (d. 1812), a Russian general 
 who held high command in the army duiing 
 the war with France, under the Empire. 
 He distinguished himself in several battles, 
 and was killed in action. 
 
 Baglioni, Giovanni (b. 1594, d. 1664), 
 an Italian painter of note, was decorated 
 by Paul v., and wrote the Lives of the 
 Roman Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, 
 from 1572 to 1642. 
 
 Baglioni, Giovanni Paolo (d. 1520), an 
 Italian condottiere, who served under Caesar 
 Borgia, and afterwards ■n'ith the Venetians, 
 being taken prisoner by the Spaniards at the 
 battle of Vicenza. He met his death through 
 the treachery of Leo X. 
 
 Baglivl, Giorgio {b. 1669, d. 1707), an 
 eminent Italian physician, who initiated a 
 great advance in medical science by aban- 
 doning the old idea that the seat of disease 
 was invariably to be found in the fluids of 
 the system. 
 
 Bagnacavallo, Bartolomeo {h. 1484, d. 
 1542), a Bolognese painter, who studied 
 under Raphael, and assisted that master in 
 painting the Loggie at the Vatican. 
 
 Bagoas, one of the eunuchs of Herod 
 
 the Great, who was put to death for com- 
 plicity ia the conspiracy of the Pharisees. 
 
 Bagot, Lewis {b. 1740, d. 1802), an 
 English divine and theological writer, was 
 successively Dean of Christchurch and 
 Bishop of Bristol, Norwich, and St. Asaph. 
 
 Bagratlon, Peter, Prince {b. 1765, d. 
 1812), a Russian general of great distinc- 
 tion, who entered the army as a common 
 sergeant in 1782. He held high command 
 imder Suwarrow in Poland, Italy, and 
 Switzerland, and fought with distinction in 
 the campaign of 1805, against the French. 
 After occupying Finland in 1808, he con- 
 ducted a successful campaign against the 
 Turks. He died from a wound received at 
 Borodino. 
 
 Bagshaw, Edward {d. 1662), an English 
 lawyer, political writer, and member of the 
 Long Parliament. At first an active op- 
 ponent of Charles, he afterwards went over 
 to the king, and suffered imprisonment for 
 his defection. 
 
 Bahadur Khan Farookhy, the last of the 
 Farookhy dynasty, succeeded his father, in 
 1596, in the government of Khandlish. In 
 1599 he was besieged by the Emperor 
 Akbar in the fortress of Aseergurh, and 
 being taken prisoner, Khandlish was ab- 
 sorbed in the Mogul empire. 
 
 Bahadur Khan Geelany (d. 1494), a 
 viceroy of the Bahmuny dominions in the 
 Deccan, endeavoured to throw off his 
 allegiance to Mahmood Shah Bahmimy II., 
 and was killed in battle while fighting 
 against that ruler. 
 
 Bahadur Nizam Shah {b. 1593), King 
 of Ahmednugger, in the Deccan, and last 
 of his fine, was an infant when he 
 came to the throne, and when the state 
 was absorbed into the Mogul empire, 
 five years later, by the Emperor Akbar, 
 Bahadur was taken prisoner, and lost to 
 history. 
 
 Bahadur Shah {b. 1505, d. 1537), King 
 of Guzerat, succeeded Muzuffu Khan in 
 1526, and was at once met by a revolt of 
 Madool Moolk, the grand vizier, whom he 
 defeated and executed. For some year she 
 was continually and successfully at war 
 with neighbouring potentates, and repulsed 
 a formidable Portuguese expedition sent to 
 capture the island of Diu. Being defeated 
 in a war against the Emperor of Delhi, he 
 was driven from his kingdom, which, how- 
 ever, he shortly recovered. In 1536 the 
 Portuguese sent a second expedition against 
 Diu, and Bahadur, while visiting the Portu- 
 guese admiral on board ship, was treacher- 
 ously killed. 
 
 Bahadur Shah {b. 1641, d. 1712), Emperor
 
 Bah 
 
 (88) 
 
 Bai 
 
 of Delhi; on the death of the Emperor 
 Aurimgzeeb, Bahadur and his two brothers 
 all strove for the succession. The latter 
 were defeated and killed, but their ad- 
 herents were treated with great leniency. 
 After driving back the Sikh invasion of 
 1712, Bahadur died at Lahore. 
 
 Balilole Khan, a Mahometan general of 
 the sixteenth centur}', who commanded the 
 armies first of the King of Ahmeduugger, 
 and afterwards of the King of Beejapoor. 
 When Aurungzeeb conquered the latter 
 kingdom, he was one of the regents. 
 
 Baliram, a Persian general who, in the 
 reign of Hormus IV., defeated 400,000 
 Turks, who had crossed the Oxus under the 
 Great Khan, with only 12,000 men. Pro- 
 voked by the ingi'atitude of Hormus, Bah- 
 rain revolted, put out the king's eyes, and 
 drove his son to exile. He was, in turn, 
 driven to flight by the Romans, and soon 
 after poisoned. 
 
 Bahrain I., King of Persia {d. 277) ; fourth 
 of the dynasty of Sassau ; and son and suc- 
 cessor of Hormus a.d. 274. 
 
 Bahram II. (d. 294), son of preceding, 
 but xinlike his father, a bad and hated ruler, 
 was at war with Rome, under the Emperor 
 Cams, whose death alone prevented the loss 
 of his dominions. 
 
 Bahram V. {d. 442) succeeded to the 
 Persian throne in 421 ; repulsed an invasion 
 of the Turks, and extracted favourable 
 terms of peace from Brome, with whom he 
 had been at war. 
 
 Bahrdt, Karl Friedrich (5. 1741, d. 1792), 
 a German professor and free-thinker, held 
 several professorial chairs, but he had to 
 abandon them on account of his extreme 
 opinions and nrregular life. His works being 
 condemned in Germany, he went to Prussia, 
 where he suffered a year's imprisonment. 
 
 Baiardi, Ottavio Antoine {b. 1690, d. 
 1765), an Italian priest, who, by command 
 of Charles III. of Naples, undertook in 
 1714 the record of the Herculaneum dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 Baladur, Abulghazi {b. 1605, d. 1663), a 
 Tartar Khan, and the compiler of a genea- 
 logical history of the Tartars. 
 
 Baier, .Tohann Jakob (b. 1677, d. 1735), a 
 German physician and naturalist, was 
 professor of surgery and physiology at 
 Altdorf, and president of the imperial 
 academy of natural history. 
 
 Baif, Jean Antoine (jb. 1532, d. 1589), 
 French scholar and musician, and founder 
 of the academy of poetry and music. 
 
 BaiMe, William Balfour {J>. 1825, d. 
 
 1864), doctor and explorer; after serving in 
 the navy, he was appointed surgeon and 
 naturalist to the Niger expedition of 1854. 
 The command devolved upon him, by 
 death, and he led the expedition 250 miles 
 higher than had ever before been reached. 
 In 1857 he led another expedition, when 
 he was wrecked, and deserted up-river ; 
 whereupon he founded and governed a 
 native settlement. 
 
 BaU, Charles Joseph (b. 1777, d. 1827), a 
 French writer and soldier ; in 1807 he was 
 commissioned by Napoleon vdth the organ- 
 isation of Westphalia as a model state on 
 revolutionary principles, and afterwards he 
 became inspector of reviews. He edited 
 the Correspondence of Bernadotte with 
 Napoleon, and wrote on historical and 
 political subjects. 
 
 Bailey, Jacob Whitman {h. 1811, d. 1857), 
 an American scientist, became in 1838 
 professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and 
 geology at West Point. 
 
 Bailey, Nathan {d. 1742), an English 
 lexicographer, whose dictionary was the 
 standard work before Johnson's. 
 
 Bailey, Philip James {b. 1816), an English 
 poet, whose fame rests mainly on one work, 
 Festus, a poem which attracted the greatest 
 attention and the highest praise. 
 
 Bailey, Samuel (b. 1787, d. 1870), an 
 English philosopher, whose chief works are 
 The Formation and Publication of Opinions, 
 The Pursuit of Truth and the Progress of 
 Knowledge, and The Theory of Reasoning. 
 
 Baillarger, Jules Gabriel Francois {b. 
 1806), an eminent French physician ; in 
 1842 he gained the Academy of Medicine 
 prize for the best essay on mental disease, and 
 helped to institute the 3Iedico-Physical 
 Annals of the Nervous System. 
 
 Baillet, Adrien {b. 1649, d. 1706), a French 
 writer of great erudition, and author 
 of Les Jugements des Savane. He took 
 orders, and afterwards became librarian to 
 M. Lamoignon. 
 
 Baillie, Grisell, Lady {b. 1665, d. 1746), 
 the daughter of Sir Patrick Hume, who 
 was concerned in the Rye House Plot, 
 bravely tended her father while he was in 
 hiding, and behaved with the greatest de- 
 votion while the family was in exile in 
 Holland. After the revolution her father 
 was created Earl of Marchmont, and she 
 married George Baillie, a fellow exile and 
 Scot. She died in Scotland. 
 
 Baillie, Joanna (J. 1762, d. 1851), a 
 dramatic vrriter, greatly esteemed in her 
 own day, bom in Scotland, came to London 
 as a young woman, and having written
 
 Bai 
 
 (89) 
 
 Bai 
 
 poems anonymously, she putlished in 1798 
 the first series of Plays of the Passions, 
 and the second iu 1802. One of these 
 plays John Kemble produced at Drury 
 Lane. Other dramas followed, of which 
 The Family Legend was the most popu- 
 lar, and was produced with success ia 
 Edinburgh and London. Besides her many 
 tragedies and comedies. Miss Baillie wrote 
 numerous songs, and a series of Metrical 
 Legends. Her works were highly praised 
 by Sir "Walter Scott, with whose friendship 
 she was honoured. 
 
 Baillie, John {b. 1772, d. 1833), a dis- 
 tinguished servant of the East India Com- 
 pany, and professor of Persian, Arabic, and 
 Mahometan law at Fort William. After 
 filliug various posts of honour, he returned 
 to England in 1815, entered Parliament, 
 and became a director of the Company. 
 
 Baillie, Matthew (6. 1761, d. 1823), an 
 eminent physician, brother of Joanna Bail- 
 lie, and nephew of the great Dr. Hunter, 
 with whom he Lived and whose heir he 
 became. He was appointed physician to 
 George III., but refused a baronetcy. He 
 was physician to St. George's Hospital and 
 president of the Royal College of Physicians. 
 
 Baillie, Eobert {h. 1602, d. 1662), a 
 Scottish divine, and principal of Glasgow 
 University, took orders as an Episco- 
 palian but joined the Presbyterians when 
 Charles attempted to force Laud's prayer- 
 book on the Scottish Church, He was one 
 of the Commissioners sent to negotiate with 
 Charles iu 1640. In 1642 he was one of the 
 representatives of the General Assembly of 
 Scotland at the Conference with the West- 
 minster Assembly of divines; and when 
 Charles II. was in Holland he was sent to 
 negotiate with him on behalf of the Scottish 
 people. 
 
 Baillie, Robert {d. 1683), a Scottish gentle- 
 man who suffered much persecution for 
 holding the Presbyterian faith, and who 
 was finally summarily executed for alleged 
 participation ia the Rye House Plot. 
 
 BaUlon, Emmanuel {d. 1802), French 
 ornithologist, botanist, and writer. 
 
 Baillon, Ernest Henri {b. 1827), a French 
 physician and naturalist, in 1864 became 
 professor of medical natural history to the 
 Faculty of Paris, and later, professor of 
 hygiene to the central school of art and 
 manufactures. 
 
 Baillot, Pierre Marie Fran9ois de Sales 
 (6. 1771, d. 1842), a French violinist, a 
 favourite pupil of Viotti, iu 1795 became 
 professor of the violiu at the Conservatoire 
 at Paris, and later visited Russia, Belgium, 
 Hollajid, and England. 
 
 Baillou, Guillaume de (J. 1538, d. 1616), 
 a French physician, distinguished alike for 
 his valuable contributions to medical science, 
 and for his high character. He was elected 
 Dean of the Faculty iu 1580, and in 1601 was 
 appointed by Henry IV. first physician to 
 the Dauphin. 
 
 Bailly, Francis {b. 1774, d. 1844), an emi- 
 nent astronomer, at first a stockbroker, pub- 
 lished some valuable and authoritative works 
 on commercial questions. His spare time 
 was devoted to astronomy, and in 1811 he 
 read before the Royal Society a paper on 
 Solar Eclipse which gained for hirn a high 
 reputation. In 1813 he published his £j9e<w«« 
 of Universal History, and in 1814 he under- 
 took for the Stock Exchange the preparation 
 of evidence on the Berenger frauds. In 1820, 
 by his exertions, the Royal Astronomical 
 Society was founded, and of this he ulti- 
 mately became president. In 1 825 he gave 
 up business and devoted himself entirely to 
 astronomy, publishing many valuable works. 
 He was made an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford 
 and LL.D. of Dublin. 
 
 Bailly, Jean Sylvain (5. 1736, d. 1793), a 
 French scientist, early devoted himself to 
 the study of astronomy, and between 1763 
 and 1771 gained a reputation by the publi- 
 cation of several able memoirs. His History 
 of Astronomy (1779) procured for him the 
 almost unique honour of membership of the 
 Academic Frangaise and the Academie des 
 Inscriptions, as well as the Academie des 
 Sciences. When the revolution broke out he 
 became president of the National Assembly, 
 and in 1791 mayor of Paris. In this position 
 he drew on himself the disfavour of the 
 mob, and having left Paris he was brought 
 back and guillotined. 
 
 Bailly de Juilly, Edme Louis Barthelemy 
 (i. 1760, d. 1819), French revolutionist 
 and secretary of the National Convention. 
 He opposed the execution of the king. 
 
 Bailly de Monthion, Frangois-Gedeon, 
 Count {b. 1776, d. 1846), a French 
 general who served through the campaigns 
 of the first repubhc and of Napoleon. In 
 18; 5 he was made inspector-general of 
 infantry, and in 1837 he was raised to the 
 peerage. 
 
 Baily, Edward Hodges (A. 1788, d. 1867), 
 an EngUsh sculptor and R.A. His great 
 work, Eve at the Fountain, was produced 
 when he was only twenty-five. 
 
 Bain, Alexander (Jb. 1818), a prolific 
 writer on moral and mental philosophy, 
 logic, and psychology, after occupying 
 chairs at the universities of Glasgow, 
 London, and Aberdeen, was elected rector 
 of the latter imiversity. He has wxitten 
 and edited many standard text-books, hia
 
 Bai 
 
 (90) 
 
 Baj 
 
 chief works being The Senses and the In- 
 tellect, and The l^motions and the Will. 
 
 Balnbridge, Christopher {d. 1514), an 
 English churchman, created Archbishop of 
 York in 1508 by Henry VII., was made 
 Cardinal in 1511, and died in Rome while on 
 a missiou from Henry VIII. 
 
 Bainbrldge, John {b. 1582, d. 1643), 
 English astronomer and physician ; his 
 observations of the comet of 1618 obtained 
 for him the newly fomided chair of astro- 
 nomy at Oxford. 
 
 Balnbridge, WUUam {b. 1774, <?. 1833), 
 an American naval officer, who, during the 
 war with Tripoli in 1803, was taken prisoner, 
 and who captured the British frigate Java 
 in 1812. 
 
 Haines, Edward {b. 1774, d. 1848), 
 journalist and politician, from the position 
 of printer on the Leeds Mercury he became 
 the proprietor of the paper, through which 
 he exerted a wide influence. A Liberal and 
 a dissenter, he was returned for Leeds in 
 1834, and retired in 1841. 
 
 Baines, Sir Edward {b. 1809, d. 1890), 
 second son of the preceding, was associated 
 with the Leeds Mercury, and member 
 for Leeds from 1859 to 1874. He inter- 
 ested himself greatly ia popular education 
 and the temperance cause ; was president 
 and founder of the Yorkshire Union of 
 Mechanics Institutes, and wrote several 
 books on industrial subjects. 
 
 Baini, Giuseppe (*. 1776, d. 1844), an 
 Italian priest, musician, and critic ; his chief 
 work is the Historical and Critical Memoir 
 of the Life and Works of Palestrina. 
 
 Balrakdar, Mustapha, Pacha {b. 1755, d. 
 1808), a Turkish private soldier, who was 
 created Pacha of Rustchuk after the 
 Russian war of 1806 ; and when Selim III. 
 was deposed in 1808 by the revolted Janis- 
 saries he marched on Constantinople, de- 
 feated the rebels, and placed SeUm's brother 
 on the throne. He was made grand- vizier ; 
 but in a subsequent revolt of the Janissaiies 
 he blew up his palace in despair. 
 
 Baird, Sir David {b. 1757, d. 1829), a 
 brave and able officer, served with much 
 distinction in India, and received the 
 thanks of Parliament for his conduct at the 
 siege of Seringapatam, where he led the 
 storming party. In 1801 he commanded 
 the Indian forces invading Egypt, and 
 accomplished a splendid march across the 
 desert. Next year he served in the Mah- 
 ratta war, and in 1806 he commanded the 
 expedition to Cape Colony, defeating the 
 Dutch and taking Cape Town. He fought 
 in the Danish war, and afterwards joined 
 
 Sir John Moore in Spain. He lost an arm 
 at Corunna, and on returning to England 
 again received the thanks of Parliament 
 together with a baronetcy. 
 
 Baird, Spencer Fullerton {b. 1823, d. 1887), 
 an American naturalist, in 1850 became 
 assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- 
 tute at Washington, and secretary in 1878, 
 as well as director of the National Museum. 
 He wrote some valuable works on natural 
 history, and in 1871 was appointed Com- 
 missioner of Fish and Fisheries to examine 
 into the failure of the U.S. fisheries. 
 
 Baird, William {b. 1803, d. 1872), a zoo- 
 logist and physician, after practising in 
 London was appointed to the Natural His- 
 tory department of the British Museum, 
 and published The Natural History of the 
 British Entomostraca, and a Cyclopaedia of 
 the Natural Sciences. 
 
 Baireuth, Frederica Sophia Wilhelmina, 
 Margravine of {b. 1709, d. 1758), sister of 
 Frederick the Great, and an unusually gifted 
 woman. She married the Prince of Baireuth 
 in 1731. 
 
 Baius, Michel (jb. 1513, d. 1589), a Dutch 
 divine, and follower of Augustine, whose 
 bold declarations on the questions of free- 
 will and divine grace drew upon him con- 
 demnatory bulls, first from Pius V. and 
 afterwards fi-om Gregory XIII. On both 
 occasions he retracted his objectionable 
 opinions. 
 
 Bajardo, Giovanni Battista {b. _ 1620, d. 
 1657), an Italian painter of religious and 
 historical subjects, whose great promise 
 was disappointed by an early death. 
 
 Bajazet I. {b. 1347, d. 1403), Emperor of 
 the Turks, son of Murad I., whom he 
 succeeded in 1389, began his reign with 
 a series of conquests, crossing the Danube 
 and finally defeating Sigismund of Hungary 
 and his army of 100,000 men. lU health 
 alone prevented him crossing the Alps, and 
 he next turned to the conquest of Constanti- 
 nople. Bought off for the moment, he was 
 diverted from the ultimate accomplishment 
 of his design by war with Tamburlaine the 
 Great, by whom, in 1402, he was totally de- 
 feated and taken prisoner, dying shortly 
 afterwards. 
 
 Bajazet II. {h. 1447, d. 1512), Sultan of the 
 Turks, son of Mahomet II., whom he 
 succeeded in 1481, extended his dominions 
 to the Danube and the Dnieper ; was 
 defeated in Syria by Caid Bey ; but was 
 successful in a war against the Venetians. 
 He was forced to abdicate in 1512 by his 
 son Selim, and died soon afterwards. 
 
 Bajee Rao, Bullal {d. 1740), second 
 Peshwa of the Mahratta State, made
 
 Baj 
 
 (91) 
 
 Bal 
 
 war against the decaying Mogul empire, 
 and led a victorious army to the gates of 
 Delhi, securing the cession of several pro- 
 vinces. He died soon after he had failed in 
 an attempt to conquer the Deccan. 
 
 Bajee Rao, Phasalkur {d. 1660), a Mah- 
 ratta, distinguished for having, together 
 with YessjeeKimk and Tannajee Maloosray, 
 joined Sivajee in his revolt against the 
 Mogul empire imder Aurungzebe. He was 
 killed in battle. 
 
 Bajee Rao, Eughonath IX. {b. 1775, d. 
 1853), last Peshwa of the Mahrattas, 
 succeeded to the title in 1796. His reign 
 was full of intrigue and revolt, and finally 
 he was driven from Poona by the chiefs 
 Holkar and Sindia. Ha^^ng made a treaty 
 vdth the governor of Bombay, he was re- 
 stored by British arms; and then entered 
 upon treacherous schemes for throwing off 
 his dependence on the English. He was 
 defeated in 1817, and having surrendered, 
 was allowed a pension for the rest of his hf e. 
 
 Bajza, Anthon {b. 1804, d. 1858), 
 Hungarian man of letters, vsTote several 
 works and some poems, and in 1848 was 
 placed by Kossuth in the editorial chair of 
 the Kossuth Birlapja. 
 
 Bakacs, Thomas (d. 1521), a Hungarian 
 ecclesiastic of humble birth, who succeeded 
 in becoming first, Archbishop of Gian, and 
 afterwards cardinal. He owed his advance- 
 ment to the f avoirr of King Mathias and his 
 successor, Vladislas. 
 
 Baker, David (6. 1575, d. 1641), a native 
 of Abergavenny, who joined the order of 
 Benedictines, and collected much infor- 
 mation connected with church history. 
 
 Baker, George {d. 1851), an English 
 antiquary and author of the History and 
 Antiquities of Northamptonshire. 
 
 Baker, Sir George (/;. 1722, d. 1809), phy- 
 sician to Queen Charlotte and to George 
 III. , and President of the College of Physi- 
 cians, 1797- He was a friend of Dr. 
 Johnson, and an esteemed author. 
 
 Baker, Henry (6. 1698, d. 1774), man 
 of science and of letters, interested him- 
 self in the education of deaf-mutes, and 
 wrote both poems and scientific treatises. 
 
 Baker, Sir Henry Lorraine (6. 1787, 
 d. 1859), a distinguished naval officer, 
 behaved with great gallantry at the bom- 
 bardment of Flushing (1809), in the Danish 
 war (1811), andinthe American war (1814). 
 
 Baker, John {b. 1660, d. 1716), a naval 
 officer who distinguished himself chiefly at 
 the captui-e of Vigo (1702) and of Gibraltar 
 (1704). 
 
 Baker, Sir John (<?. 1558), Speaker of the 
 House of Commons, Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer to Henry VIII., and one of the 
 trustees for Edward VI. 
 
 Baker, John Gilbert {b. 1854), an emi- 
 nent botanist and writer, curator of the 
 Herbarium at Kew. 
 
 Baker, Sir Richard {b. 1568, d. 1644), 
 grandson of preceding, knighted by James 
 I., was imprisoned in the Fleet for debt, 
 and never regained his liberty. While in 
 prison he wrote Chronicles of the Kings of 
 England, and other works. 
 
 Baker, Sir Samuel White (fi. 1821), wa. 
 African explorer, whose first important ven- 
 ture occurred in 1861, when, accompanied 
 by his wife, he started to meet Speke and 
 Grant. During this perilous journey the 
 Albert Nyanza was discovered, and he was 
 knighted on his return. In 1869 he was en- 
 trusted by the Khedive with the command 
 of an expedition to suppress the slave trade 
 in the Nile basin. He is the author of 
 various books of travel. 
 
 Baker, Thomas (fi. 1625, d. 1690), an 
 English clergyman and mathematician; 
 author of The Geometrical Key. 
 
 Baker, Thomas {b. 1656, d. 1740), an 
 archaeologist and clergyman, who lost his 
 living and a fellowship in the religious 
 persecution of the reign of James II. He 
 wrote much, his Reflections on Learning 
 obtaining great popularity. 
 
 Baker, Valentine, Colonel and Pasha 
 (J). 1831, d. 1887), a brilliant cavalry officer, 
 a brother of Sir Samuel, served in the 
 Kaffir and Crimean wars, but in 1875, 
 having been compelled to leave the British 
 army, he took service with the Sultan of 
 Turkey and distinguished himself in the 
 Russo-Turkish war. In 1882 he took com- 
 mand of the EgiTptian gendarmerie, and 
 fought at both battles of El-Teb against 
 the Mahdists. 
 
 Balaam, a prophet, the son of Beor, 
 dwelling at Pethor, was sent for by Balak, 
 King of the Moabites, to curse the Israelites, 
 on their journey to the promised land. Con- 
 senting, he was met on his way by the angel 
 of the Lord, who made his ass speak words 
 of rebuke; and thrice Balaam's attempts to 
 curse were converted into blessings. He 
 was killed in a battle between the Midianites 
 and Israelites. 
 
 Balard, Antoine Jerome {b. 1802, d. 
 1876), French chemist, the discoverer of 
 bromine, was professor of chemistry in the 
 College of Fi'ance. 
 
 Balard, Marie Franqoise Jacquette Alby 
 {b. 1776, d. 1822), a minor French poetess, 
 popular in her day.
 
 Bal 
 
 (92) 
 
 Bal 
 
 Balazac, Franqois de Branoud, Baron de 
 {d. 1592), a Huguenot, who fought uuder 
 the Prince of Conde, and who was sen- 
 tenced to death after the treaty of peace of 
 1568. He escaped, however, and served 
 afterwards with Heniy of Navarre. 
 
 Balbi, Adrian {b. 1782, d. 1848), a Vene- 
 tian ethnologist and geograplier, whose 
 chief work is nis Ethnological Atlas. 
 
 Balbi, Graspard, a Venetian traveller of 
 the 16th century, who sailed round the 
 Indian peninsula, reaching the kiugdom of 
 Pegu. He wrote an account of his travels. 
 
 Balbinus, Aloysius Bolcolas (J>. 1611, d. 
 1689), a Bohemian Jesuit, who wrote many 
 authoritative works on the history and 
 archaeology of his country. 
 
 Balbinus, Decimus CeHus, a Eoman 
 consul, who was created co-emperor with 
 Marcus Clodius Maximus in a.d. 238. 
 Four months later both were murdered by 
 the revolted soldiery. 
 
 Balbo, Caesare {b. 1789. d. 1853), an 
 Italian litterateur and politician, who served 
 under Napoleon till his fall, when he re- 
 turned to Piedmont. His Htstory of Italy 
 is the chief of many works. 
 
 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de {b. 1475, d. 1517), 
 the discoverer of the Pacific, went from 
 Spain to St. Domingo with Rodrigo de Bas- 
 tidas, and thence, to escape his creditors, to 
 Darien with Enciso in 1510. Deposing En- 
 ciso, he ruled the colony for some years with 
 great ability, and then, instigated by na- 
 tive stories of the wealth of Peru, he crossed 
 the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, discovering 
 the Pacific Ocean. Eeturning to Darien in 
 1514, he was superseded by Pedrariaz 
 Davila, who displayed the greatest enmity 
 to him, and although the great explorer 
 married his daughter, Pedrariaz executed 
 him three years later on an old charge. 
 
 Balbuena, Bamardo de {h. 1568, d. 1627), 
 a Spanish poet, who lived many years in 
 Jamaica as a priest, and afterwards in 
 Mexico as Bishop of Puerto Rico. 
 
 Balbus, Cornelius, a Spaniard, living in 
 the tii-st century B.C. He was made civis 
 Momanus by Pompey, afterwards joined 
 Caesar, and finally, by the favour of Octa- 
 vius, was appointed to the highest offices. 
 
 Balchen, Sir John {b. 1669, d. 1744), a 
 British admiral, was taken prisoner in an 
 encounter with the French fleet in 1707, 
 served in the Spanish war, and in 1744, 
 while in command of a fleet against the 
 French, his ship foundered on the Caskets 
 off Aldemey. 
 
 Baldasseronl, Pompeo (d. 1807), an 
 Italian j urist, who wrote several authorita- 
 tive works on law, filled several judicial 
 offices, and attained the rank of count. 
 
 Balde, Jakob {b. 1603, d. 1668), a German 
 Jesuit, a popular preacher and an accom- 
 plished writer of Latin verses. 
 
 Balderic {d. 1130), a French monk, noted 
 as a poet and historian. As Abbot of 
 BourgueU and Bishop of Dol, he endea- 
 voured to reform monastic hf e. 
 
 Baldi, Bernardino {b. 1553. d. 1617), an 
 Italian monk of great erudition, at the 
 age of twenty- six was widely versed in 
 literature and the sciences, and before he 
 died had perfect command of twelve lan- 
 guages. He was a voluminous writer. 
 
 Baldl, Lazaro {b. 1623, d. 1703), an 
 Italian painter and distinguished colourist. 
 He painted the gallery of Slonte CavaUo. 
 
 Baldinger, Ernst Gottfried {b. 1738, d. 
 1804), a German physician, and the author 
 of eighty-four works, served as physician 
 in the Prussian army through the Seven 
 Years' war, and later occupied professorial 
 chairs, finally undertaking the organisation 
 of the university of Marburg. 
 
 Baldini, Giovanni Antonio, H Conte 
 {b. 1654, d. 1725), an Italian nobleman and 
 diplomatist of erudition, travelled through 
 western Europe, and was elected F.R.S. in 
 England. 
 
 Baldock, Ralph de {d. 1313), an English 
 priest of humble birth, who became Bishop 
 of London and Chancellor to Edward I. 
 He was renowned for his learning. 
 
 Balducci, Francesco {d. 1642), an Italian 
 anacreontic poet, who, in the course of 
 a changeful life, was both soldier and 
 priest. 
 
 Baldwin, Thomas (d. 1191), an English 
 monk who was made Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in 1184. He crovroed Richard I., 
 preached the Crusade through Wales, and 
 accompanied Richard to the Holy Land. 
 
 Baldwin, William, a scholar, printer, 
 and poet of the sixteenth century, who is 
 associated with the writing and publication 
 of TJie Mirrour for Magistrates. 
 
 Baldwin I., Bras de Fer, Count of Flan- 
 ders {b. 837, d. 879) ; he fought against 
 Ciiarles the Bald in his war with Lothaire, 
 but becoming reconciled to him, married 
 his daughter, and was made first Count of 
 Flanders. 
 
 Baldwin IV. {d. 1067). He extended the 
 Flemish dominions, gave his daughter Ma- 
 tilda in marriage to William the Conqueror, 
 and accompanied him in his invasion of 
 England.
 
 Bal 
 
 (93) 
 
 Bal 
 
 Baldwin I. (b. 1171, d. 1205), Emperor 
 of Coustantiuople and hereditary Count 
 of Flanders, joined in the fouith Crusade, 
 and when Constantinople was taken he was 
 proclaimed king. The Greeks, aided by 
 John, King of the Bulgarians, overthrew 
 him at Adrianople, and he died in 
 prison. 
 
 Baldwin II., nephew of the preceding, 
 succeeded his brother in 1228. Under him 
 Constantinople was twice besieged, and 
 finally taken by Michael Palaeologus, and 
 Baldwin fled to Italy (1261). 
 
 Baldwin I. (b. 1058, d. 1118), protector of 
 the Holy Sepulchre, and King of Jerusalem 
 in 1100, was driven from his throne in 
 1102 by the Saracens, but regained it and 
 added to his dominions. 
 
 Baldwin II. {d. 1131), cousin and suc- 
 cessor of the preceding, was taken prisoner 
 by the Saracens (1124), but regained his 
 liberty after two years, and succeeded in 
 conquering a large part of Syria. Abdi- 
 cated in 1131. 
 
 Baldwin IIL (S. 1130, d. 1162), son of 
 Foulgues of Aujou, succeeded the preceding 
 in 1143, and died at Tripoli. 
 
 Baldwin IV. (5. 1160, <;. 1185), surnamed 
 " the Leper, " After varying fortunes in the 
 struggle against the Saracens, he was com- 
 pelled, by advancing disease, to delegate the 
 control of his dominions to Guy de Lusignan, 
 and the subsequent victories of his enemies 
 drove him to seek aid from the Western 
 powers. 
 
 Baldwin V. (d. 1185), nephew and suc- 
 cessor of the preceding, after a short reign 
 of seven months died, as is supposed, by 
 poison, administered by his mother, who 
 wished to obtain the throne for her husband, 
 Guy de Lusignan. 
 
 Bale, John (i. 1495, d. 1563), Bishop of 
 Ossory, a writer, and an active convert to 
 the Reformation. In the reigns of Henry 
 VIII. and Mary he fled to the Continent, 
 but he occupied positions in the Church 
 under Edwai-d VI. and Elizabeth. He 
 wrote 19 miracle-plays and a book of Bri- 
 tish biography. 
 
 Balechon, Jean Jacques Nicolas (b. 1715, 
 d. 1765), a French engraver of note, who 
 engraved the portrait of Augustus, King of 
 Poland, for the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 Balen, Hcndrik van (b. 1560, d. 1632), a 
 Dutch historical painter, who excelled in 
 depicting the nude. 
 
 Balfe, Michael William (b. 1808, d. 1870), 
 musical composer, as a boy showed great 
 
 musical talent, and at the age of 16, coming 
 to London, he was engaged in the Drury 
 Lane orchestra. While there he attracted 
 the attention of an Italian nobleman, Count 
 Mazzara, who took him to Italy to study 
 music. After singing at Paris in the Italian 
 Opera under Rossini, Balfe returned to 
 Italy and produced in 1830 several operas. 
 In 1835 he came to England as a vocalist 
 and composer of opera, and after five yeara 
 of successful composition he produced two 
 operas in Paris. In 1844 his most popular 
 work, I7ie Bohemian Girl, appeared at 
 Drury Lane, to be followed by several other 
 operas before the fertility of Balfe's genius 
 was checked by a fatal attack of bronchitis. 
 
 Balfour, Arthur James (b. 1848), 
 statesman, educated at Eton and Cam- 
 bridge, was elected for Hertford in 1874, 
 and as private secretary to Lord Salis- 
 bury accompanied him to Berlin in 1873. 
 In 1880 he was prominent as one of 
 the four members of Lord R. Churchill's 
 "Fourth Party," and in 1885 became presi- 
 dent of the Local Government Board in 
 Lord Salisbury's administration. In the 
 general election of 1885 he was returned 
 for East Manchester, which constituency he 
 still represents, and in 1886 succeeded Sir 
 Michael Hicks-Beach as Chief Secretary for 
 Ireland. He is the author of A Defence of 
 Fhilosophic Doubt. 
 
 Balfour, Francis Maitlaud {b. 1851, d. 
 1882), brother of the preceding and an 
 eminent embryologist, educated at Harrow 
 and Cambridge, after studying at the Zoo- 
 logical station at Naples soon gained a 
 reputation for the originality of his research. 
 He was elected a fellow of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, and an F.R.S. in 1878. In 1880 
 he was made an LL.D. of Glasgow, and in 
 1881 a special chair of animal morphology 
 was created for him at Cambridge. He had 
 vrritten several important works on com- 
 parative embryology when he lost his life 
 while engaged in Alpine climbing. 
 
 Balfour, James {h. 1703, d. 1795), a 
 Scottish jurist and professor, wrote in refu- 
 tation of Hume's doctrines. 
 
 Balfour, Sir James {d. 1583), a Scottish 
 I'urist and churchman, who took an active 
 part in the political intrigues of Queen 
 Mary's reign. He was made President of 
 Sessions by Mary, whom he betrayed, and 
 was concerned in the murder of Darnley. 
 
 Balfour, John Button {b. 1808, d. 1884), 
 physician and botanist, was ju-ofessor of 
 botany at Glasgow and afterward at Edin- 
 burgh University, and was queen's botanist 
 for Scotland. For thirty years he was dean 
 of the medical faculty of Edinburgh Uni- 
 versity. He left many works.
 
 Sal 
 
 (94 J 
 
 Bal 
 
 Balguy, John {b. 1686, d. 1748), an 
 English clergyman and controversiaUst, 
 took part in the Baugorian controversy, and 
 was the author of A letter to a Deist, The 
 Foundations of Moral Goodness, and An 
 Essay on Redemption. 
 
 Bal^y. Thomas {h. 1716, d. 1795), son of 
 the preceding, Archdeacon of Winchester, 
 and author of Divine Benevolence Asserted 
 and Vindicated from the Reflections of 
 Ancient and Modern Skeptics. 
 
 Baliol, John (b. circa 1259, d. 1315), King 
 of Scotland. On the death of Queen Margaret, 
 Baliol and Robert Bruce, the chief claimants 
 to the succession, invited Edvpardl. to decide 
 between them, and Edward favoured Baliol, 
 who swore fealty to him on taking the 
 crown in 1292. During the French war of 
 3295 BaUol renounced his fealty to Edward, 
 who thereupon invaded Scotland and com- 
 pelled him to submission. After being a 
 prisoner in Loudon for three years, he was 
 allowed to go to Normandy, where he died. 
 
 Baliol, Edward (d. 1363), son of the pre- 
 ceding, on the death of Robert Bruce 
 invaded Scotland in 1332, and after defeat- 
 ing the Regent Mar he was crowned at 
 Scone. Shortly afterward he swore fealty to 
 Edward III. and made over to him Berwick, 
 for which act he was driven from Scotland 
 by the revolted nobles. Twice he was re- 
 instated by an invading English army, and 
 twice again he was compelled to fly. At 
 last he sold his claim to the throne to 
 Edward III. for a pension and a sum down. 
 
 Ball, Sir Alexander John {b. 1757, d. 1809), 
 a British admiral, who served under Nelson 
 in 1798, fought at the battle of the Nile, and 
 in 1800 commanded the expedition for the 
 recovery of Malta, of which island he was 
 made governor. 
 
 Ball, John (b. 1818, d. 1889), a well-known 
 naturalist and Alpine climber. He was the 
 author of The Alpine Guide, and other 
 works of scientific interest, including the 
 account of his visit to the Atlas Mountains. 
 In 1857 he was M. P. forCarlow, and Under- 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies. 
 
 Ball, John Thomas {b. 1815), an Irish 
 lawyer, was returned for Dublin Uni- 
 versity in 1868, and after becoming suc- 
 cessively Solicitor and Attorney-General 
 for Ireland, occupied the office of Lord 
 Chancellor of Ireland from 1875 to 1880. 
 
 Ball, Robert (b. 1802, d. 1857), an Irish 
 scientist, secretary of the Royal Zoological 
 and president of the Eoyal Geological 
 Societies for Ireland, and afterwards direc- 
 tor of Dublin University museum. 
 
 Ball, Sir Robert Stawell {b. 1840), the 
 Astronomer Royal of Ireland, to which post 
 
 he was appointed in 1874. His popular 
 works on astronomy are much esteemed. 
 
 Ballajee Bajee Rao {d. 1761), third 
 Peshwa of the Mahrattas, succeeding his 
 father, Bajee Rao BuUal, 1740. He applied 
 himself to administrative reform, and on 
 the death of the Rajah Shao obtained 
 supreme power. In 1759 he defeated Nizam, 
 Ali, acquiring several provinces, and after- 
 wards marched into the Punjab. Here his 
 forces encountered an Afghan army, and 
 after some fighting they sustained a terrible 
 defeat, Ballajee dying soon after of grief. 
 
 Ballajee Jenardhun {d. 1800), better 
 known as Nana Furnavees, a famous 
 Mahratta statesman. On the death of 
 Peshwa Mahdoo Rao, Nana became guar- 
 dian of his infant son. In 1782, after a war 
 with the English, he was obliged to consent 
 to the treaty of Salbye. The turbulence of 
 Mahratta chiefs, and the aggression of Tippoo, 
 Sultan of Mysore, compelled him to con- 
 clude an alliance with the British and the 
 Nizam of Hyderabad. When Tippoo had 
 been subdued the Nizam refused his tribute 
 to the Mahrattas, by whom he was decisively 
 defeated. After nearly thirty years of rule, 
 the young Peshwa having died. Nana was 
 imprisoned by Bajee Rao Eaghonath, though 
 restored in later years. 
 
 Ballajee Wishwanath {d. 1721), the 
 first Peshwa of the Mahrattas, was an able 
 administrator, and effected many valuable 
 reforms of internal government. 
 
 Ballanclie, Pierre Simon {b. 1776, d. 1847), 
 a French vniter of note on social questions, 
 both in prose and verse. 
 
 BaUantine, William {b. 1812, d. 1887), a 
 distinguished barrister. In 1856 he was 
 made serjeant-at-law ; he was counsel 
 for the Claimant in the Tichborne case, 
 and for the Ga^kwar of Baroda in 1875. 
 He wrote several popular volumes of hia 
 experiences. 
 
 BaUantyne, James {b. 1772, d. 1833), the 
 printer of Sir Walter Scott's works, was 
 involved in the bankruptcy of Constable 
 and Co. He survived Scott for only a few 
 months. 
 
 BaUantyne, James Robert {d. 1864), a 
 distinguished Orientalist, and principal of 
 the Benares College. He translated works of 
 Hindoo philosophy into English, published 
 Sanscrit versions of English scientific works, 
 and compiled grammars of several oriental 
 languages. In 1861 he was appointed 
 librarian to the India Office. 
 
 Ballantyne, Thomas {b. 1806, d. 1871), a 
 well-known journalist, who, after much 
 experience in the North, came to London 
 and founded the Statesman and other papers.
 
 Bal 
 
 (95) 
 
 Bal 
 
 He was intiinate with Carlyle and Lord 
 PaJmerston. 
 
 Ballesteros, Francisco (*. 1770, d. 1832), 
 a Spanish general, who held high command 
 against the French invaders. In 1815 
 Ferdinand appointed him minister of war, 
 hut he was soon dismissed ; and in 1820 he 
 was commissioned with the reframing of 
 the constitution. On the French invasion of 
 1823 he commanded the Spanish army, but 
 capitulated at once, for which act he was 
 hanished for life. 
 
 Ballin, Claude {h. 1615, d. 1678), a famous 
 worker in precious metals, who was 
 patronised by Cardinal KicheUeu and 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 Balloba, Tattya {d. 1800), the principal 
 Brahmin minister of the Mahratta chief 
 Doulat Rao Scindia, and the great rival of 
 Ballajee Jenardhun, by whom he was im- 
 prisoned. He endeavoured to estabHsh a 
 peshwa in the interest of Scindia, who 
 rewarded his efforts with imprisonment. 
 
 Ballou, Hosea (*. 1771, d. 1852), an 
 American preacher, and founder of the 
 " Universalists." He attained considerable 
 celebrity in the United States. 
 
 Balmez, James Lucian {b. 1810, d. 1848), 
 a Spanish writer of repute. He exerted a 
 great influence as a journalist in Madrid for 
 many years, endeavouring to strengthen the 
 Church and the throne. He wrote Fro- 
 iestantism and Catholicism as compared in 
 their Effects on the Civilisation of Europe. 
 
 Balnaves, Henry (*. 1520, d. 1579), a 
 Scottish jurist and an earnest advocate of 
 the Reformation. He was imprisoned for 
 his Protestantism, and after the murder of 
 Cardinal Beaton in 1546, Balnaves and other 
 reformers were imprisoned at Rouen, where 
 he wrote The Confession of Faith. He re- 
 turned to Scotland in 1554, and after the 
 adoption of the Reformation he held several 
 high positions. 
 
 Balogh, Janos (b. 1800), a Hungarian 
 patriot, who as a member of the Diet 
 staunchly supported the national cause. 
 He took part in the revolution, and after 
 its failure tied to Turkey. 
 
 Balsamo, Joseph. [See Cagliostro.] 
 
 Balsamo, Theodorus {d. 1204), a prohfic 
 and authoritative writer on canon law, who 
 was a native of Constantinople, and who 
 was made Patriarch of Antioch. 
 
 Balsham, Hugh de {d. 1286), a Benedic- 
 tine monk, afterwards Bishop of Ely, who 
 founded Peter House College, at Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 Baltadjl Mehemet Pacha (d. 1712), a 
 
 guard of the Turkish Sultan Ahmed HI., 
 who rose to the grand-viziership. When 
 in 1711 Peter the Great was intending fin 
 invasion of Turkey, Baltadji crossed the 
 Danube and the Pruth and surrounded the 
 Russian encampment. He was bribed to 
 consent to a treaty, and for this he was 
 banished by the Sultan. 
 
 Baltard, Louis Pierre {b. 1765, d. 1846), 
 a French landscape painter, architect and 
 engraver, designed the Lyons Palais de 
 Justice. 
 
 Baltard, Victor {b. 1805, d. 1874), an 
 architect and engraver. He was appointed 
 government architect, and conducted the 
 restorations of St. Severin and St. Eustache. 
 
 Balten, Pieter (4. 1540, d. 1611), a Belgian 
 landscape painter of great repute, and 
 member of the academy of Antwerp. 
 
 Baltimore, George Calvert, Lord (6. 
 circa 1580, d. 1632), was knighted by 
 James I., was made a secretary of state, 
 entered Parliament, and, although a Roman, 
 Catholic, was created a peer of Ireland. 
 After vainly endeavouring to found settle- 
 ments in Newfoundland and Virginia, he 
 succeeded in establishing the colony of 
 Maryland. 
 
 Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, Lord (d. 1676), 
 son of the preceding, continued the colon- 
 ising work of his father, and founded 
 Baltimore. 
 
 Baltzar, Thomas (*. 1630, d. 1663), a 
 famous German violinist, who came to 
 England in 1656 and was made director of 
 the private concerts of Charles I. 
 
 Balue, Jean (b. 1421, d. 1491), a French 
 ecclesiastic. He early obtained the favour 
 of Louis XL, and by systematic treachery 
 and intrigue was made Cardinal in 1467. 
 He even betrayed the king's secrets to 
 Charles the Bold, but he was detected in 
 this and shut up in an iron cage. He was 
 released through the influence of Pope 
 Sixtus rV., who took him into favour and 
 made him legate to France. 
 
 Baluze, Etienne (b. 1630, d. 1718), a 
 French historian. In 1667 he became 
 librarian to Colbert, and was appointed by 
 Louis XIV. to a chair in the royal college. 
 In 1710 he offended the Court by his 
 History of the House of Auvergne, for which 
 he was banished till 1813. 
 
 Balzac, Honors de {b. 1799, d. 1850), 
 French novelist, was intended for the 
 law, but left the legal profession for 
 literature, and imder various assumed 
 names produced rapidly. In 1826 he en- 
 tered into partnership with a printer, but 
 their publications were not successful : and
 
 Bal 
 
 (96) 
 
 Ban 
 
 Balzac, depending solely upon his pen for a 
 liveliliood, endured the greatest privations. 
 He obtained no public recognition till the 
 appearance of his Fhysiologie du Mariage, 
 but afterwards he continued to write with 
 increasing success. In 1848 he married a 
 Russian lady, and after xdsitiug Eussia re- 
 turned to Paris in broken health, and shortly 
 afterward died. His collected works are 
 included in forty-five volumes. 
 
 Balzac, Jean Louisguez {b. 1594, d. 1654), 
 a French litterateur of note, who endea- 
 voured to introduce reforms of style into 
 the French language. He was patronised 
 and pensioned by Richelieu, but provoked 
 much hostility against himself, and so retii'ed 
 into private life. 
 
 Bamfield, Joseph, an Irishman who 
 fought on the Royalist side in the Civil 
 war. He succeeded in effecting the escape 
 of the Duke of York to Holland in 1648. 
 
 Bamford, Samuel (b. 1788, d. 1872), a 
 Manchester poet and politician of the ad- 
 vanced school. By trade a silk weaver, he 
 frequently suffered imprisonment, and was 
 nearly killed at the Peterloo "massacre." 
 Late in life he became connected with the 
 Loudon press. 
 
 Bampfylde, Francis, a nonconformist 
 minister of the 17th century, who detied the 
 Act of Uniformity, being several times im- 
 prisoned, and finally dying in Newgate. 
 
 Bampton, Rev. John {b. 1689, d. 1751), a 
 Canon of Salisbury cathedral, who left his 
 estates for the endowment of divinity 
 lectures at Oxford. 
 
 Bancal des Issarts, Jean Henri {b. 1750, 
 d. 1826), a French revolutionist, of noted 
 moderation, and a member of the National 
 Convention. In 1795 he became secretary of 
 the Council of the Five Hundred. 
 
 Bancroft, Edward {d. 1821), an American 
 physician and writer, who came to England, 
 and published several works, fictional and 
 scientific. He was a friend of Franklin, for 
 whom he wrote considerably. 
 
 Bancroft, George (Jb. 1800, d. 1891), an 
 American historian. As a young man he 
 travelled and studied much in Europe. 
 After declining to sit in Congress, he pub- 
 lished iu 1831 his first volume of the His- 
 tory of the United States. In 1845 he became 
 secretary of the navy; from 1846-49 he 
 was American minister at the Court of St. 
 Jaiues's; and in 1867 he was appointed 
 minister to Prussia. The last volume of his 
 history, which is a standard work, appeared 
 in 1882. 
 
 Bancroft, Marie Effie (b. 1846). Marie 
 Wiltou was already a well known and 
 
 popular actress when she became the wife 
 of Mr. S. B. Bancroft. For thirteen years 
 they leased the old Prince of "Wales's theatre, 
 where they were highly successful in the 
 production of T. W. Robertson's plays. In 
 later years they were chiefly seen at the 
 Haymarket theatre. Mrs. Bancroft and 
 her husband retired from management in 
 1885, but the latter reappeared in 1889 at the 
 Lyceum iu The Dead Heart. They have 
 pubUshed an interesting book of reminis- 
 cences. 
 
 Bancroft, Richard {b. 1544, d. 1610), a 
 distinguished Archbishop of Cauterbury. By 
 the favour of Sir Christopher Hattou, Lord 
 Burleigh, and Archbishop Whitgift he was 
 ordained Bishop of London in 1697, and 
 became a favourite with Elizabeth. James I. 
 created him primate in succession to Whit- 
 gift. 
 
 Bandarra, Gonzalo Annez {d. 1556), a 
 Portuguese fanatic, and writer of patriotic 
 songs. From his trade he was known as the 
 Holy Cobbler. His popularity became so 
 great that the Inquisition imprisoned him 
 as a false prophet. 
 
 Bandel, Joseph Ernst von {b. 1800, <?. 1876), 
 a German sculptor of high repute. His 
 Sleeping Mars, Charity, and Thusuelda, are 
 among his finest works. 
 
 Bandello, Matteo {b. circa 1480, d. circa 
 1561), Italian novelist. At first a 
 Dominican monk, he settled in Milan and 
 wrote most of his stories there. He was 
 later api^ointed Bishop of Agen, where he 
 rewrote much of his work that had been 
 destroyed by fire at Milan. 
 
 Bandenelli, Bartolomeo {b. 1487, d. 1559), 
 a sculptor of Florence, of the greatest 
 repute. His genius displayed itself when 
 he was only nine years old, and he studied 
 under the best masters. He was also a 
 clever painter. 
 
 Bandiera, Attilio {b. 1810, d. 1844), and 
 Emilio {b. 1815, d. 1844), Italian patriots. 
 The two brothers were originally in the 
 Austrian navy, but left it to aid the cause of 
 Italian independence. They were in con- 
 stant correspondence with Mazziui, who has 
 told the story of tlieir lives. They were taken 
 prisoners in an abortive rising iu Calabria, 
 and shot. 
 
 Bandtke, George Samuel (b. 1768, d. 
 1835), a Polish man of letters and professor 
 at the university of Cracow. He wrote on 
 bibliographical and historical subjects, and 
 compiled a Polish- German dictionary. 
 
 Baner, Johanu Gustavson {b. 1595, d. 
 1641), Swedish general, served with 
 Gustavus Adolphus in Poland and 
 Germany, and earned the title of " the
 
 Ban 
 
 (97) 
 
 Bar 
 
 Lion of Sweden." He gained several bril- 
 liant victories over the Imperial anny, but 
 died at Halberstadt of fatigue. 
 
 Banim, John (6.1798, d. 1842), novelist, 
 was bom in Kilkenny. Most of his 
 work was written in collaboration with his 
 brother Michel, the Tales of the U'Hara 
 Family being their best known production. 
 Poverty and domestic misfortune greatly 
 embittered his life; and when broken 
 health compelled him to leave England, 
 public subscriptions were raised for him, and 
 finally a Civil List pension was granted. 
 His last work was Father O^Connell. 
 
 Banks, Isabella Varley {b. 1821), a popu- 
 lar novehst, and wife of George LinuEeus 
 Banks. Her most successful novel is The 
 Manchester Man, and she is also the author 
 of several volumes of verse. 
 
 Bankes, John, a seventeenth century 
 dramatist, of contemporary celebrity. 
 
 Bankes, Sir John (b. 1589, d. 1644), 
 an eminent lawyer, entered Parliament 
 1628, was appointed Attorney- General and 
 knighted 1634, and made Chief Justice of 
 Comm^on Pleas 1641. He led the prose- 
 cution of Hampden, and presided at the 
 trial of Lord Strafford. During the Civil 
 war he warmly espoused the Royalist 
 cause, for which he was impeached and his 
 property confiscated. 
 
 Banks, Sir Joseph {b. 1743, d. 1820), a 
 distinguished naturalist. After makiug a 
 botanical exploration of Newfoundland and 
 Labrador, in 1768 he joined Cook's expedi- 
 tion as naturalist, together with Solauder, 
 and visited South America, Australia, and 
 New Guinea. After his return he went 
 with Solander to Iceland. In 1777 he was 
 elected President of the Royal Society, and 
 in 1781 he was created a baronet. 
 
 Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss (b. 1816), an 
 American politician, and a general of the 
 Federal army. A prominent figure in the 
 Massachusetts legislature, he was later 
 returned to Congress, of which he became 
 Speaker. During the Civil war he held 
 command on the Potomac. 
 
 Banks, Thomas {b. 1735, d. 1805), a noted 
 sculptor. A Royal Academy studentship 
 enabled him to study for seven years in 
 Rome ; and he afterwards went to Russia 
 on the Empress Catherine's invitation. His 
 great work was the Mourning Achilles. 
 
 Bannaker, Benjamin (6. 1734, d. 1807), 
 an American negro slave, who, under most 
 difficult circumstances, acquired a know- 
 ledge of astronomy profound enough to 
 enable him to publish intricate calculations. 
 
 Bannister, John {b. 1760, d. 1836), an 
 
 actor of considerable celebrity, and a pupil 
 of Garrick. 
 
 Baour-Lormian, Pierre Marie Francois 
 Louis {b. 1770, (/. 1857), a French poet, 
 whose first reputation was gained as a 
 satirist. Later he translated with great 
 success the poems of Ossian, and Tasso's 
 Jerusalem Delivered. His last work was 
 a translation of the book of Job. 
 
 Baptiste, Nicolas {b. 1761, d. 1835), a 
 French actor who on the stage of the 
 Theatre Fra7i<;ais won great popularity 
 both in tragedy and comedy. 
 
 Baraguay D'Hilliers, Achille, Comte de 
 (J). 1795, d. 1878), French general. He 
 was present at Borodino and served in 
 the Waterloo campaign ; in 1841 he fought 
 in Algiers; in 1848 he commanded the 
 French army in the Papal States ; and in 
 1854, commanding the French corps in the 
 Baltic, he captured Bomarsuud, for which 
 he was created Marshal of France. He pre- 
 sided over the Commission which inquired 
 into the conduct of Bazaine. 
 
 Baraguay D'Hilliers, Louis {b. 1764, 
 d. 1812), one of Napoleon's generals, 
 father of the preceding. He distinguished 
 himself in Spain and Italy, but in the re- 
 treat from Moscow his advanced guard was 
 overpowered, and his command was sus- 
 pended in consequence. He died soon after. 
 
 Baraillon, Jean Francois (fi. 1743, d. 
 1816), a French physician and revolu- 
 tionist, who belonged to the moderate 
 section of the National Convention. He 
 afterwards was secretary of the Council of 
 Five Hundred and president of the Legis- 
 lature. 
 
 Barante, Amable Guillaume Prosper 
 {b. 1782, d. 1866), French statesman, his- 
 torian, and litterateur. After service on 
 diplomatic missions he held high office 
 under the restored monarchy, and was 
 created a peer of France in 1819. He re- 
 entered public life as an ambassador on 
 the accession of Louis Philippe, retiiing 
 finally on his sovereign's deposition. 
 
 Baratier, Jean Philippe {b. 1721, d. 
 1740), an extremely precocious German, who 
 spoke French, German, Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew, when seven years old ; wrote on 
 ecclesiastical history at ten ; and after 
 studying mathematics, astronomy, and the 
 law, became a member of the Acadeaay of 
 Berlin at fourteen. He died from over- 
 study, 
 
 Baratyuski Jewgenij, Abraham [d. 1814), 
 Russian poet of considerable celebrity, and 
 author of the Eda. 
 
 Barbaneg^e, Joseph (b. 1772, d. 1830), a
 
 Bar 
 
 (98) 
 
 Bar 
 
 distinguished French general who served 
 through the Napoleouic campaigns in cen- 
 tral Europe. After the restoration he 
 was made Inspector- General. 
 
 Barbara, St., Christian martyr of the 3rd 
 century ; was heheaded by her father. 
 
 Baxbaro, Francesco (b. 1398, d. 1454), a 
 distinguished Venetian who served the re- 
 public as a statesman and soldier, and was 
 celebrated as a scholar and orator. 
 
 Baxbaro, Ermolao {b. 1454, d. 1495), 
 grandson of the preceding, and a distin- 
 guished scholar. As professor of philosophy 
 at Padua he won celebrity. Accepting 
 an of&ce of dignity from the Pope, he was 
 banished from Venice. 
 
 Barbarossa. [See Frederick I.] 
 
 Barbarossa, Urusch and Khaireddin. 
 The name given to two brothers of Rou- 
 meUan extraction, whose naval exploits 
 against the Christian powers in the Mediter- 
 ranean were famous in the early sixteenth 
 century. After gaining possession of Algiers, 
 Urusch was slain in battle against the 
 Spaniards, but his brother, entering the 
 service of the Turkish sultan, defeated the 
 Spaniards, and afterwards the G-enoese fleet, 
 ravaged the coasts of Italy, took Tunis, 
 and in 1538 decisively defeated the com- 
 ■feined fleets of the Pope, Venice, and Spain. 
 His triumphs were only terminated by his 
 death, in 1546. 
 
 Barbarous, Charles Joseph Ma"^ (b. 
 1767, d. 1794), French revolutionist of 
 Marseilles. He was a deputy in the Con- 
 vention, and a prominent Girondist. For 
 opposing the extremists he was guUlotined 
 as a royalist. 
 
 Barbauld, Anna Lsetitia (b. 1743, d. 1825), 
 a popular writer ; the wife of the Rev. 
 Eochemount Barbauld, who died in an 
 asylum. She published a volume of poems 
 in 1773, which attracted much attention, 
 following it at intervals vdth various 
 writings. Finally she settled in London, 
 and wrote, in conjunction with her brother, 
 Evenings at Home. 
 
 ' Barbazan, Amauld GuUhem, a French 
 noble of the flfteenth century. He was one 
 of six knights who fought with six English 
 knights in 1404, and he afterwards rendered 
 good service against the Biirgundians and 
 English. 
 
 Barbe-Marbois, Francois, Marquis de (i. 
 1745, d. 1837), a French statesman and 
 historical writer. He filled several diplo- 
 matic posts Tinder the Crown, but the 
 revolutionary tribunal deported him to 
 Guiana. He was recalled in 1800, and held 
 several State appointments. 
 
 Barbes, Armand {b. 1810), a violent 
 French revolutionist. After being twice 
 imprisoned for conspiring against the 
 monarchy he joined Blanqui's futile in- 
 surrection of 1839, and was sentenced to 
 imprisonment for life. After the revolution 
 of 1848 he again became a leading figure in 
 politics ; but as he conspired against the 
 republican government he was again im- 
 prisoned, only regaining his liberty in 1854. 
 
 Barbie du Bocage, Jean Denis {b. 1760, d. 
 1825), an eminent French geographer, and 
 the pupil of D'Anville whose biography he 
 wrote. In 1809 a special university chair 
 was created for him. 
 
 Barbier, Henri Auguste {h. 1805, d. 1882), 
 a very successful French satirical poet. 
 His chief work is lambes, a powerful 
 poem deaHng with the social corruption at. 
 London and Paris. He also translated 
 Shakespeare's Julius Cmsar in verse. 
 
 Barbierl du Cento, Paolo Antonio (5. 
 1596, d. 1640), an Italian painter who 
 excelled in depicting animals, flowers and 
 fruit. 
 
 Barbosa Machado, Diogo (J. 1682, d. 
 1770), a learned Portuguese monk and 
 chronicler. He wrote the Bibliotheca 
 Lusitana, Historica Gritica and Chrono- 
 logica, a work of vast scope and great 
 authority. 
 
 Bartaou-Descourleres, Gabriel (^. 1761, <f. 
 1816), French general who commanded the 
 French armies with much success in the 
 campaigns at the beginning of the century. 
 
 Barbour, John {d. 1395), an early Scottish 
 poet and chronicler. He wrote The Book 
 of the Gesta of King Robert Bruce, receiv- 
 ing a pension from David II. and Robert II. 
 
 Barcbam, John (6. 1572, d. 1642), 
 historian, antiquary and clergyman. He 
 VFTote the life of Henry II. and The 
 Display of Heraldry. 
 
 Barclay, Alexander (Jb. circa 1476, d. 1552), 
 an English ecclesiastic, scholar, and writer. 
 He wrote The Gastell of Labour and The 
 Ship of Fools. 
 
 Barclay, John {b. 1582, d. 1621), an 
 English author, though bom in France. 
 He was introduced to James I., to whom 
 he indited a poem. The Loves of Tolyarchus 
 and Argenis is the work by which he is best 
 known. He died in Rome. 
 
 Barclay, John (*. 1734, d. 1798), a Scottish 
 divine, and founder of the sect known as 
 the Bereans or Barclayites. A work on the 
 Psalms caused his dismissal from the 
 Scottish Presbyterian body, and he then 
 settled in Newcastle.
 
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 Barclay, Eobert (6. 1648, d. 1690), 
 the Scottish champion of the Quakers' 
 creed. He was converted to the Society of 
 Friends with his father in 1666, and 
 preached his new faith through England, 
 Holland, and Germany. In 1670 he pub- 
 lished his famous rejoinder to the Rev. 
 Wilham Mitchell, entitled, Truth cleared 
 of Calumnies, and followed it up with 
 other controversial pamphlets. His great 
 work, Theologicce vere Christiance Apo- 
 logia, appeared in 1678, James II. showed 
 him much favour. 
 
 Barclay de Tolly, Michel, Prince {b. 1755, 
 d. 1818), a great Russian general, of an old 
 Scottish stock, settled in Livonia. He 
 entered the army at an early age, and 
 served against the Turks, Swedes and 
 Poles. In 1809 he crossed the frozen Gulf 
 of Bothnia with an army, so securing the 
 discomfiture of the Swedish forces, and he 
 directed the operations of the Russian army 
 during the French invasion. Although the 
 Czar appreciated his genius, he was super- 
 seded because of his foreign extraction, and 
 during the rest of his life, which was full of 
 active service, he was constantly passed by 
 and neglected. 
 
 Bar-Cocliebas, the name taken by a 
 Jew called Lemion, who during the per- 
 secution of the Jews under Trajan declared 
 himself to be the Messiah. He obtained a 
 large following, captured Jerusalem, and 
 was proclaimed king. Julius Severus over- 
 threw him A.D. 135. 
 
 Bardesanes. a Gnostic philosopher of the 
 second century and a native of Edessa. He 
 founded a sect professing his peculiar views, 
 which he disseminated by means of hymns. 
 
 Bardez, Willem, Dutch Calvinist of Am- 
 sterdam, who in 1578 took a leading part 
 in the expulsion of the Catholic magistrates 
 from the city council. 
 
 Bardin, Jean {b. 1732, d. 1809), French 
 historical painter, of humble birth, who 
 achieved a considerable name, and became 
 director of the Orleans school of fine arts. 
 
 Bardin, Etienne Alexandre, Baron (b. 1774, 
 d. 1840), son of the preceding. He served 
 with distinction in the campaigns of Napo- 
 leon, and wrote several military treatises 
 which were much valued. 
 
 Bardon, Michel Fran(,-oisD'Aiidre (b. 1700, 
 d. 1783), a French painter and engraver, 
 who wrote several works on painting and 
 sculpture, and became director of Marseilles 
 academy. 
 
 Barebones; Praise-God, a London leather 
 dealer, and an active member of the Parlia- 
 ment which Cromwell summoned after the 
 dissolution of the Long Parliament. 
 b2 
 
 Barentin, Charles Louis Franqois de Faille 
 (/'. 1738, d. 1819), an honoured councillor of 
 Louis XVI., and his keeper of the seals. 
 He was denounced by Mirabeau as an 
 enemy of the people, and left France, re- 
 turning only at the restoration. 
 
 Barents (or Barentzoon), "Willem (rf.l597), 
 the pilot to the three Dutch expeditions of 
 1594, 1595, and 1596, in search of a northern 
 route to China. He died on his way home 
 from the last expedition, having reached 
 lat. 80° N. 
 
 Barentsen, Diederik {b. 1534, d. 1592), a 
 Dutch painter, and a favourite pupU of 
 Titian, whose manner he imitated very suc- 
 cessfully. 
 
 Barere de Vieuzac, Bertrand {b. 1775, d. 
 1841), a French revolutionary and writer. 
 He was elected president of the National 
 Convention, and, adopting extreme views, 
 he became one of the Committee of Public 
 Safety. He was banished in 1795, and again 
 in 1816. 
 
 Baretti, Giuseppe (b. 1716, d. 1789), an 
 Italian author of repute, and the compiler 
 of an Anglo-ItaUan dictionary. He came 
 to England in 1751, and became the close 
 friend of Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Barford, Paul Frederick {b. 1811), a 
 Danish historian and politician of the " Scan- 
 dina\aan party. " He is the author of several 
 valuable works. 
 
 Bargfes, Jean Joseph Leandre (b. 1810), 
 a French orientalist of distinction. He 
 held several important university chairs, 
 and took holy orders. 
 
 Barham, Richard Harris (J, 1788, d. 1845), 
 the author of the famous Ingoldsby Ls' 
 yends, which first appeared in Bentley^s 
 Magazine. He was rector of St. Augustine's 
 and St. Faith's in London. 
 
 Baring, Alexander, \_See Ashburton.] 
 
 Baring, Sir Evelyn {b. 1841), soldier and 
 diplomatist. After leaving the army, he 
 became secretary to his cousin, Lord North- 
 brook, when Viceroy of India, From 
 1877 to 1879 he was Commissioner of the 
 Egyptian Public Debt, and was the repre- 
 sentative of England under the "Dual 
 Control" in 1879. He then was appointed 
 financial member of the Indian Council, 
 returning to Egypt in 1883. 
 
 Baring, Sir Francis (*. 1740, d. 1810), the 
 founder of the great Baring firm of mer- 
 chant bankers. A Hanoverian by descent, 
 he became Chairman of the East India 
 Company, and an M.P. He was given a 
 baronetcy in 1793. 
 
 Baring, Sir Francis Thomhill, Lord
 
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 Bar 
 
 Northbrook {b. 1796, d. 1866), a statesmau, 
 and graudson of the preceding. He entered 
 Parliament in 1826, held office under Lord 
 Melbourne, was Chancellor of the Exche- 
 quer from 1839 to 1841, and First Lord of 
 the Admiralty from 1849 to 1852, He was 
 made a peer in 1866. 
 
 Baring, Thomas {b. 1800, d. 1873), brother 
 of the preceding, merchant and politician. 
 He entered Parliament in 1835. He was 
 twice offered the office of chancellor of the 
 exchequer by Lord Derby. 
 
 Baring-Govad, Sabine (b. 1834), an En- 
 glish clergyman and a popular author. 
 Besides the Lives of the Saints, he has 
 written largely on theological and antiqua- 
 rian subjects, and latterly has achieved 
 great success as a novelist. 
 
 Barker, Edmund Henry {b. 1788, d. 1839), 
 an English philologist and lexicogi-apher. 
 His edition of Stepliens' Thesaurus Lingua 
 Greece is of great value. 
 
 Barker, Mary Ann, Lady, a popular 
 authoress, a native of Jamaica. She has been 
 twice married, and has spent much time in 
 the Colonies, her experiences of which have 
 supplied the matter for most of her works. 
 
 Barker, Robert {b. 1739, d. 1806), an Irish 
 artist, and the originator of panoramas, for 
 the production of which he forsook por- 
 traiture. 
 
 Barker, Sir Robert {d. 1789), a general 
 who commanded the Bengal forces of the 
 East India Company. He is best known for 
 the treaty he concluded in 1772, between the 
 Soubadar of Oude and the Rohillas, and 
 against the Mahrattas. 
 
 Barkly, Sir Henry (i. 1815), distin- 
 guished colonial governor. He entered 
 Parliament in 1845. In 1849 he was ap- 
 pointed Governor of British Guiana; in 
 1853 of Jamaica ; in 1856 of Victoria ; in 
 1863 of Mauritius ; and in 1870 of the Cape. 
 
 Barkok {b. 1338, d. 1398), a Circassian 
 slave in Egypt, and the foimder of a dynasty. 
 He was chief mameluke on the death of 
 Sultan AU, in 1382, and he secured the 
 succession for himself. 
 
 Barlces, (Gaspard van Baerle) (5. 1584, d. 
 1648) , a Flemish poet, theologian, and phy- 
 sician. He took holy orders, and filled a 
 chair in the Leyden university ; but being 
 interdicted for heresy, he studied medicine, 
 and obtained a great reputation at the 
 Amsterdam university. He wrote much in 
 Latin. 
 
 Barlow, Sir George Hilard (*. 1762, d. 
 1846), an Indian governor of distinction. 
 He entered the Company's service in 1778, 
 and was made provisional Governor-general 
 under Lord Wellesley in 1802, continuing in 
 
 the post until he succeeded Lord Comwallia 
 as governor. Displaced by Fox, he accepted 
 the governorship of Madras. 
 
 Barlow, Joel (d. 1775, d. 1812), an Ameri- 
 can poet. He served in the war of Inde- 
 pendence both as combatant and chaplain, 
 writing patriotic songs and hymns. In 1787 
 he produced his chief work, The Vision of 
 Culumbus, and next year he went to 
 Europe. In 1812 he was appointed minister 
 at Paris, and while going to meet Napoleon, 
 then in Russia, he was overtaken with a 
 fatal illness. 
 
 Barlow, Peter {b. 1776, d. 1862), a mathe- 
 matician of high repute. He filled for some 
 time the chair of mathematics at Woolwich 
 Academy, wrote several valuable works on 
 mathematics, and discovered the means of 
 correcting eccentricities of the compass. He 
 was also a good mechanician. 
 
 Barlow, Thomas Oldham, R.A. (J>. 1824, 
 d. 1889), an engraver. He studied in Man- 
 chester, where he soon obtained a reputa- 
 tion, and coming to London he engraved 
 many of Sir J. Millais's pictures. 
 
 Barlow, William, an Augustine monk, and 
 a leading spirit in the Reformation. He was 
 a^jpointed to several bishoprics by Henry 
 VIII., but was imprisoned by Mary, and, 
 escaping, only returned to England on her 
 death. 
 
 Barlow, William {d. 1625), mathematician, 
 son of the preceding. After having been 
 a sailor, he took orders, and wrote on 
 scientific subjects, being the inventor of the 
 box-compass, and the iirst Englishman to 
 treat of the magnet. 
 
 Barnabas, a Levite of Cyprus, and an 
 early Christian convert; he introduced 
 Paul to the Church in Jerusalem, and after- 
 wards imdertook several missions with him. 
 The two quarrelled, and Barnabas went to 
 Cyprus, the remainder of his career being 
 unknown. 
 
 Barnard, Lady Anne (6. 1750, d. 1825), a 
 Scottish poetess, and daughter of the Earl 
 of Balcarres. Her chief claim to fame rests 
 on the poem Auld Robin Gray. 
 
 Barnard, Henry {b. 1811), an American 
 public man who interested himself in the 
 public school system and obtained its com- 
 plete reorganisation. 
 
 Barnard, Sir John (*. 1685, d. 1764), a 
 London merchant, who represented the City 
 in ParUament for forty years, and who 
 filled the office of Lord Mayor. To hia 
 action at a critical time in 1745 was due 
 the safety of the Bank of England. 
 
 Barnard, John James (jb. 1826, d. 1851),
 
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 naTal officer, acted with great gallantry 
 on the West Coast of Africa ; in 1848 he 
 joined Clarke's expedition in search of 
 Franklin, and he was lieutenant of the 
 Enterprise on the second expedition, in 
 which he was killed. 
 
 Bamave, Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie 
 (/'. 1761, d. 1793), a distinguished figure of 
 the French revolution. Sent to the States 
 General by the province of Dauphine, he 
 Boon acquired a great influence, and became 
 president of the Constituent Assembly. 
 Bamave was entrusted with the task of con- 
 ducting the royal family to Paris after their 
 flight, and his interview with the king so 
 modified his opinions that his influence was 
 lost. After suffering imprisonment he died 
 by the guillotine. 
 
 Barnes, Bamaby, one of the Elizabethan 
 minor poets, and son of Dr. Barnes, Bishop 
 of Durham, was a prolific writer of lyrical 
 verse. 
 
 Barnes, Joshua {b. 1654, d. 1712), a great 
 Greek scholar and an English clergyman. 
 He was professor of Greek at Cambridge, 
 edited classics, and wi'ote considerably. 
 
 Barnes, Robert, one of the early promoters 
 of the Reformation. He was thrown into pri- 
 son by Wolsey, but subsequently secured the 
 favour of Heni-y VIII. He fell into disgrace 
 for attacking Gardiner, and was burnt at 
 the stake in 1540. 
 
 Barnes, Thomas (b. 1786, d. 1841), editor 
 of The Times and successor to Dr. Stoddart 
 in that post. He was at first a reporter ; his 
 conduct of the paper was very successful. 
 
 Barnes, William (b. 1820, d. 1886), 
 English clergjonan of Dorsetshire, a dia- 
 lect poet. He was also an orientalist, and 
 an authoritative writer on philological and 
 antiquarian subjects. 
 
 Bamett, John {b. 1802, rf. 1890), a musical 
 composer of German extraction. He showed 
 early talent, and composed many songs, 
 and afterwards operettas and vaicdevilles. 
 His opera. The Mountain Sylph, was pro- 
 duced at the Lyceum in 1834, and was 
 followed by Fair Rosamond and Farinelli. 
 
 Bamett, John Francis {b. 1838), nephew 
 of the preceding, and also a musical com- 
 poser. Of his many pieces may be men- 
 tioned the Ancient Mariner, a cantata, the 
 Raising of Lazarus, an oratorio, and the 
 Good Shepherd. 
 
 Bamett, Samuel (*. 1844), an English 
 clergyman and philanthropist. His great 
 work has been done in Whitechapel, since 
 his appointment to St. Jude's in 1873. He 
 established Toynbee Hall, which is the 
 centre of a great organisation for the social 
 
 and moral improvement of the East- 
 End population. 
 
 Barneveldt, Johann van Olden {b. 1547, 
 d. 1619), a greatDutch statesman. He played 
 a leading part in the effort of the Nether- 
 lands to throw off Spanish dominion, and he 
 became Grand Pensioner of the States of 
 Holland. He was sent to England to offer 
 the Dutch crown to Elizabeth, and again 
 to conclude an alliance with James I. against 
 Spain. He used his influence to obtain the 
 appointment of Maurice of Nassau as Stadt- 
 holder in 1587 ; but Maurice afterwards 
 became jealous of his patron, and tried to 
 excite distrust and religious enmity against 
 him. Barneveldt twice sought to resign his 
 oifice, but he was not allowed to do so. At 
 last, by raising a corps of militia to sup- 
 press riots, he gave Maurice an excuse for 
 arraigning him for high treason, and he 
 was executed. 
 
 Barney, Joshua (J. 1759, d. 1818), a bril- 
 liant American naval officer who served in 
 the war of Independence and captured the 
 General Monk, and in 1812 bore a distin- 
 guished part in the battle of Bladensburg. 
 
 Bamfield, Richard {b. 1547), an Eliza- 
 bethan poet, and a friend of Shakespeare. 
 He wrote The Affectionate Shepherd. 
 
 Bamum, Phineas Taylor (b. 1810, d. 
 1891), an American, showman and proprietor 
 of " the greatest show on earth." He was 
 engaged in several professions, made and 
 lost several fortunes, and his show was 
 twice destroyed by fire. He brought out 
 Tom Thumb, and introduced Jenny Lind 
 to the American public. He twice visited 
 Europe, the last time in 1889. 
 
 Baroccio, Fiori Frederico (b. 1528, d. 1612), 
 an Italian portrait and historical painter, 
 who earned a great name and who was em- 
 ployed in the decoration of the palace of 
 Belvedere. 
 
 Baroccio, Francisco, a Venetian scholar of 
 the 16th century, well versed in the classics 
 and mathematics. He was imprisoned by 
 the Inquisition for magic. 
 
 Baroche, Pierre Jules (b. 1802, d. 1870), a 
 distinguished French advocate and states- 
 man. He entered the Chamber of Deputies 
 in 1846 as a member of the opposition, and 
 after the revolution he held high judicial 
 oflices, and finally the portfolio tor foreign 
 affairs. After the cotip d'etat he was made 
 president of the council of state. 
 
 Baroda, the Gadkwars of. They held 
 dominion over a branch of the Mahratta 
 confederacy. In 1800 Auand Rao {d. 1819) 
 placed his state in dependence on the 
 British : in 1870 Malhar Rao succeeded to 
 the rule, his misgovemment provoking a
 
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 Bar 
 
 comniissiou of inquiry, aud leading to his 
 deposition in 1875. His successor was Syaji 
 Kao, who still reigns, and with great advan- 
 tage to the state. 
 
 Baron, Michel {b. 1653, d. 1729), a famous 
 French actor, and sou of professional 
 parents. His instruction was largely re- 
 ceived at the hands of MoUere, whose 
 interest he secured. 
 
 Barord, CaBsare {b. 1538, d. 1607), a priest 
 and ecclesiastical historian of Naples. Cle- 
 ment VIII. took him into favour, and made 
 him a cardinal and librarian to the Vatican. 
 His Annales Ecdesiastici, dealing with 
 church history of 12 centuries, was com- 
 pleted in 30 years. 
 
 Barral, Andre Horace Francois, Vicomte 
 de {Ik 17-13, d. 1829), a soldier and general 
 in the army of the Alps. He was also an 
 author. 
 
 Barral, Louis Mathias, Comte de {b. 1746, 
 d. 1814), brother of the preceding, and 
 Archbishop of Tours. In 1788 he was 
 forced to fly the country for refusing to 
 take the oath of submission. Napoleon, as 
 First Consul, employed him in reconciling 
 the clergy to the new order, and promoted 
 him to the see of Tours for his services. 
 
 Barral, Jean Augustin {b. 1819), a French 
 chemist, whose chief work was the ex- 
 traction of nicotine from the tobacco leaf, 
 and the demonstration of its poisonous 
 properties. 
 
 Barral, Joseph Marie (b. 1742, d. 1828), a 
 distinguished jurist of Grenoble, who was 
 placed at the head of the municipality on 
 the outbreak of the revolution. He was 
 imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, but 
 was released and restored to ofB.ce later. 
 
 Barras, Paul Francois Jean Nicolas, 
 Comte de (b. \lbb, d. 1829), a noble French 
 revolutionist of the extreme party. He and 
 Robespierre became estranged, and to anti- 
 cipate Robespierre's enmity he distinguished 
 himself by having the great Triumvir ar- 
 rested. He was elected president of the 
 Convention, and afterwards a member of 
 the Directory. He retired on the subversion 
 of the Directory, and was in late years 
 constantly changing allegiance from one 
 party to another. 
 
 Barrelros, Gaspar {d. 1574), a Portuguese 
 geographer, who entered a Franciscan 
 monastery to pursue his studies. He left 
 several valuable works. 
 
 Barret, George (*. 1732, d. 1784), an 
 Irish painter, wlio, wdth poor opportunities, 
 attained a considerable reputation. He 
 assisted largely in founding the Royal 
 Academy, and was master painter to Chel- 
 sea Hospital. 
 
 Barreto, Francisco de (d. 1574), a Por- 
 tuguese governor of the Indies, who com- 
 manded an expedition to the west coast of 
 Africa, and penetrated far into the interior. 
 
 Barrett, John (*. 1746, d. 1821), Vice- 
 Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. A man 
 of very diverse learning, and an able philo- 
 logist and orientalist. He wrote An Inquiry 
 into the Origin and Sign of the Zodiac. 
 
 Barri, Gerald (6. 1146, d. 1223), a Welsh 
 ecclesiastic of noble birth, generally known 
 as ' ' Giraldus Cambrensis. ' ' He left numer- 
 ous works, the chief of which is his Typo- 
 graphia Hibernla, written when the author 
 was in Ireland with Prince John. He was 
 Archdeacon of St. David's, and having been 
 twice denied the see, he retired into private 
 Ufe, refusing an offer of the bishopric when 
 a third vacancy occurred. 
 
 Barri^re, Jean de la (b. 1544, d. 1600), a 
 French abbot and founder of the order of 
 Feuillants, which was recognised by Sixtus 
 V. in 1586. 
 
 Barrington, John Shute, Viscount {b. 
 1678, (/. 1734), a successful politician, and 
 son of a London merchant. He was em- 
 ployed in reconciling the Scottish Pres- 
 byterians to the Union with England, aud 
 entered Parliament as member for Berwick 
 when George I. came to the throne. He 
 was created a peer of Ireland in 1720, but 
 for his connection with the Hamburg lottery 
 he was expelled from Parliament, devoting 
 the remainder of his Ufe to theology and 
 literature. 
 
 Barrington, Samuel (b. 1729, d. 1800), 
 fifth son of preceding, and a distinguished 
 admiral. He fought with great success and 
 gallantry in the war with France, his last 
 important action being with Lord Howe at 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Barrington, William Wildman (b. 1717, 
 I d. 1793), eldest son and successor of John 
 i Shute. He was a member of Parliament, 
 
 Secretary at War (1755), and Chancellor of 
 
 the Exchequer (1781). 
 
 Barros, Joas de {b. 1496, d. 1570), a 
 Portuguese historian. He was brought up 
 in the royal household : held an appoint- 
 ment in Africa ; and returning to Portugal, 
 wrote his A.sia Portugeza. 
 
 Barrot, Camille Hyacinthe Odillon (b. 
 1791, d. 1873), a French advocate and poli- 
 tician of note. He was at first a royalist, 
 but after the second restoration he became 
 a prominent figure in the party of opposi- 
 tion. He joined in the revolution of 1830, 
 and became prefect of the Seine, after 
 which he again entered into opposition, this 
 time against Guizot. Returned for the 
 department of Eure, he was recognised aa
 
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 leader of the Left, and was largely instru- 
 mental in bringing about the fall of Louis 
 Philippe. He held office under Louis 
 Napoleon as President of the Kepublic, but 
 protested agaiast the coup d^ etat, and retired 
 from public hf e. 
 
 Barrot, Victorin Ferdinand (b. 1806, d. 
 1883), a French poUtician and brother of 
 the preceding. He was returned by Algeria 
 to the constitutional Assembly of 1848, and 
 held several ministerial posts under Louis 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Barrow, Isaac {b. 1630, d. 1677), scholar 
 and diviae, and the preceptor of Isaac 
 Newton. He earned a great reputation at 
 Cambridge, and afterwards chiefly studied 
 natural science, divinity and the classics. 
 After some foreign travel he entered the 
 church, and in 1660 obtained the professor- 
 ship of Greek at Cambridge and that of 
 geometry at Gresham College. The latter 
 appointment he resigned to Newton, and 
 was appointed by Charles II. to the Master- 
 ship of Trinity College, afterwards being 
 chosen Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge Uni- 
 versity. He died a little later, with the 
 reputation of being one of the best wits and 
 prof oimdest scholars of his day. 
 
 Barrow, Sir John (b. 1764, d. 1848), a 
 traveller and man of science. As private 
 secretary to Sir George Staunton, he ac- 
 compamed Lord Macartney's expedition to 
 China, and in 1797 he went with Lord 
 Macartney to the Cape. He then became 
 a secretary to the Admiralty, and was 
 created baronet in 1825. He wrote many 
 books of travel. 
 
 Barrowe, Henry {d. 1593), a religious 
 enthusiast of the 16th century. In 1586 he 
 was imprisoned for the heterodoxy of his 
 views; and his writings while he was in 
 prison, vindicating his faith, gave such 
 offence that he was executed. 
 
 Bamill, Augustin de (b. 1741, d. 1820), 
 a French Jesuit, who wrote against the 
 revolution and the neglect of religion. He 
 was twice banished from France, but was 
 finally taken into favour by Napoleon. 
 
 Barry, Sir Charles {h. 1795, d. 1860), an 
 eminent architect. He designed the Travel- 
 lers' and Reform clubs and the College 
 of Surgeons, but the great work of his life 
 was the construction of the Houses of Par- 
 liament, and for this work he was knighted. 
 He was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Barry, Sir David {b. 1780, d. 1845), an 
 Irish physician. He served in the Penin- 
 sular war as army surgeon ; made some 
 valuable researches into the circulation of 
 the blood ; and was sent by Government to 
 Gibraltar and Russia to hivestigate epi- 
 demics of yellow fever and cholera. 
 
 Barry, Elizabeth (b. 1658, d. 1713), a 
 famous tragedy actress. She established 
 her great reputation by a representation 
 of Monimia in Otway's Orphan, and was, 
 before her death, the creator of 112 parts. 
 She was a gi-eat favoui-ite at Court, and it 
 was in her behalf that "benefits" were 
 invented by James II. 
 
 Barry, Edward Middleton (J. 1830, d. 
 188u), an architect and son of Sir Charles 
 Barry, whom he succeeded as architect of 
 the Houses of Parliament. He also de- 
 signed the National Gallery building. 
 
 Barry, James {b. 1741, d. 1806), an Iiish 
 artist of considerable genius. His Landing 
 of St. Patrick, painted iu his 20th year, 
 secured the interest of Burke, by whose aid 
 Barry visited Italy. In 1776 he finished 
 the famous Death of Wolfe, which was 
 not appreciated, though Barry's reputation 
 was great. For seven years, from 1774, 
 Barry devoted himself to the unremunera- 
 tive task of decorating the great hall of the 
 Society of Arts with seven great pictures. 
 He died in poverty. 
 
 Barry, John {b. 1745, d. 1803), an Ameri- 
 can naval officer, who distinguished himself 
 greatly in the war of Independence. In 
 1794 he was made first commodore of the 
 U.S. navy. 
 
 Barry, Marie Jeanne Gomard de Vau- 
 bemier, Comtesse du {b. 1746, d. 1793), the 
 mistress of Louis XV. She exercised the 
 greatest influence over the king ; was 
 banished by his successor; and guillotined 
 by the revolutionary tribunal. 
 
 Barry, Martin (J). 1802, d. 1855), a physi- 
 cian and scientist, whose researches in 
 embryology are of European celebrity. 
 
 Barry, Spranger {b. 1719, d. 1777), a cele- 
 brated actor of Irish extraction. He was 
 the great rival of Gamck, with whom he 
 competed in the representation of Romeo. 
 
 Barry, Mrs. Spranger {b. 1733, d. 1801), a 
 gifted actress, who made a Loudon reputa- 
 tion in the character of Desdemona, She 
 later appeared in the name of her third hus- 
 band, Crawford. 
 
 Bart, Jean {b. 1651, d. 1702), a gallant 
 French naval officer, whose daring exploits 
 against the Dutch and English earned for 
 him a great reputation, and the especial 
 favour of Louis XIV. 
 
 Bartas, Guillaume de Salluste, Sieur du 
 [b. 1544, d. 1590), a poet soldier of Gascony, 
 whose La Premiere Semaine was highly es- 
 teemed. He was mortally wounded at the 
 battle of Ivry. 
 
 Barth, Heinrich (J>. 1821, d. 1865), a
 
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 German African explorer. From 1845 to 
 1854 he was constantly occupied with 
 expeditions into Africa, first into the north, 
 and afterward along the course of the Nile. 
 The records of his travels are of great value. 
 
 Barthelemy, Auguste Marseille {b. 1796, 
 d. 1867), a very popular French writer of 
 politico-satirical verse. He bitterly attacked 
 the monarchical government of the restora- 
 tion, and twice suffered imprisonment for 
 his writings before the revolution of 1830. 
 Afterwards he was as scathing in his satire 
 of Guizot, but having lost his pension, he 
 suddenly began to write in direct contradic- 
 tion of his earlier effusions. 
 
 Barthelemy, Frantjois, Marquis de {b. 
 1747, d. 1830), a French diplomatist, em- 
 ployed on various missions prior to the 
 revolution. He was for a time member of 
 the Directory, but he was imprisoned later. 
 He was a pronounced adherent of Napoleon, 
 but he secured honour and distinctions under 
 the restored king. 
 
 Barthelemy, Jean Jacques (b. 1716, d. 
 1795), a French antiquary. He succeeded 
 Gros de Boze as keeper of the king's cabinet 
 of medals, and held the appointment until 
 the revolution. His great work is T/te 
 Travels of Anacharsis, over which he spent 
 thirty years. 
 
 Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Jules {b. 
 1805), a French scholar and politician. He 
 ■was classical professor at the University of 
 France, translated Aristotle, and wrote on 
 Oriental literature and religions. He was 
 active in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848, 
 •was elected life senator in 1875, and was 
 foreign minister in Ferry's cabinet of 1880. 
 
 Barthes, Paul Joseph {b. 1734, d. 1806), 
 a French physiologist and physician. He 
 was physician to the king, his valuable 
 medical researches and writings gaining for 
 him a great reputation. 
 
 Bartholdy, Jacob Solomon (b. 1779, d. 
 1825), aPrussian diplomatist and litterateur. 
 He fought against the French under Napo- 
 leon, and later in life was employed on 
 several important missions. 
 
 Bartholomseus Anglicus, a learned monk 
 of the Franciscan order, named Glan\'il, 
 who lived in the 14th century, and is 
 known as the author of De Proprietatibus 
 Herum. 
 
 Bartholom38us a Martyrihus (b. 1514, d. 
 1590), a distinguished Dominican, Arch- 
 bishop of Braga. He bore an honourable part 
 in the Council of Trent, and obtained the 
 removal of certain indignities upon his 
 order. 
 
 Bartholomew, St., oue of the Apostles 
 
 and the son of Tliolomaeus or Tolmai. It is 
 supposed from internal evidence that he 
 is identical with the person referred to in 
 some of the gospels as Nathaniel. He is 
 spoken of by tradition as carrying the 
 gospel into India. 
 
 Bartleman, Hippolyte {b. 1741, d. 1808), a 
 French violinist and composer of opera. He 
 came to London in 1766, where he did all 
 his best work, and achieved a considerable 
 reputation. 
 
 Bartelman, James {J>. 1769, d. 1821), a 
 celebrated bass singer, noted for his render- 
 ing of classical music. 
 
 Bartlett, William Henry {b. 1809, d. 1854), 
 a clever artist and illustrator of books. He 
 reproduced the scenery of Switzerland, 
 Scotland, Turkey, and the Holy Land, and 
 other countries in pen and pencil drawings 
 with the greatest success. He also visited 
 America. 
 
 Bartoli, Daniele Qj. 1608, d. 1685), an 
 Italian Jesuit, known for his Sioria della 
 Societa de Gesu^ an exhaustive history of 
 the Jesuit order. 
 
 Bartoli, Pietro Santo {b. 1635, d. 1700), 
 Italian painter and engraver, especially 
 noted for his excellent engravings of the 
 great works of Greek and Roman art. 
 
 Bartolini, Lorenzo (*. 1778, d. 1850), a 
 Florentine sculptor of the highest repute. 
 He studied first in Paris, where he soon made 
 a name, and received commissions from 
 Napoleon. At the fall of the empire he 
 returned to Italy, and produced his most 
 famous pieces of work — Charity and Her- 
 cules and Lycas. 
 
 Bartolommeo, Fra. [See Baccio.] 
 
 Bartolommeo Maestro, Venetian sculptor 
 and architect of the 14th century. 
 
 Bartolozzi, Francesco {b. \12b, d. 1813), 
 a Florentine artist and engraver, who was 
 so successful in the latter capacity that he 
 abandoned painting. In 1764 he came to 
 London and was made a member of the 
 Royal Academy. 
 
 Barton, Sir Andrew, Scottish sea-captain, 
 who caused much destruction among the 
 English traders in .the middle of the 16th 
 century. His ships were at last cap- 
 tured, and he was slain, by Sir Thomas 
 Howard in 1571. 
 
 Barton, Benjamin Smith (b. 1776, d. 
 1815), an American physician and botanist. 
 He studied in Great Britain and Germany 
 with distinction, and afterwards held high 
 univei'sity dignities in America. 
 
 Barton, Bernard {b. 1784, d. 1849), a
 
 Bar 
 
 (105) 
 
 Bas 
 
 native of London, known as the "Quaker 
 poet." He was a bank-clerk for forty 
 years. His writings were very numerous. 
 
 Barton, Elizabeth, a religious fanatic, 
 known as the " Holy Maid of Kent," 
 lived iu the reign of Henry VIII. Influ- 
 enced by an unscrupulous priest, she claimed 
 prophetic inspiration, and gained the credu- 
 lity of many. The Star Chamber forced her 
 and her accomplices to confession, aud they 
 were executed in 1534. 
 
 Baxtram, John {b. 1701, d. 1777), an 
 American botanist, who established the 
 first American botanical garden. He was 
 appointed royal botanist by George III. 
 
 Bartsch, Adam von {b. 1757, d. 1820), a 
 distinguished designer and engraver of 
 Vienna, of official rank. His works are of 
 high merit. 
 
 Barucli, the friend and secretary of the 
 prophet Jeremiah. He it was who read 
 before the assembled Jewish chiefs the pro- 
 phecies of Jeremiah which Kiug Jehoiakim 
 destroyed, aud who delivered to Babylon 
 Jeremiah's denunciation of that city. 
 
 Barwell, John, a distinguished servant of 
 the East India Company. He was a mem- 
 ber of the new council appointed in 1773, 
 with Warren Hastings as Governor-general. 
 He served for five years, consistently sup- 
 porting Hastings in aU dissensions, and re- 
 tired in 1780. 
 
 Barze, Antoine Louis {b. 1795, d. 1875), 
 a French sculptor. He was first a worker 
 in metals, and an engraver, and only exhi- 
 bited statuary for the first time when 
 thirty-four years old. His work in bronze 
 is highly esteemed. 
 
 Basaiti, Marco, an Italian painter of the 
 early part of the 16th century. His best 
 work is in Venice. 
 
 Baschi, Matteo. The founder of the order 
 of the Capuchins, lived in the loth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Basedow, Johann Bemhard (b. 1723, d. 
 1790), a German educationalist, of eccentric 
 temper, who, after occupying chairs at 
 several vmiversities, was inspired by Rous- 
 seau's Smile to establish a system of pic- 
 torial education. His writings on the sub- 
 ject were very popular, but his model 
 school failed. 
 
 Basevl, George (b. 1794, d. 1845), an 
 English architect of great talent, who was 
 much employed in London, and who de- 
 signed the Cambridge Fitzwilliam museum. 
 
 Basevl, James Palladio (d. 1871), an 
 engineer engaged in the trigonometrical 
 survey of India. For seven years he gave 
 
 his attention to pendulum observations for 
 determining the variations of the force of 
 gravity. 
 
 Basil, Saint {b. 329, d. 379), sumamed 
 "the Great." One of the Greek Fathers 
 of the Church. He was bom in Caesarea, 
 and after studying in Athens, became an 
 advocate. He abandoned this calling for 
 ascetic seclusion, and finally instituted a 
 monastery near Ibora in Pontus. In 370 he 
 succeeded Eusebius as Bishop of Caesarea, 
 and in this office carried on a long struggle 
 against Arianism, championed though it 
 was by the Emperor Valens. The goodness 
 aud devotion of his life gave him great in- 
 fluence, and his monastic rules were gener- 
 ally adopted. His writings were widely 
 circulated, and have always been highly 
 esteemed. 
 
 Basil or Basilius, a Bulgarian monk of 
 the twelfth century, who founded the sect 
 of "Bogomiles." In 1118 he was tried for 
 heresy by a council at Constantinople, and 
 burnt at the stake. 
 
 BasU I. (b. 813, d. 886), sumamed the 
 ' ' Macedonian, ' ' Byzantine emperor ; though 
 reputed to be of royal descent, his 
 father was a small farmer near Adria- 
 nople, from whence BasU was carried away 
 by the Bulgarians. He ultimately went to 
 Constantinople, and by his powers as an 
 athlete gaiued the favour of the Emperor 
 Michael III. In 867 he murdered Michael, 
 and seized the imperial power, wielding 
 it with great effect. He re -organised the 
 army and reformed the process of justice, 
 and his death was generally lamented. 
 
 Basil II. {h. 958, d. 1025), great grand- 
 son of the preceding. He assumed the 
 government in 976, on the death of the 
 regent, John Zimisces, and succeeded in 
 defeating in Asia two insurgent generals. 
 He also conquered the Bulgarians. 
 
 Basillscus (d. 477), a Greek emperor. 
 He was brother-in-law to the Emperor Leo, 
 at whose death he seized upon the throne, 
 He was, however, soon ousted, and he 
 perished in prison. 
 
 Basin, Thomas (b. 1402, d. 1491), French 
 prelate and historian. In 1447 he was made 
 Bishop of Lisieux, and his defence of Joan 
 of Arc against the sentence of the Pope 
 gained him the favour of Charles VII. 
 Incurring the enmity of the Dauphin, he 
 fled from France. He wrote the histories 
 of Charles VII. and Louis XI. 
 
 Basire, Claude {b. 1764, d. 1794), a French 
 revolutionist. As a member and secretary 
 of the Convention he was remarkable for 
 his extreme views. He discovered the re- 
 actionary " Comitt; Autrichien," but was 
 later guillotined for treachery.
 
 Bas 
 
 (106) 
 
 Bat 
 
 Bastre, Isaac (b. 1607, d. 1676), chaplaiu- 
 in-ordiuary to Charles L After the sur- 
 render of Oxford to the Parliament he 
 went on a mission to the East, and preached 
 with much success. In 1661 Charles II. re- 
 stored him to his former position. 
 
 Baskerville, John {h. 1706. d. 1775), a 
 writing master of Birmingham, who effected 
 gi-eat improvements in typography. 
 
 Bassal, Jean (b. 1752, d. 1802), a French 
 priest and revolutionist. He was elected 
 secretary of the Convention ; was president 
 of the Jacobins ; accompanied Championnet 
 to Italy, and was imprisoned with htm. 
 
 Bassano, Giacomo da Ponte, H Vecchio 
 (b. 1510, d. 1592), an ItaUan painter, a 
 native of Bassano, from which he took his 
 name. He is best known for his landscape 
 and animal painting. 
 
 Bassano, Francesco (b. 1548, d. 1591), son 
 of the preceding, and also a painter of note. 
 He committed suicide from a morbid fear of 
 the Inquisition. 
 
 Bassano, Hugues Bernard Maret, Duke 
 of {b. 1763, d. 1839), a French statesman 
 and writer. He was closely associated with 
 Napoleon from the first, was employed on 
 several missions by him and held high 
 offices. In 1811 he was ennobled and made 
 minister of foreign affairs. After Waterloo 
 he was banished, but in 1830 he was re- 
 habilitated. 
 
 Bassantin, James {b. 1504, d. 1568), a 
 Scottish mathematician and astronomer, 
 and professor at the University of Paris. 
 
 Basse, William, a minor poet of the 
 reign of James I., who wrote an epitaph on 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Basseville, Nicolas Jean Hugou de 
 {d. 1793), a French politician and writer. 
 He made the acquaintance of Mirabeau in 
 Berlin, where he attained some literary dis- 
 tinction. After editing pa^jers in Paris, he 
 was sent by the National Assembly to 
 Naples and Rome, where he was murdered 
 by the mob. 
 
 Bassl, Laura Maria (b. 1711, d. 1778), a 
 learned lady of Bologna, who took the 
 degree of doctor of philosophy at the age 
 of 21, and was professor of philosophy at 
 Bologna. 
 
 Bassl, Ugo (J). 1804, d. 1849), an Italian 
 priest and nationalist. In 1848 he joined 
 the Roman volunteers ; and he was attached 
 to the Garibaldi Legion during the siege of 
 Rome, acting as chaplain, medical assistant, 
 and combatant. Later, he was taken by the 
 Austrians, and after the crown of his head 
 and the palms of his hands had been flayed, 
 he was executed. 
 
 Bassompierre, Fran9ois, Baron de {b. 1579, 
 d. 1646) , a French noble, and an important 
 figure in the court of Henry IV. He 
 distinguished himself as a soldier, was 
 made colonel of the Swiss Guards and a 
 Marshal of France, and was employed on 
 important embassies. Through the disfavour 
 of Richelieu he was imprisoned in the Bas- 
 tille for ten years, where he wrote his 
 Memoirs. 
 
 Bastard, D'Estang, Dominic Francois 
 Marie. Comte de (b. 1783, d. 1844), a dis- 
 tinguished French jurist, who was made a 
 peer of France and president of the cour 
 de cassation. 
 
 Bastard, Thomas {d. 1618), an English 
 clergyman and a notable wit. His sallies 
 made him many enemies, and he died in a 
 debtor's prison. 
 
 Basti, Pierre {b. 1768, d. 1814). a French 
 admiral, who rose to that rank from the 
 position of a common sailor. He served 
 with distinction in the war of 1808 against 
 Spain, and was ennobled by Napoleon. 
 
 Bastian, Henry Charlton {b. 1837), an 
 eminent physician and biologist, professor of 
 pathological anatomy at University College. 
 He has wi'itten much on the origin of Qie 
 lower organisms. 
 
 Bastiat, Frederick (Jb. 1801, d. 1850), a 
 French political economist noted for his early 
 advocacy of free trade. He was a member of 
 the Legislative Assembly of 1848. 
 
 Bastide, Jules (i. 1800, d. 1879), a French 
 politician and writer. He was actively 
 engaged in the revolution of 1830, and was 
 condemned to death for sharing in the 
 Grenoble insurrection of 1832, but escaped to 
 London. After editing several papers, he 
 became minister of foreign affairs in 1848. 
 
 Bastien-Lepage, Jules (b. 1848, d. 1885), 
 a French painter of high repute as an 
 impressionist. His fame was secured by his 
 Joan of Arc Brooding in the Garden. 
 
 Baston, Robert, a Yorkshire monk, and 
 poet-laureate to Edward I., by whom he 
 was taken to Scotland in 1304 to celebrate 
 his triumphs. Taken prisoner by the Scots, 
 he was compelled to buy his freedom by 
 singing the deeds of Robert Bruce. 
 
 Bastwick, John (*. 1593, d. 1650), an 
 English physician and theological contro- 
 versialist. For his denunciation of the 
 extreme pretensions of the episcopacy he was 
 heavily fined and imprisoned, and had his ears 
 cut off. He was liberated and indemnified 
 after the Civil war. 
 
 Batbie, Anselme Polycarpe (b. 1828), a 
 French politician and vsrriter on legal and 
 economical subjects. In 1870 he abandoned
 
 Bat 
 
 (107) 
 
 Bat 
 
 his work as professor of jurisprudence for 
 political lLfe,and was returned to theNational 
 Assembly of 1 870 as a monarchist. He was 
 an active opponent of Thiers, and in 1873 
 held a portfolio in the Due de Broglie's ad- 
 ministration. 
 
 Bate, Charles Speuce {h. 1819), an English 
 zoologist, and an eminent authority on the 
 crustacean order and other of the lower 
 forms of animal life. He is also in active 
 practice as a dentist, and in 1885 was Presi- 
 dent of the Odontological Association of 
 England. 
 
 Bateman, Kate Josephine {b. 1842), 
 American actress, who appeared on the 
 London stage when only eight years old, 
 and afterwards in 1863 gained a high 
 reputation by her acting in King Lear, 
 
 Bates, Henry "Walter (fi. 1825), a dis- 
 tinguished entomologist. He started with 
 Mr. Alfred Eussel Wallace, in 1848, on a 
 naturaUstic expedition to the Amazon 
 valley, and remained there eleven years, 
 returning with observations and collections 
 of exceptionally high value. The record of 
 his visit proved very popular. He is now 
 the secretary of the Royal Geographical 
 Society. 
 
 Bates, Joah {b. 1740, d. 1799), a gifted 
 musician, director of the "concerts of 
 ancient music," and organiser of the great 
 Handel festival of 1784. He held several 
 ofl&ces in the Civil Service. 
 
 Bates, William (b. 1625, d. 1709), a cele- 
 brated Nonconformist divine. He was 
 appointed chaplain to Charles II., but refus- 
 ing to subscribe to the Act of Uniformity, in 
 1662, he lost his appointments and hopes of 
 preferment. He was a popular preacher. 
 
 Bathe or Bathonia, Henry de {d. 1261), 
 an English judge of the reign of Henry III. 
 In 1251 he was arraigned before Parliament 
 for bribery and treason, but although the 
 king endeavoured to procure his undoing, his 
 friends were too numerous and powerful, and 
 he was restored to oiRce. 
 
 Bathilde, Saint {d. 680), a beautiful and 
 virtuous Anglo-Saxon lady, who was 
 carried into slavery, and coming under the 
 notice of Clovis II., became his wife. She 
 acted as regent during the minority of her 
 son, Clotaire III. 
 
 Bathory, Stephen {d. 158G), King of 
 Poland. As the ruler of Transylvania he 
 succeeded Henry of Anjou to the throne of 
 Poland in 1575. The beneficence of his rule 
 and the success of his arms againstRussia and 
 Austria have made him famous. 
 
 Bathurst, Allen, Earl {b. 1684, d. 1775), 
 politician, entered Parliament as a supporter 
 
 of Harley, and in 1711 was, with others, 
 created a peer to overwhelm the Whig 
 majority. He was true to his leaders when 
 Walpole came into office, and in 1757 was 
 treasurer to George III., then Prince of 
 Wales. 
 
 Bathurst, Henry, Earl (b. 1714, d. 1794), 
 son of the preceding. He represented 
 Cirencester till 1754, when he was raised to 
 the bench, and in 1771 was created Lord 
 Chancellor, resigning the oiiice in 1778. 
 
 Bathyani, Casimir, Count [b. 1807, 
 d. 1854), a Hungarian noble, who played a 
 prominent part in the Hungarian revolution 
 of 1848. He held command in the National 
 forces, and when Kossuth was appointed 
 governor of independent Hungary, Bathyani 
 accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs. 
 In 1849 Gorgei's assumption of the dictator- 
 ship induced Bathyaui to surrender his 
 army to the Russians, and together with 
 Kossuth he escaped to Turkey. 
 
 Bathyani, Louis {b. 1809, «?. 1849), a 
 Hungarian statesman and patriot. After 
 much travel he entered political life and 
 became a zealous supporter of Kossuth. In 
 1847 he accepted office under the Archduke 
 Stephen, endeavouring to maintain the 
 political union with Austria, for which 
 purpose he visited Vienna. After the out- 
 break of the revolution he was taken 
 prisoner and shot. 
 
 Batinskcov, Constantine Nicholaird 
 {b. 1787, d. 1816), Russian poet of high 
 estimation, and imperial Ubrarian at St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 Batman, Stephen {b. 1537, d. 1587), an 
 English divine and poet, who filled the 
 office of librarian to Archbishop Parker. 
 
 BatO. The name borne by two insurrec- 
 tionary chiefs in the reign of the Emperor 
 Augustus. Their joint forces were at length 
 defeated by Germanicus (a.d. 8), but one of 
 them having killed the other, the survivor 
 again revolted, surrendering however on the 
 promise of pardon. 
 
 Batoni, Pompeo (b. 1708, d. 1787), a 
 notable Italian painter of the Florentine 
 school, whose work, founded on a study of 
 the old masters, did much to revive their 
 prestige. 
 
 Battishill, Jonathan (b. 1731, d. 1801), 
 English musical composer, best known for 
 his sacred pieces, although in earlier years 
 he produced opera music. 
 
 Batu Khan, a great Mogul chief, rulei 
 (1223) of the Kapzac provinces on the 
 Vistula. He joined the expedition of Octal, 
 his uncle, against China, and commanded a 
 large division of the army which invaded
 
 Bat 
 
 (108) 
 
 Bax 
 
 Europe, ravaging Poland, Silesia, Moldavia, 
 Hungary and Dalmatia. 
 
 Batula, Ibn, Moorisli traveller of the 
 14th century. After visiting Africa and 
 South-eastern Europe, he crossed the Hin- 
 doo Khoosh mountains and reached Delhi 
 in 1341. He was taken into high favour by 
 the emperor, and later sent au embassy to 
 China. Returning to Tangiers in 1348, he 
 Bet out to explore Africa, and reached 
 Timbuctoo. He left a record of his travels. 
 
 Batz, Jean, Baron de (/;. 1760, d. 1883), 
 French general, distinguished himself as 
 a financier iu the States General ; but in 
 1794 he was proscribed for attemptLtig to 
 rescue Louis XVI. and his queen. He 
 ■was made a marshal on the restoration. 
 
 Baude, Henri {b. 1430, d. 1495), French 
 poet, greatly esteemed by his contempo- 
 raries, and a rival of Villon. A poem 
 satirising the court brought imprisonment 
 on him. 
 
 Baudissin, Wolf Heinrich Friederich 
 Karl, Count of {b. 1789), a Danish littera- 
 teur. He entered the diplomatic service, 
 but left it for literature, and settling in 
 Dresden he became intimate with Tieck 
 and Schlegel. Together they translated all 
 Shakespeare's plays, and Baudissin also 
 wrote a book on Ben Jonson and his school. 
 
 Baudrand, Marie Etienne Fran(;ois Henri 
 (i. 1774, d. 1848), one of Napoleon's generals, 
 promoted from the ranks. After the 1830 
 revolution he was made a peer. 
 
 Baudry, Paul Jacques Aime {b. 1828, d. 
 1886), French painter, who won the Grand 
 Frix de Rome iu 1850, and exhibited with 
 much success in the Salon. He spent ten 
 years iu decorating the boxes and galleries 
 of the Grand Opera. 
 
 Bauer, Bruno {b. 1809, d. 1882), a German 
 biblical critic, whose vrritings procured his 
 explusion from the chair of theology at Bonn, 
 inl842. ^^ ^ 
 
 Baulot or Beaulieu, Jacques (b. 1651, 
 d. 1720), a poor Frenchman, who under the 
 name of Fr^re Jacques acquired a great 
 reputation as a lithotomist. Only late in 
 life did he receive any instruction iu 
 anatbmy, and then he operated at the Hotel 
 Dieu of Paris, while a medal was struck at 
 Amsterdam as a recognition of his services 
 in that city. 
 
 Baume, Antoine {b. 1728, d. 1804), a dis- 
 tinguished French chemist. He established 
 the first European manufactory of sal- 
 ammoniac, and invented an areometer. He 
 left numerous works. 
 
 Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb (4. 1714, 
 
 d. 1762), German philosopher, known as 
 the originator of the aesthetic philosophy. 
 
 Baumgartner, Andreas [b. 1793, d. 1865), 
 an Austrian scientist, and professor of phy- 
 sics at Vienna university. Subsequently he 
 became minister of public works and com- 
 merce. From 1826 to 1837 he conducted 
 the Journal of Physics and Mathematics, 
 
 Baune, Eugene (b. 1799, rf. 1880), an active 
 French politician. He joined the Carbonari 
 in 1830, and fought in the revolution of 1848. 
 Later he was a leading member of the 
 "Moimtain " party, and for his opposition 
 to Louis Napoleon was banished. 
 
 Bavaria, Kings of. 1. MAxruuLiAN 
 Joseph I. (b. 1766, d. 1825), succeeded to 
 the Electorate in 1799, and in 1805 sided 
 with Napoleon, who created him king, and 
 granted him an accession of territory. Iu 
 1813, his new title haviug been acknowledged 
 by treaty, he joined the allies. 2. Louis I. 
 (b. 1786, d. 1868) succeeded the preceding. 
 He was a man of refined tastes, and his 
 reign began auspiciously : but he incurred 
 the odium of his subjects by his submission 
 to unworthy influences, and abdicated in 
 1848. 3. Maxtmtlian IL (b. 1811, d. 1864) 
 succeeded the preceding. He ruled with a 
 strong hand, and held aloof from federation 
 with Germany. 4. Louis II. {b. 1845, 
 d. 1886) succeeded the preceding, a weak 
 ruler. He allowed Bavaria to fight with 
 Austria against Prussia in 1866, but joined 
 the German States against France in 1870. 
 He it was who offered King William the 
 title of German Emperor. He was deposed 
 in 1886, as being of iinsound mind, and soon 
 after committed suicide. 
 
 Bavaux, Francois Nicolas (b. 1774, d. 1848), 
 a French jurist, and professor of law in the 
 school of Paris. In 1819 he was prosecuted 
 for anti-royalist tendencies, but was ac- 
 quitted. In 1830 he joined the revolution, 
 and was made prefect of pohce, but at once 
 entered into opposition of the Government. 
 
 Baxter, Andrew {b. 1686, d. 1750), a Scot- 
 tish metaphysician, known as the author of 
 An Enqtiiry into the Nature of the Human 
 Soul. 
 
 Baxter, Richard (b. 1615, d. 1691), a cele- 
 brated divine and preacher. He was or- 
 dained in 1638, and in 1640 obtained a living 
 at Kidderminster, where he soon obtamed a 
 reputation for his oratory. During the Civil 
 war he was with the army of the Parliament 
 preaching to the soldiers, though he refused 
 to support Cromwell in his assumption of the 
 Protectorship. On the Restoration he was 
 appointed one of the royal chaplains, and 
 offered the see of Hereford, which he de- 
 clined. In 1662 he refused to subscribe to 
 the Act of Uniformity, and sulfered much
 
 Baz 
 
 (109) 
 
 Baz 
 
 persecution in consequence, being sent to 
 prison in 1685 by Judge JeiiEreys. Of his 
 many writings, the Gall to the Unconverted, 
 and Tli,e Saint's Everlasting Rest, obtained a 
 remarkable popularity. 
 
 Baxter, WilHam Edward {b. 1825, d. 1890), 
 a distinguished public man. In 1855 he 
 entered Parliament as member for Montrose, 
 in succession to Hume. He twice held 
 office under Mr. Gladstone, and was a Privy 
 Councillor. The impressions of his extensive 
 travels are published. 
 
 Bayard, Pierre duTerrail (6. 1475, «?. 1524), 
 a French knight of noble birth, who Uves in 
 history as the highest and best type of the 
 age of chivalry. Entering the service of 
 Charles VIII., he distinguished himself by 
 his prowess in tournaments, and in 1495, at 
 the battle of Formova, his daring was 
 conspicuous. In 1503, in the war against 
 the Spaniards in the kingdom of Naples, 
 he single-handed stopped a force of 200 from 
 crossing the bridge over the GarigUano ; 
 and he fought wirh equal gallantry in all 
 the wars of Louis XII. and Francis I., the 
 latter sovereign insisting upon being knighted 
 by Bayard alone. In 1524 Bayard was sent 
 to Italy to assist Bonuivet in the war against 
 Charles v., and while conducting a retreat 
 which Bonnivet's rashness had necessitated 
 he was mortally wounded. His death was 
 as noble as his life, and the Spaniards, with 
 all honours, rendered up to the French the 
 body of the ^^ chevalier' sans peur et sans re- 
 proche." 
 
 Bayan, Pierre {b. 1725, d. 1798), a distin- 
 guished French chemist, and the conductor 
 of much original and valuable research. 
 Many of his most valuable memoirs were 
 destroyed in the Reign of Terror. 
 
 Bayer, Gottheb Siegfried {b. 1694, d. 
 1731), a profound German philologist, and 
 student of oriental languages, including 
 Chinese. In 1726 he visited Russia, where 
 he died. 
 
 Bayer, Johann (b. 1572, d. 1625), grand- 
 father of the preceding, and a laborious 
 astronomical investigator. He first instituted 
 the use of Greek letters to distinguish the 
 members of a constellation in the place of 
 the Arabic names. 
 
 Bayer, Karl Emmerich Robert (b. 1835), a 
 popular Austrian noveUst who served for 
 some time in the army, and whose works 
 are mostly founded on his military experi- 
 ence. 
 
 Bayeu y Subias, Francesco (b. 1734, d. 
 1795), a notable Spanish artist, who was 
 appointed royal painter by Charles V. 
 
 Bayle, Pieri'e {b. 1647, d. 1706), a pro- 
 minent French man of letters. He became 
 
 professor of philosophy in the Protestant 
 academy of Sedan, and in that position 
 wrote a defence of the Duke of Luxembourg 
 against a charge of sorcery, and also pub- 
 lished several controversial essays. The 
 Sedan academy being suppressed, Bayle 
 accepted the chair of history and philosophy 
 at Rotterdam, and his critique on Maine- 
 bourg's History of Calvinism, written at 
 this time, created a great sensation. In 
 1684 he founded the periodical, Les Nou- 
 velles de la Republique des Lettres, and soon 
 afterwards he lost his professorship through 
 the intrigues of enemies. His great work, 
 Dictionnmre Historique et Critique, was pro- 
 duced in 1697. 
 
 Bayley, Sir Edward Clive (6. 1821,^. 1884), 
 a distinguished Indian Civil servant. In 
 1849 he was Under Secretary, and in 1861 
 Secretary for Foreign Affairs in the Indian 
 Government. In 1862 he was transferred 
 to the Home Office, where he remained ten 
 years. He wrote on archaeological subjects. 
 
 Bayley, Sir John [b. 1763, d. 1841), an 
 able judge of the King's Bench from 1808 
 to 1830, and the author of a standard work 
 on bills of exchange. 
 
 Bayly, Thomas Haynes {b. 1797, d. 1839), 
 a writer of considerable talent. He wrote a 
 great many slight dramatic pieces, one or 
 two novels, and some volumes of songs and 
 ballads, among which were The Mistletoe 
 Bough, and 8he wore a Wreath of Roses. 
 
 Bayly, William (d. 1810), an eminent 
 astronomer, of hiuiible parentage. In 1769 
 he was commissioned by the Royal Society 
 to observe the transit of Venus, and in 1772 
 he went round the world with Captain 
 Cook. 
 
 Bayne, Peter (6. 1830), writer, has contri- 
 buted largely to many newspapers and maga- 
 zines ; has written of the Puritan period ; 
 and has published several volumes of critical 
 essays, and is author of a Life of Luther. 
 
 Baynes, Thomas Spencer (b. 1823, d. 1887), 
 a journalist and professor of logic and men- 
 tal philosophy. He was editor of the 
 Encyclopcedia Brittanica. 
 
 Bayruth, Sophie Wilhelmina, Margravine 
 of (*. 1709, d. 1758), sister of Frederick the 
 Great, and writer of interesting memoirs of 
 the court of Prussia. 
 
 Baz Bahadur (d. 1572), the last king of 
 Malwah and successor of Bahadur Shah, 
 reigned seventeen years. He fled from 
 Maiidoo on the invasion of the Emperor 
 Akbar, wandering from state to state. 
 Tradition has woven many romantic tales 
 around the story of his life. 
 
 Bazaine, Francois Achille {b. 1811, <^. 1888),
 
 Baz 
 
 (110) 
 
 Bea 
 
 a French general. He saw active service in 
 Algeria and Spain, and commanded a di- 
 vision in the Crimean war, the Kinburn 
 exiJedition, and the Italian war. In 1862 
 he held chief command ia Mexico, and was 
 created Marshal of France on his return. 
 He commanded the army of the Rhine at the 
 outbreak of the Franco -German war, and 
 was shut up ia Metz. After a three mouths' 
 siege he surrendered with 170,000 men. 
 For this he was tried by a military tribunal 
 in 1871, and sentenced to degradation and 
 imprisonment for life. He escaped by 
 violating his parole, and settled in Madrid, 
 where he died. 
 
 Bazalgette, Sir Joseph William (i. 1819, 
 d. 1890), a distinguished engineer. As the 
 official of the Metropolitan Board of Works 
 he devised an original scheme for the drain- 
 age of Loudon, and designed the Victoria, 
 Albert and Chelsea embankments. 
 
 Bazancoiirt, Caesar, Baron de (J. 1810, d. 
 1865), a French litterateur. He was sent by 
 the French Government to the Crimea to 
 record the incidents of the war ; and he was 
 also the author of romances and other 
 histories. 
 
 Bazhenov, VasiU Ivanovich {b. 1737, d. 
 1799), a Russian architect of note, employed 
 by Catherine in the reconstruction of the 
 Kremlin at Moscow. The work proved so 
 costly that when a portion of the designs 
 was completed Catherine had the structure 
 demolished. 
 
 Bazley, Sir Thomas (J. 1797, d. 1885), 
 a large Manchester cotton-spinner, and 
 member for that city from 1858 to 1880. 
 He took part in Bright and Cobden's Free 
 Trade agitation. 
 
 Beach, Sir Michael Edward Hicks- (6. 
 1837), a prominent politician, who has 
 sat in Parliament as a Conservative since 
 1864. He was first Irish Secretary in the 
 Government of 1874, and later Secretary for 
 the Colonies. In 1885 he became Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer in Lord Salisbury's Govern- 
 ment, and leader of the House of Commons, 
 and va. 1886 was Irish Secretary, when a 
 disease of the eyes compelled him to retire 
 from public life. In 1888 he again entered 
 the Salisbury Cabinet as President of the 
 Board of Trade. 
 
 Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, first Earl 
 of (6. 1805, d. 1881), statesman and novelist, 
 the son of Isaac D' Israeli. He first 
 attracted attention by the publication of 
 his novel Vivian Grey, in 1827. After 
 four years' travel iu Eastern Europe he 
 appeared as a parliamentary candidate at 
 High Wycombe, in 1832, but was unsuc- 
 cessful ; in 1837, however, he was returned 
 for Maidstone. A certain extravagance 
 
 of dress and manner provoked an imf avour- 
 able reception in the House, but he soon 
 became a prominent political figure, while 
 his novels Con'mgshy and Sibyl secured 
 him a very high literary reputation. When 
 Sir Robert Peel declared for Free Trade, 
 Disraeli at once stepped to the front of 
 the Tory party, though imtil the death of 
 Lord George Beutinck, in 1848, he was not 
 nominally leader. He was Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer in Lord Derby's brief adminis- 
 tration before the coalition government of 
 1852, and again in 1858, when he introduced 
 his Reform Bill, which wrecked the Govern- 
 ment. In 1866 he returned to power again, 
 and carried a new Reform Bill, but was 
 defeated at the general election, and re- 
 mained in opposition vmtil 1874. Then 
 he became Prime Minister, and in 1877 
 was created Earl of Beaconsfield. The 
 chief activity of his last government was 
 displayed in foreign politics, and his part 
 in the treaty of Berlin won him great 
 popularity. In the elections of 1880, how- 
 ever, his party was crushingly defeated, and 
 he only survived the disaster a year. 
 
 Beale, Mary (6. 1632, d. 1697), a portrait 
 painter of some note, and a less admirable 
 writer of poetry. 
 
 Beaton, David (6. 1494, d. 1546), a famous 
 Scottish ecclesiastic, and Cardinal Archbishop 
 of St. Andrew's, in which office'.he succeeded 
 his uncle. By this uncle's influence he was 
 appointed to several high offices in the State, 
 and in 1530 was sent on a mission to France, 
 where he resided for some years, being^ in 
 high favour with the French king. In 1538 
 he was created cardinal, and in 1539 Primate 
 of Scotland, when he entered upon a fierce 
 persecution of heretics. His attempt to 
 seize the regency was frustrated by Arran, 
 by whom he was imprisoned, but his great 
 influence compelled Arran to rehabilitate 
 him. His determined enmity against Eng- 
 land greatly enraged Henry VIII. He was 
 murdered at St. Andrew's in 1546. 
 
 Beaton, James [d. 1539), uncle of the 
 preceding, and Archbishop of St. Andrew's, 
 to which office he was elevated in 1523. He 
 was Lord High Treasurer to James VI. . and 
 Chancellor in the regency of the Duke of 
 Albany. The accession of Angus to supreme 
 power brought imprisonment on Beaton, and 
 afterwards he spent some years in hiuiug. 
 He was restored on the accession of James. 
 
 Beaton, James (6. 1523, d. 1603), grand 
 nephew of the preceding, and Archbishop of 
 Glasgow. He negotiated the marriage 
 between Mary and the French dauphin, 
 and was afterwards ambassador at Paris for 
 Mary and James VI. 
 
 Beatrice Portinari (6. 1266, d. 1290), a 
 lady of Florence, known to the world as the
 
 Bea 
 
 (111) 
 
 Bea 
 
 Beatrice of Dante's poems. She married 
 Simeone de Bardi. 
 
 Beattie, James (6. 1735, d. 1803), philoso- 
 pher and poet. At first a schoolmaster, he 
 was appointed, in 1760, professor of logic 
 and moral philosophy in the Marischal col- 
 lege, Aberdeen. He occupied the post for 
 forty years, and his lectures were highly 
 popular. In 1770 he published his Nature 
 and Immutability of Truth, which excited 
 the gi-eatest attention, and won him a 
 pension of £200. Coming to London, he 
 became acquainted with Dr. Johnson, Gold- 
 smith and other men of the day, and 
 published his poem, Tlie Minstrel. The 
 Evidences of the Christian Religion ap- 
 peared in 1786, but when his celebrity was 
 at its zenith his health failed under a series 
 of domestic afflictions, and he died of palsy. 
 
 Beauchamp, AUonse (6. 1767, d. 1832), a 
 French historical writer, at one time a 
 Boldier in the Sardinian army. His His- 
 tory of La Vendee was suppressed by the 
 Directory because of certain inconvenient 
 revelations. 
 
 Beauchamp, Joseph (6. 1752, d. 1801), a 
 distinguished French astronomer who spent 
 much time in the East. Napoleon sent him 
 on a secret mission to Constantinople in 
 1799, when he was nearly executed as a spy. 
 
 Beauclerk, Topham (6. 1739, d. 1780), one 
 of the famous Johnson circle, and grandson 
 of the first Duke of St. Albans. Although 
 addicted to fashionable vices, he had wit 
 and culture, and was held in considerable 
 regard by Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Beaufort, Sir Francis (6. 1774, d. 1857), a 
 naval officer, who distinguished himself by 
 several brilliant actions in the French and 
 Spanish wars. He was made head of the 
 Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty 
 in 1829, his work there being of great 
 value. 
 
 Beaufort, Francois de Vend6me, Due de 
 (6. 1C16, d. 1669), grandson of Henry IV. 
 He fought for Anne of Austria against the 
 Duke of Orleans, and afterwards joined the 
 Fronde. Under Louis XIV. he was placed 
 in command of the navy, and served against 
 the English and Turks. 
 
 Beaufort, Henry (d. 1447), cardinal and 
 Btatesman, and son of John of Gaunt. He 
 was Lord Chancellor to Henry IV. ; in 1404 
 he became Bishop of Winchester, in 1417 
 he took part in the Council of Constance, 
 and in 1427 he was made ceirdinaL 
 
 Beaufort, Margaret (6. 1441, d. 1609), 
 Countess of Eichmond and Derby, and a 
 woman of much learning. She foimded 
 Christ's College, Cambridge, and endowed 
 Beveral chairs. 
 
 Beaufort d'Hautpoul, Charles Marie 
 Napoleon {h. 1804), a French general of 
 distinction, who served in Syria and Egypt, 
 but most notably in Algeria. 
 
 Beaufort d'Hautpoul, Edouard (6. 1782, 
 d. 1831), a French miUtary engineer who 
 served through Napoleon's campaigns and 
 was made a peer, minister of war, and 
 chief engineer of Paris by Louis XVIII. 
 
 ^Beaufort de Thorigny, Jean Baptiste (6. 
 1761, d. 1825), a French general who rose 
 from the ranks. He was placed at the head 
 of the troops of Paris, against Eobespierre, 
 and was later imprisoned as a conspirator 
 against the First Consul. 
 
 Beauhamais, Alexander, Vicomte de (6. 
 1760, d. 1794), a French general who served 
 in America, and was afterwards a member 
 of the French States General and president 
 of the National Assembly. He was be- 
 headed for alleged treason in connection 
 with the siege of Mayeuce. 
 
 Beauhamais, Eugene (6. 1781, d. 1824), 
 one of the most brilliant of Napoleon's 
 generals, and son of the preceding. The 
 marriage of Napoleon with his mother 
 secured for him a place on Napoleon's stafE 
 in Italy and Egypt, and his gallantry in 
 several battles brought rapid promotion, 
 and fitnally he was appointed Viceroy of 
 Italy and Prince of Venice. In 1809 Italy 
 was invaded by the Austrians, but they 
 were defeated by Eugene, who carried the 
 war successfully across the frontier. He 
 held a high command in the Russian cam- 
 paign, and his masterly conduct of the 
 retreat, at the most critical period, won 
 Napoleon's open admiration. A second 
 invasion of Italy by the Austrians Eugene 
 resisted with varying success, when Napo- 
 leon's abdication ended the war, and the 
 Viceroy retired to Munich, where he died. 
 
 Beaulieu, Augustin (6. 1589, d. 1637), a 
 French navigator, who left records of hia 
 voyages of the highest value. 
 
 BeauUeu, Jean Pierre, Baron de {b. 1725, 
 d. 1820), a Belgian, who served in the 
 Austrian artillery during the Seven Years' 
 war, and commanded the Netherland 
 troops against the French with success. 
 In 1796, as general in chief in Italy, he 
 was defeated by Napoleon. 
 
 Beaulieu, Sebastien de Pontault, Sire de 
 {d. 1674), a distinguished French military 
 engineer of the reign of Louis XIV., and 
 author of Les Gloi'ieuses ConquHes de Louis 
 le Grand. 
 
 Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de 
 {b. 1732, d. 1799), a man of many-sided 
 genius, was the son of a watchmaker. 
 After writing verse successfully he adopted
 
 Bea 
 
 ( 112 
 
 Bea 
 
 his father's trade, invented an improve- 
 ment in the works of watches, and became 
 horologer to Louis XV. His musical ac- 
 complishments procured him a place iu the 
 roj'ai concerts, and he became rich by the 
 fortunes of two widows whom he married, 
 and by successful financial speculation. 
 Becoming involved in litigation, he gained 
 considerable reputation as an advocate in 
 conducting his own case before the courts. 
 He made another fortune by supplying 
 arms and provisions to the Americans 
 during the war of Independence, and 
 then turned to dramatic writing, producing 
 several highly successful pieces. In 1793 
 he was accused of treason to the State, and 
 fled to England. Eetumiug to France, he 
 was for some time imprisoned, and finally 
 died in poverty. 
 
 Beaiune, Joseph (6. 1798), a French his- 
 torical painter, whose principal work con- 
 sists of a series of pictures illustrating the 
 great battles of Napoleon. 
 
 Beaumelle, Laurent Angliviel de la (6. 
 1726, d. 1773), a French litterateur, best 
 known for his hostility to Voltaire. His 
 criticisms of Voltaire drove him from Berlin 
 to Paris, where he was thrown into the 
 Bastille, to the confinement of which he 
 returned in 1756, after publishing his 
 Memoirs of Madame Maintenon. After a 
 long exile, he secured a pension. 
 
 Beaumont, Basil (6. 1669, d. 1703), an 
 English admiral, who first distinguished 
 himself at the blockade of Dunquerque, 
 and whose last service was a second 
 blockade of the same port. 
 
 Beaumont, Francis (6. 1584, d. 1616), an 
 English dramatist. Designed for the law, 
 he left it for the pursuit of literature, and 
 in collaboration with Fletcher produced a 
 number of plays which rank high in the 
 literature of the Elizabethan period. 
 
 Beaumont, William (6. 1796, d. 1853), a 
 surgeon in the United States army. A 
 remarkable casualty on the battle-field 
 enabled him to make observations of the 
 process of digestion which were of the 
 highest value. 
 
 Beaumont de la Bonniere, Gustave 
 Auguste (6. 1802, d. 1866), French politician 
 and writer. In 1831 he was sent to the 
 United States to report on the prison system 
 there, and his memoir on the subject was 
 highly esteemed. He took an active part in 
 ptilitics, was sent on several embassies, and 
 was imprisoned after the coup d''etat. 
 
 Beaumont de la Bonniere, Marc Antoine, 
 Comte de (6. 1760, d. 1830), French soldier, 
 W£i3 condemned to death at Lyons for 
 opposing the revolutionary excesses, but 
 
 was rescued by his regiment, and after- 
 wards served in Napoleon's campaigns, 
 and was ennobled by Louis XVIII. 
 
 Beaumont-Vassy, Edward Ferdinand de 
 la Bonniere, Vicomte de (6. 1816, d. 1875), 
 French writer and politician. After publish- 
 ing several successful novels, he was sent on 
 a mission to Sweden, after which he pro- 
 duced works on Swedish history. He held 
 ofiice under Napoleon III., but fell into dis- 
 grace, and spent the rest of his life in 
 writing novels and historical memoirs. 
 
 Beaunoir, Alexandre Louis Bertrand (6. 
 1746, d. 1823), French dramatist. His 
 distaste for the law procured his disin- 
 heritance, and he entered the Church, but 
 he had to resign his orders after the pro- 
 dtiction of his first drama. He obtained 
 office on the Boui'bon restoration. 
 
 Beauregard, Jean Nicolas (6. 1731, d. 
 1804), a French Jesuit, celebrated as a 
 preacher, and known to posterity for the 
 delivery of a remarkable prediction, in a 
 sermon before the court, of the atheistic 
 excesses of the revolution. 
 
 Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toussaint (6. 
 1818), a general of the Confederate army. 
 He took up the cause of the Southern States, 
 on their secession, and captui-ed Fort 
 Sumpter. He defeated Butler at Bull's 
 Run, and afterwards commanded the army 
 of the Mississippi. His obstinate defence of 
 Charleston is one of the remarkable episodes 
 of the Civil war. 
 
 Beaurepaire-Rohan, Henrique de (6. 
 
 1818), a Brazilian explorer, whose daring 
 explorations of the primeval regions of 
 Southern Brazil and Paraguay enabled him 
 to publish several works of great scientific 
 value. 
 
 Beausobre, Isaac (&. 1659, d. 1730), a 
 French Calviuist who, driven from France, 
 was received with honour in Holland and 
 Berlia. He wrote a Defence of Calvinism 
 against Lutherism, and a History of Mani- 
 cheism. 
 
 Beautemps-Beaupr^, Charles Francois, 
 (6. 1766, d. 1854), practically the first of 
 French hydrographers. When only nineteen 
 he was commissioned by the government to 
 complete the marine survey of the Baltic. 
 In 1798 he made a complete survey of the 
 coast of France. 
 
 Beauvais, Bertrand Poirier de (6. 1775, d. 
 1827), prominent French royalist, who held 
 command in the Vende'an army. He died 
 in England. 
 
 Beauvau, Charles Juste de (6. 1730, d. 
 1793), a chivalrous French soldier, who was 
 legarded as a second Bayard, In 1763, as
 
 Bea 
 
 (113) 
 
 Bee 
 
 couuuajidant of Languedoc, lie released, in 
 donauce oi the Court, fourteen women who 
 were imprisoned for Protestantism. He was 
 made Marshal of France in 1783. 
 
 Beauvau, Een^ Francois de (&. 1664, d. 
 1739), French prelate remembered for his 
 unselfish devotion to the people, and for the 
 high place which he held in their affections. 
 He was Bishop of Bayonne and then of 
 Toumay, and later Archbishop of Toulouse, 
 and finally of Narbonne. 
 
 Beauvois, Ambrose Palisot de (6. 1752, d. 
 
 1820), French naturalist, who visited the 
 west coast of Africa, San Domingo, and the 
 United States, and as a result of his patient 
 observation left several valuable works, to- 
 gether with a remarkable collection of speci- 
 mens. 
 
 Beauzee, Nicolas {b. 1717, d. 1789), a 
 French philologist, and a contributor to the 
 great Encyclopedia. Frederick the Great 
 in vain endeavoured to attract him to his 
 court. 
 
 Beaver, PhUip (6. 1766, d. 1813), an Eng- 
 liah naval officer who served in the Ameri- 
 can war, and in later life under Abercrombie 
 in the French war. He is best known, how- 
 ever, for his devoted but vm successful at- 
 tempt to establish a colony of free negroes 
 on the west coast of Africa. 
 
 Beccadelli, Lodovico (6. 1501, d. 1572), an 
 Italian prelate and biographer. He was 
 employed on several important missions by 
 the Pope, and came into intimate con- 
 nection with* Cardinals Bembo, Pole, and 
 Cbntarini, whose biographies he wrote. 
 
 Beccafumi, Domenico (sumamed Mecher- 
 ino) (6. 1484, d. 1549). Italian painter of 
 peasant birth, his untutored genius for paint- 
 ing asserted itself at an early age. His best 
 work is to be found at Siena. 
 
 Beccari Agostino (6. 1510, d. 1590), a 
 celebrated Italian poet, whose special genius 
 was not incompatible with a profound know- 
 ledge of law and philosophy. 
 
 Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana (6. 1738, 
 d. 1794), Italian reformer, a native of 
 Milan. He early became intimate with 
 Pietro Verri, the economist, whose influence 
 over him was great. Turning his attention 
 to the savage penal code of that time, he 
 published, when only twenty-six, a book 
 on Crimes and Punishments, in which he 
 advocated a more humane and just treat- 
 ment of social offenders. The vigour of his 
 style and the originality of his views gained 
 him a European celebrity. He was received 
 with honour in Paris, and was offered state 
 appointments by the Empress Catherine. He 
 filled for some years the chair of economy 
 at Milan. 
 
 Becerra, Gaspard (6. 1520, d, 1570), a 
 celebrated master of Spanish art, who ex- 
 celled as painter, sculptor, and architect. 
 He was employed by PhiUp II. 
 
 Becher, Alfred J. (6. 1804, d. 1848), a 
 German musician and critic, bom in Man- 
 chester. After leading an unsettled life in 
 Germany he obtained a professorship of 
 music in London, and in 1845 achieved 
 some reputation in Vienna as a critic and 
 composer. In 1848 he joined the revolution- 
 ary movement, started a journal, and was 
 soon after shot as a rebeL ' 
 
 Becher, Lady Elizabeth {b. 1792, d. 1872), 
 a tragic actress who in the early part of 
 the century was very popular in London. 
 She married Sir W. Becher, M.P. 
 
 Becher, Johann Joachim (6. 1635, d. 1682), 
 an inventive and erudite German, entirely 
 self-educated. He held the chair of medicine 
 at Mayence, and superintended the chemical 
 laboratory at Mimich ; and in Vienna he was 
 made a councillor of the chamber of com- 
 merce, in recognition of services to com- 
 mercial enterprise. He afterwards visited 
 Holland and England. 
 
 Bechstein, Johann Matthias (b. 1757, d. 
 1822), a very distinguished German natur- 
 alist. He published a Popular Natural Sis- 
 tory of Germany, and established a forest 
 school at Waltershausen. 
 
 Beck, Karl {b. 1817, d. 1879), Hungarian 
 poet, best known for his patriotic songs, 
 which had a great vogue. 
 
 Beck, Matthias Friedrich (J). 1649, d. 1701), 
 a German pastor at Augsburg, and one of 
 the first orientalists of his time. He de- 
 clined to leave his ministrations for the 
 imiversity chairs which were offered him. 
 
 Becker, Charles Ferdinand {b. 1804, d. 
 1877), a German musician of Leipzig. He 
 excelled as an organist, composed much, and 
 wrote several interesting works on music. 
 
 Becker, Ferdinand (A. 1740, d. 1810), a 
 Westphalian pastor, who devoted his life to 
 the education of the young. His books on 
 education were condemned as heretical, and 
 in consequence for a time he suffered im- 
 prisonment. 
 
 Becker, Jakob {b. 1810, d. 1872), a German 
 painter, native of Worms, whose fame chiefly 
 rests on his representation of scenes from 
 I contemporary German life. 
 
 Becker, Johann Philip (6. 1809), German 
 revolutionist. He edited a paper in Bavaria, 
 which several times brought imprisonment 
 upon him, and finally compelled his flight 
 to Switzerland. There his writings at- 
 tracted attention, and he became a leader of
 
 Bee 
 
 (114) 
 
 Bed 
 
 the German colony. In 1848, when the 
 revolution broke out in Germany, he led a 
 band of his followers into Baden, and in 
 1849 took part in the Carlsruhe rising. 
 Finally he settled to trade in Geneva, where 
 he made a f ortime. 
 
 Becker, Karl Friedrich {b. 1777, d. 1806), 
 German historian, whose works are much 
 used for educational purposes. His chief 
 work is Die Weltgeschiehte filr Kinder und 
 Kinderlehrer. 
 
 Becker, Nicolaus {b. 1816, d. 1845), a 
 German poet, whose fame rests on the 
 authorship of a single poem, Die Wacht 
 am Rhein, now simg as a national song. 
 
 Becker, Wilhehn Adolf {b. 1796, d. 1846), 
 a German scholar, and profound student of 
 the antiquities and classics of Greece and 
 Kome. His works are authoritative on the 
 manners and life of the classical age. 
 
 Beckerath, Hermann de (6. 1801, d. 1870), 
 German poHtician, who for some time was 
 a prominent figure in the Prussian Diets 
 as a Liberal. In 1848 he was minister of 
 finance, and he was always a strong oppo- 
 nent of Austrian dominance. 
 
 Backet, GUbert a (6. 1810, d. 1856), 
 
 humorist and journalist, whose writings 
 
 were popular in his day. He was magis- 
 trate at Southwark. 
 
 Becket, St. Thomas a (6. 1119, d. 1170). 
 The son of a London merchant, he obtained 
 the patronage of Theobald, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, who made him archdeacon, and 
 employed him in missions at Rome. Henry 
 II. took him into his favour, made him his 
 chancellor and gave him lands, by which 
 Becket was enabled to maintain great 
 pomp. In 1162 he succeeded Theobald 
 as Archbishop of Canterbury, and im- 
 mediately changed his habit of life. He 
 turned ascetic, and instead of deferring to 
 the king's pleasure, he opposed him strongly 
 on the question of the privileges of the 
 clergy. In 11 64 the Constitutions of Claren- 
 don were passed, which Becket only agrreed 
 to reluctantly, and renounced on the Pope's 
 disapproval of them. In the same year a 
 council at Nottingham proclaimed the for- 
 feiture of his goods and the confiscation of 
 the revenues of his see ; and the archbishop 
 fled to France. In 1170 he returned, and 
 promptly excommunicated the Archbishop 
 of York and other prelates who had usurped 
 his functions during his expatriation. The 
 king was incensed at this action, and four 
 of his retinue, in the hope of gaining Henry's 
 favour, set off for Canterbury and murdered 
 the Archbishop. 
 
 Beckett, Sir Edmund. 
 Lord.] 
 
 [^See Grimthorpe, 
 
 Beckett, Isaac (6. 1653, d. 1719), on* of 
 the earliest and the be^t of English engravers 
 in mezzo -tinto. 
 
 Beckford, William (6. 1760, d. 1844), an 
 English millionaire and distinguished author. 
 When only twenty he published a clever 
 satire. Biographical Memoirs of Extraor- 
 dinary Painters. After some foreign travel 
 he entered Parliament, and published his 
 great work, The Romance of Vathek,_ in 
 the French language, a book which excited 
 the widest admiration. The chief episodes of 
 the remainder of his life were the erection, 
 at enormous cost, of two vast mansions in 
 England and a " fairy palace " in Portugal. 
 
 Beckington, Thomas de (d. 1465), 
 Bishop of Bath and Wells and secretary of 
 state to Hemy VI. In 1442 he was sent to 
 negotiate a marriage between the king and 
 the Count d'Armagnac's daughter. Hia 
 record of the event has been published, 
 
 Beckmann, Johann (6. 1739, d. 1811), a 
 Hanoverian naturalist and economist, and 
 the vmter of several valuable treatises. 
 
 Beckwith, Sir George (6. 1753, d. 1823), 
 a distinguished soldier and West Indian 
 governor. He served in the American war, 
 and in the French war captured Martinique 
 and Guadeloupe. 
 
 Beckx, Peter John (6. 1795, <f. 1887), general 
 of the order of Jesuits. A Belgian by birth, he 
 was appointed procurator of Austria in 1847, 
 and in 1853 was chosen general of the order 
 at Home. <His influence and poUcy were 
 very effective in extending the order. 
 
 Beclard, Pierre .Augustin (6. 1785, d. 
 1825), a distinguished French physician 
 and anatomist, and author of Les Elements 
 d^Anatomie Generale. 
 
 Becon, Thomas (6. 1510, d. 1670), an 
 English clergyman and adherent of the 
 Reformation, deprived of his living by 
 Mary. He was a prolific author in con- 
 troversial theology. 
 
 Becquerel, Antoine Caesar (6. 1788, d. 
 1878), a French scientist, served through 
 the Peninsular war in the Engineers, and 
 afterwards devoted himself to the experi- 
 mental study of electricity, magnetism and 
 heat, his researches being of great value. 
 
 Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond (6. 1820), 
 son of the preceding, and his coUaboratoi 
 in many of his experiments. 
 
 Beda or Bede (6. 672, d. IZb), an English 
 monk, and celebrated chronicler, generally 
 known as the "Venerable Bede." He 
 spent the greater part of his life at the 
 monastery of Jarrow, where he devoted 
 himself to study in evenr branch of learning. 
 There he wrote his Ecclesiastical Sistory
 
 Bed 
 
 (115) 
 
 Bee 
 
 of the English Nation, a work of the 
 Highest value, translated from the Latin 
 to Saxon by King Alfred.. His last great 
 work was a translation of St. John's Gospel 
 into the vernacular. 
 
 Beddoe, John (6. 1826), an eminent phy- 
 sician and anthropologist, and the author of 
 several valuable scientific memoirs. He 
 served on the medical staff during the 
 Crimean war. 
 
 Beddoes, Thomas (6. 1760, d. 1808), 
 eminent physician and scientist. He 
 was an accomplished scholar and linguist, 
 and was elected president of the Royal 
 Medical and Natural History Society before 
 he took his M.D. His greatest experiment 
 was the estabUshmeut of the Pneumatic 
 Institution at Clifton, which was not, how- 
 ever, a success. 
 
 Beddoes, Thomas Lovell (6. 1803, d. 1849), 
 son of the preceding, and nephew of Maria 
 Edgeworth. He was learned in medicine 
 and physiology, but is remembered prin- 
 cipally for his poems, the chief of which is 
 The Bride's Tragedy. 
 
 Bede, Cuthbert (6. 1827, d. 1890), the 
 pseudonym of the Rev. Edward Bradley, a 
 novelist and humorous writer, whose cele- 
 brity depends upon his book The Adventures 
 ef Verdant Green at Oxford, which achieved 
 great popularity. 
 
 Bedeau, Marie Alphonse (6. 1804, d. 1865), 
 French general, was at the siege of 
 Antwerp in 1832, and subsequently served 
 with much distinction in Algeria. He was 
 commandant of Paris under the Provisional 
 Government of 1848, was a member of the 
 legislature for some years, and was banished 
 after the coup d^etat. 
 
 Bedell, WUliam (6. 1570, d. 1642), a 
 distingxiished bishop of the Irish Protestant 
 Church. In 1627 he was elected provost of 
 Trinity CoUege, Dublin, and in 1629 was 
 appointed Bishop of "Kilmore and of 
 Ardagh. His devoted life made him 
 extremely popular with the people of every 
 creed. He translated the Old Testament 
 into Irish, and caused the Common Prayer 
 to be read in Irish at the cathedral services 
 on Sunday. In the outbreak of 1641 he 
 harboured many Protestants, imtil he was 
 imprisoned by the rebels. He died shortly 
 after his liberation. 
 
 Bedford, John Plantagenet, Duke of (6. 
 1389, d. 1435), brother of Henry V., and 
 regent of the EngUsh dominions in France. 
 It was by his commands that Joan of Arc 
 was burnt at the stake. 
 
 Bedloe, William {d. 1680), a disreputable 
 adventurer, who concocted a story about a 
 Popish plot in Charles II. 's time, in corro- 
 boration of the figment of Titus Gates. 
 1 2 
 
 Bedmax, Alfonso de Cueva, Marquis de 
 (J. 1572, d. 1655), a Spanish ambassador at 
 Venice, who participated in the unsuccess- 
 ful intrigues of 1618 for the destruction of 
 Venice. In 1622 he was made a cardinal. 
 
 Beecher, Henry Ward {h. 1813, d. 1887), 
 popular American preacher, was attached to 
 the Plymouth Congregational church at 
 Brooklyn, where his preaching attracted 
 enormous congregations. In 1886 he visited 
 England. 
 
 Beecher-Stowe, Harriet Elizabeth (i. 
 1812), an American authoress, daughter of 
 the Rev. Lyman Beecher, an eminent 
 Presbyterian minister. She had wi-itten 
 fiction for some years before she achieved 
 her great popularity by the production of 
 TJncle Tom's Cabin, in 1850, when the 
 slavery question was most intense. Mrs. 
 Beecher-Stowe has written many other 
 books, and rather imperilled her popularity 
 by one in which she endeavoured to establish 
 a horrible charge against Lord Byron. 
 
 Beechey, Sir Frederick William {b. 1796, 
 d. 1S56), naval officer and explorer, 
 accompanied Franklin on his first Arctic 
 voyage, and in 1819 went with Sir Edward 
 Parry's expedition. In 1821 he imdertook 
 the survey of the north coast of Africa, and 
 in 1825 he commanded an Arctic expedition 
 in the Blossom, and made some interesting 
 discoveries. 
 
 Beek, David {b. 1621, d. 1656), a Dutch 
 portrait painter, appointed by Charles I. as 
 instructor to the royal children. He was 
 commissioned by Queen Christina of Sweden 
 to paint the portraits of the sovereigns and 
 celebrities of Europe. 
 
 Beer, George Joseph [b. 1763, d. 1821), a 
 very distinguished surgeon of Vienna, and 
 an authority on the subject of ophthalmia. 
 He invented many surgical instruments. 
 
 Beer, Joseph {b. 1744, d. 1811), a 
 Bohemian soldier, renowned for his pro- 
 ficiency on the clarionet. He served as a 
 trumpeter during the Seven Years' war, and 
 then went to Paris, where his playing on the 
 clarionet excited great attention. 
 
 Beer, Wilhelm (6. 1797, d. 1850), aBerlin 
 banker, who devoted himself to astronomy, 
 and made some valuable observations of 
 Mars and the moon. 
 
 Beerbul, or Bisbul, Rajah {d. 1586), a 
 Hindoo statesman and the close friend of the 
 Mogul Emperor Akber, over whom he 
 exercised a great influence. He is re- 
 membered for the wisdom of his counsels and 
 the wittiness of his discourse. He was killed 
 in a rash expedition against the Afghans. 
 
 Beesly, Edward Spencer {b. 1831), a well
 
 Bee 
 
 (116) 
 
 Bek 
 
 known professor of history, and a leader of 
 the English Positivist Society. In 1886 he 
 unsuccessfully contested a London con- 
 stituency as a Eadical and Home Ruler. 
 
 Beethoven, Ludwig van (6. 1770, d. 
 18-7), German composer, was descended 
 from a musical fauiily, and received hia 
 first lessons from his father. His pre- 
 cocity attracted the notice of the Elector 
 of Cologne, who secured good tuition for 
 him, and finally sent him to Vienna to 
 study under Haydn and Albrechtsberger. 
 His remarkable powers of improvisation, 
 and his compositions, which now began to 
 be published, gained him a great reputation, 
 and made for him many influential friends. 
 A pension was granted to him, in order to 
 retain him at Vienna, but the troubled times 
 which succeeded reduced its value almost to 
 nothing. When in his twenty -seventh year 
 Beethoven was afilicted with the first symp- 
 toms of that deafness which ouiy increased 
 with years, and which did so much to sour 
 his disposition. He was further distressed 
 by family dissensions, and the ungrateful 
 behaviour of a nephew over whom he had 
 assumed guardianship. He continued to 
 compose, in spite of his loss of hearing, 
 right up to his last illness, and the imposuig 
 funeral which was accorded him showed the 
 appreciation in which his great genius was 
 held by his contemporaries. 
 
 Begas, Karl (6. 1794, d. 1855), a Prussian 
 portrait and historical painter of note. He 
 was painter in ordiaary to the King of 
 Prussia, from whom he also received a 
 pension. 
 
 Begh, or Le Begue, Lambert {d. 1177), a 
 Belgian priest of Li^ge, and a supposed 
 founder of the order of the Beguines. He 
 was remarkable for his severity against 
 clerical looseness of Ufe. 
 
 Beham, or Behaim (6. 1436, d. 1506), a 
 celebrated German geographer. Origiually 
 a merchant, his skill in mapping attracted 
 notice at Lisbon, whither he had gone, and 
 he was appointed geographer to Diego Cam's 
 expedition to Africa in 1484, the results of 
 which he included in his charts. 
 
 Behn, Aphi-a (6. 1642, d. 1689), novelist, 
 dramatist, and poetess. Her early Ufe was 
 spent in Surinam, where she was friendly 
 with the native prince, Oroonoko, whose 
 life she published on returning to England, 
 and thereby obtained considerable celebrity. 
 She married a rich old merchant named 
 Behn, who soon died, and left her free to 
 devote herself to authorship and political 
 intrigue, her great beauty assisting her in 
 the latter direction. She managed while in 
 Antwerp to obtain information of the in- 
 tended descent of the Dutch on the Thames, 
 but her warning was unheeded. She passed 
 
 her life in the corrupt court of the restored 
 Stuarts, and most of her wiiting is irredeem- 
 ably stained with the wantonness of her 
 environment. 
 
 Behnes, William (6. 1794, d. 1864), a 
 notable English sculptor, of Hanoverian 
 extraction. Extravagant habits consumed 
 the fortune made by his art, and he died ia 
 want. 
 
 Behring, or Bering, Veit (6. 1680, d. 1741), 
 a Danish navigator, whose name has been 
 given to the straits which he discovered, 
 between Kamschatka and Alaska. He ob- 
 tained service with Peter the Great, and 
 commanded the expedition sent to discover 
 whether Asia and America were connected 
 at the north. In 1741 he made a second 
 expedition to the same region, when he was 
 wrecked and died. 
 
 Beiram Bia Musagood Ghiznevl {d. 1152J, 
 the son of Musagood, Sultan of Ghuzni, 
 whom he succeeded in 1117. He was a 
 great patron of Mohanunedan literature, 
 and held a brilliant court of Persian poets 
 and writers. He was driven from his king- 
 dom by Prince Alla-oo-deen, of Ghoor. 
 
 Beiram Khan, Toorkoman {d. 1561), gene- 
 ral-in-chief» of Hoomayon, Emperor of 
 Delhi, for whom he conducted victorious 
 campaigns against the Afghans and the 
 King of Delhi. He became the guardian of 
 Hoomayon' 3 successor, Akber, but his am- 
 bition becoming too great he was sent by 
 Akber on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and was 
 murdered on the way. 
 
 Beke, Charles Tilstone (6. 1800, d. 1874), 
 an English traveller and scholar. In 1834 
 he pubUshed his Origines Biblicce, which 
 brought him into celebrity by the attacks of 
 the orthodox world. He was appointed 
 British Consul in Saxony in 1836, and ha 
 spent the years from 1840 to 1843 in explo- 
 rations in Abyssinia. He also visited the 
 Nile, and in 1865 was sent to Abyssinia 
 again to negotiate the release of captives 
 from King Theodore. His last journey was 
 a visit to Syria to establish the site of 
 Mount Sinai. 
 
 Bekker, Balthasar (b. 1634, d. 1698), a 
 Dutch pastor, known to fame for his supe- 
 riority to the superstitions of his time. He 
 wrote Ilesearches into Comets, to overcome 
 the panic caused by the 1680 comet, 
 and The World Bewitched, to expose 
 the folly of popiUar beliefs in witchcraft 
 and the hke. The latter work was widely 
 read, but brought on its author all but 
 excommunication. 
 
 Bekker, Elizabeth (6. 1733, d. 1804), a 
 very gifted authoress, and collaborateur of 
 Aaghje Deken. She is best known as Madame 
 Wolff, her name after marriage.
 
 Bek 
 
 (117) 
 
 Bel 
 
 Bekker, Emanuel (6. 1785, d. 1871), a 
 German philologist and editor of classics. 
 He was professor of Greek literature at 
 BerUn, and travelled extensively in Europe, 
 studying the MSS. in the great collections. 
 
 Bela L (d. 1063), King of Hungary, 
 brother of Andrew I. of Hungary, and 
 husband of Casimir, sister to the King of 
 Poland. He was promised the succession 
 by Andrew for assistiug to repel a German 
 invasion, but the promise beiag revoked, he 
 invaded Hungary, and deposed Andrew in 
 1060. 
 
 Bela IL (d. 1141), sumamed the Blind, 
 his eyes having been put out by Goloman, 
 whom he succeeded in 1131. 
 
 Bela HL {d. 1196) succeeded Stephen 
 IIL 1174. He recovered Dahnatia from the 
 Venetians, and did much to organise the 
 government of his coimtry. 
 
 Bela< IV. (d. 1270) succeeded to the 
 throne 1235, and in 1241 was driven from 
 his kingdom by the Mongol invasion Tinder 
 Batu Khan. On. his return he successfully 
 resisted the aggression of Frederick of Aus- 
 tria, but invading Austria in turn, he was 
 himself defeated. 
 
 Belalr, Alexandre Pierre Julienne de {b. 
 1747, d. 1819), French general and military 
 engineer. In 1792 he was charged with the 
 defence of Paris, but his plans of fortifica- 
 tion were not executed. He was the author 
 of treatises on fortification. 
 
 Belcher, Sir Edward (6. 1800, d. 1877), 
 explorer and hydrographer. His first expe- 
 dition was in the Blossom, under Beecher, 
 to the Behring Straits. From 1830 to 1852 
 he was employed constantly in surveying 
 and charting different parts of the world's 
 coasts and oceans, and then he was placed 
 in command of a Franklin search squadron. 
 He spent two winters in the arctic zone, 
 and made several discoveries. He left 
 important records of his voyages. 
 
 Belderbusch, Charles Leopold, Count de 
 {b. 1749, d. 1826), Belgian statesman, who 
 represented the Elector of Cologne in Paris 
 ot the outbreak of the revolution. After 
 the union of France and Belgium he became 
 deputy and senator. 
 
 Belgians, Kings of the. A line created in 
 1830, the first of which was Leopold I., Duke 
 of Saxe-Coburg {b. 1790, d. 1865). Leopold 
 was appc>inted by the European powers after 
 the separation of Holland and Belgium, and 
 the reluctance of Holland to acquiesce in 
 this arrangement compelled the siege of 
 Antwerp by the French and English. Leo- 
 pold's reign was marked by internal reform 
 and commercial expansion. He sanctioned 
 the first continental railroad. Leopold II. 
 
 (6. 1835), son of preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded ia. 1865. During the reign the faction 
 fights between Cathohcs and Liberals have 
 been very fierce. King Leopold was mainly 
 instrumental in the estabfishment of the 
 Congo Free State. 
 
 Belgiojoso, Christina Trivulzio, Princess 
 of (p. 1808, d. 1871), an accomplished Italian 
 lady, and a pronounced patriot. During the 
 Austrian occupation she resided in Paris, 
 where her salon became famous. On the 
 ItaUau insurrection of 1843 she equipped at 
 her own expense a force of 200 men, for 
 which act she was banished. She then 
 retired to Asia Minor. 
 
 Belidor, Bernard Forest de (6. 1693, d. 
 1761), a French military engineer. After 
 serving in the army he obtained a professor- 
 ship in the school of artillery at La Fere, 
 where his lectures established for him a 
 wide reputation. He lost his office through 
 the jealousy of officials, and afterwards 
 served under Segur and the Prince of 
 Conti. 
 
 I Beling, Eichard (6. 1613, d. 1677), an 
 Irish Roman Catholic and insurrectionist. 
 He was secretary of the Council of Kil- 
 kenny, and visited Italy to enlist the sym- 
 pathy of the Pope in the Irish cause. He 
 afterwards joined the Duke of Ormond, 
 and on the defeat of the Royalists he went 
 to France. 
 
 Belisarius {b. 505, d. 565), a great general 
 of the Byzantine empire. He served in 
 Justinian's private guard, and when Justin- 
 ian became emperor he was appointed to a 
 high command ia the army. His conduct of 
 the campaign against the Persians brought 
 him into high honour. He married Anto- 
 nina, a woman of vicious character, who 
 gi-eatly embittered his life, and ia 532 he 
 suppressed an insurrection ia Constanti- 
 nople, when the emperor was preparing to 
 fly. He next conducted a victorious war 
 against the dreaded Vandals of Africa, from 
 which he was recalled, bringing immense 
 booty, and in 536 he destroyed the power of 
 the Goths in Italy. Again recalled, he was 
 soon after sent against the Persians, but his 
 success thoroughly roused the jealousy of 
 the emperor, and he was exposed to much 
 humiliation. In 544 he was sent on a second 
 expedition to Italy against the Goths, but 
 his plans were frustrated by the refusal of 
 supplies; and in 559 he repulsed the Bul- 
 garians from the walls of Constantinople. 
 The emperor, who had constantly treated 
 Belisarius vrith jealous distrust and ingrati- 
 tude, now caused fresh indignities to be 
 heaped on the great commander, who was 
 imprisoned and deprived of his posses- 
 sions. Of his latter end nothing is certainly 
 known.
 
 vBel 
 
 (118) 
 
 Bel 
 
 Belknap, Jeremy (6. 1774, d. 1798), an 
 Ajneric;iu ministor and writer. He wrote 
 the Histonj of New Hampshire, and much 
 other minor work, theological and his- 
 torical. 
 
 Bell, Andrew (6. 1752, d. 1832), a Scottish 
 educationalist and founder of the Madras 
 or monitorial system of teaching. It was in 
 his work at the Madras military asyliun, 
 where he was an Episcopalian clergyman, 
 that he formed the ideas of his system. In 
 England a model school was foimded by 
 Joseph Lancaster and Bell, but the former 
 being a dissenter, a breach between the re- 
 formers took place, resulting in the establish- 
 ment of the British schools and the National 
 Bchools. BeU's labours were recognised be- 
 fore his death, and he left a large fortune 
 for educational endowments. 
 
 BeU, Sir Charles (6. 1774, d. 1842), 
 surgeon and anatomist. A high reputa- 
 tion gained in Ediuburgh was confirmed 
 in London, where the publication of 
 two interesting and valuable books made 
 Bell's name known. In 1812 he was ap- 
 pointed surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital, 
 and in 1821 he read a paper before the Koyal 
 Society embodying the result of years of re- 
 search — The Nervous System of the Human 
 Body. This obtained a European reputa- 
 tion and secured the investigator a knighthood 
 and other honours. In 1836 he returned to 
 Edinburgh as a professor of surgery. 
 
 Bell, George Joseph (6. 1770, d. 1843), 
 brother of the preceding, and an eminent 
 lawyer of Scotland. He was the author of 
 Commentaries on the Laws of Scotland. 
 
 BeU, Henry (6. 1767, d. 1830), the first 
 British subject to apply steam as a motive 
 power for ships. He was bom in Scotland, 
 and laboured as a workiug engineer. In 
 1812 he constructed the first British steam- 
 ship — a vessel of about 25 tons, with an 
 engine of three-horse power, which was used 
 for trafiic on the Clyde. The people of Glas- 
 gow raised a subscription for him, and he 
 received a pension of £100. 
 
 _ Bell, Isaac Lowthian (6. 1816), a con- 
 siderable ironmaster, and founder of the 
 Clarence iron works on the Tees. He has 
 written on the metallurgy of iron, and on 
 the chemical phenomena of the blast furnace. 
 From 1875 to 1880 he was M.P. for Hartle- 
 pool. 
 
 Bell, John (6. 1811), a prominent sculptor. 
 Among his more widely known works are the 
 Welliugton monument at the Guildhall, the 
 Guards' Memorial in "Waterloo Place, and 
 the Crimean Memorial at Woolwich. 
 
 Bell, John (6. 1782, d. 1865), a Newcastle 
 antiquary. He was an industrious writer ; 
 
 his Notes on the Roman Remains in Nor- 
 thumherland is his most important work. 
 His Rhymes of the Northern Bards also 
 attracted considerable notice. 
 
 BeU, John (6. 1763,0^. 1820), a distinguished 
 Scottish surgeon and anatomist. He opened 
 a school of anatomy in Edinburgh, and 
 thereby excited much professional criticism, 
 which was aggravated by his attacks on 
 Monro and Benjamin Bell. In conjunction 
 with his brother Charles he produced his 
 valuable Anatomy of the Human Body. 
 
 BeU, John (6. 1691, d. 1780), a Scottish 
 physician and traveller. In 1715 he was 
 appointed physician to the Russian embassy 
 to Persia, and in 1719 he joined a mission to 
 China, travelling to Pekm through Siberia 
 and Tartary. In the suite of Peter the Great 
 he visited the Caucasus, and later was sent 
 on a mission to Constantinople, where he 
 resided for some years. 
 
 BeU, Robert (&. 1800, d. 1867), an Irish 
 writer. After some j oumaUstic and dramatic 
 work in Dublin he came to London and 
 became editor of the Atlas. A History of 
 Russia and Lives of the English Poets 
 were among his works. 
 
 BeU, Thomas (6. 1792, d. 1880), a dis- 
 tinguished naturalist. He practised w^th 
 much success as a surgeon-dentist, devoting 
 his leisure to the study of zoology, and writ- 
 ing several valuable memoirs. He was also 
 one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, 
 and president of the Linnsean Society. The 
 latter part of his life he spent in retirement 
 at Selbome. 
 
 BeU, William (6. 1731, d. 1816), anEnglish 
 clergyman, remarkable alike for his learning 
 and his mimificence. He endowed eight 
 scholarships at Cambridge for the sons of 
 poor clergy, and his writings were highly 
 thought of. 
 
 BeUa, Giano Delia (d. 1294), a noble 
 Florentine, who espoused the cause of the 
 people. He organised a citizen protective 
 force, and succeeded in obtaiuiug the exclu- 
 sion of the nobles fi'om Florentine affairs. 
 Further reforms procured his exile. 
 
 BeUa, Stephano DeUa (6. 1610, d. 1664), 
 a celebrated engraver of Florence, whose 
 industry is credited with no less than 1,400 
 works. In 1642 he went to Paiis and 
 executed commissions for Richelieu. 
 
 Bellamont, Richard Coote, Earl of {d. 
 1700), an Irish statesman, ennobled by 
 William of Orange for services to his cause. 
 His chief celebrity is associated with his able 
 governorship of New York, undertaken in 
 1695. 
 
 BeUamy, Jakob (6. 1757, d. 1786), a very
 
 Bel 
 
 (119) 
 
 Bel 
 
 popular Dutch poet, who began life as a 
 baker's apprentice. He first attracted at- 
 tention by his poems on the jubilee of 
 Holland's liberation. 
 
 Bellang6, Joseph Louis Hyppolite (p. 1800, 
 d. 1S66), French painter of battle pieces. 
 TTis paintings commemorate the great wars 
 of the republic and of Napoleon. 
 
 BeUanger, Fran9ois Joseph (6. 1744, d. 
 1818), a French architect of note, who was 
 employed by Napoleon and appointed archi- 
 tect to the Count D'Artois on the restora- 
 tion, for his constant efforts in the royalist 
 cause. 
 
 BeUaxmino, Eoberto (6. 1542, d. 1621), 
 a powerful Jesuit preacher. He was 
 made cardinal in 1598, and later Archbishop 
 of Capua, and librarian to the Vatican. He 
 published many learned works, and won 
 considerable repute by his polemical writings 
 in favour of absolute papal supremacy, 
 which he artfuUy associated with the rights 
 of the people against their rulers. His con- 
 tentions were strongly opposed by Catholics 
 as well as Protestants in France, Italy, and 
 especially in England, where he absolved the 
 people from their allegiance to James I. It 
 was Bellarmino who in 1616 gave GaUleo 
 a certificate from the Holy Of&ce as to the 
 falsity of his reputed recantation. 
 
 Bellart, Nicolas Fran9ois (6.1761, d. 1826), 
 a very distinguished French advocate who 
 defended many of the royalist victuns of the 
 revolution. He was afterwards appointed 
 public orator to the general council of the 
 Seine, and greatly lauded Napoleon, whom 
 he however denounced after his fall. He 
 was ennobled and given office on the restora- 
 tion, and distinguished himself as public 
 prosecutor. 
 
 Bellay, Guillaume du, Sieur de Langey 
 (6. 1491, d. 1543), soldier, diplomatist and 
 Bcholar, and eminent in each capacity. He 
 wrote a history of his time. 
 
 Bellay, Jean du (6. 1492, d. 1560), a 
 French cardinal, and brother of the pre- 
 ceding. He was sent by Francis I, on 
 missions to England and Eome, and in 1536 
 he was appointed Ueuteuant-general, in the 
 absence of the, king on the Proven9al cam- 
 paign against Charles V. 
 
 Bellay, Joachim (6. 1524, d. 1560), nephew 
 of the preceding, a poet known as the 
 " lS:ench Ovid." He obtained celebrity for 
 his verse in the court of Francis I., and 
 later in that of Henry II. He wrote odes, 
 elegies and hymns, but principally sonnets 
 in praise of his mistress. 
 
 Belle, Jean Francois Joseph de (6. 1767, 
 d. 1802), a French general and brother- 
 in-law of Hoche, with whom he served, 
 
 afterwards serving on the Rhine and in Italy. 
 He died at San Domiugo, whither he was 
 sent to suppress Toussaint L'Ouverture's 
 insurrection. 
 
 Belleau, Remi (6 1528, d. 1577), one of 
 the seven French poets who were styled 
 "the Pleiades." He translated Auacreon, 
 but his poems are not of great value. 
 
 Bellecourt, Jean Claude Gille (6. 1725, d. 
 1778), a French actor. The son of a distin- 
 guished portrait paiuter, named Colson, he 
 studied for the same profession, and showed 
 much ability. But becoming " stage- 
 struck," he devoted himself to acting and 
 ultimately reached the Com^die Franc^aise. 
 
 BeUecourt, Eose Petronelle (6. 1730, d. 
 1799), wife of the preceding, and a famous 
 actress. She first appeared on the Paris stage 
 at the age of thirteen. 
 
 Bellegarde, Antoine due Bois de (6. 1740, 
 d. 1825), a French revolutionary, who sat 
 in the Legislative Assembly as an extremist. 
 He was secretary of the Convention and 
 of "Le Conseildes Anciens." He fled from 
 France at the restoration. 
 
 Bellegarde, Henri, Count de (6. 1755, d. 
 1831), a Savoyard, and field-marshal in the 
 Austrian army. In 1805 he was president 
 of the AuHc Council of war, and after being 
 governor of Galicia he was made governor- 
 general of the Italian provinces. 
 
 Bellegarde, Roger de Saint Lary de (d. 
 1579), a marshal of France. For promoting 
 an alliance between the Duke of Savoy and 
 the French king he was made a marshal by 
 Henry III. Falling into disgrace, he in- 
 duced the Duke to declare war against 
 France, with the result that Catherine de 
 Medici brought about his death by poison. 
 
 Bellegarde, Eoger de Saint Lary de, 
 Duke of Tonnes {b. 1563, d. 1646), French 
 soldier, who served in the wars of Henry IIL , 
 Henry VI., and Louis XIII. He was the 
 favoured lover of Gabrielle d'Estrees, who 
 became Henry IV. 's mistress, when Belle- 
 garde was promptly banished. 
 
 BeUe-Isle, Charles Louis Auguste 
 Fouquet, Due de (A. 1684, d. 1761), a French 
 marshal. Commanding the French troops 
 in the Austrian campaign of 1740, he 
 suffered a disastrous defeat, and, being taken, 
 was sent to England as a prisoner. He re- 
 turned to France at the end of a year, and 
 repelled the Austrian invasion of Provence 
 in 1744. In 1748 he was ennobled, and next 
 year became minister of war. 
 
 Bellenden, or Ballentyne, John (d. 1560), 
 a Scottish poet, of considerable repute, who 
 wrote in the time of James V. He also trans- 
 lated historical works into the vernacular.
 
 Bel 
 
 (120) 
 
 Bel 
 
 BeUeteste, B. {l>. 1778, d. 1808), a French 
 Orientalist, who was wounded in the 
 Egyptian expedition, which he accompanied 
 as a member of the Science and Art Com- 
 mission. His Forty Viziers is a translation 
 from the Turkish. 
 
 Belleval, Pierre Riche de {b. 1558, d. 1623), 
 a French physician and botanist, who in- 
 augurated the botanical schools of France. 
 He occupied the iirst chair of botany, 
 created in 1596 by Henry IV. 
 
 Belliard, Augustin Daniel (6. 1769, d. 
 1832), a French general of the revolution. 
 He had almost won a general's rank when 
 he was degraded on suspicion. Enlisting 
 again as a private, he rose to his former 
 rank under Hoche. He fought with dis- 
 tinction in Italy, Egypt, Germany, Russia, 
 and Spain. He was imprisoned at the re- 
 storation, but after the revolution of 1830 
 was sent as ambassador to Belgium. 
 
 Bellievret, Pompone de (6. 1529, d. 1607), 
 a French diplomatist, employed on embassies 
 by Charles IV. and Henry III., and made 
 chancellor by Henry IV. He was sent to 
 England to demand the release of Mary 
 Queen of Scots. 
 
 Bellini, Giovanni (6. 1422, d. 1512), 
 Venetian painter, son of Jacopo Bellini, 
 himself a painter of note, and the teacher 
 of Titian, who finished several of his 
 works. He began by portrait painting ; 
 and he afterwards executed some great 
 historical pieces for the Hall of the Great 
 Council of Venice, which were destroyed by 
 fire in 1577. 
 
 BeUini, Gentile (d. 1501), brother of the 
 preceding, and also a great painter. He 
 visited Constantinople, and was received 
 with great favour by the Sultan. 
 
 BeUini, Vincenzo (6. 1802, d. 1835), an 
 Italian musical composer, and a disciple of 
 Rossini. The son of a Sicilian organist, he 
 proceeded to the royal music school of 
 Naples, where he produced his first opera. 
 He attracted attention with II Firata, 
 brought out at Milan and played succes- 
 sively in all the European capitals ; and in 
 1831 the production of his greatest opera, 
 Za Somnambula, established his high reputa- 
 tion. This was followed by the tragic opera 
 Norma, and in 1835 by / Furitani, the com- 
 poser's last work. He was buried in Pere 
 la Chaise at Paris. 
 
 Bellmami, Kari Michael (6. 1740, d. 1795), 
 a Swedish lyrical poet of considerable popu- 
 larity. The nature of his verse is indicated 
 by the name given to him — the Swedish 
 Anacreon. 
 
 BeUoc, Jean Louis (6. 1730, d. 1807), an 
 eminent French surgeon, and professor of 
 
 medical jurisprudence at Paris. Among 
 several valuable works, he wrote Le Coursde 
 Medecine, Ligale, Judiciaire, Theorehque et 
 Fratique. 
 
 Bellori, Giovanni Pietro (6. 1615, d. 1696), 
 a distinguished antiquarian and an excellent 
 painter, who also claims remembrance for 
 his biographies of eminent men. 
 
 BeUot, Joseph Rene (6. 1826, d. 1853), a 
 gallant French naval officer, who before he 
 was twenty years old was received into the 
 Legion of Honour. In 1851 he sailed, under 
 Mr. Kennedy, in the Frince Albert, with the 
 Franklin expedition, and in 1852 he joined 
 another Arctic expedition under Captain 
 
 I Inglefield, and in this he lost his life. A 
 monument was erected to him at Greenwich 
 
 , by public subscription. 
 
 Bellovesus, a Gallic chief who, according 
 . to Livy, emigrated from Gaul during the 
 [ reign of Tarquinius Priscus, and, settling in 
 the plains of Lombardy, founded MUan. 
 
 BeUoy, Jean Baptiste (&. 1709, d. 1808), a 
 French prelate. As Bishop of Gland^ves he 
 took part in the convocation of 1755. At 
 the outbreak of the revolution he retired to 
 Chambly, and was the first bishop to resign 
 his title in 1801, for the sake of the Con- 
 cordat. He was some time cardinal and 
 Archbishop of Paris. 
 
 Belloy, Pierre Laurent Bujrrette de (6. 
 1727, d. \Tih), a French dramatist. He for- 
 sook the law for the stage, and in 1758 he 
 produced his tragedy Titm, which failed dis- 
 mally. In 1765 he produced The Siege of 
 Calais, which succeeded as notably as the 
 first piece failed, and which was the pre- 
 cursor of several other dramas. The bad 
 reception accorded to his Feter the Cruel is 
 said to have caused his death. 
 
 Beimels or Beaumes, Richard de {d. 
 1127), Bishop of London, remembered for 
 his efforts in the restoration of St. Paul's 
 after its destruction by fire in 10S6. 
 
 Belmontet, Louis (6. 1799, d. 1879), a 
 French poet, bestknown for his political odes. 
 He was consistently the devoted admirer of 
 Napoleon and the Bonapartes, and wrote 
 against every government which was not 
 Bonapartist. In 1 81 7 he was banished from 
 Toulouse; later he was an editor of the 
 Paris Tribune, and when Louis Napoleon 
 assumed sovereign power he was taken into 
 favour. 
 
 Belon, Pierre (6. 1517, d. 1564), a French 
 physician and an eminent naturalist. By 
 means of influential patronage he was 
 enabled to make extensive travels in Eastern 
 Europe and Egypt, his observations and 
 records being of the greatest value. He was 
 murdered by robbers.
 
 Bel 
 
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 Ben 
 
 Belo'wselsky, Alexander, Prince (6. 1757, 
 d. 1809), a Russian man of letters and a 
 patron of the fine arts. He was for some 
 time Catherine's ambassador at Turin. 
 
 Belsham, Thomas (6. 1750, d. 1829), an 
 eminent Unitarian minister, whose writings 
 on religious subjects were much esteemed in 
 his day. He preached at the Essex Street 
 chapel in London. 
 
 Belsliazzar, the last king of Babylon and 
 grandson of Nebuchadnezzar. He it was 
 whose feast was interrupted by the writing 
 on the wall, as narrated in the 5th chapter 
 of Daniel. 
 
 Belsunce de Castel Moron, Henri Fran- 
 cois Xavier (6. 1671, d. 17o5), archbishop of 
 Marseilles, and a provincial grand vicar of 
 the Jesuits. He is remembered for his 
 noble conduct during the plague of 1720, 
 and for his persecution of the Jansenists. 
 
 Belzoni, Giovanni Battista (6. 1778, d. 
 1823), an Italian explorer, who rendered the 
 most signal services to archaeology. After 
 travelUng in France and Holland, he came 
 to Great Britain. He was of singularly 
 powerful build, and married an English wife 
 of equally remarkable physique, and the two 
 for some time maintained themselves by itin- 
 erant exhibitions of feats of strength. After 
 visiting Spain, he went to Egypt; he was 
 employed there by Mr. Consul Salt in the 
 Nile Valley excavations, and removed from 
 Thebes the granite bust of the " Young 
 Memnon." Then he excavated from the 
 sand the Temple of Ipsamboul, and found the 
 tomb of Seti I. at Thebes. He made valu- 
 able researches in the Valley of the Tombs 
 of the Kings, and crowned his labours by 
 discovering the entrance to tho Second 
 Pyramid. He received a very cordial re- 
 ception in England and Italy after this, and 
 in 1822 he set out again to penetrate Airica 
 from the Guinea coast. On the way he 
 contracted a serious illness, which shortly 
 carried him off. 
 
 Bern, Joseph (6. 1795, d. 1850), a brave 
 and skilful PoUsh general. He served as 
 general of artillery in the Polish revolution 
 of 1830, and afterwards travelled in Europe. 
 He joined Kossuth in 1848 in the revolt 
 against Austria, and won several battles for 
 the national cause. Later he entered the 
 service of the Turkish sultan, adopting the 
 Mohammedan religion. 
 
 Eembo, Pietro {b. 1470, d. 1547), an emi- 
 nent Italian cardinal, and a profound scholar. 
 His early life he spent studying in one 
 city and another, and he attained such a 
 reputation for culture that when in 1512 
 he went to Rome he was appointed one of 
 the pontifical secretaries, and in 1539 he 
 was created cardinal. He wrote prose 
 
 and verse, both in Italian and Latin, and 
 his compositions are most remarkable for 
 their purity of style. 
 
 Benalcazar, Sebastian de (d. 1550), one 
 of the Spanish pioneers in South Ajnerican 
 conquest. He left Spain in the expedi- 
 tion to Darien of 1514, and soon attracted 
 the attention of Pizarro. He defeated the 
 Indians, and took possession of Quito, of 
 which he was made governor, and from 
 which he undertook adventurous expeditions 
 of conquest. He joined Blasco Nunez in his 
 revolt against Pizarro, but after their defeat 
 he was restored to his office. 
 
 Benbow, John (6. 1650, d. 1702), a gallant 
 British admiral, promoted from the mer- 
 chant service. After some active service 
 against the French in Eui-ope he was sent 
 to the West Indies, and encountering a 
 superior French fleet he engaged it for five 
 days. The cowardly desertion of some of 
 his captains on this occasion threw the brunt 
 of the fighting on Benbow's ship, and the 
 admiral lost a leg, dying of the wound 
 shortly afterwards. 
 
 Benda, Franz (6. 1709, d. 1788), a Bohe- 
 mian violinist of great ability. He took 
 violin lessons from Koniesk, and his talent 
 was so great that he became recognised as 
 the first violinist of his time, and was taken 
 into the service of Frederick the Great. 
 
 Benda, Georg (6. 1722, d. 1795), cousin of 
 the preceding, and also a notable violinist. 
 He was kapellmeister to the Duke of Saxe- 
 Gotha, and produced several successful 
 operas. He spent some time in Italy. 
 
 Bendemann, Edward (6. 1811, d. 1889), 
 a German painter of repute. He became 
 known by his religious pieces, and in 1860 
 was appointed director of the Diisseldorf 
 Academy of Arts. 
 
 Bender, Blaise Colomban, Baron de (6. 
 1713, d. 1798), an Austrian field marshal, 
 who rose to that rank and to nobility from 
 the artisan class. He was in high favour 
 with Maria Theresa, and served in the 
 Seven Years' war. 
 
 Benedek, Ludwig von (6. 1804, d. 1881), 
 an Austrian general who served with dis- 
 tinction against the revolutionists in Hun- 
 gary and the Nationalists of Italy. He was 
 placed in command of the Austrian army 
 against the Prussians in 1866, and was totally 
 defeated at Sadowa, largely owing to his 
 own ineptitude. 
 
 Benedetti, Giovanni (d. 1590), a Venetian 
 mathematician of considerable genius, whose 
 work has endured better than his personal 
 fame. 
 
 Benedetti, Viacent (6. 1815), a Corsican
 
 Ben 
 
 (122) 
 
 Ben 
 
 by birth, and a prominent figure in French 
 diplomacy. He was ambassador at Berlin 
 before the war of 1870, and he it was who 
 drew up the secret treaty published in the 
 Times, by which Prussia and France were 
 to co-operate in the annexation of Belgium. 
 
 Benedict, the name of fourteen popes, from 
 574 to 1758. Benedict I. died (578) during the 
 siege of Eome by the Longobards ; Bene- 
 dict II. (d. 685) was canonised ; Benedict 
 III. (d. 858) was for a short time displaced 
 by a pretender, who secured the support of 
 the emperor, Louis II. ; Benedict IV. (d. 
 903) ruled but three years ; Benedict V. (d. 
 965) was elected to the pontificate by the 
 Eomans, while Leo VIII. was nominated 
 by the Emperor Otho I. He resigned, and 
 retired to Germany at the solicitation of the 
 emperor ; Benedict VI. (d. 974) was deposed 
 by a faction, and murdered by Cardinal 
 Boniface, who usurped the Holy Ofiice ; 
 Benedict Vn. (d. 983)— itwas under this pope 
 that Otho II. undertook his famous expedi- 
 tion against the Saracens in southern Italy; 
 Benedict VIII. (d. 1024) was expelled by a 
 faction, but restored by Henry II. of Ger- 
 many. He promoted the crusade of Pisa 
 and Genoa against the Saracens ; Benedict 
 IX. (pope 1033) was elected by bribery, and 
 was expelled for his bad life by the Romans. 
 Restored by his friends, he sold his office, 
 and was finally deposed by the Emperor 
 Henry III. ; Benedict X. was elected by a 
 faction, and deposed (1059) by a council 
 held at Siena; Benedict XI. {d. 1304)— 
 after his death the papal see was transferred 
 to Avignon; Benedict XII. {d. 1342) ruled 
 at Avignon, and to him was made the pro- 
 posal by the Emperor Andronicus for the 
 union of the Greek and Latin churches; 
 Benedict XIII. (b. 1649, d. 1730) was best 
 known for his liberality and piety. His 
 authority was defied by the King of Portugal 
 because 'the Lisbon nuncio was refused a 
 cardinal's hat, and Parma and Piacenza 
 were snatched by Austria from the papal 
 see ; Benedict XIV. (fi. 1675, d. 1758), the 
 last pope of the name, is distinguished for 
 the sagacious concessions which he made in 
 regard to the privileges and power of the 
 papacy. He endeavoured to reform the dis- 
 cipline of the clergy, and to put in order 
 the finances of the see. 
 
 Benedict, Sir Julius (&. 1804, d. 1885), 
 musical composer. He was bom at Stutt- 
 gart, and studied imder Weber, and in 
 1825 took the directorship of the San Carlo 
 theatre at Naples, where he produced his 
 first opera. In 1835 he came to London, and 
 produced in 1838 his first English opera, The 
 Gipsi/'s Warning ; and later, as orchestral 
 director at Drury Lane, he brought out his 
 two best works. The Brides of Venice and 
 The Crusader. He accompanied _ Jenny 
 Lind in her American tour, and in 1862 
 
 produced The Lily of Killarney. He was 
 knighted in 1871. 
 
 Benedict, Saint {d. 542 or 547), the founder 
 of the famous Benedictine order. For many 
 years of his early life he lived in a cave near 
 Subiaco, holding no communication with 
 the world. Through the shepherds he 
 became known in the district, and several 
 miracles were attributed to him. Around 
 his cave, whither people of all degrees 
 flocked, twelve monasteries were built, in 
 which his rules of life were observed ; but 
 the hostility of a neighbouring priest drove 
 Benedict to Monte Casino, where, after 
 demolishing the temple and grove of Apollo, 
 he built a monastery. From this the order 
 spread all over Europe, being distinguished 
 for the severity of discipline imposed. 
 Benedict died after fourteen years of work 
 in his new abode. His sister, Scholastica, 
 also founded many convents. 
 
 Benedict of Aniane (6. 750, d. 821), a 
 priest known as a reformer of monastic dis- 
 cipline. He retired from the service of 
 Charlemagne to build a monastery on the 
 bank of the Aniane. 
 
 Benediktof, Vladimir (6. 1810, d. 1873), 
 a Eussiau lyrical poet of the highest repute. 
 
 Beneke, Friedrich Edouard (6. 1798, d. 
 1854), an eminent German philosopher. 
 His teaching was on the same lines as that 
 of the Scottish metaphysicians, and his 
 lectures in Berlin were forbidden by 
 Government. In 1827 the interdiction was 
 removed, and in 1832 he succeeded Hegel as 
 professor of philosophy at the Berlin 
 University. An excessively laborious life 
 was closed by suicide. 
 
 Benelli, Antonio Peregrine (6. 1771, d. 
 1830), an Italian tenor of note, and a musical 
 composer and critic of ability. In 1798 he 
 appeared in the Italian opera at London. 
 
 Benezet, Anthony (6. 1713, d. 1784), a 
 Frenchman, who was brought to England as 
 a child and who subsequently went to 
 America, where he devoted his life to better- 
 ing the condition of the negroes. His 
 writings first aroused attention to the slave 
 trade question. 
 
 Benfey, Theodore (6. 1809, d. 1881), a dis- 
 tinguished German Orientalist, and pro- 
 fessor of Sanscrit at Gottingen. He left 
 several important works on philological 
 subjects. 
 
 Bengel, Johann Albrecht (6. 1687, d. 1752), 
 a German pastor of the Lutheran church 
 known for his piety and learning. The 
 principal of several theological works was 
 his Gnomon Novi Testamenti. 
 
 Benignus, St., an Irish priest, and a
 
 Ben 
 
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 Een 
 
 disciple of St. Patrick, by whom he was 
 baptised iu 433, aud whom he succeeded as 
 Bishop of Armagh ia 465. 
 
 Benincasa, Count Bartolomeo (6. 1745, d, 
 1825), au Italian writer and diplomatist. 
 At Venice his literary abilities secured the 
 favour of the Countess de Rosenberg. When 
 Napoleon annexed Italy he was sent on a 
 mission to Dalmatia, where he founded a 
 journal. 
 
 Beniowsld, Maurice Augustus de (6. 
 1741, d. 1786), a Hungarian soldier, who, 
 while serving in Poland against Russia, was 
 taken prisoner and exiled to Khamtschatka. 
 He escaped to France, whence he was sent 
 to found a colony at Madagascar. He was 
 elected king by the natives, and returned to 
 Europe to open up commercial relations with 
 his subjects. After serving in the French 
 army he returned to Madagascar, and was 
 next year killed in an engagement with 
 troops from the Isle of France. 
 
 Benivicui, Girolamo {b. 1453, d. 1542), a 
 greatly esteemed poet of Florence, and the 
 friend of Savonarola. 
 
 Benjamin, Judah Philip (6. 1811, d. 1884), 
 an American politician, who later became a 
 distinguished member of the English bar. 
 He was bom in the "West Indies, aud prac- 
 tised as a barrister at New Orleans. He sat 
 in the Senate, and became Attorney-General 
 and Secretary of State to the Confederate 
 Government under Jefferson Davis. When 
 the cause of the South was lost, he fled to 
 England, and was, by influence, at once 
 called to the English bar, obtaining a large 
 practice and becoming a Q.C. 
 
 Benjamin, Park (6. 1809, d. 1864), an 
 American poet and jotimalist. He was 
 connected with many of the New York 
 papers and periodicals, and some of his 
 numerous poems have much merit. 
 
 Benjamin of Tudela, a celebrated Jewish 
 Rabbi, who lived in Spain during the latter 
 part of the 12th century. He visited all the 
 synagogues in Europe, and travelled much 
 in Asia. The record of his joumeyings is 
 pubhshed in most European languages. 
 
 Bennet, Henry, Earl of Arlington {b. 1618, 
 d. IGSo), an English statesman, and member 
 of the famous " Cabal." He fought on the 
 Royalist side in the Civil war, and was 
 secretary to James II. while in exile. On 
 the Restoration he was made principal 
 Secretary of State and Lord Chamberlain. 
 
 Bennet, James Henry (b. 1816), an emi- 
 nent physician and a specialist in gynaec- 
 ology. He first practised in Paris, but in 
 184.'i he settled in London where he obtained 
 a first-rate position. He has published 
 several important medical works. 
 
 Bennet, Sir John (d. 1627), grandfather of 
 the first Lord Arlington. He was a promi- 
 nent member of the House of Commons in 
 Elizabeth's reign, and held a judicial office 
 under James I., but was removed for mal- 
 practices. 
 
 Bennett, Edward Turner (b. 1797, d. 
 1836), an eminent zoologist and first secre- 
 tary of the Entomological Society. He 
 wrote several valuable memoirs. 
 
 Bennett, James Gordon (6. 1800, d. 1872), 
 an American journalist and native of Scot- 
 land. Having emigrated to America, he 
 founded in 1835 the New York Herald, which 
 he conducted for 40 years. 
 
 Bennett, Sir_ James Risdon (6. 1809), an 
 eminent physician, elected in 1876 President 
 of the Royal College of Physicians. He is 
 an F.R.S., and has written several medical 
 works. 
 
 Bennett, John Hughes {b. 1812, d. 1875), 
 a Scottish physician and physiologist. He 
 took his degree at Edinburgh, and afterward 
 studied in France and Germany. A treatise 
 on the curative properties of cod-Uver oil 
 won distinction for him, and after a time he 
 obtained the chair of physiology at Edin- 
 burgh, where his lectures were highly es- 
 teemed. He was a bitter aud prolific con- 
 troversialist, and wrote, besides, some medi- 
 cal works. 
 
 Bennett, Sir WiUiam Stemdale {b. 1816, 
 d. 1875), a distinguished musical composer. 
 He studied at the Royal Academy of Music, 
 where his first pieces were produced, and 
 soon secured him a reputation. Going to 
 Leipzig, he enjoyed the friendship and 
 advice of Mendelssohn and Schumann. He 
 continued to compose with increasing repu- 
 tation, particularly in Germany, and several 
 of his pieces were produced under Mendels- 
 sohn's direction. In 1856 he was appointed 
 professor of music at Cambridge, and con- 
 ductor of the Philharmonic Society. In 
 1867 his most celebrated work. The tFoman 
 of Samaria, appeared, and he was knighted 
 in 1871. 
 
 Benningsen, Levin Augustus Theophilus, 
 Count de (6. 1745, d. 1826), a native of 
 Brunswick, who held the highest commands 
 in the Russian army. He was made Major- 
 General by Catherine, and took the lead 
 among the conspirators by whom Paul I. 
 was assassinated. Under Alexander he was 
 constantly employed against the French, 
 and won several victories. In 1812 he 
 commanded the Russian centre at Moscow ; 
 he defeated Murat at Winkowo, fought at 
 Leipzig, and for his victory at Zweinaun- 
 dorf was made a count on the field of battle, 
 and soon after commander-in-chief of the 
 Russian army. He died in Hanover.
 
 Ben 
 
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 Ben 
 
 Bennigsen, Rudolph von (6. 1824), a 
 Gennau politician. He entered the Han- 
 overian parliament, where he advocated the 
 unity of the German States xmder Prussia. 
 To accomplish this object he founded the 
 National Verein, which before its dissolution 
 had 30,000 members. In 1873 he became 
 president of the Prussian Chamber of 
 Deputies. 
 
 Benoist, Pierre Vincent {b. 1758, d. 1834), 
 a French politician and writer. His work 
 as a journalist at the time of the revolu- 
 tion brought him into prominence, and he 
 was given a post in the ministry of the 
 interior. He held several high posts under 
 Louis XVIII. , and was elected a deputy. 
 
 Benoist de Sainte Maur, a troubadour 
 who lived in the reign of Henry II., for 
 whom he wrote a Metrical History of the 
 Dukes of Normandy. Another poem, Le 
 Jioman de Troye, stUl exists. 
 
 Benso, Giulio (6. 1601, d. 1668), a Genoese 
 historical painter of considerable repute, 
 whose works for the most part remain still 
 in his native city. 
 
 Benson, Edward White (6. 1829), arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury; he succeeded Dr. 
 Tait. Sometime assistant master at Rugby, 
 in 1858 he was appointed head master of 
 Wellington college, and in 1872 chancellor 
 of Lincoln cathedral. In 1876, on the 
 creation of the bishopric of Truro, he ac- 
 cepted the see, from which he passed to 
 the Primacy in 1882. 
 
 Benson, William (6. 1682, d. 1754), a man 
 of letters only remembered as one of the 
 persons satiiised in Pope's Dunciad. He 
 was appointed surveyor- general in suc- 
 cession to Sir C. Wren, but foimd himself 
 unequal to the duties. 
 
 Bentham, George (6. 1779, d. 1884), a 
 distinguished botanist. At first he studied 
 law, but from 1828 he devoted himself 
 entirely to botany, and in 1854 he presented 
 to the Royal Gardens at Kew his valuable 
 collection and books. He was given a room 
 at Kew, and for nearly twenty years he 
 worked there almost daily, classifying and 
 recording his observations, and together 
 with Sir Joseph Hooker he wrote Genera 
 Plantarum. In spite of the great value and 
 scope of his work, he died almost imknown 
 to the general public. 
 
 Bentham, Jeremy (6. 1748, d. 1832), a 
 writer on ethics and jurisprudence. He 
 was called to the bar in 1772, but never 
 practised. The works of Helvetius directed 
 his thoughts to the utilitarian principle of 
 "the greatest happiness of the gi-eatest 
 number,'] and in 1776 he produced anony- 
 mously his Frayment on Government, which 
 
 excited much criticism and which was 
 variously attributed to several of the greatest 
 lawyers of the day. In 1780 appeared An 
 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and 
 Legislation ; and in 1791 the "Panopticon, or 
 The Inspection House, was published, in 
 which Bentham set forth new principles 
 of prison construction. The Principles of 
 International Law was written in 1786, 
 though not published for half a century 
 later. In 1792 the honour of French citizen- 
 ship was conferred on Bentham, and in 1797 
 his attention having been turned to the 
 Poor Law, he wrote his Pauper Manage- 
 ment Improved, many of the proposals con- 
 tained therein being realised by the Act of 
 1834. After dealing with the reform of the 
 Scottish judicial system, he brought out in 
 1818 his Civil and Criminal Codes, and 
 his remarkable Chrestomathia. The Consti- 
 tutional Code, Bentham's great work, was 
 published in 1827, together with The Ra- 
 tionale of Jiidicial Evidence. After his death 
 his body was dissected in accordance with 
 the terms of his will. 
 
 Bentham, Sir Samuel (6. 1757, d. 1831), 
 brother of the preceding. A brigadier-gen- 
 eral and inspector-general of naval works. 
 He effected great improvements in the dock- 
 yards. 
 
 Bentham, Thomas (6. 1513, d. 1579), an 
 English ecclesiastic, who suffered persecution 
 for advocating the Reformation in Mary's 
 reign. Elizabeth made him Bishop of Lich- 
 field, and at her request he translated the 
 Psalms and the books of Ezekiel and 
 Daniel. 
 
 Bentinck, Lord George (&. 1802, d. 1848), 
 a statesman, nephew of Canning, and younger 
 son of the Duke of Portland. He entered 
 Parliament in 1826 as a Whig, but seceded 
 with the Earl of Derby (then Lord Stanley), 
 in 1835. On the repeal of the Com Laws 
 he assumed the leadership of the Tory pro- 
 tectionist party, and displayed an ability 
 in the post which was not altogether expected. 
 He was a great hunter and patron of the turf, 
 and used to ride to hounds between the de- 
 bates in the House of Commons. 
 
 Bentinck, William (&. 1649, d. 1709), first 
 Earl of Portland. Of Dutch birth, he was 
 attached to the Prince of Orange, with 
 whom he formed the closest friendship; 
 and when WUliam became King of England 
 Bentinck was created a peer. He served in 
 Holland and Ireland, and went on a mission 
 to France, concluding the first partition 
 treaty. For his share in the second treaty 
 he was impeached, though his unswerving 
 fidelity and integrity were always con- 
 spicuous. 
 
 Bentinck, Lord William Henry Cavendish 
 (6. 1774, (/. 1839), Governor- General of India.
 
 Ben 
 
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 Ber 
 
 After seeing active service in the army, he 
 was made in 1803 Governor of Madras, but 
 was recalled in 1808. He then sat in Parlia- 
 ment tiU 1827, when he was made Governor- 
 General of India. He immediately set on 
 foot sweeping financial reforms ; he opened 
 the Civil service to natives, promoted the 
 spread of education, and extended trade. On 
 his return to England in 1837 he entered 
 Parliament as member for Glasgow. 
 
 Bentivoglio, Guido (6. 1579, d. 1644), an 
 Italian cardinal. He early won the favour of 
 Pope Clement VIII., and in 1607 went as 
 nimcio to Flanders, and lq 1616 to Paris. 
 He was made cardinal in 1621 and Louis 
 Xni. gave bim the title of Protector of 
 France in Home. His succession to the 
 papal chair was only prevented by an un- 
 timely death. He wrote a history of the 
 Flemish war, and left many interesting and 
 valuable memoirs. 
 
 Bentley, Eichard (6. 1662, d. 1742), 
 scholar and critical writer. He first at- 
 tracted attention by a Latin epistle to Dr. 
 Mill , and in 1692 was appointed Boyle Lec- 
 turer. His lectures were highly esteemed, 
 and in 1694 he was appointed royal librarian. 
 He was now involved in a bitter literary con- 
 troversy, from which he emerged with flying 
 colours, and in 1700 he was appointed Master 
 of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Arch- 
 deacon of Ely. As Master of Trinity he pro- 
 voked much enmity, and was involved in a 
 continuous legal struggle with the fellows for 
 many years. He published many valuable 
 editions of the classics, and in 1717 was 
 appointed Regius Prof essor of Divinity, when 
 he again became involved in litigation. 
 Editions of the Greek Testament and of 
 Homer were both imdertaken, but never 
 completed. 
 
 Benton, Thomas Hart (6. 1782, rf. 1858), 
 an American statesman. For thirty years 
 he was a leading member of the Missouri 
 Senate, and later he entered the House of 
 Representatives. His History of the Work- 
 ing of the American Government for Thirty 
 Years, which was published in 1853, proved 
 immensely popular. 
 
 Benzel-Stemau, Christian Ernst, Count 
 (6. 1767, d. 1S49), a German politician, who 
 held several administrative posts, and who 
 also achieved a considerable reputation as a 
 humorous writer. 
 
 Beranger, Pierre Jean de (6. 1780, d. 1857), 
 the great French song writer, was of 
 bourgeois origin, and served some time as a 
 printer's devil. He then took up his father's 
 business, and when that failed, devoted him- 
 self to the composition of verse in a garret. 
 He received assistance from Lucien Bona- 
 parte, and later obtained a post in the new 
 Imperial University . His songs having taken 
 
 a political turn, the publication of Le Roi 
 d' I'vetot, made his name a household word 
 in France. In 181.5 the first collection of his 
 songs was published, but the second volume, 
 full of pungent satire on the monarchy and 
 government, brought on its author fine and 
 imprisonment. In 1828 he was again fined 
 and imprisoned, but the fine was met by public 
 subscription, and after the revolution of 
 1830 he was offered a pension, which, how- 
 ever, he refused. After the 1848 revolution 
 he appeared for a short time in public life, 
 and then retired to the country. His claim 
 to be a national poet was fully established 
 by the great popular demonstration which his 
 fimeral provoked. 
 
 Berad, Auguste Simon Louis (6. 1783, d. 
 1859), a French politician, who held office 
 during the Hundred Days and again in 1817. 
 As a deputy he supported the Dxike of 
 Orleans against Charles X., but retired soon 
 after the accession of the latter. He did 
 much for the development of industry and 
 commerce. 
 
 Berard, Auguste (6. 1802, d. 1846), a 
 highly distinguished French surgeon, and 
 founder of the Paris Chirurgical Society. 
 He was professor of chemical surgery m 
 Paris, and left several valuable works. 
 
 Berard, Pierre Honore (6. 1797, d. 1858), 
 son of the above, and also a distinguished 
 surgeon. He was inspector-general of the 
 schools and faculties of medicine. 
 
 Berardier, Denis (6. 1729, d. 1794), a 
 French abbe, who sat in the Constituent 
 Assembly as representative of the clergy. 
 At one time he was principal of the college 
 of Quimper, and Desmoulins and Robes- 
 pierre were his pupils. 
 
 Beraud, Laurent (6. 1703, d. 1777), a 
 French Jesuit, and a distinguished mathe- 
 matician and astronomer. He was for some 
 time director of the Lyons observatory. 
 
 Berchet, Giovanni (6. 1790, d. 1851), one 
 of the best of the Itahan patriotic poets who 
 wrote during Italy's struggle for indepen- 
 dence. In 1821 he fled to France and thence 
 to England. 
 
 Berchoux, Joseph (6. 1765, d. 1839), a 
 French satirical poet, who served in the 
 Republican army to avoid prosecution as a 
 Royalist. He became in 1814 one of the 
 editors of La Quotidienne. 
 
 Berchtold, Leopold, Count von (6. 1738, 
 d. 1809), an Austrian philanthropist, who 
 travelled much in Europe endeavouring to 
 alleviate distress. After the battle of 
 Wagram he converted his chateau into a 
 hospital for the wounded, and died from an 
 attack of typhus fever then contracted. 
 
 Bereed, Kasim (J). 1504), founder of the
 
 Ber 
 
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 Ber 
 
 dynasty of Beeder in the Deccan. He was 
 sold as a Georgian slave to Mahomed Shah 
 Bahmuny II. , in whose service he rose to the 
 grand viziership ; finally he proclaimed 
 himself king of a part of Bahmuny domi- 
 nions. 
 
 Bereed, Ameer (d. 1549), son of the pre- 
 ceding, whom he succeeded both as king and 
 minister. He was constantly intriguing 
 with his neighbours for the purpose of re- 
 covering the lost Bahmuny dominions, and 
 he plunged into war with the king of 
 Beejapoor, by whom he was defeated and 
 captured. 
 
 Berends, Karl Augustus Wilhelm (6. 1753, 
 d. 1826), a distinguished German physician 
 for whom a special chair at Berlin univer- 
 sity was endowed. His Lessons on Practical 
 Medicine is a work of the highest value. 
 
 Berengario, Jacopo {d. 1550), an Italian 
 anatomist of note, known as " II Carpi," 
 who conducted much valuable research. 
 
 Berenger, orBerengarius (6. 1000, d. 1088), 
 a French churchman known for his repudia- 
 tion of the doctrine of the real presence. He 
 was repeatedly summoned to Rome, and his 
 teachings were several times condemned in 
 Coimcil. He was twice compelled to recant, 
 but finally adhered to his original doctrines. 
 
 Berenger, Alphonse Marie Marcellin 
 Thomas {b. 1785, d. 1866), a French 
 politician and jurist. He retired from the 
 legislature on the restoration, but returned 
 in 1828, and under Louis PhiUppe held an 
 influential position in the Chamber. After 
 tiie revolution of 1848 he was made president 
 of the High National Court of Justice and 
 one of the presidents of the Court of Cassa- 
 tion. His work on the French criminal law 
 was of great authority. 
 
 Berenice, the daughter of Agrippa I. 
 She was first the wife of Herod, her uncle, 
 and afterwards of King Polemon. Later 
 she became the mistress of Vespasian and 
 Titus. 
 
 Beresford, Sir John (6. 1769, d. 1844), a 
 distinguished admiral. He served through- 
 out the French war, and rendered brilliant 
 services in the American war of 1812. For 
 more than 20 years he was a member of the 
 House of Commons. 
 
 Beresford, Lord John George (b. 1773, d. 
 1862), son of the first Marquis of Waterford, 
 Ai-chbishop of Armagh and Primate of 
 Ireland. He was a munificent patron of 
 hterature and science, and founded the 
 observatory at Armagh. 
 
 Beresford, WDUam Carr, Viscount (6. 1770, 
 d. 1854), a natural son of the first Marquis 
 of Waterford. He entered the army iu 
 
 1785, served in Egypt, Ireland, at the Cape, 
 and commanded the successfxil expeditions 
 against Buenos Ayres (1806) and Madeira 
 (1807). He was then placed in command 
 of the Portuguese troops during the Penin- 
 sular war, and won the battle of Albuera. 
 He was made Viscount in 1822. 
 
 Beresford, Lord WUliam Charles Dela- 
 poer (/». 1846), son of the fourth marquis of 
 Waterford. He entered the navy at thirteen; 
 accompanied the Priuce of Wales to India 
 as naval aide-de-camp, and has received two 
 medals for saving life at sea. At the bom- 
 bardment of Alexandria in 1882 he com- 
 manded the Condor, and rendered brilliant 
 services. In 1885 he took part in Lord 
 Wolseley's expedition for the relief of Gor- 
 don. He was member for Waterford from 
 1874 to 1880, and for East Marylebone from 
 1884 to 1889, when he resumed active ser- 
 vice. From 1886 to 1887 he was a Lord of 
 the Admiralty. 
 
 Beresovsky, Maxim us Soznovich (b. 1745, 
 d. 1778), a Russian musician and composer. 
 He was sent to study in Italy by Catherine 
 II. , and devoted himself to the composition 
 of religious pieces on his return. 
 
 Bergasse, Nicolas (6. 1750, d. 1832), 
 French lawyer and politician. He was for 
 some tune an active member of the Estates 
 General, and after the restoration returned 
 to pubUc life. He entered into a correspon- 
 dence with the Emperor Alexander of 
 Russia, and some of his works had a con- 
 siderable vogue. 
 
 Berge, Ernest Gottlieb {b. 1649), a German 
 litterateur, knovra as the translator of 
 Faradise Lost. 
 
 Berger, Ludwig (b. 1777, d. 1839), a 
 German composer and pianist. He spent 
 many years in St. Petersburg, and after- 
 wards went to Stockholm and London. He 
 was the instructor of Mendelssohn. 
 
 Bergerac, Savinien Cyrano de {b. 1620, d. 
 1655), French writer of drama and ro- 
 mance. A notoriously wild career in the 
 army was closed by a wound at the siege of 
 Arras (1641). From two of his romances 
 Swift is said to have received his inspiration 
 for Gulliver's Travels. 
 
 Bergeret, Charles {b. 1771, d. 1857), 
 French admiral, who saw much active 
 service, and who was captured in the 
 Virginie by Sir Edward BeUew. 
 
 Berghaus, Heiarich (6. 1797, d. 1884), 
 Prussian geographer. Aiter serving in the 
 army, he was appointed geographical en- 
 gineer to the war department at Berlin. 
 He published a large number of very fine 
 maps, and several scientific books. 
 
 Berghem, Nicolas (6. 1624, d. 1683), one
 
 Ber 
 
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 of the best of the Flemish painters. He 
 excelled in landscape and cattle suhjects. 
 
 Bergier, Nicolas Sylvestre (p. 1718, d. 
 1790), a French ecclesiastic, distinguished 
 as a philologist and classical antiquarian. 
 He also earned a considerable reputation as 
 a writer in refutation of infidel doctrines. 
 
 Bergmann, Torbern Olof (b. 1735, d. 1784), 
 Swedish savant, dis'binguished as chemist, 
 botanist, mineralogist, physicist, and mathe- 
 matician. He was professor of physics and 
 chemistry at Upsala university, and left 
 many valuable papers. 
 
 Berington, Joseph (6. 1743, d. 1820), an 
 EngUsh Roman Catholic priest and writer. 
 He strongly advocated reforms ia his Church, 
 and also Catholic emancipation in England. 
 TTia Literary History of the Middle Ages is 
 an authoritative work. 
 
 Beriot, Charles Auguste de (6. 1802, d. 
 1870), a celebrated violinist, and composer 
 of violin music. He appeared first at Paris, 
 and the publication of his Airs Varies 
 gave him a very wide popularity, which ex- 
 tended to this coimtry when he visited it in 
 1826. He married the famous singer, Mali- 
 bran Garcia, and on the death of his wife 
 retired for some years. 
 
 Berkeley, George (6. 1684, d. 1753), an 
 English divine, famous for the keenness of 
 his intellect and the greatness of his nature. 
 He was bom in Ireland, and educated at 
 Trinity College, DubHn. In 1709 he pub- 
 lished his Theory of Vision, and in 1710 
 his FrincipUs of Human Knowledge, prov- 
 ing the non-existence of matter, a view 
 which he afterwards elaborated. Coming 
 to England he made the acquaintance of the 
 great literary men of the day, and in 1724 
 was made Dean of Derry. In 1725 he pub- 
 lished A Scheme for Converting the Savage 
 Americans to Cnristianity. This scheme 
 involved the erection of a college at the 
 Bermudas, and the Government granted a 
 charter, and promised a grant ia aid. 
 Berkeley set out for the Bermudas, but the 
 money not being forthcoming, the scheme 
 had to be abandoned. In 1733 he was made 
 Bishop of Cloyne, when he retired to 
 Oxford. His last publication was a treatise 
 on The Virtues of Tar Water. 
 
 Berkeley, Sir George Cranfield (6. 1753, 
 d. 1818), a distinguished naval of&cer. He 
 served in 1778 with Keppel, and at the relief 
 of Gibraltar in 1781. At the battle of 
 Ushant he played a very gallant part, and 
 was thanked by Lord Howe and Parliament. 
 He sat in Parliament after further service 
 for thirty years. 
 
 Berkeley, James, Earl of (6. 1680, d. 1736), 
 a gallant naval officer. He served with 
 
 distinction against the French under Sir 
 Cloudesley Shovel, and, later, under Byng. 
 His briUiant services were rewarded by Ma 
 being made First Lord of the Admiralty, 
 and a K.G. 
 
 Berkeley, John, Lord Berkeley of Stratton 
 (d. 1696), a British admiral who com- 
 manded in the unsuccessful attack on Brest 
 of 1694, and who afterwards served with 
 Sir Cloudesley Shovel. 
 
 Berkeley, Miles Joseph (6. 1803, d. 1889), 
 an English clergyman and naturalist, and 
 the author of several works on natural 
 history, including Outlines of British Fung' 
 ology. 
 
 Berkeley, Sir WiUiam (6. 1639, d. 1666), a 
 British admiral, third son of Lord Fitz- 
 harding. When only twenty-six he was 
 made rear-admiral of the fleet, under the 
 Duke of York, which defeated the Dutch. 
 In 1666 he was in the forefront of the great 
 engagement with Van Tromp, and was there 
 killed. 
 
 Berkh, VasUi Nicolaevich (6. 1781, d. 
 1834), Russian man of letters, who, after 
 serving in the navy, devoted himself to 
 historical and narrative writing, and left 
 several important works. 
 
 Berkhey, Jan Lefrancq van (6. 1720, d. 
 1812), a Dutch prof essor, distinguished as a 
 man of science, a historian, a linguist, and 
 a poet. He wrote the History, Geographical, 
 Fhysieal, Natural, and Civil, of Holland. 
 
 Berland, Pierre Q>. 1375, d. 1457), a pious 
 and famous archbishop of Bordeaux. He 
 foimded the university there, and did 
 much by his munificence to beautify the 
 city. 
 
 Berlichingen, Goetz von {d. 15G2), a 
 German freebooter, known as "the Iron- 
 hand," whose memory is perpetuated in 
 Goethe's drama. 
 
 BerUer, Theophile (6. 1761, d. 1840), a 
 French lawyer who played a not unim- 
 portant part in the great revolution. He 
 was a member of the Committee of Public 
 Safety, and imder the Empire was made a 
 councillor of state and a count. He was 
 banished on the restoration. 
 
 BerlingMeri, Vacca (6. 1772, d. 1826), an 
 Italian surgeon of great eminence. He 
 studied in Paris and England, and after 
 acquiring a reputation in France as an 
 operator and lecturer, he returned to Pisa, 
 his native town, and filled a chair at the 
 university. He wrote some valuable works. 
 
 BerUoz, Hector (6. 1803, d. 1869), 
 French musical composer. Rejecting the 
 profession of medicine, he entered the 
 Paris Conservatoire, where his genius was
 
 Ber 
 
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 but little recognised. He was repeatedly 
 unsuccessful in examination, but latterly 
 took prizes for composition. While still a 
 student he produced Les Francs Juges, 
 and La Si/mphonie Fantastique. After 
 studying in Rome, he earned a living in 
 Paris as musical critic to the Journal des 
 Debats. He introduced his compositions to 
 the public in a series of concerts, but they 
 were little appreciated, though Paganini was 
 so affected by the Stjmphonie Fantastique 
 that he sent Berlioz a draft for 20,000 francs. 
 A marriage with a Miss Smithson, an Eng- 
 lish actress, caused Berlioz much unhappi- 
 uess, and greatly straitened his resources. 
 A tour in Germany and Russia secured his 
 reputation, his compositions being enthu- 
 siastically received ; and in 1852 he came to 
 London, where he met with the greatest 
 success. BerUoz wrote his own Memoirs. 
 
 Bermudez, J6ao (d. 1575), a Portuguese 
 physician who went to Abyssinia in 1520, 
 and was appointed patriarch by the king. 
 On revisiting Eui-ope the title was con- 
 firmed by the Pope ; and he went back to 
 Abyssinia for fifteen years. He left an 
 account of his thii-ty years' residence in the 
 country. 
 
 Bemaldez, Andres (6. 1513), Spanish 
 historian, known as the "Cure de los 
 Palacios." He was the friend of Colxmibus, 
 and author of the Historia de los Reyes 
 CatoUcos, a work of great value. 
 
 Bernard, King of Italy (d. 818), the 
 grandson of Charlemagne and son of Pepin, 
 whom he succeeded in 812. When Louis le 
 Debonnaire succeeded Charlemagne, Ber- 
 nard rebelled, but was defeated, and had his 
 eyes put out. 
 
 Bernard, Andrew, a French Augustinian 
 friar who was poet laureate to Henry VII. 
 and Henry VIII. of England, and who 
 wrote a record of the reign of the former 
 monarch. 
 
 Bernard, Claude (6. 1813, d. 1878), a 
 French physiologist of distinction. He held 
 several of the highest professional appoint- 
 ments in Paris, and wrote several medical 
 treatises of great value. The principal are 
 Recherches sur les Usages du Pancreas and 
 JDe la Physiologie Generale. 
 
 Bernard, Edward (6. 1638, d. 1697), a 
 professor of astronomy at Oxford, distin- 
 guished also as a linguist and as a litterateur. 
 His works were numerous. 
 
 Bernard, Pierre Joseph (6. 1710, d. 1775), 
 a French poet, known as " Le Gentil Ber- 
 nard." He served in the Italian wars, and 
 afterwards became attached to the Marshal 
 de Coigny. 
 
 Bernard, Pons Joseph (6. 1748, d. 1816), 
 
 a French mathematician of eminence and 
 director of the Marseilles observatory. He 
 left on record the results of much valuable 
 observation. 
 
 Bernard, St. (6. 1091, d. 1153), of noble 
 Burguudian birth, was educated at Paris 
 university. He entered the Cistercian 
 monastery at Citeaux, and there acquired a 
 high reputation as a preacher. At the head 
 of a baud of monks he was sent to found a 
 new monastery, which he established at 
 Clairvaux, and from which his fame and 
 influence spread far and wide. Kings, 
 popes, and nobles, all appealed to him for 
 advice on the weightiest matters, and 
 accepted his decisions. He procured the 
 condemnation of several heterodox writers 
 including Abelard and Arnold of Brescia. 
 His great work was the preaching of a 
 new crusade in France and Germany. He 
 excited the greatest enthusiasm, and 
 prophesied the triumph of the expedition. 
 But it failed notably, and Bernard died 
 soon afterwards. He was canonised in 1 1 74, 
 and bears the title of "The Last of the 
 Fathers." 
 
 Bernard, Simon (6. 1779, d. 1839), a 
 French general, aide-de-camp to Napoleon, 
 and head of the, topographical department. 
 On the restoration he entered the United 
 States service, and undertook important 
 engineering works. He returned to France 
 in 1830, and was made aide-de-camp to the 
 king, and in 1836 minister of war. 
 
 Bernard, Sir Thomas (6. 1750, d. 1818), 
 scholar and philanthropist. He devoted his 
 fortune to work among the poor and to the 
 advancement of learning. He was largely 
 instrumental in founding the Foundling 
 Hospital, and the Royal and British Insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 Bernard de Meuthon, Saint (6. 923, d. 
 1008), a noble Savoyard, and Archdeacon of 
 Aosta. He was the foimder of the hospices 
 of the Great and the Little St. Bernard. 
 
 Bemardez, Diego (6. 1540, d. 1596), one 
 of the best of Portuguese poets, called the 
 "prince of pastoral poetry." He accom- 
 panied an expedition to Africa, and was 
 made prisoner at the battle of Al-oacar- 
 Kebir. 
 
 Bemardi, John {b. 1657, d. 1736), an 
 Englishman of Italian extraction, who de- 
 voted himself to the service of James II. 
 He was imprisoned for supposed complicity 
 in the plots against William, and he died 
 in prison. 
 
 Bernardin, St. (6. 1380, d. 1444), a 
 Franciscan monk of Siena, and a famous 
 preacher. His unselfish devotion during the 
 plague of 1400 gave him great influence, and 
 ne became vicar-general of his order.
 
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 Bemasconi, Andrea (b. 1712, d. 1784), 
 musical composer of Freuch descent, though 
 bom in Italy. His operas, Alessandro Severo 
 and Sallnstia, made him known through 
 Italy and Germany, and he was appointed 
 kapellmeister at Munich. 
 
 Bemeck, Karl Gustav von (6. 1803, 
 d. 1871), a Prussian novelist, and author of 
 several works on military science. He served 
 in the Prussian cavahy, and then became 
 professor of history at Fraukfort-on-Oder. 
 He was later appoiated to military chairs 
 in BerUn. 
 
 Bemer, Frederick Wilhelm (6. 1780, d. 
 1827), German musician, appeared in public 
 as an organist at nine years of age, and was an 
 accomplished pianist. He organised at BerHn 
 a musical school, after the model of Zellar's. 
 
 Bemers, John Bourchier, Lord (p. 1470, 
 d. 1532), Chancellor of the Exchequer to 
 Henry VIII., and a writer of much industry 
 and talent. His chief work was the trans- 
 lation of Froissart's Chronicles. 
 
 Bemers, Juliana (6. 1388, d. 1485), 
 Prioress of Sopewell Nunnery, near St. 
 Albans. She was celebrated for her beauty 
 and learning, and wrote many works on 
 fishing, hunting, natural history, and 
 heraldry. 
 
 Bemhard, Christoph (6. 1612, d. 1692), 
 a German musician, was sent by the 
 Elector of Saxony to study at Eome, and 
 he gained a great reputation by his com- 
 positions. For ten years he was musical 
 director at Hamburg, and was then ap- 
 pointed kapellmeister at Dresden. 
 
 Bemhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar (6. 1604, 
 d. 1639), a famous general. He fought 
 against Tilly ia the Thirty Years' war, 
 and was highly esteemed by Gustavus 
 Adolphus, with whom he served. In 1633 
 he was made Duke of Franconia, but lost 
 the duchy in consequence of the reverses 
 inflicted on him by Wallenstein. 
 
 BemJiardt, Sarah (6. 1844), French 
 actress, ia the daughter of a French lawyer 
 and a Dutch Jewess ; she entered the Paris 
 Conservatoire, where her histrionic genius 
 soon displayed itself. Her first appear- 
 ance at the Theatre Francjaise ia Racine's 
 Iphigenie was a failure, and she re- 
 tired from the stage; but she again ap- 
 peared in 1868, and in the following year 
 established her reputation by her rendering 
 of the Queen of Spain in Ituy Bias. She 
 served as a hospital nurse during the siege 
 of Paris, but after the war she returned to 
 the stage, earning ever-increasing fame. 
 Her first visit to England was in 1879. and 
 in 1881 she visited the States. Madame 
 Bernhardt is also au accompUshed sculptor 
 and painter. 
 
 Berni, Francesco (6. 1490, d. 1536), an 
 Italian poet. He was first in the household 
 of Cardinal Bibbiena, and then secretary to 
 Gilberti, Bishop of Verona. His satiric 
 verses and extravaganzas at this time were 
 highly appreciated, and have an enduring 
 reputation. Weary of the court Ufe, he 
 retired to Florence soon after the sack of 
 Rome in 1527, and his premature death is 
 commonly supposed to have been the result 
 of poison. 
 
 Bemier, Etienne Alexandre (6. 1764, d. 
 1806), known to his contemporaries as 
 " L ' Abb6 Bemier. ' ' After the revolution he 
 refused to take the oath to the civil con- 
 stitution, and joLaed the Vend^an army, 
 but when the cause was hopeless he took 
 a leading part in pacifying the district. As 
 one of the plenipotentiaries who negotiated 
 the concordat he was made Archbishop of 
 Orleans. 
 
 Bemier, FranQois (&. 1625, d. 1688), 
 French ti'aveller and writer, having taken 
 a medical degi'ee, set out to travel in the 
 East, and ultimately reached Delhi, where 
 he became physician to the Emperor Shah 
 Jehan. During his twelve years' stay he 
 made the most of his exceptional oppor- 
 tunities for observing the life and customs 
 of the coimtry, and his accounts written 
 home possess the highest iuterest. When 
 he returned to France he devoted himself to 
 writing philosophical works which have no 
 enduring value, 
 
 Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (6. 1598, d. 
 1680), one of the most eminent of Italiaa 
 sculptors. His genius asserted itself very 
 early ; Gregory XV. made him a knight, 
 and Cardinal Barberini, as Urban VIII., 
 bestowed the highest honour and favour 
 upon him. His works in Rome were mani- 
 fold, and his fame spread through Europe, 
 Charles I., Richelieu and Louis XIV. having 
 their busts executed by him. When sixty- 
 eight years old he was invited to Paris by 
 Louis XIV. to superintend the design of the 
 Louvre, and until his death in his eighty, 
 second year he continued the pursuit of his 
 art at Rome. 
 
 Bemis, Francois Joachim de Pierres de (6. 
 1715, d. 1794), cardinal, statesman, and 
 writer, first obtained recognition in Paris 
 by his erotic verses, and was taken into 
 favour by Mme. de Pompadour. The success- 
 ful conduct of a mission to Venice procured 
 for him in 1756 the oifice of minister of 
 foreign affairs, and in 1758 he was made a 
 cardinal. He lost the royal favour during 
 the Seven Years' war, and retired until 
 1769, when he was sent on a mission to 
 Rome. The revolution deprived him of all 
 his honours and influence, and he died in 
 Rome.
 
 Ber 
 
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 Ber 
 
 Bemouilli, Jacques (6. 1654, d. 1705), dis- 
 tiugviished luathematician of Basle, was 
 destined for the Church, but though ordained, 
 turned to the study of science and attracted 
 attention by an essay on the motion of comets. 
 Later he became professor of mathematics 
 at Basle, and initiated several important 
 methods in science. 
 
 Bernouilli, Jeau (6. 1667, d. 1748), brother 
 of the preceding, mathematician and physi- 
 cist. For many years he corresponded with 
 Leibnitz on scientific questions, and pub- 
 lished several treatises on physical and phy- 
 siological subjects which attracted much 
 attention. In 1705 he succeeded his brother 
 at Basle university. 
 
 BemouiUl, Daniel (6. 1700, d. 1782), 
 second son of the preceding, physician and 
 mathematician. In 1725 Peter the Great ap- 
 pointed him, together with his elder brother 
 Nicolas, who was also a physician and mathe- 
 matician, to the chair of mathematics at St. 
 Petersburg. He remained in Russia till 
 1733, and composed there his treatise on Hy- 
 drodynamics. Eetuming to Basle he occupied 
 chairs in the university, and carried on much 
 original work, ten of his memoirs written 
 for the French Academy of Sciences being 
 crowned. Jean, his son, and Jean and Nico- 
 las, his grandsons, were also distinguished 
 mathematicians. 
 
 Bemstorff, Albrecht, Count (6. 1809, d. 
 1873), Prussian diplomatist, was elected in 
 1851 to the first Prussian Chamber, and in 
 1854 was sent on a special mission to London. 
 From 1861 to 1862 he was Prussian foreign 
 minister, after which he again became am- 
 bassador to London, a position which he 
 retained to the last. 
 
 BemstorfT, Andreas Peder, Count von (b. 
 1735, d. 1797), Danish statesman, became 
 minister of state in 1769, and took an 
 important part in foreign affairs, besides 
 promoting many internal reforms, such as a 
 new financial system and the abolition of 
 serfdom in Schleswig-Holstein. 
 
 Bemstorff, Christian, Count von (6. 1769, 
 d. 1835), son of the preceding, whom lie 
 succeeded as foreign minister, was later 
 ambassador at Paris, and represented Den- 
 mark at the Vieima congress of 1815. In 
 1818 he went to Prussia and became foreign 
 minister there. 
 
 Bemstorff, Johann Hartrig Ernst (6. 1712, 
 d. 1772), Danish statesman, was foreign 
 minis ter during the Seven Years' war, and 
 was ennobled by Charles VII. He did much 
 to promote commerce and industry, and 
 spent large sums on philanthropic objects. 
 
 Berquin, Louis de (6. 1489, d. 1529), a 
 French martyr for the reformed faith. He 
 was a friend of Erasmus, and was twice 
 
 imprisoned for heretical doctrines. Finally 
 his books were burnt and he died at the stake. 
 
 Berredo, Bernardo Pereira de (d. 1748), 
 Portuguese historian, who served in the 
 army, and afterwards went to America. 
 His chief work is Annaes Historicos de 
 Maranhdo. 
 
 Berriman, William (6. 1688, d. 1750), 
 English clergyman, an eminent Orientalist, 
 and the author of many theological works. 
 He is remembered for his able contributions 
 to the Trinitarian controversy. 
 
 Berroyer, Claude (6. 1665, d. 1735), 
 barrister of Paris, and the author of several 
 authoritative legal works. 
 
 Berrugette, Alonso (6. 1480, d. 1545), 
 Spanish painter and a pupU of Michael 
 Angelo. He was court painter to Charles V., 
 and was also an able sculptor and architect. 
 
 Berry, Caroline Ferdinande Louise, 
 Duchesse de (6. 1798, d. 1870), daughter of 
 Ferdinand I., King of Sicily, and in 1816 
 married to the Due de Berry. The Legiti- 
 mists supported the claims of her son to the 
 throne, and a rising took place in Brittany 
 in his favour. She was taken prisoner, and 
 then it was discovered she had been privately 
 married before she became Duchesse de 
 Berry, and her son was removed from her 
 charge. 
 
 Berry, Charles, Due de (6. 1446, d. 1472), 
 second son of Charles VII., who intended 
 him to succeed to the throne. On Charles' 
 death in 1461, however, Louis XI. succeeded 
 and created his brother Due de Berry. 
 Berry took up arms against the king, was 
 defeated and made Duke of Guyenne, whither 
 he was banished, and where he died. 
 
 Berry, Charles Ferdinand d'Artois, Due de 
 (b. 1778, d. 1820), son of Charles X. He 
 served in the army vmder the Prince de 
 Cond€. He was assassinated by an Orleanist 
 partisan in Paris. 
 
 Berry, Jean de France, Due de (6. 1340, 
 d. 1416), third son of Jean le Bon, with whom 
 he was taken prisoner at Poictiers, and sent 
 to England as a hostage. He was appointed 
 a co-guardian of Charles VI., but was later 
 dismissed from the governorship of Lan- 
 guedoc on accoimt of his horrible cruelties. 
 He was afterwards appointed governor of 
 Paris, but he intrigued against the Mng, 
 and was besieged m Bourses. After his 
 capitulation he went into retirement. 
 
 Berry, Marie Louise EHzabeth, Duchesse 
 d'Orleans {b. 1695, d. 1719), daughter of 
 Philip of Orleans and wife of the Due de 
 Berry, grandson of Louis XIV. Her ambi- 
 tion and viciousness were the only quaUties 
 which distinguished her career.
 
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 Berry, Sir Edward (6. 1776, d. 1831), Eng- 
 lish admiral, fought under Howe at Ushant, 
 distinguished himself at St. Viucent, com- 
 manded the Vaitffuard at the Nile, and the 
 Agamemnon at Trafalgar. 
 
 Berry, Sir John (6. 1635, d. 1691), British 
 admiiai, after serving iu the merchant ser- 
 vice, entered the navy as a boatswain, 
 and soon rose to the rank of commodore in 
 the West Indies, where he gained a victory 
 with only nine ships over a iFrench and 
 Dutch fleet of twenty-two ships. In 1672 
 he distiuguished himself -under the Duke of 
 York against the Dutch, and was second ia 
 command in Lord Dartmouth's expedition 
 against Tangiers. 
 
 Berry, Mary (6. 1762, d. 1852), a literary 
 ■woman of some celebrity. Together with her 
 father and sister, she was appointed literary 
 executor of Horace Walpole, whom she 
 defended from Macaulay's criticisms. She 
 also wrote France and England, 
 
 Berryer, Pierre Antoine (6. 1790, d. 1868), 
 French barrister and a politician, was one of 
 the defenders of Ney, and also defended De- 
 beUe and Cambronne. He was an adherent of 
 the Bourbons iu the early years, and entered 
 the legislature in 1830, declining the office 
 offered to him. He was tried, but acquitted, 
 for participation in the rising in favour of 
 the Duchesse de Berry's son. He was 
 actively engaged in politics till 1848, but 
 after the coup d^etat he turned his attention 
 wholly to the law, being regarded as the 
 first advocate in France. 
 
 Bert, Paul (6. 1833, d. 1886), French 
 statesman and physiologist, qualified both 
 as an avocat and a doctor, and for some 
 years held professional appointments at Bor- 
 deaux and Paris. In 1874 he was returned 
 to the Chamber of Deputies and distin- 
 guished himself by his labours in connection 
 with public education. He was minister of 
 public instruction and worship imder Gam- 
 betta, and in 1886 was appointed governor of 
 Tonquin, but died very shortly after. 
 
 Berthaut, Jean Auguste (6. 1817, d. 1881), 
 French general, who commanded the Garde 
 Mobile of the Seine during the Franco- 
 German war, and served with distinction 
 during the siege of Paris. In 1876 he was 
 minister of war, and in 1877 repressed the 
 discontent with the repubHc which was dis- 
 played among the troops. 
 
 BertMer, Louis Alexandre, Prince of 
 Wagram (6. 1753, d. 1815), French general 
 who served under Lafayette in the United 
 States, and was chief of the staff in the 1796 
 Italian campaign. He won the confidence 
 of Napoleon, and was appointed minister of 
 war, and later marshal of the empire, while 
 the daughter of the King of Bavaria was 
 
 given him in marriage. He served in the 
 Austrian and Russian campaigns as chief of 
 the staff, and on the banishment of Napo- 
 leon joined Louis XVIII. During the 
 Hundred Days he retu-ed to Bamberg, 
 where he was one morning found dead in 
 the streets under suspicious circumstances. 
 
 BertMer, Napoleon Louis Joseph Alex- 
 andre Charles, Prince of Wagram (6. 
 1810), son of the preceding, an assiduous 
 agriculturist, entered public life at the 
 revolution of 1830 on the popular side, and 
 later became the devoted adherent of Louis 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Bertnod, Anselm (6. 1733, d. 1788), French 
 Benedictine monk and historical writer, was 
 sent through Europe by Bertin to collect 
 MSS. bearing on French history, and he 
 undertook the continuation of Acta iSanc- 
 torum. 
 
 Berthold (d. 1272), German evangelist, 
 who travelled through Austria and Hungary 
 preaching the Gospel, and who was widely 
 celebrated for his eloquence. 
 
 Berthollet, Claude Louis (6. 1748, d. 1822), 
 French chemist ; some essays and his discus- 
 sions with Lavoisier brought him into notice, 
 and after the revolution he devised a process 
 for the production of saltpetre which was 
 of great value to the republic. He received 
 some official appointments, and was sent to 
 Egypt with the scientific expedition. On 
 returning, he devoted himself to chemical re- 
 search, and made several valuable discoveries, 
 leaving numerous works of importance. 
 
 Berthoud, Ferdinand (6. 1725, d. 1807), 
 Swiss horologer of note, who came to Paris 
 and there invented the first marine chrono- 
 meter for taking the longitude at sea. 
 He was horologer meehanicien to the navy, 
 and left some works. 
 
 Berthoud, Samuel Henri (5. 1804), French 
 novelist, founded the Gazette de Cambrai, 
 and was afterwards connected with several 
 Paris periodicals, in which many of his 
 works appeared. 
 
 Bertie, Eobert, Earl of Lindsay (6. 1582, 
 d. 1642), the son of Peregrine, Lord Wil- 
 loughby d'Eresby, was a distinguished 
 soldier, and was made an admiral and earl 
 in 1626. He fought as a Royalist in the 
 Civil war and was killed at Edge Hill. 
 
 Bertin, Edouard Fran9ois (6. 1797, d. 
 1871), French litterateur and landscape pain- 
 ter, and inspector of fine arts under Louis 
 Philippe. His father founded the Journal 
 des Debats, to the management of which he 
 succeeded in 1854. 
 
 Bertin de Veaux, Louis Frant^ois (&. 1771, 
 d. 1842), father of the preceding aod a
 
 Ber 
 
 ( 132 
 
 Bes 
 
 principal writer on the Journal des Debats, 
 wliich he founded. He was at one time a 
 j udge, vice-president of the Tribunal of Com- 
 merce, and secretaxy-general to the ministry 
 of police. Later he entered the Chamber of 
 Deputies ; in 1830 he was sent on missions 
 to Holland and England, and in 1832 he was 
 made a peer. 
 
 Bertin, Jean Francois (6. 1766, d. 1841), 
 brother of the preceding. An active jour- 
 nalist and a writer for the Debats, He was 
 transported to Elba for political reasons, but 
 escaped. 
 
 Bertin, Nicolas (6. 1667, d. 1736), a French 
 painter of note. He was admitted to the 
 Academy in 1703, for his Hercules and 
 Prometheus, and was invited to settle in 
 Rome, Mayence, and Mimich. 
 
 Bertini, Henri Jer6me (6. 1798, d. 1876), a 
 French pianist, who appeared in public w ith 
 success when only twelve years old. He 
 settled in France, after visiting Great Britain 
 and HoUand. 
 
 Bertola, de'Giorgi Aurelia (6. 1753, d. 
 1798), Italian poet, entered a monastery 
 in early hfe, but ran away to Hungary, 
 where he served in the Austrian army. 
 He returned to Italy after some years, and 
 his literary reputation enabled him to obtain 
 release from his reUgious vows. After occu- 
 pying chairs in the universities of Siena, 
 Naples, and Pavia, he went to Germany and 
 Switzerland, and became the friend of 
 Gesner, whose poems he translated. 
 
 Barton, Henri Montan (6. 1766, d. 1844), 
 French composer, produced his first opera, 
 Promesses de Mariage, at the age of twenty, 
 and subsequently produced more than forty 
 others. In 1806 he was appointed director of 
 the Italian Opera, and he held posts in the 
 Conservatoire and Academy of Music. 
 
 Bertoni, Ferdinando Giuseppe (6. 1727, 
 d. 1801), Italian composer and maestro di 
 capella of San Marco at Venice. He pro- 
 duced many operas, some oratorios, and 
 other church music. He twice visited Lon- 
 don, and on the first occasion produced with 
 great success his opera Orpheo. 
 
 Bertram, Bonaventure ComeQle (6. 1531, 
 d. 1594), French Orientalist, who held the 
 chair of Hebrew at Lausanne, and who was 
 the first Protestant to translate the Bible 
 from the Hebrew. 
 
 Bertrand, Henri Gratian, Count (6. 1773, 
 d. 1844), French general and the personal 
 friend of Napoleon. He served in the great 
 campaigns with distinction and accompanied 
 Napoleon in exile, to Elba and St. Helena. 
 He was restored to rank by Louis XVIII., 
 and in 1830 entered the Chamber of 
 Deputies. 
 
 Bertrand, Joseph Louis Francois (6. 1822), 
 a French mathematician of eminence, who 
 wrote several valuable works, and held 
 chairs in the College of France and the 
 Lycee Napoleon. 
 
 Bertrand de Molevllle, Antoine Francois, 
 Marquis de (6. 1744, d. 1818), minister of 
 marine to Louis XVI. of France. Impeach- 
 ment by the Constituent Assembly caused 
 him to fiy to England, where he resided for 
 many years, writing, among other works, a 
 History of England. 
 
 BeruUe, Pierre de (6. 1574, d. 1629), a 
 French cardinal, founded the Order of the 
 Carmelites in France, and was employed on 
 several important missions by Louis XTTL 
 
 Berwick, James Fitzjames (6. 1670, d. 
 1734), natural son of James II., served 
 with the French against the Turks in Hun- 
 gary, and after the landing of William of 
 Orange, was James's commander-in-chief in 
 Ireland. He then joined the French army, 
 and commanded in the Xiow Countries and in 
 Spain. 
 
 Berzelius, Johann Jakob (6. 1779, d. 1848), 
 Swedish chemist, was professor for many 
 years at Stockholm university, and acquired 
 a great reputation by his memoirs and his 
 invaluable work in chemical analysis and 
 mineralogy. 
 
 Besant, Walter (6. 1838), English novelist; 
 his first work, Studies in Early French 
 Poetry, was published in 1868, and in 1871 
 he began to write fiction in collaboration 
 with James Rice. Ready-Money Mortiboy 
 and The Golden Butterfly gained for the 
 authors a wide reputation. Since the death 
 of Rice in 1882, Besant has written alone, his 
 best-known work being All Sorts and Condi- 
 tions of Men, which prompted the establish- 
 ment of the People's Palace in Mile 
 End. 
 
 BescM, Constantino Giuseppe {d. 1742), 
 Italian Jesuit, who went to India as a 
 missionary, and acquired the various native 
 languages, for which he compiled grammars 
 and dictionaries, besides writing works for 
 the benefit of his converts. 
 
 Bessaraba, Constantino 11. {d. 1714), 
 Vaivode of Wallachia. His life was 
 passed in treacherous intrigue with different 
 powers, Russia, Turkey, and Austria, and 
 he was finally put to death at Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 Bessaraba, Michel II. {d. 1601), Vaivode 
 of Wallachia. In alliance with Sigismund 
 of Transylvania and Rodolph I. of Germany 
 he drove the Turks from Wallachia, and on 
 the death of Sigismund annexed Transyl- 
 vania. He was, however, soon driven out, 
 and shortly after poisoned at Vienna.
 
 Bes 
 
 (133) 
 
 Ben 
 
 Bessaraba, Mirce I. {d. 1418), Vaivode 
 of Wallachia, in 1393 was compelled to be- 
 come a tributary to Sultan Bajazet I., but 
 joined the Christian alliance in 1396, which 
 was defeated at NicopoUs. He repelled the 
 Turkish invasion, however, and retained 
 the independence of Wallachia for eighteen 
 years. 
 
 Bessaraba, Rodolph, "The Black" {d. 
 1265), founder of the principality of Wal- 
 lachia. He built the towns of Argissa and 
 Tergovisti. 
 
 Bessarion, John (6. 1395, d. 1472), monk 
 of the Order of St. Basil, in the Pelopon- 
 nesus. John Paleeologus made him bishop 
 of Nicea and sent birn to the Councils of 
 Ferrara and Florence, summoned to bring 
 about the union of the Greek and Latin 
 churches. He favoured Eome, for which 
 he received a cardinal's hat, but he had to 
 leave Constantinople. His house at Rome 
 was a great centre of learning ; he waa sent 
 on many papal missions. 
 
 Bessborough, John William Ponsonby, 
 fourth Earl of (6. 1781, d. 1847), entered 
 ParUament as Lord Duncannon, in 1805, in 
 the Whig interest. He was made Home 
 Secretary in 1834, and Lord Privy Seal in 
 1835. In 1846 he became Lord-Lieutenant 
 of Ireland under Lord John Russell, and 
 during his viceroyalty the great famine oc- 
 curred. His son {d. 1880) presided over the 
 Irish Land Commission which bears his 
 name. 
 
 Bessel, Friedrich Wilhehn (6. 1784, d. 
 1846), German astronomer, entered a mer- 
 chant's office, and while there devoted his 
 leisure to the study of astronomy, and suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining an appointment in the 
 Lilienthal observatory. In 1810 an obser- 
 vatory was constructed at Konigsberg imder 
 Bessel's direction, and here he spent the rest 
 of his life in research and observations which 
 have made his name famous. 
 
 Bessemer, Sir Henry (6. 1813), a distin- 
 guished inventor. He early displayed his 
 mechanical genius in several useful in- 
 ventions, and the great discovery with which 
 his name is associated — the Bessemer steel 
 process — was brought before the world in 
 1856. 
 
 Bessieres, Jean Baptiste (b. 1768, d. 1813), 
 French general, and Duke of Istria, who 
 rose from the rank of common soldier. He 
 gained the special regard of _ Bona- 
 parte, and served with distinction in many 
 of his campaigns. He was mainly instru- 
 mental in gaining the victory at Marengo ; 
 succeeded Bomadotte in the command of 
 the army of the north ; and was killed the 
 day before Liitzen. 
 
 Best, William Thomas (jb. 1826), organist, 
 
 for many years held that position at St. 
 George's Hall, Liverpool, and at the London 
 Albert HaU. He introduced into England 
 the use of the separate pedal board on 
 Bach's system. 
 
 BestujeflF-Rnmin, Alexis Petrovich (6. 
 1692, d. 1766), Russian statesman, was 
 first a page to George I. of England, and 
 in 1741 became chancellor to the Empress 
 Elizabeth. His diplomatic machinations 
 against Prussia at length brought about his 
 banishment, but he was restored in 1762 by 
 Catherine II. 
 
 Bethlen-Gabor (6. 1580, d. 1629), Prince 
 of Transylvania and King of Hungary, rose 
 to the former rank with the aid of the Turks 
 in a period of disturbance, and taking the 
 lead of the Hungarian Protestants against 
 the Emperor Ferdinand II. , was proclaimed 
 King of Hungary in 1618. During the 
 Thirty Years' war he was compelled to 
 resign the title. 
 
 Betterton, Thomas (6. 1635, d. 1710), 
 EngUsh actor, the son of a cook of Charles 
 I. All contemporary critics speak of him 
 with the highest praise, and he was always 
 popular during his career of fifty years or 
 more on the stage. His wife, a Miss Saunder- 
 son, was the great Lady Macbeth of her 
 day. 
 
 Bettina, tiie asstmied name of Anna 
 Elizabeth von Amim (b. 1785, d. 1859), a 
 writer of the Romantic school, best known 
 for her friendship with Goethe. She visited 
 him in Weimar in 1807, and this led to a 
 prolific correspondence extending over four 
 years, which she published as Briejivechsel 
 mit einem Kinde. She was the friend of 
 many other illustrious men of the dayj 
 and in 1811 married Ludvirig Joachim von 
 Arnim, a distinguished poet and novelist. 
 After her husband's death she lived in 
 Berlin, where her house became the centre 
 of Liberal movements, and where she wrote 
 a number of social and political essays. 
 
 BettineUl, Saverio (6. 1718, d. 1808), 
 Italian Jesuit, and a writer and poet of 
 distinction, was professor of literature at 
 Brescia, and afterwards at Parma. His 
 greatest works were a history of the period 
 between the 10th and 14th centuries, a 
 poem, II Farnaso Veneto, and Lettere di 
 Virgilio. 
 
 Beule, Charles Ernest (6. 1826, d. 1874), a 
 French archaeologist. An important series 
 of excavations on the Acropolis secured for 
 him the chair of archaeology in the Biblio- 
 theque Imperiale, in which position he 
 directed other excavations at Carthage. In 
 1 87 1 he was elected to the National Assernbly, 
 and in 1873 was made minister of the inte- 
 rior. TTia position soon became so difficult
 
 Beu 
 
 (134) 
 
 Bho 
 
 that he resigned, and shortly aiter com- 
 mitted euicide. 
 
 Beumonville, Pierre Riel de (6. 1752, d. 
 1821), French general, in 1793 was sent to 
 aiTest Dumouriez, but was delivered by him 
 to the Austrians, and remained a prisoner 
 for two years. Under the empire he was 
 ambassador at Berlin and Madrid, and on 
 the restoration was ennobled, and made a 
 marshal of Fi-ance. 
 
 Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand, Count von 
 (6. 1809, d. 1886), German statesman and 
 diplomatist, in 1849 became minister of 
 foreign affairs to the "King of Saxony, and 
 later, prune minister. His policy at home 
 was severely anti-democratic, and in foreign 
 matters he strongly resisted the dominance 
 of Prussia and Austria. After Sadowa he 
 had to resign, but was at once appointed 
 foreign minister to the Austrian Emperor. 
 In this position he carried many Liberal re- 
 forms, and entirely reorganised the affairs 
 of the empire. In 1871 he was sent as am- 
 bassador to London, and later to Paris. 
 
 Beveridge, William (6, 1638, d. 1708), 
 English bishop and distinguished Oriental- 
 ist. In his twentieth year he wrote a treatise. 
 on the Hebrew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, 
 and Samaritan languages. In 1704 he was 
 created Bishop of St. Asaph, and continued 
 his Uterary labours to the end. 
 
 Bevem, August WUhebn, Duke of Bruns- 
 wick-Lxmeberg (6. 1715, d. 1782), Prussian 
 general, who served with distinction during 
 the Seven Years' war, and in 1762 defeated 
 the Austrians at Eeichenbach. 
 
 Bevemmck, Jerome van (6. 1614, d. 1690), 
 Dutch statesman, known as "the Pacifi- 
 cator," on account of his successful negotia- 
 tion of many treaties. He was also an 
 eminent botanist. 
 
 Bewick, Thomas (&. 1753, d. 1828), Eng- 
 lish engraver, entered into partnership with 
 a Newcastle wood engraver, Ralph Beilby, 
 with whom he published his History of 
 Quadrupeds, which proved an imm ense suc- 
 cess. After some more fine work, he pro- 
 duced Tlie History of British Birda, and 
 later, JEsop's Fables, the two best examples 
 of his art. 
 
 Beyle, Marie Henri (6. 1783, d. 1842), 
 French wiiter, who only devoted himself iJo 
 literature after he had tried four or five 
 other professions. He wrote, besides much 
 excellent biography, two romances, and a 
 History of Painting in Italy. 
 
 Beza, Theodore (&. 1519, d. 1605), Calvinist 
 divine, was bom in Burgundy, and entering 
 the church secured rich benefices in Paris, 
 where, for some time, he led a wild life. In 
 1548 he went to Geneva, where he made a 
 
 public confession of the reformed faith, and 
 obtained a Greek professorship at Lausanne. 
 Besides much polemical writing at this time, 
 he translated the Psalms into French verse, 
 and the New Testament into Latin. In 
 1559 he went to Geneva, and became Calvin's 
 right-hand man. He remained in France 
 with Conde and Coligny during the civil 
 war. After Calvin's death he became the 
 foremost figure among the Calvinists of the 
 Continent. 
 
 Bhdslay, Rhagojee I. {d. 1753), Mahratta 
 general, who was granted the province of 
 Berar from the Peshwah Bajee Rao II. The 
 greater part of his hie was occupied in war. 
 
 Bhoslay, Janoojee {d. 1773), succeeded 
 the precediug as liajah of Berar in 1753. 
 He concluded an alliance with Nizam Ali for 
 the purpose of obtaining the chief power in 
 the Mahratta state ; but Nizam Ali joined 
 the Peshwah at the critical hour, and 
 Janoojee had to agree to most disastrous 
 terms of peace. 
 
 Bhoslay, Raghoojee {d. 1816), Rajah of 
 Berar and conunauder of the Mahratta 
 armies. He asserted his independence of 
 the Mahratta-Peshwah, and in 1803 entered 
 into alliance with. Doulat Rao Sindia 
 against the English. Their large and splen- 
 didly appointed army was utterly defeated 
 at Assaye by WeUesley, and later actions 
 compelled Raghoojee to effect a peace by 
 the relinqmshment of the greater part of 
 his dominions. 
 
 Bhdslay, Moodajee {d. 1840), generally 
 known as Appa Sahib, Rajah of Berar, 
 succeeded to the throne by the murder of 
 the Rajah Pursajee, and joined the Mah- 
 ratta confederacy against the EngUsh. He 
 was defeated and deposed, but was rein- 
 stated after a time, only again to stir up 
 revolt against the British. He escaped 
 from the imprisonment which he brought 
 upon himself, and afterwards led a wan- 
 dering life in Central India. 
 
 Bhdslay, Sivajee, Rajah of Mahrattas (6. 
 1627, d. 1680). His father was high in the 
 service of the Beejapoor sovereign. In- 
 stigated by his mother, he, with tkree other 
 men, Yessjee Kuuk, Yannajee Maloosray, 
 and Bajee Phasalkur, raised a force in the 
 hiUs, and conducted such successful raids 
 that the Emperor Shah Jehan took him into 
 his service. He greatly enlarged his do- 
 minions during the struggle between the 
 Mogul empire and the Beejapoor states, 
 taking part now with one side, now with the 
 other ; and finally by stratagem he destroyed 
 a powerful army sent against him from 
 Beejapoor. After some years of successful 
 predatory wai-fare, he was proclaimed 
 Maharajah of the Mahrattas with widely 
 extended dominions.
 
 Bho 
 
 (135) 
 
 Bil 
 
 Bhow, Pirrishram Eao Putwurdhem, 
 Mahratta general. In 1790 he commanded 
 the Mahratta forces acting with the British 
 against Tippoo Sultan, and his victorious 
 campaign in northern Mysore helped to 
 bring the Sultan to a speedy submission. 
 In 1795 he utterly defeated the Nizam, and 
 in the foDowing year performed the re- 
 markable feat of marching a large body of 
 cavalry 200 miles in forty-eight houi-s. In 
 a campaign against the Eajah of Kolapoor 
 he was taJien prisoner and cut to pieces. 
 
 BiancM, Francesco, (6. 1752, d. 1810), 
 Italian composer of note; in 1775 he pro- 
 duced at Paris his first opera, La Redmtian 
 de Paris, with much success, and in 1784 
 received an appointment at Milan cathedral, 
 where he remained for nine years producing 
 operas and oratorios. In 1793 he settled 
 in London and married Miss Jackson, a 
 popular vocalist. 
 
 BiancM, Vincent Friedrich, Baron de, 
 Duke of Casalanza (6. 1768, d. 1855), 
 Austrian general, served against the Turks 
 and through the French wars, in which he 
 distinguished himself. In 1 8 1 5 he assisted in 
 the defeat of Murat at Tollentino, and at 
 the convention of Casalanza secured the 
 throne of Naples for Ferdinand IV. In 
 1817 he commanded the Austrian forces in 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Bianconl, Carlo (6. 1788, d. 1875). the 
 originator of the Bianconi cars in Ireland. 
 His parents sent him as a boy to be appren- 
 ticed in London ; but Bianconi went to 
 Dublin, where he acquired the nucleus of 
 his fortune as an itinerant fruit-seller. 
 After some years he initiated his plan for 
 very cheap car conveyance between the 
 rural districts and the principal market 
 towns, and with such success that his 
 system was rapidly adopted all over Ireland. 
 
 Bianconi, Giovanni Lodovico (6. 1717, 
 d. 1781), Italian physician and man of 
 letters, in 1750 became chief physician to 
 the Elector of Saxony, whom he followed 
 into exile. In 1764 he was appointed re- 
 sident minister at the Papal court, where 
 he devoted himself to the literary pursuits 
 which estabhshed his reputation through 
 Europe. 
 
 Bichat, Marie Francois Xavier (6. 1771, 
 d. 1802), physiologist and anatomist, was 
 adopted by Dessault, whose w orks he edited, 
 and after his death devoted himself to 
 research in anatomy and surgery with such 
 incessant industry as to undermine his con- 
 stitution. He left numerous works of the 
 highest value. 
 
 Bickerstaff, Isaac (i. 1735, d. 1787), an 
 Irish dramatist, the author of several suc- 
 cessful comedies and operas. 
 
 Bickersteth, Edward Henry {b. 1825), 
 Bishop of Exeter; in 1866 he published 
 his rehgious poem Yesterday, To-day, and 
 For Ever, which had a wide vogue, and in 
 1870 The Hymnal Companion to the Book of 
 Common Prayer. Several other works of a 
 similar character have since appeared. He 
 was ordained to the see of Exeter in 1885. 
 
 Bidder, George Parkes (6. 1800, d. 1878), 
 engineer. In youth his grasp of figures 
 earned him the title of the " Calculating 
 Boy." Afterwards he assisted George 
 Stephenson ; was one of the engineers of 
 the Blackwall Railway, and a promoter of 
 the Telegraph Company. 
 
 Biddle, James {b. 1783, d. 1848), officer of 
 the U.S. navy, during the war vdth Tripoli, 
 1800, was taken prisoner. He served with 
 great distinction in the war with England, 
 capturing two English men-of-war. 
 
 Biddle, John (6. 1615, d. 1662), rehgious 
 controversialist, known as ' ' the father of 
 the EngUsh Unitai-ians, " was sent to prison 
 for heresy, and his book was ordered by 
 the House of Conmions to be burnt. In 
 1648, for the pubUcation of his Confession of 
 Faith, he was condemned to death, but the 
 sentence was commuted ; and he was 
 released in 1651, only to be again im- 
 prisoned by order of the House of Commons. 
 Cromwell subsequently banished him to the 
 SciUy Isles, but in 1662 he returned to 
 London, and was again sent to prison, 
 where he died. 
 
 Biehl, Charlotte Dorothea [b. 1731, d. 
 1788), Danish woman of letters, known as a 
 translator, a writer of tales and poetry, and 
 the author of some successful comedies. 
 
 Biez, Oudard du [d. 1553), French general, 
 made a marshal of France by Francis I., 
 and appointed to succeed to the ChevaUer 
 Bayard's command. He failed to drive the 
 Enghsh from Boulogne, and after the death 
 of Francis I. was imprisoned by the Guises. 
 
 Bignon, Louis Pierre Edouard (b. 1771, d. 
 1841), French diplomatist and statesman, 
 was employed on many important missioiis 
 under the empire. For four years he 
 directed the administration at Warsaw, and 
 he was an imder-secretary for foreign 
 affairs during the Hundi-ed Days. After 
 the 1830 revolution he became foreign 
 minister, and was created a peer, and 
 Napoleon charged him with the compilation 
 of a diplomatic history of France from 1799 
 to 1815, a task which he completed in four- 
 teen volumes. 
 
 Bilderdyck, Willem (b. 1756, d. 1831), 
 Dutch poet, a lawyer by profession, emi- 
 grated first to Germany and then to London, 
 where he lived by teaching. He returned 
 to Holland in 1806, and was taken into
 
 Bil 
 
 (136) 
 
 Bir 
 
 favour by Louis Napoleon, then King of 
 the Netherlands. He afterwards settled in 
 Leyden. The greatest of his numerous 
 poems is his Destruction of tlie First World. 
 
 Bilfinger, Georg Bemhard (6. 1693, d. 
 1 750 1, Grorman savant, in 1724 went to 
 Russia at the request of Peter the Great, 
 to occupy a professorial chair, where he 
 wrote his Essay on the Cause of the Weight 
 ^Bodies, to which the Paris Academy of 
 Sciences awarded the first prize. He was 
 afterwards curator of the university of 
 Tubingen, and left several works. 
 
 BillaudVaxenne, Jacques Nicolas (b. 1756, 
 d. 1819), French revolutionary of the most 
 extreme type, was prominent from the first 
 in the revolutionary councils for the fero- 
 city of his designs: later he denounced 
 Robespierre. In 1795 he was banished to 
 Cayenne, and never returned to Prance, 
 though pardoned. 
 
 Bille, Steen Andersen (b. 1751, d. 1833), 
 Danish admiral, conducted in 1796 the suc- 
 cessful blockade of Tripoli; fought in the 
 battle of Copenhagen ; and was appointed 
 commissioner for the transfer of the Nor- 
 wegian fortresses from Denmark to Sweden. 
 
 Bill^, Steen Andersen (b. 1797), Danish 
 admiral, son of the preceding, served 
 with distinction in the French navy, and 
 in 1845 commanded a Danish scientific 
 expedition, which sailed round the world. 
 He commanded the Danish navy in the 
 war against Germany, and in 1852 became 
 minister of marine. 
 
 Bineau, Jean Martial (6. 1805, d. 1855), 
 French engineer and politician, inspector- 
 general of the corps of engineers and mines, 
 entered the legislature in 1841, and busied 
 himself with extending internal communica- 
 tion. From 1849 to 1851 he was minister 
 of public works, and in 1852 became minister 
 of finance. 
 
 Binet, Jacques Philippe Marie (6. 1786, 
 d. 1856), French mathematician, was for 
 some time professor of astronomy in the 
 College of France, and left behind him 
 many papers of great value. 
 
 Bingham, Joseph (6. 1688, d. 1723), Eng- 
 lish clergyman, remembered as the author of 
 Origines Ecclesiasticce, a work of the greatest 
 erudition. He was compelled to resign an 
 Oxford fellowship for his part in the Trini- 
 tarian controversy. 
 
 Bini, Carlo (6. 1806, d. 1842), ItaUan pat- 
 riot and writer, whose life was devoted to 
 the national cause, most of his writings 
 being directed to further it. He was the 
 intimate friend of Mazzini, by whom his 
 works were edited. 
 
 Biondi, Giovanni Francesco (6. 1572, d. 
 
 1644), Italian writer, came to England from 
 Venice at the invitation of Sir Henry Wot- 
 ton, and was taken into high favoui- by 
 James I., who employed hrm on several 
 foreign missions. He wrote a history of the 
 Wars of the Roses. 
 
 Biondi, Luigi (6. 1776, d. 1839), ItaHan 
 man of letters, was an industrious writer of 
 prose and verse of a high quality. He was 
 president of the Archaeological Academy 
 at Rome, and supervisor, for the King of 
 Sardinia, of th^ study of fine arts in Rome. 
 
 Blot, Jean Baptiste (6. 1774, d. 1862), 
 French man of science, was professor of 
 mathematics at the College of Beauvais, and 
 later professor of physics at the College of 
 France. In 1803 he was elected a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences, and soon after be- 
 came intimate vnth Arago and Gay-Lussac, 
 with one or other of whom many of his later 
 researches were conducted. He was em- 
 ployed in Spain in measuring the arc of the 
 meridian, and in 1817 visited Great Britain 
 with the object of further prosecuting his 
 sidereal measurements. A life of industrious 
 research in many branches of science, and 
 especially in optics and in the polarisation 
 of light, obtained, for him fellowship in 
 nearly all the great scientific bodies of 
 Europe, including the London Royal Society 
 and the French Academy, and Academy of 
 Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres. In 1814 
 Napoleon I. bestowed on him the Legion of 
 Honour, and in 1840 he received the Rum- 
 ford medal of the Royal Society. 
 
 Bircli, Charles Bell (6. 1835), English 
 sculptor and Royal Academician, received 
 his training at the BerUn Academy, in 1864 
 won the £600 prize given by the Art Union 
 of London : in 1879 he was elected an asso- 
 ciate of the Royal Academy, and in 1881 a 
 member. Among his best-known works 
 are Marguerite with the Jewel Casket, The 
 Wounded Trumpeter, Lady Godiva, and the 
 statue of Lord Beaconsfeld at Livei-pool. 
 
 Birch, Samuel (&. 1813, d.l9>9,b), eminent 
 antiquarian and Egyptologist, in 1836 he 
 entered the Department of Antiquities at 
 the British Museum, and in 1861 was ap- 
 pointed keeper of Oriental Antftjmties, a 
 post which he held till his death, lie left 
 numerous works of archaeological interest, 
 and was a great authority on hieroglyphics 
 and Biblical archaeology. 
 
 Birch, Thomas (&. 1705, d. 1766), English 
 clergyman and man of letters, of Quaker 
 parentage, was ordained in the Church of 
 England in 1730, devoting much of his after 
 life to literary work and antiquarian re- 
 search. He was secretary of the Royal 
 Society and a trustee of the British Museum, 
 and he wrote The History of the £oyai 
 Society of London.
 
 Bir 
 
 (137) 
 
 Bis 
 
 Bird, Edward (6. 1772, d. 1819), English 
 painter, rose to the dignity of Eoyal Aca- 
 demician from the position of a Birmingham 
 designer. His first notable picture was 
 Good NewSi and his Chevy Chase and Death 
 of Mi were purchased by the Marquis of 
 Stafford. Later he was appointed painter 
 to the Princess Charlotte. 
 
 Birdwood, Sir George Christopher Moles- 
 worth (6. 1832), distinguished Civil servant 
 and authority on Indian questions, took his 
 medical degree at Edinburgh and entered 
 the Indian Medical Service in 1854. He 
 Btt-red in the Persian war, and in 1857 
 accepted a chair at the Grant medical col- 
 lege and the curatorship of the Bombay 
 museum. In 1867 he was sent as special 
 commissioner from Bombay to the Paris 
 Exhibition, and in 1868 he returned to Eng- 
 land, entering the India Office. For some 
 time he edited the Bombay Saturday Jieview, 
 and he has published a Catalogue of the 
 Economic I'roducts of Bombay, among other 
 botanical works. 
 
 Birger de Bielbo (6. 1210, d. 1266), 
 Swedish noble, married the sister of King 
 Eric, and was the father of King Waldemar, 
 during whose minority he acted as regent. 
 He subdued Finland, founded Stockholm, 
 and built the cathedral of UpsaL 
 
 Blrkbeck, George (b. 1776, d. 1841), the 
 founder of mechanics' institutes, was bom 
 in Yorkshire, and took his degree as a doc- 
 tor. In 1 799 he was appointed professor of 
 natural philosophy at the Glasgow Ander- 
 sonian Institution. His lectures to working 
 men in Glasgow proved so successful, that 
 on coming to London he determined to found 
 a mechanics' institute. After much trouble 
 and labour he succeeded in establishing the 
 now famous JJirkbeck Institute, of which he 
 was the director vtntil his death. 
 
 Birks, Thomas Eawson (b. 1810, d. 1883), 
 theological and philosophical writer, and a 
 Church of England clergyman. His views 
 were Evangelical, and for twenty years he 
 acted as secretary to the Evangelical Alli- 
 ance. In 1872 he was appointed Knights- 
 bridge professor of moral theology, casuis- 
 tical divinity and moral philosophy at Cam- 
 bridge, and he left many works, such as 
 Modern Rationalism, The Difficulties of Be- 
 lief, First Principles of Modern Science, and 
 Modern Utilitarianism. 
 
 Bimey, James G. (b. 1792, d. 1857), 
 American anti-slavery advocate, so early as 
 1834 agitated public opinion on the slavery 
 question, liberating his own slaves, and 
 founding a newspaper in the abolition in- 
 terest. In 1836 he became secretary to the 
 Anti-Slavery Society, and in 1840 was 
 nominated for the office of president by the 
 Republican party. 
 
 Biron, Armand de Gontaut, Baron de 
 (6. 1624, d. 1592), French general, served 
 in the Catholic army during the wars be- 
 tween the Huguenots and CathoHcs, and 
 in 1569 was appointed grand-master of 
 artillery. In 1577 he was created a marshal 
 of France, and reduced Guierme and Lan- 
 guedoc to submission. In 1580 he rmder- 
 took, with the Due D'Epemon, the cam- 
 paign in Flanders, and in 1586 he was 
 wounded at the siege of Marans. He went 
 over to Henry of Navarre immediately after 
 the assassination of Henry III., his Protes- 
 tant sympathies having been long suspected. 
 He distinguished himself at Arques and 
 Ivry, and was killed at the siege of Eper- 
 nay. 
 
 Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, Due de 
 (6. 1747, d. 1794), son of Charles, Due de 
 Gontaut, and better known as Due de Lau- 
 zun, which title was conferred on him in his 
 twenty-first year. In 1768 he served with 
 distinction in the conquest of Corsica; in 
 1779 he drove the English from Senegal, 
 and later played a prominent part in 
 America under Eochambeau. His interest 
 at Court having been lost, he joined the 
 revolution when it broke out, sat in the 
 States General, and was employed on im- 
 portant missions. He successively com- 
 manded the armies of the North, the Ehine, 
 and the Alps, and from the latter command 
 he was suddenly transferred to La Vendee. 
 Here he fell into disfavour vrith the central 
 authorities, and after some months' impri- 
 sonment was guillotined. 
 
 Biron, Charles de Gontaut, Dnc de (6. 
 1562, d. 1602), the son of Armand de Gon- 
 taut, under whom he served in the wars of 
 Henry IV., was a great favourite of the 
 king, who made him admiral of France in 
 1592, marshal in 1594, and duke in 1598. 
 He entered, however, into a treaty with 
 Spain and Savoy for Henry's overthrow, 
 and, the design having been betrayed, he 
 was beheaded. 
 
 Bisacciom, MaioUno (6. 1582, d, 1663), 
 Itahan soldier, diplomatist, and writer. 
 After taking a degree as doctor of laws, he 
 distinguished himself in the Venetian service 
 before he was seventeen, and later in the 
 Pontificial army in Hungary. In 1640 he 
 had to leave the latter service on account of 
 a duel with his general, and for a similar 
 reason he withdrew from the Prince of 
 Correggio's forces, which he next joined. 
 In the army of Moldavia he rose to high 
 rank, and took part, with six others, in the 
 defence of the bridge of Vienna against a 
 large force of the enemy. Pope Gregory 
 XV. employed him later as ambassador to 
 several courts. He left numerous works in 
 several fields of Uterature. 
 
 Bischof, Karl Gustav (6. 1792, d. 1870),
 
 Bis 
 
 (138) 
 
 Bis 
 
 a German geologist and chemist of high 
 reputation, was known for much valu- 
 able research in physical science, and for his 
 Treatise on Chemical and Physical Geoluyy. 
 He occupied for some years a chair at the 
 Bonn university. 
 
 Bisclioff, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm von 
 (6. 1807), German anatomist and physio- 
 logist, born in Hanover, graduated at Boan 
 in 1832, where later he became professor of 
 pathological anatomy and physiology. In 
 1844 he became connected with Giesseu uni- 
 versity, where he founded a physiological 
 institution and an anatomical museum. In 
 1850, at a famous trial, he demonstrated the 
 impossibility of spontaneous combustion; 
 and in 1855 became professor of anatomy 
 at Munich. He has left many records of 
 his valuable researches in embryology. 
 
 Bisette, Cyril Charles Auguste (6. 1795, 
 d. 1858), a mulatto, born in the island of 
 Martinique, for some years championed 
 the cause of his fellows before the French 
 Government. He established successively 
 the Revue des Colonies and the Revue Aboli- 
 tioniste, and in 1849 was elected to the 
 Legislative Assembly. He retired after the 
 coup d'etat. 
 
 Bishop, Sir Henry Eowley {b. 1786, d. 
 1855), English composer, early devoted 
 himself to the composition of dramatic 
 music; and in 1809 produced his Circas- 
 sian Bride, which was a great success. In 
 1810 he became coimected with Covent 
 Garden theatre, and produced many operas 
 during this time, including The Lady of the 
 Lake, Guy Manneriny, and The Slave. In 
 1825 Bishop broke his connection with 
 Covent Garden to go to Drury Lane, and he 
 was succeeded at the former theatre by 
 Weber. It was in rivalry with Weber's 
 Oberon that Bishop produced the unsuccess- 
 ful Aladdin. In 1840 his last dramatic 
 piece, The Fortunate Isles, was produced at 
 Covent Garden in honour of the Queen's 
 wedding ; in 1842 he was knighted ; and in 
 1848 he became professor of music at Oxford. 
 An extravagant habit of life kept Bishop at 
 his most prosperous times in pecuniary difh- 
 culties, and more than one subscription was 
 raised for his benefit. The ballads and glees 
 which he wrote are the compositions on 
 which his popularity rests, and which have 
 made his name famous. 
 
 Bismarck, Otto Edward Leopold, Prince 
 von (6. 1815), German statesman, and first 
 chancellor of the German empire, is the 
 son of Karl Wilhelm von Bismarck, a 
 landed proprietor of Pomerania, on whose 
 Schonhausen estate Bismarck was born. 
 After a school-Hfe spent in BerUn, he 
 went to Gottingen university, where 
 he was chiefly remarkable for the bois- 
 terousness of his spirits and the number 
 
 of duels in which he took part. In 1835 he 
 entered the public service ; but in 1839 he 
 took over the management of the paternal 
 estates, and for nine years lived the life of a 
 country gentleman. In 1847 he married 
 Johanna von Puttkamer, after having over- 
 come, with much diificulty, the objections of 
 her parents to the person known as "mad 
 Bismarck." In the same year Bismarck 
 was elected to the Prussian Landtag, and 
 the Berlin revolution of 1848 gave him an 
 opportunity of showing his ability as a 
 staunch supporter of the prerogatives of the 
 Crown. His views were bitterly hostile to 
 Austria, and he declared his hope of a 
 United Geimany under Prussian leadership. 
 In 1851 he became leader of the Conserva- 
 tives, and was appointed Prussian minister 
 plenipotentiary to the Frankfort Diet. 
 While occupying this position he was sent 
 on several diplomatic missions, and iu 1859 
 was appointed ambassador at St. Peters- 
 burg. From thence he was transferred to 
 Paris, and in 1862 was appointed chief 
 minister to the Prussian king. He was at 
 first in great public disfavour owing to his 
 uncompromisLug hostility to the constitu- 
 tional majority of the Landtag. In 1863 
 the Danish war broke out, and Schles- 
 wig-Holstein was secured for Germany. 
 In 1866 an attempt on his life was 
 made. Austria's predominance was finally 
 destroyed by the war which broke out in 
 1866, and in the same year one of the 
 ambitions of Bismarck's life was an accom- 
 plished fact — the establishment of a North 
 German Confederation vdth Prussia at its 
 head. In 1867 Bismarck, now the most 
 popular man in Germany, became chan- 
 cellor of the Confederated German States, 
 a post which he held uninterruptedly till 
 1890. When the inevitable war with 
 France came in 1870, Bismarck secured the 
 neutrality of aU other European powers, 
 and alienated sympathy from France. He 
 attended King William throughout the war 
 to the occupation of Paris, and La 1871 read 
 the proclamation of King WUliam on his 
 being acclaimed German emperor. He 
 settled the terms of peace with France ; 
 and was then created a prince and first 
 chancellor of the German empire. From 
 that time Prince Bismarck's infiuence was 
 the dominating factor in European diplo- 
 macy until his retirement in 1890. In 1870 
 he came into diplomatic collision with the 
 Pope, and having caused the expulsion of 
 the Jesuits, all communication with the 
 Papal See was suspended until 1880, when 
 the dispute was adjusted. During this 
 period Bismarck's life was attempted for 
 the second time. His policy at home was 
 one of consolidation for the empire and 
 throne, and of stem repression for all 
 Socialistic tendencies. In 1884 he initiated 
 a colonial policy for Germany, by wholesale
 
 Bis 
 
 (139) 
 
 Bla 
 
 acquisitions in Africa and the Pacific. Bis- 
 marck's supremacy in Germany and Europe 
 remained imquestioned till the death of the 
 old Emperor. He was known to be anti- 
 pathetic to the Emperor Frederick, but the 
 imtimely death of that sovereign, followed 
 by the accession of the yovmg Emperor 
 WiUiam, seemed to give Bismarck a new 
 lease of power. However, differences of 
 poHcy between him and his new master 
 were speedily developed, and culminated 
 in the beginning of 1890 by his retirement. 
 In 1891 he again entered pubUc Ufe as a 
 member of the Reichstag. His son. Count 
 Herbert Bismarck, was for some years at 
 the head of the German Foreign Office. He 
 resigned when Prince Bismarck retired from 
 the chancellorship. 
 
 Bissen, Wilhelm (6. 1798, d. 1868), 
 Danish sculptor of note, who studied for 
 some years under Thorwaldsen. In 1850 
 he became president of the Copenhagen 
 Academy of Fine Arts. 
 
 Bixio, Jacques Alexandre (6. 1808, d. 
 1865), French naturalist and politician, 
 by profession was a physician, but took 
 a deep, interest in agriculture and horti- 
 culture. After the revolution of" 1848 he 
 was sent on a mission to Turin ; was elected 
 to the Constituent Assembly; and for a 
 short time was minister of agriculture and 
 commerce in Louis Napoleon's first cabinet. 
 On the coup d'etat he. endured a brief im- 
 prisomneut. 
 
 Bjerken, Peder von (6. 1765, d. 1818), 
 Swedish surgeon and oculist, served as sur- 
 geon in the Finnish army during the war 
 with Russia, and received a medal for his 
 distinguished services at that time. He 
 was appointed surgeon-ia-chief in 1814, 
 and highly decorated. 
 
 Bjoemstjema, Magnus (6. 1779, d. 1847), 
 Swedish general and diplomatist, served 
 in the Finnish war ; in 1809 was sent on a 
 mission to France, and in 1812 arranged 
 for the sale of Guadeloupe. He fought in 
 the Danish war, and assisted at the negotia- 
 tions which brought about peace with the 
 transference of Norway to Sweden. In 
 1826 he was appointed minister in London. 
 He left several works on political and fiscal 
 matters. 
 
 Bjbmson, Bjonistjeme (6. 1832), the 
 national poet of Norway. In early life an 
 historical drama of his, called Valoorg, was 
 accepted by the Royal theatre, but its 
 author withdrew the piece. In 1856 the 
 international students' reunion at Upsala 
 stimulated htm again to an effort to produce 
 a national poetry, free from foreign in- 
 fluences. He began with Sytmove Solbakken, 
 a story of peasant life, which was followed 
 
 by Arne and many other pieces. In 1858 he 
 became director of the theatre at Bergen, 
 and produced quickly two dramas, Mellon 
 Slagene and Halte Hulda, both treating of 
 national subjects. Marie Stuart and Sigurd 
 Slenhe are both well-known plays, and he 
 has written, besides his dramas, a series of 
 Folk Plays, an ^pic, and much beautiful 
 lyiic poetry. He receives a government 
 pension, but lives abroad. 
 
 Black, Adam (6. 1784, d. 1874), the well- 
 known publisher of Edinburgh, made a 
 name by the pubUcation of the Encyclopcedia 
 Britamdca. He also took ov ex th.e Edinburgh 
 lieview when the Constables failed, and 
 purchased the copyright of the Waverley 
 novels. He took a prominent part in muni- 
 cipal affairs, and was elected lord provost 
 of Edinburgh, while in 1856, on the retire- 
 ment of Macaulay, he was returned to Par- 
 liament in the Liberal interest. He retained 
 his seat in the House for nearly ten years. 
 
 Black, Joseph (i. 1728, d. 1799), distin- 
 guished chemist, a favourite pupU. of Dr. 
 Cullen, first turned his attention to the 
 study of lime, and in 1754 he published a 
 treatise, Experiments on Magnesia, Quick- 
 lime, and other Alkaline Substances, 
 which gained him a high reputation. In 
 1756 he was appointed chemistry-lecturer at 
 Glasgow, and in 1763 he announced his 
 discovery of latent heat. In 1766 he became 
 professor of chemistry at Edinburgh, in 
 which post he remained tiU his death. He 
 published several scientific treatises. 
 
 Black, William {h. 1841), English novelist, 
 spent some years in the study of art, but 
 regarding himself as a failure in the artis- 
 tic profession, he turned to literature. TTii^ 
 first novel, Love or Marriage, was pub- 
 lished in 1867, being followed in 1868 by In 
 Silk Attire, and in 1871 by A Daughter of 
 Heth, which was a pronounced success. 
 The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton and A 
 Princess of Thule were published soon after, 
 and his reputation as one of the best novel- 
 ists of the day was established. For four 
 years he acted as assistant-editor of the 
 Daily News, but has long abandoned 
 journalism. 
 
 Blackbume, Francis (6. 1782, d. 1867), 
 eminent Irish lawyer and judge, took a 
 gold medal at Trinity College, Dublin, and 
 the medals for history and oratory given by 
 the Irish Historical Society. Called to the 
 bar ia 1805, he was from 1823 to 1825 a 
 j udge imder the Insurrection Act. In 1830 
 he was made Attorney- general for Ireland ; 
 in 1842 he was appointed Master of the 
 Rolls ; and in 1846, Chief Justice of the 
 Queen's Bench. Under Lord Derby he was 
 twice Lord Chancellor of Ireland, and ia 
 1856 he became first Lord Justice of AppeaL
 
 Bla 
 
 ( 140) 
 
 Bla 
 
 BlacMe, John Stuart (6, 1809), Scotch 
 pn)iessor and man of letters, was called to 
 the Scottish bar in 1834, and published in the 
 same year a metrical translation of Goethe's 
 Faust. From 1841 to 1852 he was professor 
 of humanity at Aberdeen ; and from then 
 tiU 1882 professor of Greek at Edinburgh. 
 He has published many classical works, 
 iucluding a metrical translation of .^schy- 
 lus's Songs and Legends of Ancient Greece, 
 and Homer and the Iliad, with a transla- 
 tion in verse of the latter, besides several 
 important critical essays on points of Greek 
 antiquity and literature. In philosophy 
 Professor Blackie's works have also been 
 numerous, and exceedingly popular. 
 
 Blackmore, Sir Richard (6. 1650, d. 
 1729), English physician and poet, took his 
 medical degree in Padua, and soon obtained 
 a reputation in London. In 1697 he became 
 one of William III.'s physicians, and re- 
 ceived a knighthood. He was a most pro- 
 lific writer of verse, the epic being his 
 favourite subject. Prince Arthur, King 
 Arthur, Alfred, and Creation all came from 
 his pen, besides several works on medical 
 science. 
 
 Blackmore, Richard Doddridge (h. 1825), 
 one of the first of modem novelists, in 
 1852 was called to the bar, and practised 
 for a short time. In 1860 he published for 
 the first time, the work being a poem en- 
 titled The Fate of Franklin, This was 
 followed by translations of the first two of 
 the Georgics, and in 1864 by his first novel, 
 Clara Vaughan. His great work, Lorna 
 Boone, appeared in 1869, and has been 
 succeeded by several others of less popularity. 
 
 Blackstone, Sir William (6. 1723, d. 
 1780), English lawyer, was the son of a 
 City merchant, and at Oxford was a dis- 
 tinguished classical scholar, even publishing 
 some verse. In 1746 he was called to the 
 bar, but made so little progress that he 
 thought of retiring. Some lectures on law 
 gained him a reputation, however, and in 
 1758 he became the first Vinerian professor 
 of common law at Oxford. Declining the 
 chief justiceship of Common Pleas in 
 Ireland, he entered ParUament in 1761, in 
 1763 was appointed Solicitor-general to the 
 Queen, and ia 1765 published the first volume 
 of his famous Commentaries on the Laws of 
 England. In 1770 he was made a Justice of 
 the King's Bench, and later a Justice of 
 Common Pleas, a post which he held till lus 
 death. He co-operated with Howard in the 
 reform of prison discipline and the establish- 
 ment of penitentiaries. 
 
 Blackwood, Sir Henry (J. 1770, d. 1834), 
 an Irish naval oificer, entering the navy in 
 1781, behaved with great gallantly against 
 the French, and later as captain of the 
 
 Euryalus he served under Nelson at the 
 battle of Trafalgar. In 1807 he con> 
 manded the Ajax, in the expedition to Con- 
 stantinople, and though the ship was burnt, 
 Blackwood saved his crew under the 
 greatest difficulties. He was created rear- 
 admiral and baronet. 
 
 Blackwood, John (*. 1818, d. 1879), a 
 member of the weU-known Edinburgh firm 
 of publishers, succeeded his brother Alex- 
 ander in the conduct of Blackwood'' s Maga- 
 zine, which he continued to direct for thirty- 
 three years. He it was who first discovered 
 George Eliot as a writer, and the Scenes 
 from Clerical Life were first published in the 
 pages of his magazine. 
 
 Blackwood, William (b. 1776, d. 1834), 
 the founder of the Edinburgh firm of pub- 
 Ushers bearing his name, began life as a 
 bookseller, and his antiquarian knowledge 
 enabled him to publish a valuable catalogue 
 of Scottish historical and antiquarian books. 
 In 1816 he turned to publishing, and started 
 the magazine which made his name a 
 familiar word in Great Britain. 
 
 Blagden, Sir Charles {b. 1748, d. 1820), 
 English physician and chemist of high 
 repute, for a long time acted as secretary 
 to the Royal Society, to the Transactioiis of 
 which he contributed numerous memoLra 
 of value. 
 
 Blaine, James Gillespie {b. 1830), Ameri- 
 can politician, after being professor of 
 mathematics, and editor of newspapers, 
 was elected to Congress by the Republican 
 party in Maine, and remained a repre- 
 sentative tiU 1876, when he became a 
 senator, having been for five years Speaker 
 of the Lower House. In 1876 he was an 
 unsuccessful candidate for the presidency, 
 and again in 1880 ; but in 1881 he became 
 secretary of state to President Garfield. 
 In 1884 he was nominated by the Republi- 
 can caucus for the presidency, but the 
 Democrats carried the election owing to the 
 split which Mr. Blaine's candidature caused. 
 In the election of 1888 Mr. Blaine refused 
 to be nominated ; but on Mr. Harrison's 
 election he again became secretary of state, 
 and his term of oifi.ce was noted for the 
 diplomatic troubles with England and 
 Italy. 
 
 Blainville, Henri Marie Ducrotay de 
 {b. 1777, d. 1850), French naturalist of dis- 
 tinction, first studied art with the design 
 of becoming a painter, but was attracted to 
 natural history by hearing Cuvier lecture at 
 the College of France. He took a medical 
 degree in 1808, and for many years devoted 
 himself with Oppel to the study of reptiles. 
 He then began to work under Cuvier, and 
 obtained the chair of anatomy and zoology 
 in the Faculty of Sciences. In 1832 he
 
 Bla 
 
 (HI) 
 
 Bla 
 
 succeeded Cuvier in the chair of compara- 
 tive anatomy. 
 
 Blair, Hugh {b. 1718, d. 1800), Scottish 
 miuister, renowned in his own day as a 
 preacher. When his fame as a pulpit 
 orator was at its height, he began to lecture 
 on rhetoric and belles lettres, and with such 
 remarkable success that a chair was created 
 for him at Edinburgh university. George 
 III. gi'anted him a pension of £200. 
 
 Blake, Joachim (3. circa 1768, d. 1827), 
 Spanish general, who played a very pro- 
 minent part in the Peninsvilar war, served 
 vrith distinction in the war agaiust France 
 of 1793, and Lu 1808 he was made marechal 
 de camp. When the king abdicated, the 
 Junta gave Blake command of the levies 
 which were being raised. He was forced 
 into an engagement by their enthusiasm, and 
 so lost the battle of Medina del Eio Seco. 
 Again he was defeated at Espinosa, but his 
 reputation with his countrymen remained 
 unimpaired, and he was appointed com- 
 mander-ia-chief iu Aragon, Valencia, and 
 Catalonia. He was defeated iu Catalonia 
 by Suchet, but fought a long and obstinate 
 campaign ; and together with Beresford 
 won the Ijattle of Albuera. Marching to 
 Valencia, he was defeated and forced to 
 capitulate, and for some years remained 
 a prisoner in France. 
 
 Blake, Robert (6. 1598, d. 1657), British 
 admiral, took part iu the Civil war on the 
 Parliamentary side, and proved a good 
 soldier; but he had had no naval experi- 
 ence when in 1649 he was chosen by the 
 ParUament to command the fleet of the 
 Commonwealth against the Royal fleet 
 under Prince Rupert. However, he drove 
 the enemy into Eansale harbour, and then, 
 when they put to sea, followed them to 
 the Portuguese coast, where he destroyed 
 all the vessels but two. In May of 1642 
 he engaged the Dutch fleet under Van 
 Tromp, and dispersed it, and soon after he 
 blockaded the Dutch admiral in the Texel, 
 besides taking twelve ships and nearly the 
 whole Dutch fishing fleet. A few months 
 later Van Tromp, with a greatly superior 
 force, drove Blake into the Thames ; but 
 next year Blake met his old enemy again, 
 and after a three days' fight completely 
 defeated him. Again, in the same year, he 
 gained a victory over the Dutch off the 
 Foreland. In 1654 he was sent to the 
 Mediterranean, to demand reparation for 
 insults to the Commonwealth, and satisfac- 
 tion was eagerly accorded him on all hands, 
 though he had to bombard Tunis. In 1656 
 he blockaded the Spanish fleet in Cadiz, 
 and next year he accomplished one of the 
 most brilliant naval exploits on record. 
 While the Spanish Plate fleet was lying 
 at anchor in the Bay of Santa Cruz under 
 
 the protection of powerful batteries, he sailed 
 straight into the bay and destroyed the 
 fleet, in spite of the heavy fire from the 
 forts. On his way home to England he 
 died of scurvy, and his body was laid in 
 Westminster Abbey. After the Restoration 
 it was transferred to St. Margaret's church. 
 
 Blake, William (6. 1757, d. 1828), post, 
 painter, and engraver, was the son of a 
 London tradesman, and began life as an 
 engraver's apprentice. His genius dis- 
 played itself early in poems, and in those 
 visions which were with him throughout 
 his life, and from which he drew his inspira- 
 tion. In 1782 he married a servant girl, 
 who proved to be a most devoted and sym- 
 pathetic wife and helpmeet to the 
 eccentric genius. At this time Blake not 
 only wrote poems and executed designs, 
 but he printed the books, and coloured 
 the designs with no other help than that 
 of his wife. In this manner the Songs of 
 Innocence were given to the world. The 
 Book of Thel, The Marriage of Heaven and 
 Hell, and the Proverhs of Hell followed, 
 all illustrated with Blake's own designs. 
 The Gates of Paradise, Songs of Experience, 
 The Song of Los, and other poems were 
 produced, while the indefatigable Blake 
 was executing orders for engravings, and in 
 1799 he exhibited The Last Sxipper at the 
 Royal Academy. Blake then went to live 
 for four years at Felpham in Sussex, and 
 after his return produced his poems Jeru- 
 salem and Milton. He was engaged upon 
 designs for illustrating Dante's Divine 
 Comedy when he died. In 1891 the MS. of 
 an unpublished poem by Blake was found. 
 
 Blakeney, William, Lord (6. 1670, d. 
 1761), distinguished soldier, of Irish descent, 
 served at Carthagena and Boca-Chica, and 
 as governor- general of Minorca in 1756 
 he held Fort St. Philip for twenty days 
 against the French under Marshal Riche- 
 lieu. For this action he was raised to the 
 peerage. 
 
 Blakey, Robert (6. 1795, d. 1878), phUo- 
 sophical writer, and an authority on 
 angling. His whole life was spent in the 
 study of philosophy, logic and metaphy- 
 sics claiming his special attention. He 
 wrote a History of Moral Science, the 
 History of the Philosophy of the Mind, and 
 a History of Political Literature, besides 
 several books on angling. In 1835 he 
 accepted the chair of logic and metaphysics 
 at Belfast. 
 
 Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis (6. 1811, d. 
 1882), better known as Louis Blanc, a 
 French revolutionist, supported himself at 
 first by teaching, but in 1834 he began 
 to vrrite for the National newspaper, and 
 the Revue Repuhlicaine. Later he edited
 
 Bla 
 
 (142) 
 
 Bla 
 
 the Sons Gens, and founded the Revue du 
 Frogrls, I'oiitique, Social et Littei-aire, in 
 which his articles on the conditions of 
 labour attracted much attention. In 1841 
 he published his Histoire de Dix Ans, which 
 was a vehement attack upon the Bourbon 
 rule, and which created a great impression. 
 After the 1848 revolution he entered the 
 provisional government, and became presi- 
 dent of a government commission for 
 labourers. His influence at this time was 
 i-iumense, and a procession of 200,000 
 workmen waited on him one day to offer 
 him the dictatorship. The establishment, 
 failure, and abandonment of the national 
 workshops, with which Blanc was con- 
 nected, lost him his popularity, and after 
 the Communist insurrection he had to fly 
 France. He lived in England for more 
 than twenty years, writing his histories of 
 the great Revolution, and the 1848 Revo- 
 lution, and a series of letters on England to 
 the French press. He returned to Paris in 
 1870, of which city he was elected a deputy. 
 
 Blanchard, Fran9ois (6. 1738, d. 1809), 
 French aeronaut, in 1785 crossed the 
 Channel from Calais to Dover in a balloon 
 of his own construction provided with 
 ■wings and rudder, and received in recog- 
 nition of the exploit a handsome present 
 and pension from Louis XVI. He made 
 the first parachute descent in London, and 
 soon after was imprisoned in the Tyrol for 
 a pohtical offence. He died of apoplexy 
 while making his sixty- sixth balloon ascent 
 at the Hague. 
 
 Blancliet, Alexandre Louis Paul {b. 1819, 
 d. 1867), French physician, devoted the 
 greater part of his Hfe to the study of the 
 bUnd, the deaf, and the dumb, and was 
 appointed by the French government in 
 1846 surgeon-in-chief to the institution 
 for deaf mutes. He wrote several works 
 on his special study, and on his system 
 for the education of deaf mutes. 
 
 Blandin, Philippe Francois (6. 1798, d. 
 1849), French surgeon and anatomist, was 
 surgeon at the Hotel Dieu, and left many 
 professional works of great value, a Traite 
 d^Anatomie Topographique among others. 
 
 Blandrata, Giorgio (&. 1520, d. 1590), 
 ItaUan physician, better known, however, 
 as the founder of Unitarianism in Poland 
 and Transylvania. His heresies compelled 
 hi m to fly to Geneva, but, incurring the 
 enmity of Calvin, he fled again to Poland. 
 Later he became attached as physician to the 
 court of the Prince of Transylvania, and 
 while there he invited the younger Socinus 
 to come and expound his views. In 1590 
 he was murdered by his nephew. 
 
 Blane, Sir Gilbert (6. 1749, d. 1834), 
 medical man of Scottish birth, served as 
 
 surgeon in the royal navy for many years, 
 rendering very valuable services, and pub- 
 lishing his work On the Diseases of Seamen. 
 He was pensioned, appointed physician at 
 St. Thomas's Hospital, physician extra- 
 ordinary to George IV., and commissioner 
 for sick and wounded seamen. His advice 
 was sought for by several foreign govern- 
 ments as well as by the British govern- 
 ment, and he was a member of many home 
 and foreign learned societies. 
 
 Blangini, Giuseppe Marco Maria Felice 
 (6. 1781, d. 1841), Italian composer and 
 musician, in 1799 went to Paris, where he 
 created no little stir by his concerts, at 
 which he sang his own compositions. Later 
 he obtained the appointment of kapell- 
 meister to the King of Bavaria, and after- 
 wards to the King of Westphalia. In 1814 
 he returned to Paris, where he was granted 
 an ofiicial post, and made professor of 
 singing in the Royal School of Music. 
 
 Blanqui, Louis Auguste (6. 1805, d. 1881), 
 French revolutionary, student of law and 
 medicine in Paris, became connected with 
 the secret societies, and was wounded in 
 the outbreak of 1827. He was imprisoned 
 in 183S, and again in 1837, for complicity 
 with conspiracies, and after the futile rising 
 of 1839 he was condemned to imprisonment 
 for life. The 1848 revolution set him free 
 again, and he joined the Socialist faction, in 
 which he soon became a leader. He headed 
 the mob which burst into the Legislative 
 Chamber to demand the restoration of 
 Poland, and soon after was sentenced to ten 
 years' imprisonment for his communistic 
 leanings. Released in 1859, he was again 
 imprisoned for conspiracy in 1861. When 
 the Prussian war broke out he founded a 
 communistic paper entitled La Patrie en 
 Danger, and took part in the conspiracy 
 against the government of defence. In 
 1871 he was elected a member for the Com- 
 mune, though under sentence of death. He 
 was arrested, and early in 1872 tried and 
 condemned to imprisonment for life. In 
 1879 he was returned as a deputy for 
 Bordeaux, but the election was annulled, 
 though Blanqui was soon after liberated. 
 He continued his socialist propaganda until 
 his sudden death from apoplexy. 
 
 Blanqui, Jer6me Adolphe (6. 1798, d. 
 1854), a French economist. He succeeded 
 Say at the Conservatoire of Arts and Trades 
 in Paris in 1833. He wrote a History of 
 Political Economy in Europe from tKe 
 Ancients to the Present Time, and A Sum- 
 mary of the History of Commeree and 
 Industry. 
 
 Blavatsky, Helene P. {h. 1831, d. 1891), 
 founder of the Theosophical Society, be- 
 longed to a noble Mecklenburg family
 
 Bla 
 
 (143) 
 
 BU 
 
 Bettled in Russia, and at the age of seven- 
 teen married General Nicole Blavatsky, 
 from whom she separated in a few montlis. 
 After travelling over Europe and the East, 
 she went to Canada in 1851, and from thence 
 to New Orleans and Mexico. Later she 
 made two several attempts to penetrate 
 Thibet from India, and then settled for a 
 time in Russia. She met with a serious 
 accident in the Caucasus, and while recover- 
 ing from it she first turned her attention to 
 spiiitualism. Afterwards, while in India, 
 she was initiated into the arcana of 
 Buddhism, and in 1875 she founded the 
 Theosophical Society in the United States. 
 In 1877 she pubUshed her principal book, 
 Isis Unveiled. A very large part of her life 
 was spent in India, and she was able to 
 speak nearly forty European and Asiatic 
 languages and dialects. 
 
 Blaze -Castil, Fram^ois Henri Joseph (6. 
 1784, d. 1857), French musician, critic and 
 writer, practised at the bar for some time, 
 but then devoted himself to the study 
 of music, publishing in 1820 his critical 
 review. Be V Opera en France. He wrote 
 also a Dictionnaire de Musique Moderne, 
 besides the score and libretto of three operas. 
 
 B16, Nicholas du (6. 1652, d. 1730), French 
 general, and Marquis of UxOles, in 1672 
 served in Holland, and afterwards in 
 Germany, where he distinguished himself 
 by his obstinate defence of Mayence against 
 the Due de Lorraine. In 1708 he was made 
 a marshal of France, and acted as minister 
 plenipotentiary at Gertruydenberg and 
 Utrecht. 
 
 Bleek, Wilhehn (d. 1875), German philo- 
 logist, who specially devoted himself to the 
 study of the South African languages. In 
 1854 he accompanied an English expedi- 
 tion to Jehadda and the Niger, and next 
 year went with Bishop Colenso to Natal. 
 After eighteen months he went to Cape 
 Town, and in 1861 was appointed keeper 
 to the Grey Library, continuing his philo- 
 logical investigations among the lower grade 
 tribes. He wrote, among other works. The 
 Languages of Western and Southern Africa, 
 Hottentot J^ables and Tales, and A Compara- 
 tive Grammar of South African Languages. 
 
 Blenker, Ludwig (h. 1815, d. 1863), a 
 German revolutionary, who played a lead- 
 ing part in the insurrections of 1848. He 
 was chosen colonel of the National Guard 
 at "Worms, and led the insurgents ia the 
 revolution at Baden. He took Worms, and 
 engaged the Prussians at Bobenheim and 
 Baden ; and later he commanded the in- 
 surgent forces on the Neckar. He ultimately 
 escaped to Switzerland, and afterwards to 
 America. 
 
 Blesslngton, Margaret, Countess of (6. 
 
 1789, d, 1849), novelist, and for many 
 years a leader in hterary society. When 
 quite a gul she was married to a Captain 
 I'anner, but the imion, which was a most 
 imhappy one, was dissolved tu 1817 by her 
 husband's death. Next year she married 
 the Earl of Blessington, and her salons in 
 London were thronged with aU the most 
 distiagmshed people of the day. In 1822 
 she went abroad with her husband, and did 
 not return to England till after his death in 
 1829. Then she resumed her famous reunions 
 at Gore House, where she resided with 
 Count D'Orsay, her daughter's husband. 
 She wrote a good deal at this time, notably 
 her Journal of Conversations with Lord 
 Byron, of whom she was an intimate 
 friend. In 1849 pecuniary embarrassments 
 compelled her to leave London for Paris, 
 where she died quite suddenly. 
 
 Blicher, Steen Steensen (6. 1782, d. 1848), 
 Danish poet and writer of romances. He 
 was a native of Jutland, and spent most of 
 his Hfe there in the discharge of his duties 
 as a clergyman. He translated The Vicar 
 of Wakefield and pubKshed two volumes of 
 poetry, besides writing his Romances of 
 Jutland, which attained great popularity. 
 
 BUgh, William (6. 1753, d. 1817), British 
 naval officer, remembered as commander of 
 H.M.S. Bounty, on which occmTed the 
 memorable mutiny. The ship was sent out 
 for the purpose of carrying bread-fruit plants 
 from Otaheite to the West Indies. When 
 the vessel was three days out from Otaheite 
 the crew mutinied, and turned Bligh, with 
 eighteen men, adrift in the long-boat. After 
 three months' severe privations the casta- 
 ways reached the island of Timor, and from 
 thence England. BHgh published a Narra- 
 tive of the Muting on board H.M.S. Bounty, 
 which attracted much notice. He was 
 subsequently appointed governor of New 
 South Wales, but after two years he was 
 sent back to England on account of his 
 tyrannical government. 
 
 Blind, Karl (6. 1826), German revolu- 
 tionist, began Ids agitation when still a 
 student, and in 1847 was imprisoned for a 
 short time. He took part in the rising of 
 1848, and then fled to Alsace, from whence 
 the French Government sent him to Switzer- 
 land. He joined Struve iu the seccxid Black 
 Forest insurrection, and was condemned to a 
 long term of imprisonment, but was liberated 
 by the people. Being banished from France, 
 and a fugitive from Germany, he went to 
 Belgium, and afterwards to England, where 
 he has written industriously in support of 
 his political ideas. It was Blind's son-in- 
 law who attempted Bismarck's life in 1866. 
 
 Bliad, Mathilde, an English writer of 
 verse, and step-daughter of the preceding.
 
 BU 
 
 (144) 
 
 Blu 
 
 She has published an edition of Shelley, and 
 a trauslatiou of Strauss's Old Faith and the 
 JS'etv besides a Life of George Eliot, and a 
 volume of poems entitled The Frophecy of 
 St. Oran. 
 
 Blittersdorf, Friedrich Sandolin Karl, 
 Baron von (h. 1792, d. 18G1), German 
 statesman of Baden, in 1818 he was charge 
 d'affaires at St. Petersburg, and in 1821 was 
 returned to the Frankfort National Assem- 
 bly as deputy for Badeu. He succeeded 
 Baron Teukheim as foreign minister, but 
 his reactionary policy caused his speedy re- 
 tirement from the oflice, and after the 1848 
 revolution he retired from political life. 
 
 Blizaxd, Sir William (&. 1748, d. 1835), 
 surgeon. As surgeon of the London 
 Hospital he estabUshed, with Dr. Maclaurin, 
 the first regular medical school in connection 
 with London hospitals. He was twice pre- 
 sident of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
 
 Blomfield, Charles James (6. 1786, d. 
 18o7), Bishop of London and an accom- 
 plished Greek scholar. Li 1819 he was 
 appointed Rector of St. Botolph's, Bishops- 
 gate; in 1824, Bishop of Chester; and in 
 1828, Bishop of London. He was very 
 actively concerned in the colonial extension 
 of the Church, and in the erection of new 
 churches. He published editions of several 
 of the plays of ^schylus, an edition of 
 CalUmachus, and, in collaboration, Fost- 
 humom Tracts of Forson. 
 
 Blomfield, Arthur WilHam (6. 1829), 
 architect, fourth son of the preceding. 
 Among the many examples of his workman- 
 ship may be mentioned St. Peter's church, 
 Eaton Square, the chapel at Haileybury 
 college, and St. Saviour's, Oxford Street. 
 
 Blondel.Frangois (6. 1617, d. 1686), French 
 diplomatist, mathematician, and architect. 
 He was employed on several important 
 missions, and was made a councillor of state 
 and professor of mathematics at the Royal 
 CoUege. Among his architectural works in 
 Paris was the triumphal arch at the Porte 
 St. Denis. 
 
 Blood, Thomas (b. 1628, d. 1680), Irish 
 adventurer, served in the Royalist army 
 and in the Parliamentary army as well. 
 He formed a plot for the assassruation of 
 the Duke of Ormond; and in the guise of 
 a clergyman he endeavoured to steal the 
 crown jewels from the Tower. 
 
 Bloomfield, Robert (b. 1766, d. 1823), 
 English poet, at the age of eleven worked 
 on a farm for a short time, and then came 
 to London. An omnivorous reader, he soon 
 appeared in print, contributing several poems 
 to the London Magazine, and a few years 
 later he produced his chief piece, The 
 
 Farmer's Fag. Publishers refused the poem, 
 which was printed by private means, and 
 which immediately commanded a large sale. 
 He also pubUslied Fural Tales, Ballads, and 
 Songs, and other poems. His latter days 
 were spent in great destitution. 
 
 Blount, Sir Henry {b. 1602, d. 1682), 
 English traveller and writer, spent a great 
 deal of time in the East and in various 
 quarters of the Continent, writing an 
 account of his experiences, which gained 
 great popularity. 
 
 Blount, Sir Thomas Pope (b. 1649, d. 
 1697), English poUtician and writer and 
 sou of the preceding, was returned to Par- 
 liament for St. Albans and Herefordshire, 
 and made a baronet by Charles II. His 
 writings treated of natural history and 
 poetry, his chief work being Cernura Cele- 
 briorum Authorum. 
 
 Blow, John (6. 1648, d. 1708), English 
 musical composer, while one of the child- 
 ren of Hie 'Majesty's chapel showed hia 
 genius in the composition of several anthems, 
 and later in Ufe his compositions, both 
 secular and sacred, were very numerous. 
 He succeeded Purcell as organist of West- 
 minster Abbey and composer to the king. 
 
 Bliicher, Gerhard Leberecht von (6. 1742, 
 d. 1819), Prussian Field Marshal and Prince 
 of Wahlstadt, first entered the Swedish, 
 but soon passed to the Prussian army, in 
 which he served during the Seven Years' 
 war. He went through the Polish cam- 
 paign of 1772, and gained rapid promotioa 
 duiing the struggle with the French in- 
 vaders begun in 1792. He was placed in 
 command of the army in Silesia, and while 
 carefully refusing battle with Napoleon he 
 defeated Marshal Macdonald at Katzbach. 
 Soon after he defeated Bertrand, and con- 
 tributed largely to the victory of Leipzig. 
 At Auerstadt he behaved with great gallan- 
 try at the head of the Prussian cavalry; 
 but soon afterwards had to yield to superior 
 forces, and was sent a prisoner to Hamburg. 
 In the campaign of 1814 Bliicher held high 
 command, and though defeated by Napoleon, 
 he beat Marshal Marmont, and enter^ Paris 
 with the Allies. Afterwards he visited Lon- 
 don with the aUied sovereigns, and was 
 received with great cordiality. In the 
 Waterloo campaign he commanded the 
 Prussian army in Belgium, and was severely 
 defeated by Napoleon at Ligny. However, 
 by out-manoeuvring Grouchy he was able 
 to arrive at Waterloo in time to decide the 
 victory for the Allies and pursue the routed 
 French army. He then retired from active 
 service and died four years later. 
 
 Bluhme, Christian Albrecht (6. 1794, d. 
 1866), Danish statesman ; educated for the 
 legal profession, was appointed a judge
 
 Blu 
 
 (145) 
 
 Boc 
 
 in 1822, and in 1843 director-general of cus- 
 toms and commerce. In 1851 he became 
 home minister ; in 1852 president of the 
 Council, and in 1853 foreign minister. He 
 excited much enmity by advising the neu- 
 trality of Denmark during the Crimean 
 war and was impeached. In 1864 he became 
 prime minister. 
 
 Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich (6. 1752, 
 d. 1840), German ethuologist, tDok a 
 doctor's degree at Gottingeu in 1775; in 
 1776 was appointed keeper of the cabinet 
 of natural history, and in 1778 professor 
 of medicine. While coutiuuiug his _ re- 
 searches and academic labours he obtained 
 a world-wide reputation by his Handbjok 
 of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology . 
 His remarkably fine collection of human 
 skulls was bought by the govemmeut, and 
 is now at Gottmgen university. He first 
 proposed the ethnological division of the 
 human race into five types. He left many 
 valuable records, and among his pupils 
 were Hufeland and the two Humboldts. 
 
 Blumenthal, Jacob (6. 1829), pianist and 
 composer ; after spending some time in 
 Hambiirg, Vienna and Paris he came to 
 London in 1848, and was appointed pianist 
 to the Queen. He has composed a great 
 deal for the pianoforte, but his best and 
 most popular compositions are his songs, 
 among wliichare The Message, The Requital, 
 and My Queen. 
 
 Blumenthal, Leonard von (6. 1810), dis- 
 tinguished Prussian general, was sent in 
 1850 on two special missions to England. 
 In the Danish war he rendered brilliant 
 service as chief of the general staff, a post 
 which he again filled in the Austrian war 
 and the Franco-German war. 
 
 Boadicea {d. a.d. 62), one of the queens 
 of early British history. Having been 
 treated with great indignity by the Eomans, 
 she raised an army, but was completely de- 
 feated by Suetonius. She then poisoned 
 herself. 
 
 Bobadilla, Francisco, Spanish knight, was 
 sent as a commissioner in 1500 to inves- 
 tigate the State of Hispaniola, founded by 
 Columbus. Having dismissed Columbus, 
 and sent him to Spain in fetters, he was re- 
 called, and died on the homeward voyage. 
 
 Boccaccino, Boccaccio (6. 1460, d. 1518), 
 Italian painter, a native of Cremona, who 
 takes a very high rank among the painters 
 of his day. His son, Camillo (6. 1511, d. 
 1546), was also a painter. 
 
 Boccaccio, Giovanni (J. 1313, d. 1375), 
 one of the greatest names in Italian litera- 
 ture. Eesitling in Naples as a young man, 
 he acquired the friendship of Petrarch, a 
 
 friendship which has become historical. In 
 1353 he published his Jbecamerou ; and later 
 he filled the chair instituted for the explana- 
 tion of Dante's Divme Comedy at Florence. 
 He wrote a commentary on the first seven- 
 teen cantos of the Inferno, and a Ufe of its 
 author, besides many prose stories, and 
 much verse in ItaUan and Latin. 
 
 Boccage, Manoel Maria Barbosa de (&. 
 1771, d. 1806), Portuguese poet who lived 
 many years in Goa, and achieved a very 
 high reputation by his verse. He was im- 
 prisoned for a short time by the Inquisi- 
 tion. 
 
 Boccanera, Giulio, naval commander in 
 the Spanish service, though born at Genoa. 
 In 1340 he went to help King Alfonso XI. 
 of Castile against the Moors, when his con- 
 duct of the naval operations was most suc- 
 cessful. In 1371, in the reign of Henry II. 
 of Castile, he defeated the Portuguese, and 
 in 1372 the English, under Lord Pembroke, 
 at La Eochelle. 
 
 Boccanera, Sunone {d. 1363), brother of 
 the preceding. As a popular champion 
 against the nobles, he was elected Doge of 
 Genoa in 1339, but he was forced to abdi- 
 cate in 1344. After residing in exile at 
 Pisa, he returned in 1356, and having helped 
 the Duke of Milan to crush the insurgent 
 nobles, he supplanted the duke's authority, 
 and was again elected Doge. 
 
 Boccherini, Luigi (6. 1740, d. 1806), 
 musician of Italian descent ; in 1771 his 
 compositions and performances on the vio- 
 loncello gained him a high reputation in 
 Paris ; and afterwards he received a post in 
 the Spanish court. Being dismissed from 
 this, the remainder of his life was spent in 
 poverty. 
 
 Bochsa, Eobert Nicholas Charles (6. 1789, 
 d. 1856), French musical , composer and 
 harpist, developed his genius very early, and 
 on going to Paris in 1806, obtained a speedy 
 recognition of his gifts. In 1817 he came to 
 Loudon, and met with equal success, though 
 he became baukiupt tlirough extravagance. 
 For some years he was director of the aca- 
 demy of music, and later of the king's 
 theatre. He died in Australia. 
 
 Bock, Jerome (fi. 1498, d. 1555), German 
 savant, and one of the first of scientific 
 botanists. He was a doctor of medicine 
 and a Protestant clergyman. 
 
 Bockh, August {h. 1785, d. 1867), German 
 archeeologist and philologist; in 1811 was 
 appointed to a chair in Berlin vmiver- 
 sity, where his lectures were held in the 
 highest estimation. Among his numerous 
 works were The Political Economy of the 
 Athenians and Meteorological Investigatiotia
 
 Bbc 
 
 (146) 
 
 Boe 
 
 tonceming the Weights, Coins, and Measures 
 of Antiquity. 
 
 Bdcklin, Arnold (6. 1827), Swiss painter, 
 after some years spent in Paris, Germany, 
 and Italy, was appointed in 1858 one of the 
 directors of the Weimar school of art. In 
 1861 he returned to Rome, and after that 
 resided in Basel, Munich, and tiiially Flo- 
 rence. In spite of his undoubted genius, 
 the unconventiouality and grimness of his 
 works have greatly militated against his 
 prosperity. 
 
 Boczkai, Stephen {d. 1696), Hungarian 
 patriot, who in 1604 secured the indepen- 
 dence of the Transylvanian Protestants by a 
 revolt against Austria, assisted by Turkish 
 arms. He was crowned King of Upper 
 Himgary, but later became f eudatoiy to the 
 Austrian throne. 
 
 Bode, Johann Elert (6. 1747, d. 1826), 
 German astronomer of eminence, who was 
 for some years director of the Berlin Obser- 
 vatory. His life was spent in astronomical 
 pursuits, and besides the record of his im- 
 portant observations he left several works. 
 
 Bode, Johann Joachim Christoph (6. 
 1730, d. 1793), German musician and man 
 of letters; of the humblest origin, by diat 
 of his own mdustry he became a musi- 
 cian and a composer, and then turned his I 
 attention to poetry Having mastered 1 
 several European languages he adapted ! 
 dramas from foreign literatures for the Ger- I 
 man stage. He published translations of 
 many European classics 
 
 Bodenstedt, Frederick Martin (6. 1819), 
 German poet and writer ; in 1840 he went 
 to Russia, when he published German trans- 
 lations of the works of several Russian 
 poets ; and later, spending some time in 
 Asia Minor and Greece, he wrote A Thou- 
 sand and One Days in the East, which 
 proved highly popular. In 1851 he pub- 
 lished Songs of Mirza Schaffy, a series of 
 Oriental poems purporting to be transla- 
 tions. He has also written some epics, 
 lyric poetry, novels and translations of 
 Shakespeare. He was appointed professor 
 of Sclav languages and literature at Munich. 
 
 Bodiclion, Barbara (6. 1827), well-known 
 water-colour painter, and an active promo- 
 ter of women's education, was largely instru- 
 mental in obtaining the Married Women's 
 Property Act. She founded a school in 
 London for the education of artisans' 
 daughters ; and she helped to establish 
 Girton College. The daughter of Mr. Ben- 
 jamin Smith, M.P., she married Dr. Bodi- 
 chon, with whom she went to Algeria. 
 
 Bodley, Sir Thomas (6. 1544, d. 1612), 
 founder of the Bodleian Library at Oxford, 
 
 lectured at the University for some time, 
 and then becoming attached to the court 
 of Queen Elizabeth, was employed on 
 several important diplomatic missions. Dis- 
 appointed at failing to obtain the offtce of 
 secretary of state, he forsook poUtics. He 
 was knighted by James I., and laid the first 
 stone of the Bodleian Library in 1610. 
 
 Boece, or Boyce, Hector (6. 1470, d. 1536), 
 Scottish historian, and a man of great 
 learning. After being professor of philoso- 
 phy at Paris, he became principal of the 
 Aberdeen college. He wrote a history of 
 Scotland in Latin. 
 
 Boehm, Sir Joseph Edgar (6. 1834, d. 
 1891), an English sculptor of German origin, 
 came to England to settle in 1862. In 1878 
 he was elected an associate, and in 1882 a 
 member of the Royal Academy ; while in 
 1881 he was appointed sculptor in ordinary 
 to the Queen. His works are very numer- 
 ous, and include Lord John Russell in West- 
 minster Hall, Thomas Carlyle on the Thames 
 Embankment, Lord Lawrence in Waterloo 
 Place, and The Duke of Wellington at Hyde 
 Park comer. 
 
 Boerliaave, Hermann (6. 1668, d. 1738), 
 German physician, and one of the first 
 authorities of his time on botany and 
 chemistry. In 1709 he was appointed to 
 the chair of medicine and botany at Leyden 
 vmiversity, where his lectiu'es made him 
 famous ; and in 1714 he was made rector of 
 the university, and soon afterwards professor 
 of chemistry. He was a great linguist and 
 mathematician, and the author of numerous 
 works, including Institutiones Jledica. In 
 1729 he retired. 
 
 BoetMus, Anicius ManHus Torquatus 
 Severinus (6. a.d. 455, d. 524), Latin writer 
 and philosopher, in 487 was Consul of 
 Rome under the rule of Odoacer, King of 
 the Heruli ; and he held the same office in 
 510 and 522 under Theodoric, King of the 
 Goths. His public labours went side by 
 side with his work in literature, and he 
 translated several of the Greek philosophers, 
 besides writing treatises of his own. At last 
 he lost the favoirr of Theodoric, and was 
 imprisoned; during which time he wrote 
 his De Consolatione Fhilosopha. 
 
 Boettcher, Adolf (6. 1815, d. 1870), 
 Gei-man poet of considerable repute, trans- 
 lated the works of English poets, among 
 others of Shakespeare, Milton, Pope, and 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 Boettcher, Johann Friedrich (6. 1681, d. 
 1719), German cheimist, whose labours, led 
 to the f oimding of the famous Dresden ehina 
 factory, spent the greater part of his life in 
 searching for the philosopher's stone; but 
 the Elector Frederick Augustus of Dresden
 
 Bog 
 
 (H7) 
 
 Boi 
 
 made ^ifn apply his knowledge of chemistry 
 to the conversion of the Meissen clay into 
 porcelain. 
 
 Bogardus, James (b. 1800, d. 1875), 
 American inventor of great fecundity, who 
 worked lor some time as a watchmaker and 
 engraver in New York. Among his inven- 
 tions were the king-flyer for cotton spin- 
 ning (1828) ; the eccentric mill (1829) ; the 
 dry gas-meter (1832) ; a dynamo-meter, 
 and a pyrometer (1848). In 1847 he built 
 the first structure of cast iron in the United 
 States. 
 
 Bogdanovitch, Hyppolytus Feodorovitch 
 (b. 1743, d. 1803), Russian lyrical poet, after 
 going to Dresden as secretary to the em- 
 bassy, he published his Lushexka, which 
 attracted much attention. He wrote 
 dramatic pieces as well as poetry. 
 
 Boha Ed-Din, Abul-Hassan Yusef (6. 
 1145, d. 1232), Arabian historian and jurist, 
 the Sultan Saladin made him Cadi of Jeru- 
 salem, and he wrote the life of his patron, 
 as well as a history of the Cnisades. He 
 founded a college at Aleppo. 
 
 Bohemond, Mark [d. 1111), a famous 
 Crusader of Norman descent, and son of 
 Eobert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia. After 
 serving \mder his father in lUyria and 
 Greece, he was ousted from his inheritance 
 by his brother. Joining the Crusaders with 
 Tancred, he captured Antioch, after a siege 
 of seven months. He established himself in 
 the town as prince, and his descendants re- 
 tained the position for ninety years. 
 
 Boieldieu, Francois Adrien (6. 1775, d. 
 1834), French musical composer, bom a,t 
 Rouen, where some of his earlier composi- 
 tions were produced, went to Paris about 
 1796, and produced his opera Le Dot de Su- 
 zette, which was a great success. In 1800 he 
 wrote the Caliph of Bagdad, which gave him 
 a European reputation . After producing Ma 
 Tanfe Aurore, he went to Russia, and was 
 received with much favour by the Czar ; and 
 returning to Paris in 1811, after an absence 
 of eight years, he regained his prestige in 
 France by his Jean de Paris. This was fol- 
 lowed by several other operas, and in 1825 
 by La Jjame Blanche, his greatest effort, 
 which was received with the greatest en- 
 thusiasm. He only produced one more 
 opera, Les JJeux Xuifs, a failure. In the 
 revolution of 1830 he lost his pension, but 
 recovered it later by the efforts of M. Thiers. 
 
 Boigne, Benoit, Count de {b. 1741, d. 
 1830), French soldier of fortune, entered 
 the French army in 1768, and at the end of 
 two years entered the service of Catherine 
 TI. of Russia, fighting against the Turks. 
 Then he went to India, and received a 
 commission in a native regiment, and 
 k2 
 
 finally took service with the Mahadajee 
 Sindia. In this position he raised and dis- 
 ciplined to a high state of efficiency a force 
 of 30,000 men with 200 pieces of artillery, 
 and at the same time administered the pro- 
 vinces devoted to the army's maintenance. 
 In 1796 he retired to France with a large 
 fortune. The army which he had formed 
 was broken up in 1802 at the battle of 
 Assaye, though De Boigne had always ad- 
 vised friendship with the English. 
 
 BoQeau-Despreaux, Nicolas (6. 1636, d. 
 1711),_ a French poet of high rank, after 
 studying law and theology, gave his mind to 
 hterature, and in 1660 produced a satirical 
 poem which at once attracted notice. This 
 was followed by other satires, by his Twelve 
 Epistles, and in 1674 by his Art of I'oetry 
 and Lntrin. These works secured" him the 
 society of the best literary people of the 
 daj% and earned a pension from the Crown. 
 He was appointed joint historiographer 
 with Racine. 
 
 BoUeau, GOles (6. 1631, d. 1669), brother 
 of the preceding, and a poet of considerable 
 merit. The two brothers were very jealous 
 of each other, and inspired many of each 
 other's satiric verses. 
 
 Boisrobert, Francois le Metel de (6. 1592, 
 d. 1662), French litterateur and wit, 
 going to Rome, won the favour of Pope 
 Urban VIII., who gave him clerical pre- 
 ferment ; and he was a familiar associate 
 of Cardinal Richelieu. He wrote dramas, 
 poems, and stories, and is believed to have 
 been instrumental in foimding the French 
 Academy. 
 
 Boissonade, Jean Francois (6. 1774), 
 French writer, scholar, and Hellenist, was 
 professor of Greek at the Academy of Paris 
 and College of France, and refused many 
 lucrative posts for the sake of pursuing h& 
 learned researches. He left some valuable 
 contributions to philological science. 
 
 Boissy, D'Anglas (&. 1756, d. 1826), 
 French statesman, was an actor in the 
 earlier scenes of the great revolution, 
 sitting in the States General and the Con- 
 vention, of which he later became secretaiy. 
 He was instrumental in the overthrow of 
 Robespierre, and behaved with great 
 courage when the mob attacked the 
 chamber. Later he was suspected of 
 RoyaUst sympathies, and had to fly to 
 England, but in 1802 he was elected presi- 
 dent of the Tribunate. He was ennobled 
 by Louis XVIII. : gave his adhesion to 
 Napoleon during the Himdred Days ; and 
 aclmowledged Louis on his restoration. 
 
 Boiasy, Louis de (6. 1694, d. 1758), 
 French poet and dramatist, commanded 
 considerable contemporary popnlarity, but
 
 Boi 
 
 (148) 
 
 Bom 
 
 is now little read. His principal produc- 
 tion was V Homme du Jour. 
 
 Boiste, Pierre Claude Victor (6. 1765, d. 
 1824), French man of letters, who is 
 remembered as the author of La Diction- 
 natrf L'niverselle de la Langiie FrariQaise. 
 
 Bojer, Wenceslas (6. 1800, d. 1856), dis- 
 tinguished Austrian naturalist and botanist, 
 visited Mauritius, Madagascar, and Africa, 
 sending home valuable collections of botani- 
 cal and biological specimens. 
 
 Bojardo, Matteo Maria, Count of Scan- 
 diano (6. 1434, d. 1494), Italian scholar 
 and poet, is remembered as the author of 
 Orlando Innamorato, a poetical romance, 
 which was almost the first really literary- 
 work of its kind. He was a finished Greek 
 and Latin scholar, and wrote verse in Latin, 
 besides translating the History of Herodotus. 
 He held public posts under the Duke of 
 Ferrara, and was Governor of Reggio at 
 his death. 
 
 Boker, George Henry (6, 1824), American 
 poet ; his first published poem was The 
 Lesson of Life (1847), and this was followed 
 by two tragedies, which were produced 
 on the stage. For ten years he was 
 secretary of the Union League, Phila- 
 delphia, and his Poems of the War proved 
 very popular. In 1S69 he went as U. S. 
 Minister to Constantinople. He published 
 in 1882 an elegy, The Book of the Lead. 
 
 Bokliari, Abu-Abdallah Mohammed (6. 
 810, d. S70), Arabian doctor of Moslem law, 
 wrote several works, and si)ent sixteen years 
 in the composition of his Al-djanii Alsahy, 
 which is regarded with gi-eat reverence. 
 
 Boleyn, Anne (b. 1507, d. 1536), Queen of 
 England, and daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn 
 of Kent, accompanied Mary Tudor to 
 France, but returned to England after the 
 battle of Pavia, and was appointed by 
 Henry VIII. a maid of honour to Queen 
 Catherine. The king having fallen in love 
 with her, prevented her marriage with Lord 
 Percy, and in 1532 created her Marchioness 
 of Pembroke, taking her with him on his 
 visit to Francis I. The proceedings for the 
 divorce of Queen Catherine having been 
 delayed, Henry married Anne Boleyn pri- 
 Tately in 1533, in which year she bore 
 Queen Elizabeth. By 1536 the king's 
 passion had cooled, and Anne Boleyn was 
 charged with criminal misconduct. Anne 
 was found guilty by a court of twenty- 
 seven peers, and beheaded barely three 
 weeks after her arraignment. 
 
 Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount 
 (6 1678, d. 1751), philosopher and states- 
 man, after a brilliant career at Oxford, 
 entered Parliament in 1701 as a Tory, and 
 
 soon became a prominent figure in the 
 party. In 1 704 he was appointed secretary 
 at war, and in 1710 he became foreign 
 secretary, and received the title of Vis- 
 coimt Bolingbroke. He was a stiong 
 adherent of the Stuart dynasty, and when 
 the Hanoverian line was established, 
 Bolingbroke was dismissed from oilice. 
 He lied to France ; an impeachment 
 immediately followed, and he was found 
 guilty of high treason. He then became 
 secretary of state to the Pretender, but was 
 dismissed in 1715. As the efforts of his 
 friends to secure his pardon from George I. 
 were imsuccessful, he Hved quietly at 
 Orleans, writing and gardening. In 1720 he 
 married a niece of Madame de Mainteuon, 
 through whom he did at last procure his 
 pardon. He returned to England in 1723, 
 but was not allowed to sit in the House of 
 Lords, for which he attacked Walpole with 
 great fierceness. In 1735 he returned to 
 France, and remained there for seven years, 
 writing his Letters on the Study and Use of 
 History, and his Idea of a Patriot King. 
 His Itejlections upon Lxile was written 
 during his earlier residence in France. 
 
 Bolivar, Simon (h. 1783, d. 1830), the 
 founder and first president of the KepubUc 
 of Columbia, known as " The Liberator of 
 South America. ' ' Born in Venezuela, he was 
 educated in Madrid, and travelled in 
 Europe and the United States. When the 
 revolt against the Spanish yoke broke out 
 in Venezuela, he joined it, but had to fiy. 
 In 1813 he returned, and gathering a force 
 together, defeated General Monteverde 
 at Caracas. The tide then turned, and 
 Bolivar fled to Jamaica, but he shortly 
 returned, and after varying fortune in 
 1819 won the battle of Bojaca, resulting 
 in the inauguration of the Republic of 
 Venezuela in the same year, to which was 
 afterwards united New Granada. In 1822 
 Bolivar went to help the Peruviansin their 
 struggle for liberty, and was given the 
 chief command. After a long campaign he 
 won the great battle of Ayacucho. U]ipei 
 Peru was constituted a separate republic 
 with the title of Bolivia. As President of 
 , Columbia he had to endure much factious 
 'hostility; but though he tendered his 
 resignation more than once it was never 
 accepted, the supreme power being con- 
 firmed in him in 1828. 
 
 Bologna, Giovanni da (6. 1524, d. 1608), 
 Italian sculptor, spent the greater part 
 of his life in Florence, in which most of 
 his works find place. The Rape of the 
 Sahines, and Mercury are his best known 
 productions. He was an architect also, and 
 designed most of the internal decorations of 
 the Florence San Marco. 
 
 Bombelli, Raffaelle, mathematician ol
 
 Bon 
 
 (149) 
 
 Bon 
 
 Bologna, who lived in the 16th century. 
 He wrote a work on algebra, -and was the 
 first to attempt the extraction of the cube- 
 root, and the solution of " the irreducible 
 case " in cubic equations. 
 
 Bon, Louis Audr^ (b. 1758, d. 1799), 
 French soldier, after having served in 
 America, commanded a battalion of the 
 national volunteers with much success ; and 
 in 1795 displayed admirable generalship in 
 Italy. In 1798, as general of division, he went 
 to Egypt with Napoleon, and was killed in 
 the unsuccessful assault on St. Jean d'Acre. 
 
 Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Vicomte 
 de (6. 1754, d. 1840), French writer and 
 theorist, at the outbreak of the revolution 
 he went to Heidelberg, where he wrote his 
 Theorie du Foiivoir Folitique et Rellgieux. 
 The book was considered so reactionary that 
 the Directory proscribed it. In 1802 he 
 published his Legislation Primitif. When 
 Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor he re- 
 turned to Paris and received a government 
 appointment, "and as a deputy under the 
 restored Bourbons he was so pronouncedly 
 Conservative as to receive a title. After the 
 1830 revolution he was degraded, and retired 
 from pubUc life. 
 
 Bonald, Louis Jacques Maurice de (h. 
 1787, d. 1870), fom-th son of the preceding, 
 Cardinal Ai'chbishop of Lyons, was a man 
 of great eloquence and devotion to the 
 Church, and his preferment was rapid. 
 Ordained in 1811, he became in 1817 Grand 
 Vicar and Archdeacon of Chartres ; in 1823, 
 Bishop of Puy; in 1839, Archbishop of 
 Lyons; and in 1841, Cardinal. He was a 
 supporter of the revolution of 1848. 
 
 Bonamy, Charles Auguste (6, 1764, d. 
 1830), French general, entered the army 
 as a volunteer, and after seeing much 
 service, gained considerable distinction as 
 chief of the staff to Kleber in 1795. A 
 charge of treason, though disproved, kept 
 him in retirement for two years, when he 
 went to Italy, becoming general of brigade. 
 He narrowly escaped disgi-ace in 1799, and 
 in 1800 he was retired by Napoleon. He 
 served, however, in the Russian campaign, 
 and behaved with the greatest gallautry. 
 He was promoted and decorated under the 
 restored monarchy, and served in the cam- 
 paign of 1815. 
 
 Bonapartes, The. The family to which 
 the Emperor Napoleon I. belonged came 
 from Corsica. The father. Carlo Maria 
 Bonaparte [h. 1746, fl. 1785), was a lawyer 
 and an adherent of Paoli, the insurgent. 
 The mother, Letizia Ramolini (h. 1750, d. 
 1836), was celebrated for her beauty ; and 
 with the titla, " Madame Mere," Uped in 
 Paris during the rule of Napoleon : — 
 
 (1) Joseph (6. 1768, d. 1844), the eldest 
 
 son, practised as an advocate, and married 
 a merchant's daughter at Marseilles. He 
 was commissary-general to the army in 
 Italy under Napoleon, and in 1797 was 
 sent as ambassador to the Pope. An able 
 diplomatist, he negotiated the treaties of 
 peace at Lune'ville (1801), and at Amiens 
 (1802). When his brother was proclaimed 
 Emperor, he was placed upon the throne of 
 Naples, but being a merely nominal ruler, 
 his good judgment and better instincts had 
 no play. In 1808 he was transferred to the 
 throne of Spain, where his position was still 
 more unfortunate. He was twice compelled 
 to fly from Madrid, and iinally abandoned the 
 throne after the battle of Vittoria. He was 
 lieutenant-general of the empire during the 
 1814 campaigns and the Hundred Days; and 
 after Waterloo he hved for some years in the 
 United States as the Comte de'SurvOUers. 
 He died in Florence, and left his highly 
 interesting Memoirs and Correspondewe. 
 
 (2) Napoleon, the second son. \8ee Na- 
 poleon I.J 
 
 (3) Lucien(6. 1775, d. 1840), in 1795 became 
 commissary to the army of the North. In 
 1798 he was elected to the Council of the 
 Five Hundred, and played an important 
 part in the revolution which destroyed the 
 Directory and made Napoleon First Consul. 
 After becoming minister of the interior, he 
 went as ambassador to Madrid ; but his 
 marriage with Mme. Joubuthon brought 
 about an estrangement between him and the 
 Emperor, and in 1804 he retired to his 
 estates in Italy, as Prince of Canino, where 
 he cultivated his tastes for hterature and the 
 iine arts. After the peace of Tilsit he was 
 offered the crown of Italy, but he refused 
 it ; and in 1810 set out for the United States, 
 Captured by a British cruiser, he was kept a 
 prisoner in England till 1814. After Water- 
 loo he induced Napoleon to abdicate in favour 
 of his son ; and he himself retired to Italy. 
 He wrote an epic, Charlemagjw, 
 
 (4) Marie Anne Elisa {b. 1777, d. 1820), 
 married Felix Pascal Baciocchi, and was 
 created Princess of Piombino and Lucca, 
 and Grand Duchess of Tuscany. She retired 
 from France in 1815, and died at Trieste. 
 
 (5) Louis (h. 1778, d. 1846), the father of 
 Najioleon III. He served in the Italian and 
 Egyptian campaigns; and in 1802 he was 
 compelled to marry Hortense Beauharnais, 
 from whom he was afterwards separated. 
 Under the empire he was created a prince 
 and constable of France, and after occupy- 
 ing Holland he was proclaimed king of the 
 country. He became extremely popular 
 with the people, but offended the Emperor, 
 and in 1810 he abdicated, the country being 
 absorbed in France. He spent most of his 
 life after Napoleon's banishment in Italy, 
 and wrote several books, of which the Uocu- 
 tnents Historiqties is the most important. 
 
 (6) Marie Pauhne. [&'« Borghese.]
 
 Bon 
 
 (150) 
 
 Bon 
 
 (7) Caroliue Marie Anuouciade (b. 1782, rf. 
 1839), married Marshal Murat iu 1800. 
 
 (S) Jerome {b. 1784, d. 1860). He was 
 given a commaud m the navy, and while on 
 the American station married a Miss Pater- 
 sou, a marriage which he was forced to re- 
 nounce by the Emperor. In 1806 he was 
 made king of Westphalia, and married a 
 daughter of the King of Wurtemberg, who 
 became the mother of Prince Napoleon. In 
 1812 he proved so incapable a general during 
 the Russian campaign that he was removed 
 from commaud ; but he commanded a divi- 
 sion at Waterloo. After Napoleon's abdica- 
 tion he lived in exile, until 1847, when 
 Napoleon III. made him a marshal of 
 France and President of the Senate. 
 
 Of the second generation : — 
 
 (1 ) Napoleon, son of Louis. [See Napoleon 
 III.l 
 
 (2) Napoleon, Joseph {b. 1822, d. 1891), 
 commonly known as Prince Napoleon, and 
 son of Je'rome Bonaparte. His early life was 
 spent in travel, but after the 1848 revolution 
 he was elected to the Assembly. In 1849 he 
 held for a year the post of ambassador at 
 Madrid ; and in 1854 he commanded a divi- 
 sion of the army in the Crimea. He threw 
 up his command suddenly, and in 1858 be- 
 came president of the ministry for Algiers. 
 In 1859 he held a command in Italy, and 
 married the Princess Clotilde, a daughter of 
 Victor Emmanuel. In 1861 he created a 
 sensation in the Senate by a fine oration in 
 support of democratic principles, provoking 
 a challenge from the Due d'Aumale. His 
 loudly-expressed approval of the Polish re- 
 volution brought him into disgrace with the 
 Emperor more than once, and compelled his 
 resignation of the presidency of the Com- 
 missioners for the Universal Exhibition. 
 After the fall of Napoleon III., and the 
 death of Prince Louis Napoleon, he was re- 
 cognised as head of the Napoleon family. 
 In 1883 he was imprisoned for a pronuncia- 
 mento, and in 1886 he was banished from 
 France, and died in exile. 
 
 (3) Charles Lucien Jules, Prince de Canino 
 (6. 1803, d. 1857), the son of Lucien Bona- 
 parte, a distinguished naturalist, in 1822 
 married his cousin, Zenaide, the daughter 
 of Jerome Bonaparte, and soon after went 
 to America, where he devoted himself to 
 the study of science, and published his 
 valuable American Ornithology. In 1828 he 
 returned to Italy; in 1833 he pubUshed 
 his Italian Fauna, and in 1847 he succeeded 
 to the title of prince. He was for a short 
 time active in Italian politics, but finally 
 settled at Paris. His son, Lucien (6. 1828), 
 la a cardinal. 
 
 (4) Louis Lucien {b. 1813, d. 1891), the 
 second son of Lucien Bonaparte. He passed 
 his youth in scientific and linguistic study. In 
 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assem- 
 bly asdeputyfor Corsica, but the election was 
 
 annulled. In 1852 he was made a senator, 
 and in 1860 grand officer of the Legion of 
 Honour. He has written a great deal, much 
 of his work being translations. 
 
 (3) PieiTe Napoleon, Prince {b. 1815, d. 
 1881), third son of Lucien. After getting 
 into disfavour in Italy and America, he 
 went to Paris in 1848, and sat in the 
 Assembly. In 1849 he served in Algeria, 
 and filially settled in England. 
 
 Of the third generation :— 
 
 Prince Louis, better known as the Prince 
 Imperial {b. 1856, d. 1879), the only child of 
 Napoleon III. and the Empress Eugenie. 
 He accompanied his father at the opening 
 of the Franco-German war, but after Sedan 
 he came to England. He entered the 
 Woolwich Military Academy, and in 1879 
 went with the expedition to Zululand. He 
 was killed in this war, a small body of 
 soldiers with whom he had gone out having 
 been surprised by the Zulus. A monument 
 was erected to his memory at Chislehurst. 
 
 Bonati, Theodoro Massimo (&. 1724, d. 
 1820), Italian physician, mathematician, and 
 physicist, filled a chair at Ferrara university, 
 executed many public works in Italy, and 
 wrote much on hydraulics and physics. 
 
 Bonaventura, Giovanni de Fidenza, Saint 
 (6. 1221, d. 1274), an Italian ecclesiastic. 
 He belonged to the Franciscan Order, and 
 was professor of theology at Paris, being 
 known for his erudition as "Doctor Sera- 
 phicus." In 1256 he was made general of 
 the Franciscan Order, and his influence in 
 the Church was so great that in 1272 the 
 cardinals agreed to elect to the Papal Chair 
 whomsoever he should nominate. 
 
 Bonchamp, Artus de (6. 1759, d. 1793), the 
 greatest of the generals of the Vendean 
 army, served in America, and then re- 
 tired from the army ; but when La Vendee 
 rose against the republic he, as a territorial 
 noble, was chosen one of the leaders. He 
 displayed great courage and military ability 
 in this position, and was regarded with the 
 greatest confidence and affection by his 
 troops. He was mortally wounded at the 
 passage of the Loire. 
 
 Bond, Edward Augustus (6. 1815), prin- 
 cipal librarian of the British Museum, in 
 1838 entered the Department of Manu- 
 scripts iu the British Museum; in 1854 he 
 was appointed assistant-keeper, and in 1866, 
 keeper, a post which he held for twelve 
 years. He helped to found the Palaeogra- 
 phical Society, and edited for it Facsimiles 
 of Ancient Manuscripts. He also edited 
 Giles Fletcher's Russia for the Hakluyt 
 Society; Speeches in the Trial of Warren 
 Hastings for the Government ; and the 
 Chronica Monasterii de MelsA for the Rolls 
 Series. In 1878 he was appointed principal
 
 Bon 
 
 ( 151 ) 
 
 Boo 
 
 librarian of the British Museum, and made 
 his tenure of office memorable by the Lastitu- 
 tion of many admirable reforms. 
 
 Bond, William Cranch (6. 1789, d. 1859), 
 American astronomer, was originally a 
 watchmaker, but gave his attention to as- 
 tronomy after seeing the eclipse of 1806. 
 He discovered the comet of 1811; and in 
 1838 he was appointed by the govermnent 
 astronomer to (Japtaiii Wilkes's exj)edition 
 to the South Seas. In 1840 he was ap- 
 pointed director of Harvard Observatory. 
 He has recorded important observations of 
 Saturn ; he discovered the satellite of Nep- 
 tune, and was the first to apply photo- 
 graphy to astronomical observations. 
 
 Bone, Henry (6. 1755, d. 1834), English 
 painter on enamel. First a china painter in 
 Plymouth, he came to London in 1778, and 
 supported himself by enamel painting for 
 jewellers. In 1780 he exhibited at the Royal 
 Academy, and at once achieved a reputa- 
 tion. He was made an Academician, and 
 painter to the king. 
 
 Bonlieur, Rosa (6.-1822), FrencTi animal 
 paiater, first exhibitecl in the Salon in 1840, 
 and next year her Sheep and Goatu attracted 
 much attention. In 1855 she exhibited lier 
 Horse Fair in England, and established her 
 reputation in this country. The picture is 
 now in the National Gallery. During the 
 siege and occupation of Paris in 1871, her 
 house was respected by special order of the 
 Crown Prince of Prussia. 
 
 Boniface, Saint (6. 680, d. 755), an Eng- 
 lish monk, known as the "Apostle of 
 Germany," abandoned certain and distin- 
 guished preferment to go in 716 as a mis- 
 sionary to Germany. Having obtaiured 
 authority from Pope Gregory 11., he lived 
 among the barbarous tribes for many years, 
 and finally met a martyr's death near 
 TJtrecht. 
 
 Boniface VIII., Pope (6. 1228, d. 1303), 
 succeeded to the papal chair in 1294, having 
 induced Celestine v. to resign ; and he at 
 once came into collision with Philip tlie 
 Fair, Kin? of France, on the question of 
 the taxation of the clergy. It was deter- 
 mined to try Boniface at a council at 
 Lyons, when he issued his famous bull 
 Utiam Sanctum, and excommunicated Philip. 
 The bull was publicly burnt in Paris, and an 
 emissary was sent to bring Boniface before 
 the council. He was seized and treated 
 with great indignity, and died shortly after. 
 
 Bonner, Edmund (6. 1500, d. 1569), 
 Bishop of London, was first noticed by 
 Wolsey, and Cromwell afterwards em- 
 ployed him on missions, preferring him to 
 the see of Hereford in 1538, and to that of 
 London in 1540. In Edward VI. 's reign he 
 was imprisoned and deprived of his office ; 
 
 but he was restored by Mary, to whose re- 
 ligious persecution he readily lent himself. 
 He refused to take Elizabeth's oath of 
 supremacy, and was again degraded and 
 imprisoned, dying in the Marshalsea. 
 
 Bonnet, Charles (6. 1720, d. 1793), Swiss 
 naturalist, whose observations aad dis- 
 coveries in entomology and botany were 
 of great value, and who left works which 
 are held in high estimation. He was a 
 member of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 Bonnivard, Fran9ois (6. 1496, d. 1570), a 
 Frenchman who is known to fame for his 
 efforts on behalf of the liberties of Geneva. 
 He headed the resistance to Charles III., 
 Duke of Savoy, but in 1519 was betrayed 
 and imprisoned for two years. Then he 
 agaiu resumed his leadership till, in 1530, he 
 again was taken prisoner, and remained in 
 the Castle of Chillon for six years, when he 
 was liberated by the Bernese, to be stiitably 
 honoured by the citizens of Geneva. 
 
 Bonnivet, Guillaume Gouffriere de (6. 
 1488, d. 1525), French general, won the 
 favour of Francis I. at the siege of Genoa 
 and the battle of Spurs, and was employed 
 on embassies to England and Spain. It 
 was during the retreat of his forces from 
 Milan that Bayard was killed. Bonnivet 
 was slain at the battle of Pavia. 
 
 Bonomi, Joseph (6. 1796, d. 1878), 
 distinguished hierogljrphic draughtsman, 
 studied art at the Royal Academy, where 
 he showed great ability in drawing and 
 sculpture. In 1824 he went to Egypt and 
 Nubia with Hay, Lane, and Wilkinson, and 
 rendered great services by his reproduction 
 of the hieroglyphs. In 1833 he went with 
 Arundell to Sinai and the Holy Land, and 
 in 1842 he acted as draughtsman to the 
 Prussian expedition to Egypt. In 1861 he 
 was appointed curator of Sir John Soane's 
 Museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields. 
 
 Bonpland, Ahni (b. 1773, d. 1858), French 
 botanist, who served at one time as a 
 naval surgeon, became the friend of 
 Alexander von Humboldt in Paris, and 
 accompanied him on the great expedition 
 to America. He afterwards produced two 
 valuable botanical works, besides colla- 
 borating with Humboldt. In 1816 he went 
 to Buenos Ayres, and became professor of 
 natural historv there. In 1821, in at- 
 tempting an inland expedition, he was im- 
 prisoned by the Director of Paraguay, and 
 did not recover his liberty for many years. 
 He finally settled in Santa Anna. 
 
 Boole, George (b. 1815, d. 1864), mathe- 
 matician, earned his living as a school- 
 master while following up his mathematical 
 stu^iSles, and in 1839 published his first 
 paper, on Analytical Formations, in the 
 Cambridge Mathematical Journal. Thia
 
 Boo 
 
 (162) 
 
 Sor 
 
 and the others that followed secured him 
 a reputation ; and in 1844 he received the 
 KoyaJ Society's gold medal for a paper on 
 A General Method in Analysis, In 1847 
 he published his Mathematical Analysis 
 of Logic, and in 1848 his Calculus of Logic. 
 In 1849 he was appointed professor at 
 Queen's College, Cork; aud in 1859 he re- 
 ceived the Kf'itli Gold Medal of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, and was elected a 
 fellow of the London Eoyal Society. He 
 continued to pubUsh valuable memoirs until 
 his sudden death. 
 
 Booth, Barton (6. 1681, d. 1733), Eng- 
 lish tragedian of note, who deserted the 
 Church to foUow his inclination for the 
 stage. He first appeared in Dublin, and 
 confirmed later in London the high reiJuta- 
 tion he there achieved. His great part was 
 Cato in Addison's tragedy of that name. 
 
 Bootll, Edwin (6. 1833), American actor, 
 and the son of Junius Brutus Booth. He 
 first made a name in 1851 in his imperson- 
 ation of Richard III., and it is by his re- 
 presentation of Shakespeare's great charac- 
 ters that he is best known. In 1881 he 
 was in England, and played at the Lyceum 
 with Irving iu Othello, the parts of Othello 
 and lago being alternated between them. 
 He retired from the stage in 1891. 
 
 Booth, Sir Felix (6. 1775, d. 1850), an 
 EngHsh merchant, who, from his own re- 
 Bom'ces, equipped and maintained Sir John 
 Ross's second expedition for the discovery 
 of the North-West Passage. 
 
 Booth, Join; Wilkes (&. 1839, d. 1865), 
 third sou of Junius Brutus Booth, was the 
 assassin of President Lincoln. He was an 
 actor by profession until the Civil war broke 
 out, when he sided with the South. He 
 was shot by his piu'suers, after committing 
 the murder of the president. 
 
 Bootll, Junius Brutus (6. 1796, d. 1852), 
 tragedian, of English birth, but an Ameri- 
 can by adoption, appeared with great suc- 
 cess at Coveut Garden in 1814 as Richard 
 III., and created a great sensation; but a 
 theatrical riot, provoked by the rival ad- 
 mirers of himself and Edmund Kean, caused 
 his withdi-awal from the stage for a time. 
 In 1821 he went to America, where he held 
 the first place as tragedian. He revisited 
 England in 1825 and 1836. 
 
 Booth, AYilliam (6. 1829), "General" and 
 organiser of the Salvation Army, was boxn 
 at Nottingham, and became a minister in 
 the Primitive Methodist Connexion. In 
 1861 he withdrew from that body, and in 
 1865 started in the East End of London 
 "The Christian Mission," which in 1878 
 developed into the Salvation Army, now 
 possessing stations all over Great Britain, 
 America, India, and the Continent. Many 
 
 of the chief posts in the army are occupied by 
 the members of the Booth family, of whom 
 Mr. Bramwell Boothis the chief. Mrs. Booth, 
 to whom much of the credit for the success 
 of the Salvation Army is supposed to be due, 
 died in the autimin of 1890. "General" 
 Booth's book, In Darkest England (1890), 
 attracted much attention and provoked a 
 tierce controversy. 
 
 Bopp, Franz (6. 1791, d. 1867), philologist 
 aud Sanscrit scholar, was born at Mainz, 
 aud educated in Gennauj'. Having de- 
 voted himself to the study of Sanscrit, 
 he published his first work, On the System 
 of Coniiigaiion in Sanscrit, compared with 
 that of the Greek, Latin, Fersian, and 
 German Languages, which is regarded as 
 the foundation of scientific philology. In 
 1821 he became professor of Sanscrit and 
 comparative grammar at Berlin. He pub- 
 hshed many other works, his greatest being 
 a Comparative Grammar of Sanscrit. Zend, 
 Greek, Latin, Lithuajiian, Old Sclav, Gothic, 
 and German (1833-1852). 
 
 Bordone, Paris (b. circa 1500, d. 1570), 
 Itahan painter of eminence, a pupil of 
 Titian, excelled as a portrait painter. 
 
 Borghese, Marie Pauline Bonaparte. Prin- 
 cess de {b. 1780, d. 1825), second sister of 
 Napoleon I. In 1801 she married General 
 Leclerc, with whom she went to St. Domin- 
 go, and displayed great devotion during his 
 fatal attack of yellow fever. In 1803 she 
 married Prince Camillo Borghese, from 
 whom she separated, Uving iu Italy with the 
 title of Duchess of Guastalla. She accom- 
 panied Napoleon to Elba, and endeavoured 
 to go with him to St. Helena. 
 
 Borghesi, Bartolomeo {b. 1781. d. I860), 
 Itahan antiquary, in 1818 published his 
 Xiiori Fiammento dei Fasti Capitolini, an 
 exhaustive work on ancient Rome, which 
 achieved for its author a European repu- 
 tation. The study of Roman archeeology 
 occupied the greater part of his life, though 
 his participation in the Italian revolution 
 of 1821 caused him to retiie to San Marino. 
 
 Borgia, Caesare {b. 1476, d. 1507), Italian 
 master of statecraft of great but evil fame, 
 was the fourth son of Poiie Alexander VI., 
 by Rosa Yanozza, and was created a cardinal, 
 though he divested himself of the office in 
 later years to suit his purposes. He compassed 
 the death of his brother Giovanni, who was 
 Duke of Candia, in order to gain complete 
 ascendency in the papal government : and 
 in 1498, having been sent as nuncio to 
 Louis XII. of France, he was created Duke 
 of Valentinois and married the daughter of 
 Jean d'Albret, King of Navarre. After 
 accompanying Louis XII. 's Itahan cam- 
 paign, he conceived the idea of a kingdom 
 in Central Italy, and by force, treachery,
 
 Bor 
 
 (153) 
 
 Sos 
 
 and murder he had nearly succeeded in ob- 
 taining ascendency throughout the Eoman 
 States, when the death of his father de- 
 prived him of his great source of power. 
 He was sent in 1504 a prisoner to Spain by 
 Pope Julius II., but escaped, and joined the 
 King of Navarre's army against Castile. In 
 this campaign he was tolled. 
 
 Borgia, Lucrezia (6. U80, d. 1523), sister of 
 the preceding, and like h' m the possessor of an 
 infamous reputation, iler father compelled 
 her twice to marriage and divorce before she 
 became the wife of the Duke of Bisceglia. 
 After her third husband had been murdered 
 by Caesare Borgia, she married Alfonso of 
 Este, and passed her life in the court of 
 Fen-ara, cultivating literature and art. 
 
 Boris, Godonov {d. 1605), a Russian noble, 
 brother-in-law to the Czar Feodor Ivano- 
 vitch, on whose death he contrived to usurp 
 the throne. His rigorous rule provoked a 
 rebellion, and Boris poisoned himself. 
 
 Bom, Bertrand de (6. circa 1145, d. circa 
 1209), a troubadour, many of whose songs 
 still exist. Dante gives him a place in the 
 Inferno. 
 
 Bom, Ignaz von {b. 1742, d. 1791), Aus- 
 trian mineralogist. In 1770 he became 
 director of the mint and mining depart- 
 ment at Prague ; and in 1776 Maria Theresa 
 commissioned him with the arrangement of 
 the Vienna natiual liistory museum, where 
 he laboured till his death. 
 
 Bome, Ludwig (b. 1786, d. 1837), Ger- 
 man political writer and critic, of Jewish 
 descent, and bearing the name Lot Baruch. 
 He became a professed convert to Christian- 
 ity. In 1818 his theatrical criticisms in 
 the Frankfort press attracted much notice ; 
 and in 1830 he went to Paris, at the out- 
 break of the revolution, writing his famous 
 Briefe aus Faris, which gave him the posi- 
 tion of leader in the German party of 
 revolution. He continued to wi'ite in ad- 
 vocacy of his political aspirations, his most 
 brilliant work being the Menzel der Fran- 
 zosoifresser. 
 
 Borromeo, San Carlo {b. 1538, d. 1584), an 
 Italian ecclesiastic, remembered for his piety 
 and devotion, cardinal and Archbishop of 
 Milan. He took part in the Council of 
 Trent, and helped to found the Vatican 
 Academy. His efforts for the reform and 
 better instruction of the priesthood pro- 
 voked an attempt on his life by the Umiliati ; 
 but he suppressed the order, and transferred 
 their wealth to the hospitals, to which he 
 had sacrificed all Ins own property. During 
 the pestilence he devoted himself unflinch- 
 ingly to the care of the sufferers, and died 
 shortly after from over-exhaustion. 
 
 Borrow, George Henry {b. 1803, d. 1881), 
 
 student of Gipsy hfe and language, aban- 
 doned the law for literature, and among 
 other early works he edited the Sewqnte 
 Calendar. In 1833 he was sent by the Bible 
 Society to St. Petersbm-g, and later to 
 Spain, wheie he spent much time among 
 the Gipsy tribes. In 1840 he published The 
 Zincalt, dealing with the Gipsy language 
 and hf e in Spaia: and in 1843 he published 
 The Bible in Spain, which proved very 
 popular. In 1851 and 1857 appeared his 
 greatest works, Lavengro and The Romany 
 Mye, and in 1874 his L'omano Lavo Lit., a 
 vocabulary of the EngUsh Gipsy language. 
 
 Borsi3ri de Kanifeld, Giovanni Battista, 
 (6. 1725, d. 1785), a celebrated Italian phy- 
 sician, who founded the school of clinical 
 medicine at Pavia university. He left 
 many valuable works on medical subjects. 
 
 Boru, Brian (6. 926, d. 1014), a famous 
 Irish king. On succeeding to the throne of 
 Munster he drove the Danes from Limerick 
 by a series of brilliant victories, and after 
 another long struggle succeeded in being 
 proclaimed king of Ireland. His govern- 
 ment was as wise as his arms were 
 victorious. He was killed at the battle of 
 Clontarf , in which the Danes were defeated. 
 
 Bory de Saint-Vincent, Jean Baptists 
 Georges Marie (6. 1780, d. 1846), French 
 naturalist and soldier, in 1800 accom- 
 panied Baudin's expedition to Aust;alasia 
 as naturalist, and published on his letum 
 Fssais sur les lies Fortunees et V-i/itique 
 Atlantide, and his Voyage en Afriqiie 
 Then he entered the army, and saw much 
 active service, till his banishment after 
 Napoleon's downfall. He edited the Nain 
 Jaune in Brussels, and contributed largely 
 to Les Annales Geiuralesdes ticioices Phy&i- 
 ques. In 1828 he returned to France, and 
 commanded a scientific expedition to the 
 Morea : in 1830 he was appointed chief of 
 the Historical bureau, and major-generaJ 
 of engineers. 
 
 Boscawen, The Hon. Edward (6. 1711, d. 
 1761), British admiral, third son of Lord 
 Falmouth. After rendering brilliant service 
 against the Spanish and Fiench, he was given 
 command in 1748 of the forces sent to India. 
 In 1758 he commanded the naval force that 
 co-operated with General Wolfe in America, 
 and in the following year he defeated a 
 French fleet in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Boscovitcli, Eugiero Giuseppe (b. 1711, 
 d. 17S7), ItaUan Jesuit, and a disliuguished 
 mathematician. He was professor of 
 mathematics at Rome, Pavia, and Milan, 
 until the suppression of the Jesuits, when 
 he went to Paris and was appointed director 
 of optics to the navy. He was a member 
 of the Royal Society, and wrote among 
 other works, Theoria PJiilosophice X(itt<rali».
 
 Bos 
 
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 Bou 
 
 Bosquet, Pierre Francois Joseph (b. 1810, 
 d, ISul). French general, in 1835 distin- 
 guished himself in Algeria, and obtained 
 very rapid promotion. He went to the 
 Crimea as general of division, and for the 
 part he played at Inker-man he was thanked 
 by Parliament, and made a G.C.B. In 1856 
 he was created a senator and marshal of 
 France. He died from the effects of a 
 wound received in a duel. 
 
 Bossuet. Jacques Benigne (b. 1627, 
 d. 1701), French divine, renowned for his 
 eloquence and his controversial writings. 
 After entering the priesthood at an early 
 age, he became attached to the cathedral at 
 Metz, and gained much credit by an able 
 refutation of the Protestant catechism of 
 Paul Ferri. His fame as a pulpit orator 
 soon procured him the honour of preaching 
 before the king (Louis XIV.), and in 1669 
 he was ordained Bishop of Condom. He 
 resigned the see on being appointed tutor to 
 the Dauphin, for whose benefit he wrote 
 his great work, Biscoiirs sur PHistoire Uni- 
 verselle. In 1671 he published Expositions 
 of the Doctrines of the Catholic Church on 
 Matters of Controversy, which had a 
 Eui'opean publicity. In 1681, the Dauphin's 
 education having been completed, Bossuet 
 accepted the bishopric of Meux, and in 1683 
 he published his History of the Variations 
 of the Protestant Churches. At this time he 
 was much engaged in efforts to promote the 
 union of all Christian churches. At the 
 general assembly of the Galilean clergy in 
 1682 Bossuet took up a strong attitude ia 
 favour of the independence of the Galilean 
 Church, and against papal interference in 
 temporal affairs ; and he procured the 
 formal adoption of these views by the 
 Assembly. His last controversy was with 
 Feuelon, Archbishop of Cambray, whom he 
 attacked violently for defending the 
 Quietists of Port Royal. He passedthe rest 
 of his life in his diocese, bearing the repu- 
 tation of the greatest orator of his day. 
 
 Bossut, Charles (5. 1730, d. 1814), French 
 Jesuit, and a famous mathematician, de- 
 voted himself especially to the study of 
 hydrostatics and hydrodynamics, and 
 achieved several highly valuable results. He 
 was appointed professor of hydrodynamics 
 at Paris, but lost his position during the 
 revolution. Under the Empire he became 
 examiner at the lEcole Polytechnique. His 
 works are very numerous. 
 
 BosweU, James {b. 1740, d. 1795), the 
 friend and biographer of Dr. Johnson, was 
 the son of a judge of the Scottish Court of 
 Session, styled Lord Auchinleck. He was 
 admitted to the Scottish bar in 1766, after he 
 had spent some time in continental travel, 
 during which he made the acquaintance of 
 Paoli, the Corsican patriot. In 1763 he 
 
 published his Account of Corsica, and 
 Memoirs of Pascal Paoli. In 1773, having 
 previously made Dr. Johnson's acquaint- 
 ance, he was admitted to the Literary Club, 
 and became the companion of the great 
 doctor, whom he accompanied on his tour 
 in the Hebrides. Having finally settled in 
 London with his wife, he was called to the 
 English bar in 1785, and attempted imsuc- 
 cessfully to enter ParUament. His Life of 
 Samuel Johnson was published in 1791. 
 
 Bosworth, Joseph (i. 1790, d. 1876), En- 
 gUsh clergyman and philologist. From 1829 
 to 1841 he was EngUsh chaplain in Amster- 
 dam and Rotterdam, where he gained a high 
 reputation as an authority on early EngUsh 
 and the Low German dialects. In 1857 he 
 was appointed professor of Anglo-Saxon at 
 Oxford. He published an Anglo-Saxon 
 Grammar and Dictionary. 
 
 Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of (6. 
 circa 1530, d, 1577), in 1567 murdered 
 Darnley and carried off Queen Mary to 
 Dunbar Castle, where he manied her on 
 May 15th. He then became a fugitive, but 
 was captured and imprisoned in Draxholm 
 Castle, where he died. 
 
 Botta, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo {b. 
 1766, d. 1837), Italian historian, studied 
 medicine, and was imprisoned in 1792 as a 
 revolutionary. He took an active part in 
 the government of Piedmont, set up by 
 Napoleon, but before the Emperor's over- 
 throw he devoted himself entirely to litera- 
 ture. He wrote T/ie History of Italy 
 between 1789 and 1814, and a History of 
 the American War of Independence. 
 
 Botta, Paolo Emilio (b. 1802, d. 1870), 
 archasologist, son of the preceding. When 
 acting as French Consul at Mosul, in As- 
 syria, he discovered the ruins of Nineveh. 
 
 Bottesiai, Giovanni (b. 1823, d. 1889), 
 Italian player of the double-bass, and com- 
 poser. 
 
 Botticelli, Alessandro (b. 1447, d. 1515), 
 Italian painter, in response to the invitation 
 of Pope Sixtus IV. went to Rome and exe- 
 cuted some fine paintings for the chapel of 
 the Vatican. On returning to Florence he 
 became a devoted follower of Savonarola. 
 
 Botzaris,_ Markos (b. 1790, d. 1823), 
 Greek patriot, was engaged in the abortive 
 insurrection of 1806, then joined the French 
 Albanian corps, retiring to the Ionian 
 Islands in 1815. In 1820 he raised a force 
 of Suliotes, and carried on hostilities with 
 the Turks for two years, when he was 
 beleaguered in Missolonghi. He was killed 
 in the desperate sortie which routed the 
 Turkish besiegers. 
 
 Bouchardon, Edmonde {b. 1698, d. 1762), 
 French sculptor, after acquiring a high
 
 Bon 
 
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 Bou 
 
 reputation in Paris and Rome, was com- 
 missioned to execute the tomb of Clement 
 XI. in 1733, and in 1746 he was appointed 
 director of the French Academy. 
 
 Boucher, Franc^ois (b. 1703, d. 1770), 
 French painter of landscapes and figures. 
 
 Bouchotte, Jean Baptiste Noel {b. 1754, 
 d. 1840), French revolutionist, was minister 
 of war in 1793, in succession to Beurnonville. 
 
 Boucicault, Dion {b. 1822, d. 1890), 
 actor and playwi-ight. His first work for 
 the stage, London A.ssurance, was produced 
 with success in 1841 ; and for some time 
 after that he devoted himself to adaptations 
 from the French, such as Louis XI. and The 
 Cordcan Brothers. In 1855 he went to 
 America, and in 1860 produced his Colleen 
 Baton, followed by Arrah-na-Pogue, the 
 Shaughraiin, and many others. 
 
 Bouflers, Louis Franqois, Due de {b. 
 1644, d. 1711), French general and marshal 
 of France, after seeing much service in 
 Holland and the Rhine provinces, defended 
 Namur in 1695 against William III. with 
 great obstinacy. In 1708 he defended Lille 
 against Prince Eugene, and held the town 
 in spite of repeated orders to surrender. 
 For this service he was created Due. He 
 afterwards served in Flanders under Villars. 
 
 Bouflers, Stanislas, Marquis de {b. 1737, 
 d. 1815), French nobleman distinguished in 
 many capacities. As prior of the Knights 
 of Malta he was known as "I'Abbe" and 
 "le Chevalier"; and when the revolution 
 came, he played a prominent part as member 
 of the Tiers Mat. 
 
 BougalnviUe, Louis Antoine de {b. 1729, 
 d. 1811), French navigator, sailed round 
 the world in 1766, and later assisted the 
 American revolutionists. 
 
 Boughton, George Henry (5. 1833), artist, 
 a member of the National Academy of New 
 York, and an associate of the Royal Aca- 
 demy since 1879. Among his paintings are 
 The Return of the Mayflower, Evangeline, 
 and Milton visited by Andrew Marvell. 
 
 Bouguer, Pierre {b. 1698, d. 1758), 
 French mathematician, distinguished for his 
 scientific work in connection with naviga- 
 tion. In 1 736 he was sent to Peru with a 
 scientific expedition. 
 
 Bouguereau, Adolphe Guillaume (6. 1825), 
 French painter. In 1855 his Triomphe du 
 Martyre was bought by the State, and pre- 
 viously he divided the honours of the Grand 
 Prix du Rome with Baudry. Two of his 
 later pictures which are well known are The 
 Youth of Bacchus and the Adoration of the 
 Mi'gi and the Shepherds. 
 
 BouMer, Jean {b. 1673, d. 1746), French 
 man of letters of great versatility and wide 
 
 I information, was president of the Parlia- 
 ! ment of Dijon, and was elected to the 
 ' Academy, though not resident in Paris. 
 
 Bouille, Fran9ois Claude Amour, Marquis 
 de (i. 1739, d. 1800), French general, 
 when he was only seventeen years old his 
 gallantry won the battle of Gramberg. He 
 served in America during the War of Inde- 
 pendence, and was appointed commander of 
 Metz under the Constituent Assembly. He 
 endeavoured to effect the flight of the king, 
 and failing, tried to induce Catherine of 
 Russia and the Swedes to invade France. 
 
 Bouillon, Frederic Maurice de la Tour 
 d'Auvergne {b, 1605, d. 1652), elder brother 
 of Turenne, after serving in Holland under 
 the Prince of Orange, joined the Comte de 
 Soissons against RicheHeu, and defeated the 
 French at La Marfee. Then he entered the 
 French service, and commanded in Italy; 
 and after the death of Louis XIII. he com- 
 manded the Pontifical troops. He joined 
 in the war of the Fronde, and part of his 
 property was confiscated. 
 
 Boulanger, George Ernest Jean Marie 
 (6. 1837, d. 1891), French general and poU- 
 tician, was made colonel diuing the siege 
 of Paris, general of brigade in 1880, and 
 minister of war in 1886. He achieved great 
 popularity, and was elected in 1889 by the 
 Nord, Somme, Charente Inferieure, and a 
 division of Paris. A threat of prosecution 
 drove him into exile, and he committed 
 suicide at Brussels. 
 
 Boulogne, Etienne Antoine de {b. 1747, 
 d. 1825), French prelate, was three times 
 sentenced to deportation during the Reign 
 of Terror ; but in 1808 he was ordained 
 Bishop of Troyes. Napoleon imprisoned 
 him in Vincennes for a short time ; he de- 
 livered the funeral oration over Louis XVI., 
 and in 1817 he was appointed Bishop of 
 Vienne and made a peer of France. 
 
 Boulton, Matthew (*. 1728, d. 1809), the 
 partner of James Watt in the Soho Works, 
 provided the money for Watt's experiments 
 with the steam engine. 
 
 Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sauter {b. 1816), 
 French general, served in the Crimea, and 
 was aide-de-camp to the Emperor at the 
 beginning of the Franco-Prussian war. He 
 shared in the defence of INIetz, and was 
 given command of the wing for the relief 
 of Belfort, his failure driving him to attempt 
 suicide. As commander of the Lyons dis- 
 trict he suppressed the Communist rising 
 of 1871. 
 
 Bourbon, Charles, Due de (*. 1490, d. 
 1527), commonly known as "The Con- 
 stable," after serving in Italy, was created 
 Constable of France, when only twenty-six
 
 Bon 
 
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 Bow 
 
 years of age, by Francis I. He was left in 
 cominaiid of a small force in the Milanese 
 after Francis' successful campaign against 
 the Emperor, and succeeded iu holding 
 his own. Recalled to France he fell into 
 disfavour owing to the jealousy of the king, 
 and entered into negotiations with Charles V. 
 to operate against the French. Refusing 
 the concessions offered by Francis, he fled to 
 Italy, and defeated the French at Biagrano. 
 An invasion of France did not succeed, but 
 he contributed to the victory of Pavia, 
 when Francis was taken prisoner. In 1527 
 he marched an army of 13,000 Germans 
 across the Alps and attacked Rome, but was 
 shot j ust as his troops had gained the day. 
 
 Bourbon, Louis, Due de {!>. 1279, d. 1341), 
 the first duke of the family, saved the 
 French army at Courtray, and distinguished 
 himself in the English wars. 
 
 Bourdon, Sebastian {b. 1616, d. 1671), 
 French painter; his reputation was estab- 
 lished by his Crucifixion of St. Peter., in 
 Notre Dame, which he produced when 
 only twenty- seven years old. Later he was 
 appointed first painter to Queen Christina 
 of Sweden. 
 
 Bourgelat, Claude {b. 1712, d. 1799), 
 Frenchman celebrated as the founder of 
 veterinary schools in France, opened his 
 first school in Lyons in 1772. 
 
 Bourgeois, Sir Francis {b. 1756, d. 1811), 
 Englishman of Swiss descent, remembered 
 for his bequest of paintings and money 
 to the Dulwich gallery. A painter himself, 
 he was appointed to the court of the King 
 of Poland. 
 
 Bourget, Paul {b. 1852), French novelist, 
 author of Un Crime d'Amour, Mcnsonges, 
 and other works. 
 
 Bourgoyne, Louis, Duo de {b. 1682, d. 
 1712), dauphin of France, grandson of 
 Louis XIV., and father of Louis XV., was 
 remarkable for his goodness and gentleness, 
 and showed himself an able general. 
 
 Bourmont, Louis Auguste Victor de, 
 Comte de Ghaisnes (b. 1773, d. 1846), 
 French general and a marshal of France, 
 entered the army at fifteen, and served in 
 the Vendee and elsewhere. He was im- 
 prisoned by Napoleon, but afterwards fought 
 under him with distinction in several cam- 
 paigns. He was appointed general of divi- 
 sion in 1815, but deserted on the first day. 
 The Bourbons conferred many honours on 
 him, and he successfully commanded the 
 Algerian expedition of 1830. He was dis- 
 missed from command on the revolution, 
 and endeavoured unsuccessfully to raise the 
 Vendee. 
 
 Bourne, Hugh [b. 1772, d. 1852), English 
 dissenting minister, who in 1810 seceded 
 
 from the Wesleyans, and founded the 
 Primitive Methodast Connexion. In 1844 
 he went to America, where he was very 
 successful as a preacher. 
 
 Bournon, Jacques Louis, Comte de [h. 
 1751, (/. 1825), French mineralogist, emi- 
 grated to England during the revolu- 
 tion, and became a member of the Royal 
 and Geological societies. 
 
 Bournouf, Eugene {b. 1801, d. 1852), 
 distinguished Orientalist and professor of 
 Sanscrit at the College of France. He trans- 
 lated much Sanscrit literature. 
 
 Bourrienne, Louis AntoineFaralet (6. 1769, 
 d. 1834), secretary to Napoleon, whose 
 memoirs he wrote. 
 
 Bouvart, Alexis {b. 1767, d. 1843), French 
 astronomer and mathematician of great in- 
 dustry, first observed the perturbations of 
 the planet Uranus, which led to the dis- 
 covery of the planet Neptime in 1846. 
 
 Bouvet, Joachim (*. 1662, d. 1732), one of 
 the earliest French missionaries dispatched 
 by Louis XIV. to China, remained in that 
 country from 1687 to 1697, and then brought 
 with iiini forty-nine volumes of Chinese 
 literature. He retiu'ned to China in 1699, 
 and remained there till his death. 
 
 Bowdich, Thomas Edward {b. 1790, d. 
 1824), English traveller, after joining the 
 African Company he was sent on a mission 
 to the King of Ashantee. His record of the 
 journey attracted much attention. In 1822 
 he returned to Africa, and died in Gambia 
 of fever. 
 
 Bowditch, Nathaniel {b. 1773, d. 1838), 
 American mathematician, entirely self- 
 taught, spent five years at sea as a young 
 man, and published his Practical Naviga- 
 tor. Then he became actuary to an in- 
 surance company in Boston, and, devoting 
 his leisure to scientific pursuits, produced 
 several valuable works, especially an un- 
 completed translation of La Place's Me- 
 canique Celeate. 
 
 Bowdler, Thomas {b. 1754. d. 1825), editor 
 of expurgated editions of Shakespeare and 
 Gibbon. 
 
 Bowen, Sir George Ferguson (b. 1821), 
 colonial governor, in 1847 he was appointed 
 president of the university of Corfu, and 
 in 1854 government secretary of the Ionian 
 Islands. In 1859 he was named governor of 
 Queensland ; in 1867, governor of New 
 Zealand ; in 1873, governor of Victoria ; and 
 later of Mauritius and Hong-Kong. 
 
 Bowerbanb, James Scott {b. 1797, d. 
 1877), naturalist and microscopist, early 
 devoted himself to science, and was among 
 the founders of the Zoological, Palaeonto- 
 graphical, Microscopic*al, and Ray societies.
 
 Bow 
 
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 Bra 
 
 In 1841 he turned his attention to Spongiad<e, 
 forming a splendid collection, now in the 
 British Museum, and publishing in 1864 his 
 Monograph of the British Spongiadx. 
 
 Bowles, WilHam Lisle [b. 1762, f 1850), 
 English clergyman and poet, in 1789 
 published Fourteen Sonnets, which attracted 
 much attention, and which was followed by- 
 other poetical writiuajs In ISOo he became 
 vicar of Bremhill, Wilts. He provoked a 
 long and bitter controversy by his dicta on 
 poelry, published with his edition of Pope. 
 
 Bowman, Sir WilUam (i. 1816, d. 1892), 
 oculist, in 1842 gained the Eoyal Medal m 
 physiology, and from 1845 to 1856 he was pro- 
 fessor of physiology and morbid anatomy at 
 King'sCollege. In 1877he became consultmg 
 surgeon of the Royal Ophthalmic Hospital. 
 He has written several medical works, in- 
 cluding Lectures on the Farts concerned m 
 the Operations of the Eye, Observations on 
 the Artificial Pwpil, and in conjunction with 
 Dr. Todd, The Physiological Anatomy and 
 Physiology of Man. 
 
 Bowring, Sir John {b. 1792, d. 1872), 
 linguist and an active participator in public 
 affairs. For some years he edited the Edin- 
 burgh Review, and published songs and 
 ballads in translation of many European 
 tongues, besides treatises on liemunerative 
 Prtson Labour and African Slavery. He 
 was member of Parliament for Clyde from 
 1835 to 1837, and for Bolton from 1841 to 
 1849. In the last mentioned year he was 
 appointed British Consul at Canton, and 
 later plenipotentiary to China, and governor 
 of Hong Kong. In 1855 he negotiated a 
 commercial treaty with the King of Siam. 
 
 Bowyer, Sir George (b. 1811, d. 1883), 
 barrister and public man, wrote The Cardinal 
 Archbishop of Westminster and the New 
 Hierarchy, in" defence of the Pope's distri- 
 bution of England into Catholic sees. He 
 was M.P. for Dundalk from 1852 to 1868, and 
 for county Wezford from 1874 to 1880. 
 
 Boxall, Sir William (b. 1800, d. 1879), 
 Eno-lish painter, and director of the National 
 Gaflery from 1865 to 1874. He was elected 
 a Royal Academician in 1863. 
 
 Boyce, William (6. 1710, d. 1779), English 
 composer of church music, etc., popularly 
 known by his song Hearts of Oak. 
 
 Boydell, John (*. 1719, d. 1804), eminent 
 English engraver, is known not only for 
 his°own engravings, such as his Views in 
 England and Wales, but for the series of 
 engravings, which he issued through many 
 years, of °the best pictures done by the best 
 engravers. 
 
 Boyer, Alexia (h. 1757, d. 1833), French 
 surgeon, picked up his first knowledge 
 
 of surgery in a barber's shop, but by 
 attendance at the schools of anatomy 
 he received an appointment at La Char it e, 
 and later became second surgeon at the 
 Hotel Dieu. Napoleou created him premier 
 surgeon and baron of the empire, and he 
 was consulting surgeon to Louis XVIII. 
 and his two succet'Sors. 
 
 Boyer, Jean Pierre {b. 1776, d. 1850), 
 president of the republic of Hayti, a 
 mulatto by birth, took part in the revolu- 
 tion of 1793, succeeded Petion as president, 
 and in 1822 took possession of St. Domingo. 
 His tyranny alienated the support of the 
 people, and his conduct of affairs with 
 France resulted in the destruction of Port- 
 au-Prince by a French fleet. Finally he was 
 compelled to fly the island. 
 
 Boyle, Charles, Lord Orrery and Baron 
 Boyle (b. 1676, d. 1753). His publication of 
 an edition of The Letters of Phalaris pro- 
 voked a famous controversy with Bentley, 
 in which many of the scliolars of the day 
 were engaged. He served under the Duke 
 of Ormonde in Flanders, and was committed 
 to the Tower under George I. for a Jacobite 
 conspiracy. 
 
 Boyle, Richard (A. 1566, d. 1643), Earl of 
 Cork, an Englishman by bii-th, went to Uve 
 in Ireland in 1588. After the rebellion he 
 was made clerk of the council of Munster ; 
 and years of active service to the Crown 
 were rewarded by a peerage. Later he 
 became Lord High Treasurer of Ireland, and 
 during the 1641 rebellion displayed the 
 greatest activity in its suppression. 
 
 Boyle, Robert {b. 1626, d. 1691), youngest 
 son of the preceding, a distinguished man 
 of science, was an early member of the 
 Royal Society, and besides conducting 
 chemical and physical research, studied 
 Oriental languages in order to be better able 
 to expound the Scriptures. He instituted 
 the "Boyle Lectures" on Christian evi- 
 dences ; and promulgated the gaseous law 
 known as "Boyle's law." 
 
 Boyle, Roger, Lord Broghill (b. 1621, d. 
 1679), son of the first Earl of Cork, gained 
 the complete confidence of Cromwell by his 
 behaviour against the Irish rebels, and was 
 made a privy coimcillor and president of the 
 council in Scotiand. For his services in 
 Ireland, Charles II.. on the Restoration, 
 made him Earl of Orrery, lord president of 
 Mimster, and a lord justice of Ireland. 
 
 Braboume, Edward KnatchbuU-Huges- 
 sen Lord {b. 1829), politician, sat for Sand- 
 wich from 1857 to 1880, when Mr. Gladstone 
 raised him to the peerage. As a commoner 
 he was a Liberal, but in the House of Lords 
 he has generally voted with the Tories. He 
 is the author of several highly popular fairy 
 tales.
 
 Bra 
 
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 Bra 
 
 Brackenbiiry, Henry (*. 1837), British 
 general, I'ouglit in the Indian Mutiny, and 
 in 1870 was sent to the Franco- German war 
 by the British National Society for Aid to 
 the Sick and Wounded. He served with 
 Wolseley in Ashantee, and afterwards in 
 Natal; and commanded a division, imder 
 General Earle, in the Nile Expedition of 
 1884-5. He has written A Nan-ative oj' the 
 Ashantee War and The Nile Column. 
 
 Braddock, Edward {b. 1695, d. 1755), 
 British general, served in the Peninsula and 
 Germany, and in 17o4 was appointed to the 
 command of the forces in Virginia. In 1755 
 he led an expedition against Fort Du Quesne, 
 where his troops fell into an ambush and 
 were routed, and himself killed. 
 
 Braddon, Maiy Elizabeth (*. 1837), 
 popular novelist, after contributing to the 
 provincial press, succeeded in getting a 
 comedy. Loves of Arcadia, accepted at the 
 Strand theatre. In 1861 she produced a 
 volunae of poems, Garibaldi, and then turn- 
 ing to fiction, published rapidly Lady 
 Lisle, Lady Audley^s Secret, Aurora Floyd, 
 and Henry Dunbar. These books established 
 her as one of the most popular novelists of 
 the day, and later works, which she has 
 published in large number, have not dimin- 
 ished her reputation. 
 
 Bradford, John {d. 1555), English 
 martyr, was converted by Latimer to the 
 reformed faith, and became chaplaiu to 
 Edward VI. His eloquent advocacy of the 
 Protestant faith brought on him an im- 
 prisonment of eighteen months under Mary, 
 and death at the stake at Smithfleld. 
 
 Bradford, William {b. 1588, d. 1657), one 
 of the Pilgrim Fathers. In 1621 he suc- 
 ceeded Carver as governor of New Plymouth. 
 He wrote a History of the Plymouth Planta- 
 tion. 
 
 Bradlaugh, Chaxles (*. 1833, d. 1891), 
 politician, after working in several humble 
 capacities, enlisted in the army. In 1853 
 he entered a solicitor's office; and then he 
 achieved a great influence with working 
 men as a Eadical, and an antagonist of 
 the Christian religion. His lectures in the 
 Hall of Science, London, on social, political, 
 and religious questions, were very popular ; 
 and in 1860 he started the National Re- 
 former, against which a futile government 
 prosecution was instituted. In 1870 he 
 secured a judicial decision in favour of 
 affirmation in courts of law, but the ex- 
 penses of the trial made him bankrupt. In 
 1872 he published his Lmpcachment of the 
 House of Brunswick, and the question of 
 perpetual pensions always formed one of 
 his favourite subjects. In 1880 he was re- 
 turned for Northampton to Parliament, but 
 refusing to take the oath, he was not 
 
 allowed to take his seat until after the 
 general election of 1885, although he was 
 repeatedly returned by the constituency. 
 Afterwai'ds he earned a high reputation in 
 the House of Commons, and though a 
 thorough Eadical, opposed the advocates 
 of socialism. In 1889 he visited India, his 
 interest in Indian affairs having always 
 been pronounced. 
 
 Bradley, James {b. 1692, d. 1762), Eng- 
 lish astronomer, took orders, but in 1721, 
 being appointed Sylvian professor of as- 
 tronomy at Oxford, he devoted himself 
 entirely to science. He discovered the aber- 
 ration of light and established the formula 
 for the law of refraction, and in 1742 was 
 appointed astronomer-royal. 
 
 Bradshaw, John {b. 1602, d. 1659), 
 EngUsh lawyer and a prominent Parlia- 
 mentarian during the Civil war, presided 
 over the commission which tried Charles I., 
 and was appointed lord president of the 
 council. 
 
 Brady, Henry Bovpman {b. 1835), Eng- 
 lish zoologist, who for many years was a 
 pharmaceutical chemist at Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne. His special work has been in con- 
 nection with the minute forms of inverte- 
 brate life, and he has written A Monograph 
 of Carboniferous and Permian Forammifera, 
 and The Foraminifera of the Challenger 
 Expedition. 
 
 Bragg, Braxton {b. 1817, d. 1876), Ameri- 
 can general, served in the Mexican war. and 
 at the outbreak of the Civil war was given 
 a command in the Confederate army. He 
 achieved a series of victories in the Mis- 
 sissippi campaign, but was at last defeated 
 by Grant. 
 
 Brah6, Tycho (b. 1546, d. 1601), Swedish 
 astronomer, in his observatory at Huen he 
 made the observations on which he founded 
 his planetary system. He died at Prague. 
 
 Brahms, Johannes {b. 1833), Gei-man 
 musical composer. Schumann early ex- 
 pressed the highest opinion of Brahms' 
 genius, but for many years he was not 
 appreciated in Germany. In 1861 he went 
 to Vienna, where he acquired a high re- 
 putation, and held several important musical 
 posts. In 1868 he composed the Deutsches 
 Requiem, which, after the Franco-German 
 war, was performed all over Gennany, and 
 since then his compositions have been very 
 highly valued. 
 
 Bramah, Joseph (b. 1748, d. 1814), 
 English locksmith and machinist, the son of 
 a Yorkshire farmer. Coming to London, 
 he invented his famous lock, which for 
 sixty- seven years resisted aU attempts to 
 pick it. In 1795 he invented the hydraulic
 
 Era 
 
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 Bre 
 
 press ; 1797, liis beer pump ; and in 1806, 
 at the invitation of the governor of the 
 Bank of England, he invented a machine 
 for printing the numbers and date-lines on 
 bank notes. 
 
 BramliaU, John {b. 1594, d. 1663), bishop 
 of the EngHsh Church. In 1634 he was 
 consecrated Bishop of Derry, and his in- 
 sistence on the rights of the Church 
 caused him to be summoned before the Star 
 Chamber in 1G37. Later he was imprisoned 
 in Ireland by the Parliament, but was re- 
 leased by the king. After the restoration 
 he was created Archbishop of Armagh. 
 
 Brand, Sir John Henry {b. 1823, d. 1888), 
 president of the Orange Free State, to 
 which position he was elected in 1863. His 
 tenure of oiiice proved beneficial for the 
 repubUe. During the Transvaal war Pre- 
 sident Brand preserved the strict neutrality 
 of his state, and acted as mediator at the con- 
 ference of 1881, when peace was concluded. 
 
 Brande, William Thomas (5. 1788, d. 
 1866), chemist, in 1813 became professor of 
 chemistry at the Royal Institution, and in 
 1818 he was awarded the Copley medal of 
 the Royal Society. 
 
 Brantome, Pierre de Bourdeilles, Seigneur 
 de {b. circa 1540, d. 1614), historian, left 
 valuable Memoirs. 
 
 Brasidas (d. 422 B.C.), Spartan general, 
 relieved Megara in 424. and defended Am- 
 phipoUs, where he was killed. 
 
 Brassey, Thomas {b. 1805, d. 1870), rail- 
 way engineer. He constructed several of 
 the important railways in Great Britain, 
 the French Western Railway, and others in 
 Spain. 
 
 Brassey, Thomas, Baron (b. 1836), a pro- 
 minent politician. For many years he 
 represented Hastings in Parliament, and 
 has occupied positions in the Admiralty 
 in Mr. Gladstone's governments. He was 
 raised to the House of Lords in 1886. 
 
 Bravo, Nicolas {b. 1790, d. circa 1854), 
 Mexican general, was prominent during the 
 revolution, and was at the head of the 
 provisional goveninient which succeeded on 
 Iturbide's downfall; in 1827 he was ban- 
 ished by Guerriero ; and in 1829 he again 
 headed the administration. In 1833 he was 
 defeated by Vittoria, and retired to the 
 United States. 
 
 Bravo-Murillo, Don Juan (*. 1803, d. 
 1873), Spanish politician, after La Granja's 
 revolution became a leader of the Con- 
 servative Opposition. He fled to France in 
 1840 during Espartero's dictatorship, but 
 returned in 1847 and became bead of the 
 government. His reactionary policy com- 
 pelled his resignation in 1852. 
 
 Bray, Anna Eliza (i. circa 1790, d. 1883), 
 noveUst and writer, in 1826 published her 
 first historical novel, De Foix, which was 
 followed by others of the same class. 
 She also wrote a Life of Sandel, and some 
 historical sketches. She was twice married ; 
 in 1818 to Thomas Stothard, and in 1825 to 
 the Rev. E. A. Bray. 
 
 Brazil, Emperors of — 
 
 (1) Pedro L, de Alcantara {b. 1798, d. 
 1834), eldest son of John VI. of Portugal, 
 was taken to Brazil by his father on the 
 French invasion of Portugal in 1807. In 
 1821 he was left as Regent, and in 1822 was 
 proclaimed emperor of an independent 
 Brazil. His reign was marked with revolu- 
 tion and discontent, and he was compelled 
 to abdicate in 1831 ia favour of his son. 
 
 (2) Pedio II., de Alcantara {b. 182.5), 
 successor of the preceding ; in 1861 Brazil 
 became involved in a quarrel with England, 
 which lasted for several years ; and in 1865 
 Brazil joined the alUance against Paraguay. 
 In 1872 the emperor secured the passage of 
 an Act providing for the emancipation of 
 slaves, which disaffected many loyal sup- 
 porters, and in 188.9 a revolution broke out 
 which expelled him from the throne, and 
 set up a republican government. 
 
 Breckenridge, John CabeU {b. 1821, d. 
 1875), American politician, in 1851 entered 
 Congress, and m 1856 was elected vice-presi- 
 dent under Buchanan. In 1860 he was a 
 candidate for the presidency in the Southern 
 interest, but was defeated by Lincoln ; and 
 having denounced Lincoln's address as a 
 declaration of war, he was expelled from the 
 House of Representatives. He was givpn a 
 command in the Confederate army. 
 
 Bremer, Frederika {b. 1801, d. 186-5), 
 Swedish novelist, many of whose works 
 have been translated into English, and 
 widely circulated in Great Britain and 
 America. Her Sketches of Every Day Life 
 
 and The H Family first brought her 
 
 into notice ; and besides her numerous 
 stories, she has written accounts of travel 
 in Europe and America. 
 
 Brennus, the celebrated chief of the Gauls 
 who captured Rome about B.C. 390, and 
 compelled a ransom of 1,000 poimds of gold, 
 throwing his sword into the scale with the 
 words '' \'cs victis." 
 
 Brentano, Clemens {b. 1778, d. 1842), 
 German poet of the romantic school, and the 
 brother of "Bettina" (q.v.), eloped vnth 
 the wife of Professor Mereau, and settling 
 in Heidelberg, became associated with Von 
 Amim in a remarkable collection of German 
 folk-songs and baUads. He continued to 
 produce romances and poems rapidly, till 
 he was seized with religious mania about 
 1S12.
 
 Bre 
 
 (160) 
 
 Bri 
 
 Breteuil, Louis Auguste, Baron de (6. 
 1733, d. 1807), French statesman, was 
 employed by Louis XV. on many important 
 diplomatic missions, and in 1783 Louis XVI. 
 appointed him governor of Paris and 
 minister of state. After the 1789 insur- 
 rection he succeeded Neckar as head of 
 the government, but he withdrew from 
 France after the fall of the Bastille. 
 
 Brett, John {b. 1830), English landscape 
 and sea-piece painter of great merit, was 
 elected an associate of the Royal Academy 
 in 1S8'2. His BrUannia''s Realm (1880) was 
 bought by the Chantry Bequest. 
 
 Brett, Sir Piercy {b. 1710, d. 1781), Bri- 
 tish admiral, served with Anson in his 
 voyage to the South Seas, and in 1745, as 
 commander of the Lion, fought a desperate 
 action of nine hours with a French liue-of- 
 battle ship conveying the Pretender to 
 Scotland. He was knighted in 1753. 
 
 Breughels, The, a family of Dutch pain- 
 ters — 
 
 (1) Pieter the elder, known as " The 
 DroU" {b. 1510 or 1530, d. 1569). 
 
 (2) Pieter the younger, known as " The 
 Infernal" (b. 1559, d. 1637). 
 
 (3) Jan, son oit Pieter the elder, and 
 known as "Velvet" {b. 1669, d. 1625). 
 
 Brewer, John Sherren (b. 1810, d. 1879), 
 English clergyman and historian; in 1858 
 appeared the iirst volunie of his edition of 
 the Momcmenla Franciscana, followed by 
 other reprints of mediaeval classics ; from 
 1862 till his death he was engaged on his 
 great work, the Calendar of Letters and 
 Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign 
 of Henry VLLL., which is of the greatest 
 historical value. 
 
 Brewster, Sir David {b. 1781, d. 1868), 
 physicist, in 1808 became the editor of the 
 Edinburgh Fncgclopcedia, and attracted 
 much attention by his investigations into 
 the phenomena of light. He invented 
 the kaleidoscope, invented or improved 
 many optical instruments, and introduced 
 polygonal lenses for lighthouses. In 
 1819 he was presented with the Eumford 
 gold and silver medals by the Eoyal Society 
 for his discoveries with regard to the polari- 
 sation of light, and in 1849 he was elected 
 one of the eight foreign associates of the 
 Institute of France. Besides numerous 
 scientific works, he wrote a Life of Newton, 
 Martgrs of Science, and More Jrorlds than 
 One, books which possess a high literary 
 merit. 
 
 Briconnet, Guillaume {d. 1514), French 
 statesman and ecclesiastic, induced Louis 
 XI. to undertake the conquest of Italy, and 
 was appointed by that monarch Archbishop 
 of Eheims and prime minister. In 1491 he 
 
 was made cardinal ; was excommunicated 
 by Julius I., but was restored by Leo X., 
 who made him archbishop of Narbonne. 
 
 Bridgeman, Sir Orlando (i. 1606, d. 1674), 
 English judge, rapidly attained distinction 
 at the bar, and was returned to the Long 
 Parliament in 1640, when he supported the 
 Royalist party. He sided with the king 
 during the Civil war, and after the Restora- 
 tion was made Chief IBaron of the Exchequer 
 and a baronet, and shortly after. Chief .Tus- 
 tice of Common Pleas. He presided at the 
 trial of the regicides, and succeeded Claren- 
 don as Lord Keeper of the Seals. 
 
 Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, Duke of 
 {b. 1736, d. 1803), youngest son of the first 
 duke, is especially remembered for hia 
 enterprise in the construction of canals, 
 notably the Bridgewater Canal, in com- 
 pleting which his resources were greatly 
 strained. However, he died the possessor of 
 great wealth. 
 
 Bridgewater, Rev. Francis Henry Eger- 
 ton, 8th Earl of {b. 1758, d. 1829), son of 
 Lord Egerton, Bishop of Durham. From 
 him originated the celebrated Bridgewater 
 Treatises. He left £8,000 for the writing 
 and publishing of 1,000 copies of a work on 
 the power, wisdom, and goodness of God. 
 
 Bridport, Alexander Arthur Hood, Vis- 
 count (b. 1728, d. 1814), British admiral and 
 brother of Lord Hood, after fighting several 
 gallant actions, and serving under Keppel 
 and Howe, was knighted in 1788, and took 
 part in the famous action of the 1st June, 
 1794. In 1795 he defeated the French fleet 
 ofE Lorient, and in 1796 was created a peer 
 of Great Britain. 
 
 Brienne, Gauthier {d. 1356), Duke of 
 Athens and Constable of France, having 
 lost his duchy, went, in 1336, to Florence 
 as administrator for the King of Naples. 
 In 1339 he fought with Philip de Valoia 
 against the English ; and in 1341 defeated 
 the Pisans, and became ruler of Florence. 
 Having been expelled from the city, he re- 
 turned to France, and was killed at 
 Poictiers. 
 
 Bright, John {b. 1811, d. 1889), orator and 
 statesman. He was bom near Rochdale of 
 a Quaker family, his father being engaged 
 in the cotton-spinning trade. When sixteen 
 years old John Bright entered his father's 
 business, and began to take an interest in 
 public affairs. He first met and became 
 ! associated with Cobden in connection with 
 the national education question, after return- 
 ing from a visit to Eastern Europe ; and in 
 1839 his name was prominent among the 
 committee of the National Anti-Corn Law 
 League, which sprang up at that time, and 
 his devotion to the cause was intensified by 
 the giief occasioned by the death of his
 
 Bri 
 
 (161) 
 
 Bri 
 
 wife in 1841, after a married life of only two 
 years. In 1843 he was returned by Durham 
 to Parliament, and was indefatigable in his 
 efforts for the repeal of the corn laws. 
 The movement set on foot by Lord Shaftes- 
 bury for the Umitation of factory labour to 
 ten hours a day was strongly opposed by 
 Bright, who thereby incurred much un- 
 popularity. His eloquence was next turned 
 to Irish and Indian questions ; and in regard 
 to Ireland he advocated reform of the land 
 laws and disestablishment of the Irish 
 Church. In 1849 he married a second time. 
 The parliamentary session of 1855 was 
 rendered memorable as the occasion of some 
 of Bright's finest orations, delivered in 
 denunciation of the Crimean war. Illness 
 compelled him to go abroad in 1857, when 
 Palmerston was defeated on the Chinese 
 question. In the general election which 
 followed Bright was defeated at Manchester, 
 for which constituency he had sat since 
 1847. In 1857 he was elected for Birming- 
 ham, and remained that borough's member 
 till his death. After helping to defeat Lord 
 Palmerston in 1858, he supported strongly 
 Lord Derby's measure for the abolition of 
 the Kast India Company ; and on the out- 
 break of the American Civil war he again 
 excited great unpopularity by his uncom- 
 promising advocacy of the cause of the 
 North. After Mr. Gladstone's defeat in 
 1865 on the Reform Bill, Bright conducted 
 a campaign in favour of reform, and ob- 
 tained from Mr. Disraeli's government a 
 measure embodying many of his principles. 
 Again he turned to the questions of Irish 
 disestablishment and land reform, and was 
 president of the Board of Trade in Mr. 
 Gladstone's government which passed the 
 1870 Land Act and the Irish Church Dis- 
 establishment Act. For two years he retired 
 from public hfe, but joined Mr. Gladstone's 
 Ministry in 1873, and from then until his 
 return to oifi.ce with the Liberals in 1880 
 took a prominent part in the agitation for 
 the disestablishment of the English Church. 
 lu 1886 he opposed Mr. Gladstone's Home 
 Rule policy, and became the great strength 
 of the LTuionist party, his influence going a 
 very long way towards -vnnning the general 
 election of 1886. 
 
 Bright. Richard (b. 1789, d. 1858), 
 English doctor, physician of Guy's Hospital, 
 was the first to describe the affection of the 
 kidneys known as "Bright's Disease" — a 
 disease to which he himself succumbed. 
 
 Brindley, James (*. 1716, d. 1772), 
 English engineer, after serving as a farm 
 labourer, became a wheelwright, and also 
 attained a reputation as a practical engineer, 
 inventing an engine for the draiuiug of coal- 
 mines. He effected many improvements 
 in miU machinery, and superintended the 
 coostructiou of the Duke of Bridgewater'a 
 
 L 
 
 canals. His last work was the construction 
 of the Grand Trunk Canal connecting the 
 Mersey and the Trent. 
 
 Brinkley, John (b. 1763, d. 1836), 
 Enghsh astronomer and Regiua professor of 
 astronomy at Trinity College, Dublin, in 
 1814 discovered the parallax of the fixed 
 stars, and in 1826 he was ordained bishop of 
 Cloyne. 
 
 Brinvilliers, Marie Marguerite, Marquise 
 de {b. 1630, d. 1676), French criminal, 
 poisoned her father, brothers, and sister, for 
 which crimes she was tortured and executed. 
 
 Brisbane, Sir Charles (*. 1769, d. 1829), 
 British admiral, fought in many of the 
 memorable naval engagements with the 
 French and Dutch at the close of the last 
 century, and in 1805 distinguished himself 
 by a brilliant action against the Spanish 
 at Havannah. In 1807 he sailed into the 
 harbour of Curac^oa, and captured the 
 island. In 1808 he was made governor of 
 St. Vincent. 
 
 Brisbane, Sir Thomas Macdougall {b. 
 1773, d. 1860), soldier and astronomer, 
 served with the army in Flanders, the 
 Peninsula, the West Indies, and North 
 America, and in 1821 was appointed governor 
 of New South Wales. His administration 
 was able and beneficial in a high degree. 
 He founded a large observatory in Australia, 
 and received the Copley medal of the Royal 
 Society for his work in cataloguing 7,385 
 stars. On returning to Great Britain he 
 devoted himself to astronomy, and succeeded 
 Sir Walter Scott as president of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh. 
 
 Brisson, Henri (6. 1835), French states- 
 man ; in 1864 his articles in the Temps, in 
 opposition to the second empire, gave him 
 considerable reputation. After the fall of 
 the empire he became deputy-mayor of 
 Paris, but soon resigned the office. In 1871 
 he entered the Chamber of Deputies, and in 
 1879 became its president. In 1885 he 
 formed an administration in succession to 
 that of M. Ferry, and was succeeded in 1886 
 by M. de Freyciuet. 
 
 Brisson, Mathurin Jacques {b. 1723, d. 
 1806), French physician and naturalist, 
 was professor of physics at the College 
 of Navarre, and instructor to the royal 
 children. He wrote several scientific works, 
 and was emploj^ed by government on several 
 occasions. 
 
 Brissot-de-Warville, Jean Pierre (b. 1754, 
 d. 1793), French politician and political 
 writer, studied law in the same office as 
 Robespierre, and gained some reputation 
 by his Theory of Criminal Laivs. He was 
 committed to the Bastille for some time, and 
 afterwards fled to England and America.
 
 Bri 
 
 ( 162 ) 
 
 Bro 
 
 In 17S9 he returned to France, and edited 
 the Putriote FnDifiis, and he entered the 
 National Assembly as representative for 
 Psii-is. Falling under the suspicion of the 
 extremists, he was guillotined in 1793. 
 
 Bristow, Henry "William (h. 1817), dis- 
 tinguished geologist, in 1842 became con- 
 nected with the Geological Survey of 
 England, of which he was director for many 
 years. He is a member of the Royal and 
 Geological Societies, and has written, among 
 other works. Geology of the Isle of IVight, 
 A Glossary of Mu'ieralogy and British Sedi- 
 mentary and' Fo.ssiliferous Strato, the last in 
 conjunction with Mr. Etheridge. 
 
 Brock, Thomas {b. 1847), R.A.j sculptor, 
 finished the O' Conn ell monument m Dublin, 
 begun by Foley, and has executed statues of 
 Richard Baxter, Robert Raikes, Sir Rowland 
 Hill, and the bust of Longfellow in West- 
 minster Abbey. His equestrian group, A 
 Moment of Feril, was purchased by the 
 Royal Academy, to which he was elected an 
 associate in 1883. 
 
 Brockhaus, Friederich Arnold {h. 1772, d. 
 1823), a German bookseller, founder of the 
 greatest publishing firm in Germany. He 
 settled in Leipzig, where the business was 
 carried on by his sons Heinrich and 
 Friederich. 
 
 Brocktiaus, Hermann {b. 1806, d. 1877), 
 son of the preceding, a distinguished Orien- 
 talist, was professor of Indian literatm-e 
 at Leipzig, and translated several of the 
 Sanscrit classics. 
 
 Brodhead, John Romeyn (b. 1814, d. 
 1873), American historian, in 1835 went 
 to the Hague as charge d'' affaires, when he 
 was commissioned by the Government to col- 
 lect materials for a history of New York. In 
 1845 the first volume of the work appeared ; 
 and in 1846 Mr. Brodhead was appointed 
 secretary of the Legation in London. 
 
 Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins (i. 1783, d. 
 1862), surgeon, for many years was surgeon 
 to St. George's Hospital, where his lectures 
 were highly valued. In 1819 he became 
 anatomical professor to the Royal College 
 of Surgeons; and in 1823 became surgeon- 
 in-ordiuary to the king. Among his 
 numerous works were Thysiohgical Papers 
 and Physiological Inquiries. 
 
 Broglie, AchilleLeonce Victor Charles, Due 
 de {b. 1785, d. 1870), after the overthrow of 
 Napoleon in 1815 joined Guizot's party as 
 a member of the Chamber of Peers, and in 
 1832 he became Louis Philippe's foreign 
 secretary, and retained the post for two 
 years. In 1836 he was for a short time 
 prime minister, and after the 1848 revolution 
 was a strong opponent of Louis Napoleon. 
 
 Broglie, Albert, Due de (b. 1821), son 
 of the preceding, after writing several 
 brilliant historical and theological works, 
 became in 1S71 ambassador to London; 
 but, resigning in the following year, he 
 became leader of the royalist party in the 
 Chamber. His efforts were devoted to 
 restoring the monarchy in France, and in 
 1873 he succeeded in placing Marshal 
 McMahon in the president's chair instead of 
 Thiers, while he himself became president 
 of the council and foreign minister. He 
 then set to work to displace republican 
 oificials throughout France, and carried the 
 prolongation of the marshal's presidency 
 for seven years. In 1876, however, his plans 
 were upset by the defection of the Legiti- 
 mists, and he had to resign. In 1877 he 
 again became head of an administration, but 
 was defeated in the same year, and was 
 subjected soon after to a vote of censure 
 from the Chamber. In 1885 he was rejected 
 at the general election. 
 
 Broglie, Victor Maurice, Comte de {b. 
 1639, d. 1727), distinguished marshal of 
 France, who served in most of the cam- 
 paigns of his day. 
 
 Broglie, FranQois Marie, Due de {b. 1671, 
 d. 1745), son of the preceding, entered the 
 army at a very early age, and from 1689 to 
 1713 saw constant service in Germany, 
 Flanders, or Italy. In 1733 he commanded 
 in Italy, and in 1741 commanded the army 
 in Bohemia, where he was shut up in 
 Prague. As he found it impossible to 
 defend Bavaria, he withdrew his army, for 
 which he was exiled to his estates. 
 
 Broglie, Victor Fran9ois, Due de {b. 1718, 
 d. 1804), son of the preceding, served in 
 Italy and in Germany before he wa? 
 twenty, and in 1 745 succeeded to the title. 
 Having fought throughout the Seven Years' 
 war, in 1759 he achieved a briUiant victory 
 against Prince Ferdinand, for which he was 
 created prince of the empire. As com- 
 mander-in-chief in Germany he defeated 
 the Prussians at Corbach, and in 1761 again 
 defeated Prince Ferdinand at Fillinghausen. 
 In 1762 he was recalled and exiled, but 
 restored in 1764. In 1789 he was com- 
 pelled to fly from France, and joined in 
 1792 the Duice of Brunswick's invasion of 
 Champagne. He died in Germany. 
 
 Broglie, Charles Francjois, Comte de (J. 
 1719, rf. 1781), brother of the preceding, for 
 some years was ambassador at Warsaw, 
 and then served under his brother in 
 Germany. Later he was appointed director 
 of the secret ministry ; and was then exiled 
 for a time. He was again exiled before the 
 death of Louis XV. 
 
 Broglie, Claude Victor, Prince de (*. 1757, 
 d. 1794;, son of the preceding, joined the
 
 Bro 
 
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 Bro 
 
 popular movement ; was elected to the States 
 General, and was for a time president of the 
 National Assembly. Appointed commander 
 of the army of the Rhine, he was recalled in 
 liy'Z for refusing to acquiesce in the king's 
 deposition, and was shortly after executed. 
 
 Broke, Sir Philip Dives Vere {b. 1776, d. 
 1841 J, Eritish admiral, memorable as the hero 
 of the naval duel between the C/iesapcakc and 
 the iihannon duiing the war with America. 
 
 Bronte, Charlotte (6. 1816, d. 1855), Eng- 
 lish authoress, the eldest of the three Bronte 
 sisters. After some experience as a gover- 
 ness she became engaged with her sisters in 
 the writing of novels, and in 1846 published 
 with them a small volume of poems under the 
 names of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. In 
 1847 sK© published the well-known story 
 Jane Eyre. Its success was instantaneous 
 and complete. Although adversely and 
 severely criticised, it was and is admitted 
 to be one of the most remarkable of English 
 novels. Her second story, Shirley, was 
 published in 1849, and her third and last, 
 Villette, in 1853. Another stoiy. The 
 Professor, which had been refused by the 
 publishers before Jane Eyre had made its 
 authoress famous, was published after her 
 death. In June, 1854, she married the Eev. 
 Mr. Nicholls, who had been for a time her 
 father's curate. But soon after her 
 marriage consumption, which had carried 
 off her sisters and brothers, settled on 
 her, and she died in her fortieth year. 
 
 Bronte, Emily (b. 1818, d. 1848). At the 
 same time that Charlotte was engaged in 
 writing The Professor, and the younger 
 sister Agnes Grey, Emily wrote Wuthermg 
 Heights, which was accepted and pubhshed. 
 
 Bronte, Anne {h. 1819, d. 1849), whose 
 story of Agnes Grey was succeeded by The 
 Tenant of Wildfell Hall; but neither of 
 these stories is in any way remarkable. 
 She died in less than six months after 
 EmUy. 
 
 Brooke, Gustavus Vaughan (b. 1818, d. 
 1866), tragedian, when only fifteen ap- 
 peared in Dubliu as William Tell, aud 
 in 1848 made a great success in London 
 as Othello. In 1850 he went to New 
 York, where he was enthusiastically re- 
 ceived, and in 1854 to Australia. In 1866 
 he set out on a second visit to Australia in 
 the London, in the wreck of which vessel he 
 perished. 
 
 Brooke, Henry (b. 1706, d. 1783), an 
 Irish man of letters, coming to London, 
 married in his twentieth year his cousin, 
 who was not quite fifteen. He did not 
 succeed at the bar ; and so turned to litera- 
 ture, producing a philosophical poem, Uni- 
 ' versal Beauty, in 1735. He was taken up by 
 Z.2 
 
 the literary celebrities of the day, and his 
 next work, Gustavus Vnsa, a tragedy, proved 
 a great success, having been interdicted 
 from representation on the stage. He 
 retii-ed to Ireland, and continued to write 
 prolifically. His best-known work is The 
 Fool of Qnality. 
 
 Brooke, Sir James {b. 1803, d. 1868), 
 known as the Rajah of Sarawak, at the 
 age of twenty-two entered the service of 
 the East India Company, and took part 
 in the first Burmese war. In 1838 he 
 went to Borneo in the yacht Moyalist, 
 and aided the Sultan to reduce theDyak 
 tribes of Sarawak, a service for which he 
 was made Rajah in 1841. In 1847 he was 
 made governor of Labuan, purchased by 
 England from Borneo. He was deprived of 
 his governorship, however, on a cliarge of 
 umdue severity, though acquitted by the 
 royal commission at Singapore. 
 
 Brooke, Rev. Stopford Augustus (b. 
 1832), preacher, was educated at Trinity 
 College, Dublin, and took his M.A. in 
 1868. He held the ministry of St. James's 
 chapel from 1866 to 1875, and after- 
 wards that of Bedford chapel, Blooms- 
 bury, and in 1872 he was ajjpointed chap- 
 lain-in-ordinary to the Queen. In 1880 he 
 seceded from the Chui'ch of England. He 
 is the author of several theological works. 
 
 Brooks, Charles William Shirley (h. 1815, 
 d. 1874), journalist, was appointed editor of 
 Punch in 1870, and he wrote Aspen Court, 
 The Gordian J\.not, and other works. 
 
 Brougham and Vaux, Henry Peter, 
 
 Lord {b. 1778, d. 1868), statesman and 
 lawyer, was educated at the High School 
 and University of Edinburgh, and in 1800 
 became a member of the Scottish bar, 
 becoming conspicuous as the centre of the 
 group of young Whigs then in Edin- 
 burgh. He was one of the founders of the 
 Edinburgh Jieview, the first number of 
 which appeared in October, 1802, and for 
 many years he continued to be one of its 
 largest contributors. Later he was called 
 to the English bar, and in 1809 was re- 
 turned to Parliament for the small Cornish 
 borough of Camelford. He became at once 
 a leading orator of the Whigs and the 
 special opponent of Canning himself, against 
 whom he fought a famous election contest 
 at Liverpool. The greatest achievement in 
 his early parliamentary career was carrying 
 through the bill which, by making the slave 
 trade felony, made effectual Fox's Act for 
 its abolition. As a lawyer, his successfiil 
 defence of Leigh Hunt for republishing an 
 article on flogging in the aiTny brought him 
 into the first rank of political advocates. He 
 was largely influential in giving prominence 
 to schemes of popular education, in 1823 
 co-operated with Mr. Birkbeck in foimding
 
 Bro 
 
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 Bro 
 
 mechanics' institutes, and was one of the 
 most prominent amongst those who es- 
 tablished the unsectarian London Uni- 
 versity. From 1820 his political importance 
 continued to increase. He made poUtical 
 capital out of the wrongs of Queen Caroline, 
 and obtiiiued great popularity out of his 
 coaiduct of her case. He advocated every 
 motion for parliamentary reforms, and in 
 1822 brought forward an attack on the 
 influence of the Crovra. His famous speech 
 in 1828 on the defects of the common law 
 courts and the law of real property brought 
 him into prominence as a law reformer ; 
 atid in 1830 the fall of the Wellington 
 ministry was precipitated by liis announce- 
 ment that he would introduce a Reform 
 Bill. In Grey's Whig ministry he became 
 Lord Chancellor and a peer. This was the 
 culminating point of his career. As Lord 
 Chancellor, his overbearing manners, cou- 
 pled with his ignorance of equity law, made 
 him extremely unpopular, and in the cabinet 
 his inordinate vanity and reckless incon- 
 sistency made it impossible for his colleagues 
 to work with him. The Whig ministry was 
 thrown out in 1834, and on its return after 
 Peel's failure no place was found for the 
 late minister. For many years, however, he 
 found useful scope for his energies as a law 
 reformer, and in literature. He was the 
 author of a History of the House of Lancaster, 
 and Sketches of the Statesmen of the Time of 
 George III. 
 
 Broughton, William Robert {b. 1763, d. 
 1822 , English navigator, took part in Van- 
 couver's expedition of 1790, and in 1793 
 undertook a voyage of discovery in the Pro- 
 vidence. Having passed Japan, he was 
 shipwrecked ; but having refitted in Can- 
 ton, set out again. He published A Voyage 
 of i)iscovery to the North Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Brouwer, Adria (6. 1608, d. 1640), Dutch 
 painter of scenes of low life. 
 
 Brown, Ford Madox {h. 1821), painter, 
 by many has been regarded as the leading 
 light of the pre-Raphaelite school, though 
 he was not the first to adopt its methods. 
 Among his best- known works are Chaucer 
 Jtecitiiig his' Poetry at the Court of 
 Edward the Third, which now decorates 
 the gallery at Sydney, and Christ Washing 
 Peter'' s Feet. Later in life he spent many 
 years Ln Manchester, decorating the Town 
 Hall of that city with a series of brilliant 
 designs illustrative of its history. He 
 married the sister of D. G. Rossetti. 
 
 Brown, John (b. 1810, d. 1882), doctor and 
 author, wrote Rah and his Friends, Pet 
 Marjorie, and other works. 
 
 Brown, John {b. 1800, d. 1859), American 
 aboUtioniBt, in 1S59 conceived the idea of 
 
 effecting the abolition of slavery by a 
 general negro rising : but though he 
 seized the arsenal of Harper's Ferry (Oct. 
 10th) the negroes refused to stir, and he was 
 taken and hanged. 
 
 Brown, Robert {b. 1773, d. 1858), Scottish 
 surgeou and botanist, was appointed 
 naturalist to the Investigator in the 
 Australian expedition of 1801. In 1810 he 
 published the results of the voyage in 
 Prodromus Florae Novee HoUandice. As 
 librarian to the Linnaean Society he wrote 
 many works of value, and ultimately became 
 president of the society. 
 
 Brown, Robert (*. 1549, d. 1630), a Puri- 
 tan, known as the founder of the Browuists, 
 in 1561, while at Cambridge, was cited 
 before Archbishop Parker for heterodoxy, 
 and before he died he was imprisoned thirty- 
 two times. In 1580 he accepted a ministry 
 at Norwich, and later went to Holland. In 
 1585 he returned to England, and suffered 
 excommunication. 
 
 Brown, Sir Samuel {b. 1776, d. 1852), 
 English naval officer, is remembered for his 
 skill as a mechanical engineer, and made 
 several useful inventions in bridges, piers, 
 and chain cables. The Brighton Pier and 
 the Tweed Bridge are due to him. 
 
 Brown, Thomas {b. 1778, d. 1820), a cele- 
 brated Scottish metaphysician, studying in 
 Edinburgh, published at the age of twenty, 
 and took a medical degree in 1803. The 
 first work which attracted much attention 
 was his Examination of Hume''s Principles 
 respecting Causation. In 1810 he became 
 joint professor of moral philosophy with 
 Dugald Stewart, and his lectures were 
 highly valued. He wrote several volumes 
 of verse, which were well received. 
 
 Browne, Charles Farrer. \_See Ward, 
 Artemus.] 
 
 Browne, Edward Harold (5. ISll), 
 theologian, educated at Eton, and Em- 
 manuel, Cambridge, became a fellow and 
 tutor of his college, and in 1857 Norresian 
 professor. He was made Bishop of Ely in 
 1864, and when Bishop Wilberforce died was 
 translated to the see of Winchester, and 
 appointed prelate to the Order of the Garter. 
 Dr. Browne has published a large number 
 of works, chiefly on theological subjects. 
 
 Browne, Hablot Knight {b. 1815, d. 1882), 
 distinguished artist and caricaturist, known 
 to fame as " Phils." Apprenticed to a me* 
 chanical engraver, he first attained success 
 by his illustrations of Pickwick (1837), and 
 from that time continued with increasing 
 popularity. He illustrated, besides several 
 of Dickens' works, nearly all Lever's novels, 
 and some of Fielding and Smollett. In 1867 
 he wu af&icted with a serious illness, in
 
 Ero 
 
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 Bru 
 
 which he lost much of his capability for 
 further work, and he was for some time ia 
 great pecuniary distress. Having failed to 
 obtain a government pension, he received an 
 annuity from the Koyal Academy. 
 
 Browne, Sir Samuel James, K.C.B., 
 K.C.S.I. {b. 1824), first saw service in the 
 Punjaub campaign of 1848-9, and went 
 through the Indian Mutmy, being twice 
 severely wounded, and losuig au arm at the 
 battle of Seerporah. He was mentioned in 
 despatches, and received the Victoria Cross 
 and the C.B. He held a command in the 
 Afghan war of 1878-9, and opened the 
 campaign by the capture of Ali Musjid in 
 the Khyber Pass. 
 
 Browne, Sir Thomas {b. 1605, d. 1682), 
 Enghsh physician, eminent as a philosophical 
 writer, took a degree at Oxford, and after 
 extensive travel on the Continent, pro- 
 duced, in 1635, his famous Heligio Medici, 
 which at once acquired a European reputa- 
 tion. He settled in Norwich, where he pro- 
 duced many other works, tlio most important 
 being Pseiulodoxia Epidcmica. In 1671 he 
 was knighted by Charles II. 
 
 Brown - Sequaxd, Edward (6. 1818), 
 American physician and physiologist, was 
 appointed successively professor of pathology 
 at Harvard, professor to the Faculty of 
 Medicine at Paris, and succeeded Claude 
 Bernard in the chair of experimental 
 medicine at the College of France. He has 
 published two important series of lectures 
 on the Paralysis of the Lower Extremities 
 and on Functional Agitations. 
 
 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett {b. 1806, d. 
 1861), English poetess ; her first volimie of 
 verses was published in her niaeteenth year, 
 and in her twenty-fourth appeared Pro- 
 metheus Unbound (to be styled afterwards "A 
 Sin of My Youth ") , and Miscellaneous Poems. 
 Two years later another volume appeared, 
 which included IsobePs Child, The Romance 
 of Margaret, and the sonnet Consolation. 
 About this time delicate health and the 
 loss, by drowning, of her brother, brought 
 her very near to death, and it was some 
 years before anything more appeared from 
 her pen. In 1845 she met the poet Brown- 
 ing, and the tale of their courtship she her- 
 self has told in Sonnets from the Portugu£se 
 (1850). Browning and she were married in 
 1846, and with him she settled in Florence. 
 Here a son was bom to them, and here in 
 the glow of a new and happy life, and with 
 new interests encompassing her, she wrote 
 her Casa Guidi (1851), a poem that might 
 have been written by an Italian patriot, and 
 Aurora Leigh (1856). Her Poems before 
 Congress appeared in 1860, but these, with 
 the exception of Last I'oems, which were 
 published after her death by her husband, 
 were her last works. 
 
 Browning, Robert (*. 1812, d. 1889), 
 poet ; his first poem, Pauline, was pub- 
 lished when he was twenty-one, but it 
 was not until two years later that the 
 dramatic poem, Paracelsus, appeared — of 
 4,000 lines, and in five parts. Shortly after- 
 wards he wrote for Macready (who produced 
 it at Covent Garden) his first tragedy, 
 Strajford, and published it in the same year. 
 His next poem, Sordello, was then " nearly 
 ready," but it was not produced imtil 1840. 
 From 1841 to 1846 Browning brought 
 out his Bells and Pomegranates, in eight 
 parts. These contained three plays, of 
 which Pippa Passes is, perhaps, the best 
 known; four tragedies, including A Blot 
 on the ''Scutcheon, and thirty fresh 
 dramatic lyrics, three of which, The I'ted 
 Piper of Hamelin, Plow they brought 
 the Good ^ews from Ghent to Aix, and 
 the Lost Leader, are among the most 
 popular of his works. After marrying the 
 poetess, Elizabeth Barrett, he settled in 
 Florence, and remained there for fifteen 
 years, until his wife's death in 1861. Dui-ing 
 this time he produced Paracelsus and Men 
 and Women. In 1864 he opened the third 
 period of his work with Dramatis Personce, 
 and four years later his most important 
 work, The Ring and the Book. Siuce then, 
 from time to time, he produced fresh 
 poems, plays, and translations, the most 
 notable among them being Fifine at the Fair, 
 the Enghsh version of the Alcestis, the 
 Agamemnon and Jocoseria. He was elected 
 an honorary fellow of Balliol, Oxford, and 
 the degree of M.A. was coufeiTed on him 
 by that university, as was that of D.C.L. 
 by Cambridge. He died after a short illness 
 in Florence, and was buried in Poets' 
 Comer, Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Bruce, David {b. 1323, d. 1370), king of 
 Scotland, and son and successor of Eobert 
 Bruce. The invasion of Scotland by Edward 
 III. forced him to fly to France : but he re- 
 turned during the war between France and 
 England. He invaded England, but was 
 defeated and taken prisoner. He was 
 ransomed for £100,000. 
 
 Bruce, Edward {d. 1318), brother of 
 Robert Bruce, fought with great bravery 
 in the war against the English, and in 1315, 
 being oflrered the crown of Ireland, he went 
 to that country, maintaining his position 
 with great success. He was killed in a 
 battle against the Enghsh. 
 
 Bruce, Sur Frederick, W.A.W. (*. 1814, d. 
 1867), younger son of the seventh Lord 
 Elgin, entered the diplomatic service, and 
 was appointed envoy extraordiuary to the 
 Emperor of China in 1858. Subsequently 
 he estabhshed the mission in Pekiu, and in 
 1805 succeeded Lord Lyons as ambassador 
 to tiie United States.
 
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 Bruce, James (5. 1730, d. 179-i), 
 traveller, iii 1763 went out as British 
 coiisul to Algiers, and in 1765 set out to 
 search for the source of the Nile. In 
 1770 he had penetrated to Abyssinia, and 
 traced the Abawi to its source, that being 
 then believed to be the main source of the 
 Nile. He returned to Loudon in 1774:, and 
 in 1790 published his Travels. 
 
 Bruce, Robert [b. 1274. d. 1329), Earl of 
 Carrick and King of Scotland ; his grand- 
 father was, with Baliol, a claimant for the 
 Scottish throne, and when Edward I. decided 
 in favour of BaUol, the family withdrew to 
 England. Having entered into a conspi- 
 racy for the overthrow of the English 
 suzerainty in Scotland and having been 
 beti-ayed, Bruce fled to Scotland and was 
 crowned in 1306. He was defeated by 
 the Earl of Pembroke, and hunted up 
 and down the country, but in 1307 he 
 succeeded in defeating Pembroke, when 
 Edward marched against him, but died 
 on the way to Scotland. Edward II. 
 left the prosecution of the war to the 
 Earl of Pembroke, against whom Bruce 
 struggled for three years, ultimatel}' estab- 
 lishing himself as King of Scotland. In 
 1314 Edward II. marched against him in 
 person, but was totally routed at Bannock- 
 bum. In 1328 a peace was arranged, which 
 Bruce only survived a short time. 
 
 Brucker, Johann Jakob (A. 1696, d. 1770), 
 German Protestant divine and philoso- 
 pher; in 1723 produced his Historia Phi- 
 losophica de Ideis, and in 1741 his Historia 
 Critica Philosophice, both works being of 
 the greatest erudition and value. 
 
 Brueys, Francois Paul, Comte de (b. 17o3, 
 d. 1798), French admiral, commanded the 
 French fleet at the capture of Malta in 1798, 
 and at the battle of the Nile, when his fleet 
 was destroyed by Nelson and he himself was 
 kiUed. 
 
 Brugsch, Heinrich Carl, Pasha {b. 1827), 
 German Egyptologist, was made curator 
 of the Egyptian museimi at Berlin, and 
 became professor of oriental languages 
 at Gottiugen university. He resided many 
 years in Egj-pt, and among several important 
 works on that country, his Hintori/ of 
 Egypt under the Pharaohs is one of the best 
 on the subject. 
 
 Bruix, Eustache de (b. 1759, d. 1805), 
 French admiral, served in the American 
 war of 1793, and took part in the 
 expedition against Ireland. He escaped 
 with his fleet from Brest harbour when it 
 was blockaded by the British, and relieved 
 Massena, who was besieged in Genoa. He 
 was given the command of the fleet as- 
 sembled at Boulogne for the invasion of 
 England. 
 
 BnUlow, Charles Paulovitch {b. 1800, d. 
 1852), Russian artist, and president of the 
 St. Petersburg Academy. 
 
 Brummell, George Bryan (6. 1778, d. 1840), 
 "Beau," the noted dandy and friend of 
 George IV. 
 
 Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne {b. 1763, d. 
 1815), French general and a marshal of 
 France, joined the Republican cause, 
 and in 1798 was appointed commander of 
 the forces in Switzerland. Subsequently 
 he was transferred to Holland, which he 
 compelled the Duke of York to evacuate. 
 He defeated the Austrians in Italy, but 
 soon after offended the emperor, who did 
 not again employ him till the Hundred 
 Days' campaign, when he was given com- 
 mand of the army of the Var. He was 
 murdered by a Royalist mob at Avignon. 
 
 Brunei, Sir Marc Isambard [b. 1769, d. 
 1849), engineer, was the son of a Norman 
 farmer. Leaving France, he found occupation 
 as an ensjineer in the United States. Com- 
 ing to England in 1799, he induced the 
 Admiralty to accept his designs for making 
 ships' blocks by machinery. Minor inven- 
 tions due to him were machines for winding 
 cotton and nail-making. But his greatest 
 engineering work was the Thames Tunnel, 
 which, bei^un in 1824, was completed in 
 1843 with the assistance of his son. 
 
 Brunei, Isambard Kingdom, F.R.S., 
 D.C.L. {b. 1806, d. 1859), engineer, son of 
 the above, besides greatly assisting his 
 father, was the constructor of the Monk- 
 wearmouth Docks, and the Clifton Sus- 
 pension Bridge was built from his de- 
 signs. He was the engineer of the Great 
 Western Railway, and the " broad gauge " 
 was due to his efforts. He designed the 
 Grent Britain, the first large iron ship, and 
 the first large ship to use the screw propeller; 
 his last great work was the ill-fated Great 
 Eastern. 
 
 BnmeUeschi, Filippo {b. 1377, d. 1446), 
 Florentine architect, a veiy able gold- 
 smith and sculptor, was outstripped by 
 Ghiberti in the competition for the gates 
 of the Baptistery. Then he turned wholly 
 to architecture, and was commissioned to 
 build the cupola of Santa Maria del Fiore, 
 a work that was all but completed when he 
 died. 
 
 Briume, Robert of, a monk, who lived in 
 the reigns of Edward II. and III., and was 
 author of the Handlynge Synne. 
 
 Bruno, Giordano {b. circa 1550, d. 1600), 
 Italian philosopher, spent many years in 
 France, Germany, and England, disputing on 
 philosophical theories, when he returned to 
 Italy. He was seized by the Inquisition, 
 and refusing to recant, perished at the stake.
 
 Bru 
 
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 Buc 
 
 Bnm-RoUet, Antoino {b. 1810, d. 1858), a 
 Savoyard traveller, as a merchant pene- 
 trated far into the Soudan, and ascended 
 the Nile as far as Abyssinia. He stayed 
 some time at Khartoum, from which he ; 
 made expeditions into the neighbouring 
 country. In 1855 Le published Le Xil Blanc 
 et le iSoudane. He died in Khai'toum. 
 
 Brxmswick, Dukes of— 
 
 (1) Frederick Wilham of Brunswick- 
 Wolfenbiittel {b. 1771, d. 1815) was the 
 fourth son of Charles, who died in 1806, and 
 commanded the allies in their first attack 
 against France. He served imder Bliicher 
 in the Jena campaign Lu 1805, and took a 
 prominent and honourable part in the dis- 
 astrous Wagram campaign. He was com- 
 pelled finally to fly to England. He 
 returned to his dominion of Brunswick ou 
 the occasion of the general uprising against 
 Napoleon in 1813, and commanding the 
 Brunswick troops at Quatre Bras on June 
 16th, 1815, he, " foremost fighting, fell." 
 
 (2) Charles {b. 1801, d. 1873), the eldest 
 son of Frederick William. A few years 
 after his accession to the throne of Bruns- 
 wick, his subjects, weary of his extrava- 
 gances, rose against him and he fled, the 
 next year to be deposed by the German 
 Diet. 
 
 (3) WiUiam (b. 1806, d. 1884), the 
 younger son, was elected to the throne from 
 which Charles had been deposed. He died 
 unmarried. 
 
 Brunswick-Limebourg-Bevem, Augustus 
 William {h. 1715, d. 1781), one of Frederick 
 the Great's generals, served in the first 
 Silesiau war, and during the Seven Years' 
 war won the battle of Eeichenberg. He 
 was constantly employed by Frederick in 
 important commands till he was defeated 
 in 1757 and taken prisoner. On his release 
 he was sent to Stettin, but was recalled to 
 active service later. 
 
 Brunswick -Lunebourg, Charles William 
 Ferdinand, Sovereign Duke of (6. 1735, d. 
 1806), nephew of the preceding, OTcatly 
 distinguished himself in the Seven Years' 
 war, and in 1787 commanded the Prussian 
 expedition into Holland, and was in 1792 
 appointed to the command of the allied 
 forces in the invasion of France. This 
 campaign was abortive, and in 1704 he re- 
 signed. In 1S06 he was defeated by Napo- 
 leon, and died of wounds received at Auer- 
 stadt. He was the father of Queen Caroline 
 of England. 
 
 Brunswick - Wolfenbiittel, Ferdinand, 
 Duke of (*. 1721, d. 1702), known as Prince 
 Ferdinand, served in the Prussian army 
 during the first Silesian war, and the Seven 
 Years* war : and in 1758 was appointed com- 
 mamler of fhe English forces iu Germany. 
 la 1759 he won the battle of Minden. 
 
 Brutus, Decimus Junius Albinus {d. 43 
 B.C.), one of the assassins of Julius Caesar. 
 After the murder of the consul, he was 
 besieged in Mutiua by Mark Antony, but 
 drove off the enemy. Crossing into Mace- 
 donia he was betrayed into the hands of 
 Antony and put to death. 
 
 Brutus, Lucius Junius, a Koman consul. 
 Tarquinius Superbus, having put the fjitoer 
 and brother of Brutus to death, Bruttia 
 feigned madness, imtil the rape of Lucretia, 
 w^hen he excited the populace to insurrec- 
 tion, and drove Tarqiuuius from the city. 
 He and CoUatinus were appointed consuls 
 together, and in this capacity Brutus 
 ordered the execution of his own sons for 
 complicity in a conspiracy. He was killed 
 by Tarquinius' son. 
 
 Brutus, Marcus Jimius (J. 85 B.C., d. 
 42 B.C.), the nephew of Cato of Utica, 
 sided with Pompey against Csesar, and after 
 the battle of PharsaUa retired to literary 
 pursuits. Csesar made him governor of 
 Cisalpine Gaul, but he joined the con- 
 spirators who murdered the consul. After 
 the assassination he collected troops in 
 Macedonia, and assuming the title of 
 Imperator, ravaged Khodes and Lydia. In 
 42 B.C. he and Cassius were defeated by 
 Octavius Caesar and Mark Antony, when 
 Brutus committed suicide. 
 
 Bryant, WUliam CuUen (b. 1794, d. 
 1878), American poet and historian, whea 
 only nineteen pubUshed his poem Thana- 
 topsis, which attracted much attention ; and 
 in 1825 he became editor of several peri- 
 odicals in New York. Having twice visited 
 Europe, he wrote his Letters of a Traveller 
 in Europe and America; for more than 
 thirty years he acted as editor of the New 
 York Ilvenitig Post, and wrote much poetry, 
 as well as many other prose works. 
 
 Bryce, Professor James, M.P. (*. 1838), 
 after a distinguished career at Oxford, 
 was in 1870 appointed regius professor of 
 civil law. He was returned M.P. for 
 Tower Hamlets in 1880, for Aberdeen in 
 1885, and in 1886 became imder- secretary 
 for Foreign Affairs in Mr. Gladstone's 
 government, and Chancellor of the Duchy 
 of Lancaster in 1892. 
 
 Brydges, Sir Samuel Egerton {b. 1762, d. 
 1837), English writer and antiquary, in 
 1790 induced his brother to claim the 
 succession to the title of Duke of Chandos. 
 The claim was disallowed by the House of 
 Lords, and Brydges impeached this decision 
 in numerous publications. From 1812 to 
 1818 he was M.P. for Maidstone ; and in 
 1824 he was created a baronet. He left 
 many works in verse, fiction, politics, and 
 archaeology.
 
 Buc 
 
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 Bach, Leopold von (*. 1774, d. 1853), 
 German geographer and geologist, by 
 Humboldt was regarded as the greatest 
 geologist of his time. He travelled, study- 
 ing, through Styria, Auvergne, Italy, the 
 coast of Scotland, Norway, Lapland, and 
 Germany, and was the author of many 
 valuable works embodying his researches. 
 
 Buchanan, George (b. 1506, d. 1582), Scot- 
 tish poet and historian, after an unsettled 
 life, spent partly in France, where he was 
 converted to Protestantism, became pro- 
 fessor of Latin at Bordeaux, and in 1547 at 
 Coimbra. After a time he was im^prisoued 
 by the Inquisition, and one of the penalties 
 imposed upon him was to translate the 
 Psalms into Latin verse, a task which he 
 performed with great success. After acting 
 as tutor to the Comte de Brissac's son, he 
 became in 1562 classical tutor to Mary 
 Queen of Scots, and on her mamage wrote 
 an EpUhidamium. After Mary's marriage 
 with Bothwell, Buchanan joined Murray's 
 party, and was made a lord of the privy 
 council and privy seal. In 1570 he was 
 appointed tutor to James VI. of Scotland. 
 He wrote in his last years A History of 
 Scotland, and a treatise I)e Jure Regni 
 apiid Scotos, which in 1683 was burned at 
 Oxford. 
 
 Buchanan, James {b. 1791, d. 1868), 
 fifteenth president of the United States, 
 elected to the state legislature in 1814, in 
 1820 became a member of Congress, and 
 in 1833 was elected a senator. He was 
 minister at the court of St. James's from 
 1853 to 1856, and in the latter year, as the 
 democratic and pro-slavery candidate, was 
 elected president. After his retirement in 
 1860 he took no further part in public Ufe. 
 
 Buchanan, Eobert {b. 1841), playwright 
 and novelist. His first book, Undertones, 
 was published in 1860. Since then he has 
 produced The Shodoiv of the Sword, The 
 New Abelard, and God and the Man 
 among novels, and several plays and adapta- 
 tions. He has also contributed largely to 
 periodical literature. 
 
 Biichner, Friedrich Carl Christian Ludwig 
 (i. 1824), materialistic philosopher, his 
 book on Force and Matter [Kraft und Stoff, 
 1855), an exposition of extreme material- 
 istic views, created great interest through- 
 out Europe. He is the author of many 
 philosophical works, some of them popular 
 expositions of the ultimate theories of 
 Darwin, Haeckel, and Huxley. 
 
 Buckingham. George Villiers, Duke of 
 (b. 1592, d. 1628), the celebrated courtier, 
 was taken into favour by James I., who 
 rapidly promoted him to the highest 
 dignities and titles. la 1623 he accompanied 
 Prince Charles to Spain, when he went to 
 ■woo the Infanta ; and his behaviour caused 
 
 the breaking off of the match and a war 
 with Spain. He was the chief adviser of 
 Charles I. in his disputes with Parliament, 
 which would have impeached the favourite 
 had it not been dissolved. In 1627 he com- 
 manded an unsuccessful expedition to the 
 Isle of Ehe ; and in 1628 he was stabbed at 
 Portsmouth while organising a second ex- 
 pedition. 
 
 Buckingham, George, Duke of (jb. 1627, 
 d. IGi^Si), son of the preceding, fought on 
 the Eoyalist side during the Civil war, but 
 after the battle of Worcester he fled to the 
 Continent. In 1657 he returned and 
 married Lord Fairfax's daughter, and 
 under Charles II. was given several 
 ajipointmeuts. He was one of the famous 
 '• Cabal" ministry, and with them was dis- 
 missed in 1674. 
 
 Buckingham, James Silk {b. 1786, d. 
 1855), traveller and politician, after an 
 adventurous life went to India, and es- 
 tablished a newspaper in Calcutta, which 
 was suppressed by the East India Company. 
 Returning to England he lectured against 
 the company's monopoly, and his losses 
 were made good by public subscriptions. 
 He established the Athenceum and wrote 
 many books of travel, and from 1832 to 
 1837 sat for Sheifield in Parliament. 
 
 Buckland, Frank Trevelyan Q). 1826, d. 
 1880), surgeon, was a naturalist at heart, 
 and his appointment in 1866 as in- 
 spector of fisheries gave him every 
 opportxmity for gi-atifying his intense love 
 of animals and their habits. In his 
 official capacity he visited nearly every part 
 of the coast and all the salmon rivers. He 
 strove vigorously to acclimatise foreign 
 animals suitable for food or sport in this 
 country, and his house was a museum of 
 natiiral history, mostly living. The results 
 of his researches are to be found scattered 
 about ia innumerable short papers in the 
 magazines and newspapers, in his Curiosities 
 of Natural History, and in the memories of 
 many warm friends and admirers. 
 
 Buckland, William, F.R.S. {b. 1784, d. 
 185G), the founder of Enijlish geology, 
 was a fellow of Corpus Christi, Oxon, and 
 a canon of Christ Church. In 1819 he 
 occupied the newly formed readership of 
 geology in Oxford, and in this position 
 conducted researches on the palseoutology 
 of the Reading beds, and the formation of 
 the coal and the glacial period strata. He 
 accumulated the collection known as the 
 "Buckland Museum," Oxford, and was 
 the author of the Bridgewater treatise on 
 Geology and Mineralogy with reference to 
 Natural Theology, which was afterwards 
 revised by his son. 
 
 Buckle, George Earle {b. 1854), was a
 
 JBUC 
 
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 Bill 
 
 scholar of Winchester College and New 
 College, Oxon. He obtained a double first in 
 classics and history, and was elected a 
 feUow of All Souls'. Adopting journalism 
 as a profession, he became first attached to 
 the Mancheater Guardian, and afterwards 
 wrote for the Times. On the death of Pro- 
 fessor Chenery in 1884 he became the editor 
 of the Times, having for some time occupied 
 the post of assistant editor. 
 
 Buckle, Hem-y Thomas {b. 1821, d. 1862), 
 historian. In 1857 the first volume of his 
 History of Civilisation in Europe appeared, 
 and was very well received. The secoud 
 volume, published in 1861, found too an ap- 
 preciative public, but in 1862 his health 
 gave way, and he died leaving his work un- 
 completed. 
 
 Buokstone, John Baldwin (b. 1802, d. 
 1879), actor and playwright, was the author 
 of many plays of the weU-known Adelphi 
 type. The Green Bushes and The Flowers of 
 the Forest among them. He was the author 
 too of many farces and " genre " pieces, of 
 which class Good for Nothing and Thi Rough 
 Diamond are excellent specimens. 
 
 Buffet, Louis Joseph {h. 1818), French 
 statesman, returned for his department of 
 the Vosges in 1848, became minister of com- 
 merce under Louis Napoleon. Having 
 retired from pubUc life for some years, he 
 became in 1870 minister of finance, and 
 in 1873 president of the Assembly. 
 
 Buffon, Jean Louis Leclerc, Comte de 
 (6. 1707, d. 1788), French naturalist, 
 after a tour in Italy and England 
 became known for his scientific investiga- 
 tions, and was admitted to the Academy 
 of Sciences. In 1739 he was appointed 
 intendant of the Jardin du Eoi at Paris, 
 and in 1749 published the first volume of his 
 monumental work, L'Flisioire Naturelh, 
 which secured to him a place in the front 
 rank of men of science. In 1753 he was 
 admitted to the Academy, and in 1776 he 
 was created a count. Builon only completed 
 the mineralogical and a portion of the zoo- 
 logical section of his Histoire Naturelle ; 
 but the work was accompanied by several 
 Bupfjlements, including his Epochs of Nature. 
 
 Bugeaud de la Piconnerie, Thomas 
 Robert, DucD'Isly(i. 1784, rf. 1849), French 
 general, rose rapidly during the Napoleonic 
 campaigns, and after Waterloo won a brilliant 
 victory at L'Hopital, on the Is^re, over 
 a greatly superior force of Austrians. After 
 the 1830 revolution he entered the Chamber 
 of Deputies, and in 1836 went to Algeria in 
 command of the French forces. In 1841 he 
 was appointed governor-general of Algeria, 
 and for his successful campaigns against 
 Morocco was created marshal of France and 
 Due D'IsIy. He died of cholera. 
 
 Bugenhagen, Johann (6. 1485, d. 1558), 
 German scholar and reformer, a convert o£ 
 Luther, whom he aided in his translation 
 of the Bible. In 1537 he organised the 
 chm-ch in Denmark. 
 
 Bugge, Thomas {h. 1740, d. 1815), Danish 
 astronomer, was professor of astronomy 
 at Copenhagen, and perpetual secretary 
 of the Society of Sciences in Denmark. 
 He left much valuable writing. 
 
 Bulgaria, Alexander I., Prince of. [See 
 
 Alexander.] 
 
 BuU, John Q). 1563, d. 1628), English 
 musical composer of some celebrity, in 1591 
 was appointed organist of the Chapel 
 Eoyal ; in 1595, professor of music at 
 Gresham College, and later organist to 
 James I. In 1617 he went to Holland, 
 where he remained till his death. He is 
 supposed to be the composer of the National 
 Anthem. 
 
 BuU, Ole Bornemann (3. 1810, d. 1880), 
 Norwegian violinist, and follower of 
 Paganini. 
 
 Buller, Sir Redvers {h. 1839), soldier, 
 first saw service in the China war of 
 1860. In 1870 he took part in the Red 
 River expedition, and in 1874 in the 
 Ashantee war. In 1879 he was sent on 
 special service to the Cape, held command 
 of the Frontier Light Horse in the Kaffir 
 war of 1878-9, and served with great gal- 
 lantry in the Zulu war. He was present at 
 Tel-el-Kebir, at El Teb and Tamai, and 
 accompanied the Nile expedition of 1884, 
 In 1890 he succeeded Lord Wolseley as 
 ad j utant- general. 
 
 Biilow, Friedrich WUhelm von (i. 1775, d. 
 181C), Prussian general, obtained field- 
 marshal's rank in 1813, and by the victory at 
 Lukan saved Berlin from the French. His 
 victories at Grossbeeren and Dennewitz over 
 Oudinot and Ney respectively twice agaia 
 saved the Prussian capital at critical mo- 
 ments. He was present at Leipzig, and in 
 command of the right wing of the allies he 
 occupied the Low Cotm tries. In 1814 he 
 marched into France, and he was in com- 
 mand during the Waterloo campaign. 
 
 Biilow, Hans Guide von (5. 1830), pianist, 
 conductor and composer, best known for his 
 adherence to Wagner and Wagnerian theo- 
 ries. Of his own productions Niruana is 
 the most distinguished, but he is more re- 
 markable for his transcriptions of Wagner's 
 scores. 
 
 Bulwer, Sir Henry Ernest Gascoigne {b. 
 18y6), after filling several less imiiortant 
 positions in 1871, was in 1875 appointed 
 lieut. -governor of Natal. He protested 
 against the annexation of the Tcansvaal,
 
 Bnl 
 
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 Buo 
 
 and ag:uust the necessity of coercing the 
 Zulu kiug (Cotewayo). His appointment 
 ended in 1880, before the outbreak of war 
 with the Boers, but in 1882 he was re- 
 appointed governor of Natal. In 1885 he 
 was appointed lord high commissioner of 
 Cyprus. 
 
 Bulwer, Lytton. [See Lytton.] 
 
 Bulwer, Sir William Henry Lytton Earle 
 (b. 1804, (/. 1-8 72), diplomatist, brother of Lord 
 iij-tton, in 1843 wa>s sent as ambassador 
 to Madrid, and remained till 1848, when 
 he was ordered to leave by Narvaez. 
 He next went to Washington, where 
 he conduded the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty, 
 From 1852 to 1855 he was envoy extra- 
 ordinary to Tuscany ; and from 1857 
 to 1865 ambassador to the Porte. He sat 
 in Parliament for many years, and just 
 before his death he was raised to the 
 peerage under the title of Baron Balling 
 and Bulwer. 
 
 Bimseu, Christian Charles Josias, Baron 
 von (b. 1791, d. 1860), philosopher and 
 diplomatist, educated at G-ottingen, be- 
 came attached to the German diplomatic 
 service in Rome. Here, in addition to his 
 scholarly researches, he devoted himself to 
 the difficult task of keeping peace between 
 the Roman Catholics and Protestants of his 
 own country. In 1838 he came to England, 
 where he was some years later appointed 
 ambassador. In 1854 he resigned his post 
 and retired practically into private life at 
 Heidelberg. He was the author of several 
 important philosophical works. 
 
 Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm {b. 1811), 
 Germau chemist, in 1852 accepted the 
 post of professor at Heidelberg, where 
 he coustructed his great laboratory, and 
 founded a school of chemistry. He 
 has conducted innumerable important 
 scientific researches, and has invented 
 many special f oims of apparatus. His 
 most^ important publications are a Treatise 
 on Ga-i Analysis and Spectroscope Analy- 
 sis, but the mere list of his papers 
 forms a large catalogue. He has received 
 every distinguished scientific honour, and is 
 one of the eight foreign associates of the 
 French Academy. 
 
 Bunting-, Edward {b. 1773, d. 1843), an 
 Irish muiiuian and organist, on the oc- 
 casion of the meeting of the Irish bards in 
 1792 was commissioned to write down 
 their melodies, and he afterwards went 
 up and down the country collecting 
 the airs of old haqjists and minstrels. In 
 1840 he pubUshed the work in the compila- 
 tion of which so much of his life had been 
 spent. The Ancient Mnsic of Ireland. 
 
 Bunyan, John {b. 1628, d. 1688), author 
 
 of The Pilgrim^s Progress, was a tinker by 
 trade, belonging to a Bedfordshire family. 
 In 1656 he began to preach in Bedford as a 
 Baptist, his sei-mons being extremely popu- 
 lar. In 1600 he was committed to Bedford 
 gaol for his religious teaching, and he re- 
 mained there for twelve years. During this 
 period he wrote his Grace Abounding and 
 The Holy City. In 1672 he was released, and 
 resunied his preaching before great crowds. 
 During a second imprisonment, in 1675, he 
 wrote The Pilgrini's Progress. He built a 
 meeting house in Bedford, and annually 
 visited the Baptist congregation in London, 
 where he died. The Holy War was written 
 in 1682. 
 
 Buonarroti, Filippo {b. 1761, d. 1837), an 
 Italian patriot, at the outbreak of the 
 French revolution went to Paris, and 
 took an active part in alTairs, opposing the 
 usurpation of Napoleon. After suffering 
 some imprisonment, he became in 1830 head 
 of the " Veri Italiani " party in Paris. 
 
 Burbage, Richard {b. circa 1557, d. 1619), 
 the foremost actor of the Elizabethan stage, 
 and the original performer of Richard III., 
 Hamlet, and Othello, etc. 
 
 Burckhardt, John Ludwig (b. 1784, d. 
 1817), one of the early Eastern travellers, was 
 Swiss by bii-th, Germau by education, and 
 EngUsh by adoption. He travelled as the 
 envoy of an English association for pro- 
 moting African discovery. The East having 
 attracted him, he became Egyptian by habit 
 and language, travelling as an Eastern 
 merchant. He was the first European to 
 visit Mecca. His valuable Arabic Proverbs, 
 reprinted in 1875, are well known. 
 
 Burdett, Sir Francis (^>. 1770, d. 1844), 
 politician, was famous for his advanced 
 views, which in 1810, on the occasion of a 
 letter to his constituents commenting on the 
 right of Parliament to commit for libel, 
 resulted in the issue of a warrant by the 
 Speaker for his aiTest. In 1819 he was, for 
 a like outspoken expression of opinion, fined 
 and imprisoned. 
 
 Burdett - Coutts, Angelina Georgina, 
 Baroness (Jj. 1814), the daughter of Sir 
 Francis Burdett, succeeded in 1837 to the 
 great vrealth of her grandfather, Mr. Thomas 
 Coutts. The Shoe-black Brigade, the Nova 
 Scotia Gardens, model lodging houses, and 
 Colimibia Market are of her foundation. The 
 poor and the distressed at home and abroad 
 have had a constant benefactress in her ; the 
 East- End weavers, the Irish fishermen of 
 Cape Clear, the Turkish peasantry after the 
 Russo-Turkish war, are among those who 
 have received her help. In 1871 the Queen 
 made Miss Coutts a peeress, and in 1881 the 
 baroness married ilr. William Ashmead- 
 Bai-tlett.
 
 Bur 
 
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 Bur 
 
 Buren, Van. [See Van Buren.] 
 
 __Burg'er, Gottfried August (6. 1747, d. 
 1794), German lyric poet; Lenore and The 
 Wild Huntsman are well-known ballads of 
 his. 
 
 Surges, William, A.R.A. {b. 1827, d. 1881), 
 architect, aud a master of the Gothic style. 
 The rebuilding of Cork cathedi-al and the 
 speech-room at Harrow were after his 
 designs. 
 
 Burgess, John Bagnold {b. 1830), artist, 
 was elected an associate in 1877, and is best 
 known as a painter of Southern and Eastern 
 subjects. 
 
 Burgess, Thomas (b. 1756, d. 1837), 
 English prelate, was preferred from the 
 prebendary at Durham to the bisliopric of 
 St. David's, where he founded aud liberally 
 endowed the college of Lampeter. In 1805 he 
 was translated to the bishopric of SaUsbury. 
 
 BurgMeigli, WOliam Cecil, Lord. \See 
 Cecil.] 
 
 Burgoyne, John (Jb. 1730, d. 1792), an 
 English general and dramatic writer, in 
 17(31 entered Parliament, aud in 1772 moved 
 a vote of censure on Lord Chve. In 1775 
 he was sent to command an expedition from 
 Canada against the Americans, and was 
 compelled to sun-ender at Saratoga. On re 
 turning to England the king refused to see 
 him, whereupon he threw up all his appoint- 
 ments and joined the opposition. He was 
 given further commands afterwards, but re- 
 tired from active service in 1784. 
 
 Burke, Edmund (i. 1728, d. 1797), states- 
 man and orator, an Ii-ishman by birth, 
 graduated at Trinity College, Dublin. Com- 
 ing to Loudon, he attracted attention by 
 his essays on the Sithlime and Beautiful, and 
 devoted himself to literature, founding in 
 1759 The Annual Begiater. In 1761 he be- 
 came private secretary to Hamilton, the new 
 chief secretary for Ireland ; and served Lord 
 Rockingham in the same capacity when that 
 nobleman became prime minister. He was 
 returned to Parliament for Wendover, and 
 his speeches on American affairs created a 
 great sensation in the House of Commons. 
 His position in political life was raised still 
 higher by the pamphlets which he wrote on 
 current questions. Returned for Malton, 
 he produced in 1780 his great plan of eco- 
 nomical reform ; and in 17!^2 he became 
 paymaster under Lord Rockingham's go- 
 vernment. He again took office in the 
 Duke of Portland's coalition ministry, when 
 he made his famous speech on the India 
 bill. In the impeachment of Warren Has- 
 tings Bui'ko played a leading part, his 
 opening speech extending over four days. 
 The outbreak of the French revolution 
 was the occasion of one of his finest eft'orts 
 of oratory. Burke's attitude in this matter 
 
 severed his friendship vrith Fox, and ha 
 seceded from the Wliig party. In 1794 he 
 retired from parliamentary hfe, though he 
 continued to produce his pamphlets on 
 political affairs. 
 
 Burke, Su- John Bernard (6. 1815), Irish 
 Herald, Ulster king-of-arms in 1853 ; author 
 of several valuable works on genealogical 
 subjects. 
 
 Burke, Robert O'Hara (&. 1812, d. 1861), 
 explorer, perished with Wills in an expedition 
 across Australia. 
 
 Burke, William {d. 1828), a notorious 
 criminal, who, with Hare, murdered many 
 persons in order to provide " subjects " for 
 the Edinburgh surgeons. 
 
 Burmali, The Kings of— 
 
 (1) Mentaragyi {d. 1819). His reign is 
 remarkable for the first dispute with the 
 British, amicably settled by General Erskine. 
 
 (2) Phagyi Dan (dethroned 1837) was 
 involved in war with Britain in 1824, who 
 conquered Aracan, which was ceded as the 
 price of peace. 
 
 (3) Kounboug-men (d. 1846), usm-ped the 
 throne in 1837. He was violently anti- 
 Enghsh. 
 
 (4) Pagan-men (dethroned 1853), his 
 son, imitated his father's policy, and pre- 
 cipitated the second Burmese war in 1852. 
 It resulted in the annexation of Pegu, and 
 a revolution ended the king's reign. 
 
 (5) Meudon-meu {il. 1878). At first dis- 
 posed to be hostile towards the Indian govern- 
 ment, the king in 1862 consented to a treaty 
 (renewed 1867). British travellers, by these 
 conventions, were allowed to pass thi'ough 
 Burmah. 
 
 (6) Theebaw (b. 1859, deposed 1885) 
 signahsed his accession to the throne by 
 massacring eighty-six of his relations. 
 Affairs shortly became unbearable at 
 Maudalay, aud in 1880 a war seemed im- 
 minent. In 1882 he made a fruitless 
 attempt to negotiate a treaty, but the nego- 
 tiations broke off. In spite of a continued 
 weakening of his position, owing to internal 
 rebellions, he massacred some two himdred 
 of his subjects in 1884, and in 1885 began to 
 direct aggressive operations against British 
 commerce. An expedition was sent against 
 him in 1889, and he was deposed and 
 deported to India. 
 
 Bumaby, Frederick Gustavus {b. 1842, d. 
 1885), British officer, and an enterprising 
 and daring traveller, was best known 
 from his ride to Khiva on horseback. He 
 was attached to the expedition to the 
 Eastern Soudan, aud fought and was 
 wounded at El Teh. He was killed at Abu 
 Klea, the first battle of the Nile expedition, 
 
 Bumand, Francis Cowley (i. 1837), 
 journalist, barrister by profession, became
 
 Bur 
 
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 Biir 
 
 a writer of farce and humorous literatTire 
 by choice. In 18S0 he succeeded Mr. Tom 
 Taylor as editor of Funeh. Happy Thoughts 
 are' among his happiest elf orts ; and the 
 farces, Ixion, Black-eyed Susan, and the 
 plays, Betsy, The Colonel, and Artful Cards, 
 among the most successful of his dramatic 
 works. 
 
 Burne- Jones, Edward, (6. 1833), painter, 
 early fell under the influence of the pre- 
 Eaphaelite Brotherhood, and his paintings 
 ai-e marked by the mediaevalism and realism 
 of that school. He was elected an associate 
 of the Royal Academy in 1885. 
 
 Blirnes, Sir Alexander {b. 1805, d. 1841), 
 an explorer of Central Asia, entered the 
 service of the East India Company at 
 sixteen, and became known as an explorer 
 of the north-west frontier. In 1836 he 
 undertook a mission to Cabul, and remained 
 at his post tiU assassinated. 
 
 Bumet, Gilbert {b. 1643, d. 1715), 
 bishop of the English Church, in 1669 
 became professor of divinity at Glas- 
 gow, and having declined a Scottish 
 bishopric, came to London, publishing in 
 1679 the first volume of his History of the 
 Eeformation in England. Charles II. offered 
 him the see of Chichester, but he refused, 
 and was soon after dismissed from his offtces. 
 Under James II. he went to the Continent, 
 and became a chief adviser of William of 
 Orange. He returned to England with 
 "William, and was ordained bishop of Salis- 
 bury'. 
 
 Bumet, John, E.R.S. (6. 1784, d. 1868), 
 painter and engraver. It is in the latter 
 capacity he is chiefly known, and most 
 of the engravings of Wilkie's pictures 
 are by him. His most successful painting 
 was Greenwich Hospital and Naval Heroes, 
 a companion to Wilkie's Chelsea Pensioners. 
 
 Burnett, Frances Hodgson {b. 1849), 
 American authoress, became first knowii as 
 a contributor to the American magazines, 
 and most of her sketches and stories, 
 including That Lass of Zowrie's, and one 
 fine novel, Through One Administration, 
 have been republished from them. Among 
 other works are the Little Lord FauntU- 
 roy, A Fair Barbarian, and the drama, 
 Esmeralda. 
 
 Bumey, Frances. [See D'Arblay.] 
 
 Bumouf, Eugene {b. 1801, d. 18o;2), an 
 eminent Orientalist, was an authority on 
 the Zend language, and translated several 
 important Buddhist manuscripts. 
 
 Bums, Robert {b. 1759, d. 1796), Scottish 
 poet, was the son of an Ayrshire farmer, 
 and with his brothers worked on the 
 farm. His first volume of poems was 
 
 pubhshed ia 1786, and attracted much 
 attention. Burns being invited to Edinburgh 
 and made much of by literary society. At 
 this time he was on the point of emigrating 
 to Jamaica. In 1788 he married Jean 
 Armour, and in 1789 became an excise 
 oflicer, as well as a farmer in Dumfriesshire. 
 In 1791, fanning not being profitable, he re- 
 moved to Dumfries, where he continued his 
 post in the excise, and wrote poems for the 
 Edinburgh publishers. The irregularities 
 which had marked his earher life returned 
 in his later days, and accelerated his death. 
 
 Bumside, Ambrose Everett {h. 1824, d. 
 1881), general in the U.S. army, early 
 distinguished himself in border warfare, 
 and in the Civil war was present at the 
 battles of Bull Run, South Mountain, and 
 Antietam. He was defeated by the Con- 
 federates at Petersburg, but held command 
 of the 9th army corps, under Grant, until 
 Lee's surrender. 
 
 Burr, Aaron (*. 1756, d. 1836), a vice- 
 president of the United States, distin- 
 guished himself in the war of independence. 
 In 1807 he was arrested on a charge of con- 
 spiracy. It was supposed that he aimed to 
 separate the Western States from the Union 
 and annex them to Mexico, but he was ac- 
 quitted. Coming to Europe, he was ordered 
 to leave England for endeavouring to pro- 
 mote a fllibusteiing expedition against 
 Mexico. He returned to America in 1812, 
 and spent the rest of his life in retirement. 
 
 Burritt, Elihu {b. 1811, d. 1879), an 
 eminent American peace advocate. A black- 
 smith by trade, he devoted himself to the 
 study of languages, acquiring a mastery of 
 twenty-three. In 1845 he visited England, 
 and established his "Leagues of Universal 
 Brotherhood," and he was mainly instru- 
 mental in summoning several peace con- 
 gresses. He was appointed U.S. consul at 
 Birmingham, and wrote many works. 
 
 Burrows, Sir George {b. 1800, d. 1887), a 
 distinguished physician, was educated at 
 Caius College. Cambridge, of which college 
 he became fellow and mathematical tutor. 
 He was five times president of the Royal 
 College of Physicians, and in 1873 became 
 one of the physicians-iu-ordinary to the 
 Queen. He is the author of several medical 
 works. 
 
 Burton, John Hill {b. 1809, d. 1881), 
 historian, from 1833 a contributor to the 
 Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews and 
 Blackwood's Mafaztne, his first inde- 
 pendent work was the Life and Correspon- 
 dence of Dtirid Hume. The main work of his 
 life was The History of Scotland from the 
 Lnvasion of Agricola to the Revolution of 
 1688. In 1878 he was appointed historio- 
 grapher royal for Scotland.
 
 Bux 
 
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 BVLX 
 
 Bur.on, Sir Eichard Francis (i. 1821, d. 
 ISyu), traveller, linguist, and author, in 
 1842 entered the East India Company's 
 service, and in India explored the Neilgherry 
 Hills, and acquired an extensive knowledge 
 of the Eastern languages. He visited, dis- 
 guised as a dervish, Medina and Mecca. In 
 18oS, with Speke, he discovered Lake Tan- 
 ganyika, and later explored the highlands 
 of Brazil. He visited besides Utah, Palestine, 
 Fernando Po, and the Gold Coast, wherever 
 he went extending our geographical know- 
 ledge and increasing his store of iiifonnation. 
 He has written several boots of travel, and 
 a most scholarly translation of the Arabian 
 Xights. 
 
 Burton, Robert {b. 1576, d. 1640), 
 English clergyman and writer, celebrated as 
 the author of The Anatomy of Melancholy . 
 His life was one of retirement, spent at his 
 vicarage in Leicestershire or at Oxford. 
 His book appeared in 1621. 
 
 Busby, Eichard {h. 1606, d. 1695), head- 
 master of Westminster School, 1640. 
 
 Bussy, Charles Joseph Patissier, Marquis de 
 {h. 1718, d. 1785), French officer, celebrated 
 for his connection with India ; his influence 
 became paramount in the Deccan by his 
 services to the Nizam Salabout Jung, whom 
 he had placed on the throne. The Nizam 
 attempted once to dismiss liim, but was com- 
 pelled to seek a reconcihation ; and Bussy 
 would have been able to assert French pre- 
 dominance over a great part of India had he 
 not been recalled to Pondicherry. In 1760 
 he was taken prisoner by the English, but 
 in 1783 he returned to India, and com- 
 manded the French forces there till his death. 
 
 Bute, John Stuart, third Earl of (6. 1713, , 
 d. 1792), was entrusted with the education ! 
 of George III., on whose accession he 
 became a secretary of state. In 1762 he 
 formed a ministry, which proved highly un- 
 popular, and only lasted a short time. 
 
 Butler, Elizabeth, Lady {b. 1843), an 
 artist, as Miss Thompson became known for \ 
 her series of brilliant paintings of military ; 
 subjects. Her first picture at the Eoyal ! 
 Academy was Mitssmg (1873), and it was | 
 followed by the Roll Call (1874), Quatre ] 
 Bras, BaJaclara. and others. She married 
 Colonel Sir W. F. Butler in 1877. 
 
 Butler, Joseph (6. 1692, d. 17o2), 
 English divine, and celebrated as the author 
 of Tlie Analogy of Iteligion, Natural and 
 Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of 
 Nature. After ordination he became 
 preacher to the Eolls, and in 1725 was 
 preferred to the benefice of Stanhope, where 
 for some years he lived in close retirement, 
 engaged in the preparation of his great 
 work. In 1733 he became chaplain to 
 
 the Lord Chancellor, and a prebend in 
 Eochester, and in 1738 was ordained 
 bishop of Bristol. In 1750 he was trans- 
 ferred to the see of Durham, where he ex- 
 cited some accusations of Popish tendencies. 
 
 Butler, Samuel (*. 1612, d. 1680), English 
 satirist, in his seventeenth year became 
 attached to the household of the Earl 
 of Kent, when he frequently attended 
 meetings at the house of a Sir Samuel Luke, 
 a strict Puritan and Parliamentarian. The 
 experiences of this time furnished him with 
 the material for his famous work, Hudihras, 
 the first part of which appeared in 1663, and 
 achieved the widest popularity. Two other 
 parts of the work appeared at intei-vals, but 
 of Butler's life during that time little is 
 known. 
 
 Butt, Isaac, Q.C., M.P. {b. 1812, d. 
 1879), the leader of the Irish Home Rule 
 party from 1872 until he was superseded 
 by Parnell. He first entered Parliament 
 in 1852 as a pohticiau of emphatically 
 Conservative opinions. He retired from 
 Parliament for sis years, but at the 
 end of that time reajipeared (representing 
 Limerick) as the head of the knot of Pro- 
 testants who in 1872 started the Home Eule 
 movement. Beyond a speech of polished 
 oratory at the beginning of each sessiou in 
 exposition of his party's demands, he proved 
 a supine leader. A more determined sec- 
 tion, however, headed by Pamell, ousted 
 him from his leadership, and his career, 
 honourable as it undoubtedly was, ended in 
 something very like failure. 
 
 Button, Sir Thomas, an English navigator 
 of the time of James I., in 1812 was 
 sent by the merchants of Loudon on an ex- 
 pedition to the Arctic regions, and he was 
 the first to cross the entire extent of 
 Hudson's Bay, and to sight the Nelson 
 river. 
 
 Buxhowden, Frederick William, Count of 
 {h. 1750, d. 1811), Russian general, greatly 
 distinguished himself in the Swedish and 
 Polish wars, and was made governor of 
 Poland. He had to fly to Gemiany, having 
 lost the Emperor Paul's favour, but he was 
 restored to his honours by Alexander. He 
 held important commands during the French 
 wars, and later conquered Finland. 
 
 Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell {b. 1786, d. 
 184.5), became known in 1816 as the 
 champion of the Spitalfields poor, and 
 shortly afterwards was associated in an 
 inquiry into the state of prisons, which 
 ultimately led to all the great improvements 
 in gaol management. He was the successor 
 of Wilberforce in his efforts to secure the 
 emancipation of the slaves of the West 
 Indies. He entered Parliament in 1818, 
 and was created a baronet in 1840.
 
 Byn 
 
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 Cab 
 
 Byng, Sir George, Viscount Torrington 
 (b. 1663, d. 1733), a British admiral, after 
 much distinguished service commanded 
 the fleet which captured Gibraltar, and tool? 
 part in the battle off Malaga. In 1718 he 
 was appointed to the command of the 
 Mediterranean fleet, and totallj' defeated 
 the Spaniards, forcing them to quit Sicily. 
 On his return he was made a peer, and in 
 1727 appointed first lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 Byng, John (b. 1704, d. 1757), British 
 admiral and son of the preceding, in 1747 
 was appointed to the command of the 
 Mediterranean fleet, and in 1756 was 
 sent out with a small fleet to relieve 
 Minorca, which was threatened by a power- 
 ful French fleet. When he arrived the 
 French had landed in force, and it was 
 decided to retire in face of the great 
 superiority of the enemy. However, an 
 indecisive action was fought ; and for this 
 Byng was court- martialled on his return 
 and shot on his own quarter-deck. 
 
 Byron, George Noel Gordon, Lord (b. 
 1788, d. 1824), poet, his early years were 
 spent in Scotland, and in 1798 he succeeded 
 his grand-uncle the " wicked Lord Byron." 
 He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, 
 leaving the university in 1808. In 1807 he 
 ■published Hours of Idleness, and in 1809 he 
 left England to travel in Eastern Europe. 
 In 1812 the first two cantos of Childe 
 Harold were published, at once establishiug 
 Byron's reputation. Between this and 1815 
 several otlier poems were published, and 
 Byron took a fitful interest in politics. In 
 1815 he married Miss Milbanke. The 
 tmion proved most unfortunate, and in 1816 
 they were separated, and Byron again left 
 England. He settled in Switzerland, where 
 
 he wrote several of his poems, including 
 ManJ'red and several cantos of Bon Juan. 
 In 1819 he made the acquaintance of the 
 Countess Guiccioli, with whom he lived iu 
 Italy for more than three years, his poetical 
 productions during that period being 
 numerous. In 1823 he sailed from Genoa 
 in an English ship freighted with arms and 
 ammunition to help the Greeks. He 
 reached Missoloughi nest year, and ob- 
 tained considerable influence among the 
 patriots. But he was seized with fever and 
 died iu April of that year. 
 
 Byron, Henry James (*. 1835, d. 1884), 
 actor and playwright, his earliest dramatic 
 effort was a burlesque of Fra Diavalo, and 
 was the first of a number of such pieces. 
 After a time he turned his attention to 
 comedy, and produced Xot Such a Fool as 
 He Looks, and the most successful of modern 
 comedies, (Jnr Boys. Several of his pieces 
 were wiitten specially for Mr. Toole, and 
 include A Fool and His Money and The 
 Upper Crust. 
 
 Byron, John (*. 1723, d. 1786), British 
 admiral, and grandfather of the poet. He 
 sailed as a midshipman in the Wager in 
 Anson's expedition round the world in 
 1740. The JVager was lost, and the officers 
 and crew endured gi'eat sufferings in South 
 America, and the surviving remnant did not 
 reach home for five years. Byron published 
 an account of these adventures. In 1764 
 he was sent on a voyage of discovery to the 
 South Seas ; in 1769 he was appointed 
 governor of Xewfoundland, and ia 1778 
 fought an indecisive action with a French 
 fleet off Grenada. He was known as " Foul 
 Weather Jack," owing to his ill-luck ia 
 encountering heavy gales. 
 
 Caamano, Jos6 M, Placido (6. 1838), 
 president of Ecuador, banished in 1882 for 
 conspiring against the dictator-general, or- 
 ganised a revolutionary expedition in Lima, 
 and returned to Ecuador in 1883 ; assisted 
 in the storming of Guayaquil, was elected 
 president of the Eepublic in 1884, and in 
 that capacity did much to improve the in- 
 ternal condition of the country. 
 
 Cabakdji {d. 1808), Turkish commander, 
 in 1S07 led his troops to Constantinople, 
 deposed the Sultan SeUm, and proclaimed 
 Mustapha in his stead. 
 
 Cabanel, Alexandre {b. 1825, d. 1889), 
 French painter, began to exhibit in 1844; 
 in 1868 was appointed professor of paint- 
 ing in the School of Art, and taught with 
 
 success. His earlier works are chiefly on 
 scriptural subjects ; later he painted por- 
 traits and scenes from mythology. 
 
 Cabanis, Pierre Jean George (Jb. 1757, d. 
 1808), phj^sician, man of letters, and philo- 
 sophical writer, friend of Mirabeau, whose 
 political aims he shared. His chief work is 
 Des Rapports du Fhysique et du Moral de 
 VHomme. 
 
 Cabarrus, Franqois, Comte de (6. 1752, d. 
 1810), went to Spain in early life, and there 
 became minister of finance. 
 
 Cabasole, Philippe de (6. 1305, d. 1371), 
 French cardinal, friend of Petrarch, and 
 papal superintendent of Italy while the 
 popes resided at Avignon.
 
 Cab 
 
 (175) 
 
 Cad 
 
 Cabel or Kabel, Adrian van der (6. 1631, 
 d. 1095), Dutch painter, excelled in land- 
 scapes, sea-pieces, and cattle. His style 
 somewhat resembles that of Salvator Rosa. 
 
 Cabet, Etienne {b. 1788, d. 1856), founder 
 of the ''Icarians," Communists so-called 
 from his Utopian Voyage en Icarie, pub- 
 lished in 1842. In 1848 they made an at- 
 tempt to realise their ideal in the city of 
 Nauvoo in Texas, fonnerly inhabited by 
 Mormons, Cabet being appointed ruler ; the 
 settlement did not survive his death. 
 
 Cabeza de Vacca, Alvar Nunez, Spanish 
 traveller, was appointed governor of La 
 Plata in 15139, and left an account of 
 Paraguay. 
 
 Cabezalero, Juan Martin de (b. 1633, d. 
 1673), Spanish historical painter of high 
 reputation. His chief works are in Madrid, 
 where he painted for the churches and 
 convents. 
 
 Cable, George "W. (h. 1844), American 
 author, has written Old Creole Bayn (1879), 
 Dr. Sevier (1883), and other novels, giving 
 a graphic picture of Creole and negro Life. 
 
 Cabot, John (6. 1420, d. circa 1498), ori- 
 ginally a Venetian pilot, settled in Bristol 
 about 1472, obtained letters patent from 
 Henry VII. to discover unknown lands, 
 sailed with his sons in 1497, and sighted the 
 coast of Newfoundland or Labrador and 
 Florida. 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian (6. 1473 or 77, d. 1557), 
 son of the preceding, accompanied his father 
 in 1497 ; was in the service of Spain from 
 1512 to 1548, except for a visit to England in 
 1516-19 ; led an expedition to Brazil in 1526, 
 and visited the river La Plata, remaining 
 four years, but failed to effect the conquest 
 of the country. After his return to Eng- 
 land he founded the Company of Mer- 
 chant Adventurers to trade with Russia. 
 
 Cabral, Pedro Alvarez {b. circa 1460, d. 
 circa lo26), Portuguese navigator, in 1500 
 established a factory at Calicut, and on his 
 way thither discovered Brazil 
 
 Cabrera, Bernard de {d. 1364), Spanish 
 statesman, minister of Pedro IV. of Ara- 
 gon, conquered Majorca, and defeated the 
 Genoese fleet, but losing favour ■w^th the 
 king, was beheaded. 
 
 Cabrera, Don Ramon (6. 1810, d. 1877), 
 Count de Morella and Duke de la Vit- 
 toria, entered the Church, but when civil 
 war broke out, on the death of Ferdinand 
 yn., in 1833, joined Don Carlos, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his cruelty to the 
 adherents of Christina. Completely defeated 
 by General Espartero in 1840, and severely 
 
 wounded at Pasteral in 1849, he left Spain, 
 and passed the remainder of his Ufe in 
 foreign countries. 
 
 CabriUo, Juan Rodriguez {d. 1543), 
 Portuguese navigator, discovered Santa 
 Cruz, Santa Rosa, and other islands. 
 
 Caccia, Gugliebno {b. 1568, d. 1625), 
 Italian fresco-painter, named Moncalvo, 
 from his place of residence. His mastei-piece 
 is the I)(positio)t from the Cross at No vara. 
 Other of his works are in Milan and Pavia. 
 
 Caccini, Giulio {h. circa 1560, d. circa 
 1610), Italian musician, composed several 
 melodramatic works. 
 
 Cada-Mosto, Ahase (Luigi) (J. 1432), 
 Venetian navigator in the service of the King 
 of Portugal, explored the west coast of 
 Africa, discovered the Cape Verde Islands, 
 and left an account of his voyages. 
 
 Cade, Jack {d. 1450), an Irishman who 
 assumed the name of Mortimer and headed 
 a rebellion against Lancastrian misgovem- 
 ment, probably in favour of the Duke of 
 York. He defeated the royal forces at 
 Sevenoaks, marched into London, and 
 executed Lord Say ; but his followers were 
 soon dispersed, and he himself slain. 
 
 CadeU, Francis {b. 1822, d. 1879), Austra- 
 lian explorer, in 1850 sailed many hundred 
 miles along the Murray. In consequence of 
 his observations the "Murray Steam Navi- 
 gation Company" was formed, which has 
 done much to develop the resources of 
 Australia. 
 
 Cadoc, Saint {d. circa 570), founder of 
 the Welsh monastery at Llancarvan. 
 
 Cadogan, Hon. Henry {b. 1780, d. 1813), 
 English officer, distinguished himself in the 
 Peninsular war, and was mortally wounded 
 at Vittoria. 
 
 Cadogan, William, Earl of (b. 1675, d. 
 1726), English officer, served under Marl- 
 borough at Blenheim, Ramillies, and else- 
 where. He was made commander-in-chief 
 and raised to the peerage by George I. , who 
 employed him as a diplomatist. 
 
 Cadoudal, George (*. 1771, d. 1804), a 
 famous chief of the Chouans, who with the 
 Vendeans upheld the cause of the royalists. 
 In 1800 he retired to London, but returning 
 to excite the royalists, he was acciised of 
 planning Napoleon's death, and executed. 
 
 Cadovius or Miiller, John {b. 1650, d. 
 1725), learned native of Friesland, authoi 
 of the valuable Memoriale Lingua Frisica 
 Antiqucc. 
 
 Cadroe, Scottish saint of the 10th cen- 
 tury, studied at Armagh, and journeyed
 
 Cad 
 
 (176) 
 
 Cses 
 
 through Eugland to Gaul, where he became 
 abbot" of Wassor ou the Meuse, and St. 
 Felix, uear Metz. 
 
 Cadvan, Welsh saint of the 6th century, 
 founder and first abbot of a monastery ou 
 Bardsey island. Also founded the churches 
 of Llaugadvau, in Montgomeryshire, and 
 Towyu, m Merionethshire. In the latter a 
 pillar called "St. Cadvau's Stone," with a 
 Welsh inscription, still remains. 
 
 Cadwaladyr, called Vendigaid, or "The 
 Blessed " (rf. 664 V), a king of the Britons, of 
 whom little is known. He succeeded his 
 father, Cadwallawn. 
 
 Cadwallader, John (b. Philadelphia circa 
 1743, d. 17S6), American officer, prominent 
 during the revolutionary war as a leader 
 of militia and volunteers. 
 
 Cadwalloa, a prince of North Wales in 
 the 7 th century, was constantly at war 
 with the Saxons. 
 
 Caecilius Statius {d. b.o. 168), a native of 
 Milan, wrote comedies, of which frag- 
 ments alone remain. 
 
 Caedmoa, {d. circa 680), Anglo-Saxon 
 poet, born in Northumbria, originally a 
 cow-herd, was inspired in a dream to sing 
 the story of the creation ; entered the 
 monastery of Whitby under the Abbess 
 Hilda, and was taught the story of the Old 
 and New Testaments, which he paraphrased 
 in verse. Much of the poetry attributed to 
 him is now known to be older. 
 
 Csesalpinus, Andrea (4. 1519, d. 1603), 
 Italian physician, naturalist, and adherent 
 of Aristotle, whose system he expounded in 
 his Qiicestinnes Feripateticce. He is best 
 known by his work JDe Plantis. 
 
 Caesar, Aquilinus Julius {b. Gratz, Styria, 
 1720, d. 1792), a learned antiquarian. 
 
 Caesar, Caius Julius {b. B.C. 100, d.-a.a. 44), 
 belonged to an old patrician family, but was 
 connected with the popular party through 
 his auut Julia, who married Marius, and 
 his wife Cornelia, daughter of the Marian 
 leader L. Ciuna. Proscribed by Sulla in 
 81 for refusing to put her away, he was 
 spared through the intercession of the Vestal 
 Virgins, but dreading his power, he withdrew 
 into Asia, where he served under M. Miuu- 
 cius Thermus, earning a civic crown at the 
 siege of Mityleue. On the death of Sulla 
 (B.C. 7S) he returned to Rome, and prac- 
 tised as an orator, winning much applause 
 by his prosecution of Cn. Dolabella for ex- 
 tortion in his province of Macedonia. To 
 perfect himself in oratory he repaired to 
 Khodes, but on his way there was captured 
 by pirates. After gaining his liberty by 
 
 paying a ransom of fifty talents, he fitted 
 out a squadron at Miletus, subdued the 
 pirate fleet, and caused the greater number 
 of his captives to be crucified at Pergamus. 
 He now studied for a time under Apollonius 
 at Rhodes, and, crossing over to Asia in 74, 
 collected a body of men on liis own respon- 
 sibility and defeated the general of King 
 Mithridates. Elected poutitf during his 
 absence, he returned to Rome, and became 
 successively quaestor (68), curule aedile (67), 
 and prastor (62). In 61, as proprastor 
 in Spain, he subdued the Lusitanians, 
 and on his return was elected consul, and 
 formed the coaUtion with Pompey and 
 Crassus known as the first triumvirate 
 (60) ; his union with Pompey was further 
 strengthened by the marriage of the latter 
 to his daughter Julia. During his consiil- 
 ship an agrarian law and a measure of relief 
 to the Equites increased his popularity, and 
 a bill was passed by the people granting 
 hi in the two Gauls and Illyricum for five 
 years (58—53). An interview with Pompey 
 and Crassus at Luca, in 56, resulted in the 
 extension of his government over another 
 five (to the end of 49). During the years 
 58 — 52 he defeated the Helvetii, and drove 
 Ariovistus over the Rhine (58) ; subdued 
 the Nervii (57) ; conquered the Gauls of the 
 North- West, thus completing the subjuga- 
 tion of the country (56) ; routed two Ger- 
 man tribes (55) ; tvdce visited Britain (55, 
 54), and gained some successes, though no 
 permanent settlement was made, and quelled 
 three Gallic insurrections (54, 53, 52) ; the 
 year 51 was occupied in the pacification of 
 Gaul. Meanwhile Pompey, whom the 
 death of Crassus in 54 had left his sole rival, 
 had attached himself to the senatorial party, 
 and, with them, had intrigued against him 
 in his absence. War between the two was 
 now imminent. Caesar led his army to 
 Ravenna ; the senate declared him an 
 enemy to the state unless he disbanded his 
 army by a certain day, and the consuls were 
 invested with dictatorial power. Caesar 
 crossed the Rubicon (Jan. 16, 49), marched 
 victoriously to Rome, and then pursued 
 Pompey, who had fled to Brundisium and 
 succeeded in escaping to Greece. After 
 crossing to Spain and there defeating Pom- 
 pey's lieutenants, Caesar paid a short visit 
 to Rome, where the office of dictator had 
 been conferred upon him in his absence. In 
 January, 48, Caesar, now appointed consul, 
 crossed over into Greece, where Pompey 
 had collected a formidable anny, and, 
 though repulsed at first before Dyrrachium, 
 defeated Pompey in the decisive battle of 
 Pharsalia (August, 48), and pursued him 
 into Egypt, where he was treacherously 
 assassinated by Ptolemy's generals. Fas- 
 cinated by Cleopatra, Ptolemy's sister, 
 Caesar arranged a division of the kingdom 
 between her and her brother, and then
 
 Caes 
 
 (177) 
 
 Cai 
 
 proceeded to Pontus, where he defeated 
 Phamaces, son of Mithridates, in a battle 
 near Zela. A two months' visit to Rome, 
 where he had a second time been appointed 
 dictator, was followed by a brief camjiaign 
 against Scipio and Cato in Africa, resulting 
 in the complete overthrow of the Pompeiau 
 anny at Thapsus (April, 46) ; Cato com- 
 mitted suicide at Utica. Caesar now felt 
 himself master of the Roman world, and, 
 instead of imitating the proscriptions of 
 Marius and Sulla, determined by a liberal 
 and magnanimous policy to establish his 
 government on a firm basis. He celebrated 
 four triurajihs, all for victories over foreign 
 foes ; made sumptuary enactments ; cor- 
 rected the calendar ; and was meditating 
 further reforms, when he heard of the re- 
 volt of the sons of Pompey in Spain. They 
 were defeated at Munda (March. 45). 
 Caesar returned in September, and was 
 nominated consul for ten years, and dictator 
 and prasfectus morum for life. M. Antonius 
 shared the consulship in 44, and M. Lepidus 
 was made master of the horse. It is prob- 
 able, from the schemes he is known to have 
 planned, that Caesar would have proved a 
 beneficent ruler if his Hfe had not been 
 abruptly closed. Whatever may have been 
 his motive in inducing Antonius to offer him 
 the diadem at the feast of Lupercalia, it 
 aroused the indignation of C. Cassius Lon- 
 ginus, who, in conjunction with M. Junius 
 Brutus and others, assassinated him at the 
 foot of Pompey's statue on the Ides of March 
 (March 15), in the year 44, Of Caesar's 
 literary works, the Commentaries, containing 
 accounts of the Gallic and civil wars, alone 
 remain. 
 
 Csesaxius (4. 470, d. 542), prelate, who, 
 as bishop of Aries, presided at several 
 councils, and did much to restore the dis- 
 cipline of the Church. 
 
 Caffa, Melchior {b. 1631, d. 1687), Italian 
 sculptor, pupil of Bernini ; many of his works 
 are to be seen in the churches of Rome. 
 
 CafiFarelli, Fran9oi8 Marie Auguste (b.l 766, 
 d. 1849), entered the republican army as a 
 private dragoon, commanded a division at 
 Austerlitz, and in 1831 was made a peer of 
 France. 
 
 CaffareUi du Falga, Louis Marie Joseph 
 Maximilien {b. 1756, d. 1799), French 
 officer of engineers, brother of the preced- 
 ing, served in the campaign under Jourdan 
 in 1795, and commanded the engineers in 
 the expedition to Egypt. He was mortally 
 wounded while conducting the investment 
 of St. Jean d'Acre. 
 
 Cafifaro (/;. 1080, d. 1166), Italian chroni- 
 cler, whose history of Genoa throws much 
 light on the part taken by the Italian re- 
 publics in the Crusades. 
 M 
 
 Cafferty, James H. (5. 1819, d. 1869), 
 American painter of portraits and still life, 
 became an academician in 1853. 
 
 Cagliari, Benedetto (b. 1538, d. 1598), 
 painter of the Venetian school, brother of 
 Paolo Veronese, also famed for his skill in 
 architecture. 
 
 Cagliari, Carletto {b. 1570, d. 1596), son 
 and pupil of Paolo, gave promise of great 
 excellence, but died at an early age. 
 
 Cagliari, Paolo. [See Veronese, Paolo.] 
 
 Cagliostro, Alessandro (b. 1743, d. 1795), 
 adventurer, endowed with a remarkable 
 aptitude for enforcing belief. After im- 
 proving his skill in charlatanism by a 
 journey in the East, he assumed the title 
 of Coimt, and married a Neapolitan, Lo- 
 renza Feliciani, with whom he travelled 
 over a great part of Europe, pretending to 
 have discovered the philosopher's stone, the 
 water of beauty, etc. He was a protege of 
 Cardinal de Rohan, and was concerned in 
 the affair of the diamond necklace. Im- 
 prudently returning to Rome in 1789, he 
 was detected, seized, and imprisoned for 
 life. 
 
 ^^Cagniard de la Tour, Charles, Baron (*. 
 1777, d. 1859), French physicist, made nu- 
 merous and valuable researches in mechanics, 
 chemistry, and physics. 
 
 Cagnola, Luigi, Marquis of (b. 1762, d. 
 1833), Italian architect, who, besides other 
 works, designed the Arch of Peace at Milan 
 commemorating the marriage of Eugene 
 Beauhamais, said to be the finest modem 
 specimen of its kind. 
 
 Cagnoli, Antonio (b. 1743, d. 1816), 
 distinguished astronomer and professor of 
 mathematics at Modena, left several works 
 on trigonometry and other mathematical 
 subjects. 
 
 Cahen, Samuel {b. 1796, d. 1862), of 
 Jewish descent, became director of a Jewish 
 school at Paris, and there completed a 
 translation of the Bible. 
 
 Caber B'illali, Abu Mansoor Mohammed 
 {d. 950), nineteenth caliph of the Abassides, 
 succeeded his brother in 922, but after two 
 years was displaced and blinded, and spent 
 the rest of his life in great want. 
 
 Caiet, Pierre Victor Palma {b. 1525, d. 
 1610), French divine and author of historical 
 and controversial works. For many years 
 a Calvinistic minister, he became in old 
 age a convert to Roman Catholicism, and 
 was in consequence charged with immorality 
 and the practice of magic. 
 
 Caigniez, Louis Charles {b. 1762, d. 1842), 
 French dramatic author. Amons his best
 
 Cai 
 
 ( 178 
 
 Caj 
 
 works are Le Jugement de Salomon and Za 
 Fie Voleuse. 
 
 Cailliava de lEstendoux, Jean Frangois 
 {h. 1731, d. I8I0), French writer of comedies, 
 wiiose best piece was V Eijo'iame. He was 
 an admirer and imitator of Moli^re. 
 
 Caillaxd, Antoine Bernard {h. 1737, d. 
 1807), French diplomatist and man of 
 letters, author of Memoires sur la Eevolution 
 de Hollande, 
 
 CaiUe, Rene {b. 1799, d. 1838), French 
 traveller, starting from Sierra Leone in 
 April, 1827, disguised in Arab costume, 
 made his way through unexplored regions to 
 Timbuctoo, and thence to Fez, which he 
 reached in August, 1828, thus obtaining the 
 prize of 10,000 francs offered to the fii-st 
 traveller who should visit Timbuctoo. 
 
 Caillet, Guillaimie, French peasant, 
 headed the rising of La Jacquerie in the 
 south of France in 1358, and was captured 
 by Charles of Navarre and executed. 
 
 Cailliaud, Fr^d^ric (J. 1787, d. 1869), 
 French explorer of Upper Egypt, in 1815 
 traced the course of the Upper Nile into 
 Nubia, and discovered the ancient emerald 
 mines of Moimt Zabareh. From 1820 to 
 1823 he explored the site of Meroe and the 
 temple of Antmon, and has written on the 
 life and manners of the ancient and modern 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Caillot, Joseph {b. 1732, d. 1816), French 
 comic actor; he retired from the stage in 
 1772. 
 
 Cain, the eldest son of Adam and Eve, 
 and the murderer of his brother Abel. 
 
 Caird, The Rev. John {b. 1820), principal 
 of Glasgow University, an eloquent preacher 
 of the Scotch Established Church, has pub- 
 lished sermons and An Introduction to the 
 Philosophy of Religion (1880), which shows 
 the influence of Hegel. 
 
 Caimes, John Elliott {b. 1824, d. 
 1875), professor of political economy at 
 Queen's CoUege, Galway, and afterwards 
 at University College, London, wrote The 
 Logical Method of Folitical Economy, and 
 other treatises marked by severe precision 
 of argument. 
 
 Calms, Hugh MacCalmont, Earl (b. 1819, 
 d. I880), Lord High Chancellor of Great 
 Britain, graduated at Trinity College, Dub- 
 lin, and was called to the Enghsh bar in 
 1844. Elected member of Parliament for 
 BeKast, he soon became known as a ready 
 and eloquent debater, was Solicitor-General 
 in Lord Derby's administration of 1858, and 
 in 1866 Attorney-General. The following 
 year he was raised to the peerage as Baron 
 
 Cairns of Garmoyle, and in Mr. Disraeli'i 
 administration (1868) became Lord Chan- 
 cellor. He opposed the disestablishment of 
 the Irish Church with much ability. Ap- 
 pointed leadei of the opposition in the 
 House of Lords, he originated the scheme 
 for the fusion of law and equity, after- 
 wards canied into effect by Lord Sel- 
 borne; and to him are also due the Con- 
 veyancing Bill (1881) and the Settled Estates 
 Bill (1882). He was again Lord Chancellor 
 1874-80. In 1878 he was created Vis- 
 count Garmoyle, and Earl Cairns in the 
 peerage of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Cairo, Cavaliere Francesco (b. 1598, 
 d. 1674), Italian painter, studied at 
 Milan, Rome and Venice, and thus had 
 three styles at his command. His picture 
 of Saint Theresa at Venice, and that of the 
 Virgin in the chapel of the Chartreuse at 
 Pavia, are much admired. 
 
 Cairoli, Benedetto (b. 1826, d. 1889), Italian 
 statesman, served as a volunteer in the 
 revolution of 1848, and also agaiast the 
 Austrians (1859-1866), was appointed pre- 
 mier in 1878, and was subsequently mioister 
 of the interior. In 1878 he saved the king 
 from assassination. Since his final retire- 
 ment in 1881 Cairoli has been one of the 
 leaders of the " Historic " Left. 
 
 Cait-Bey (d. 1495), seventeenth sultan of 
 the Circassian dynasty of Mamelukes in 
 Egypt and Syria, originally a slave, came 
 to the throne in 1457, and after a struggle of 
 six years secured his dominions against the 
 Ottomans. 
 
 Caius, Csesar (b. b.c. 20, d. a.d. 4), 
 Roman general, son of Marcus Agrippa 
 and Julia, daughter of Augustus, served in 
 Germany under Tiberius, and afterwards 
 fought with success against the Arabians, 
 Armenians, and Parthians, but died when 
 only twenty -three. 
 
 Caius, John Q>. 1510, d. 1573), studied at 
 Gonville Hall, Cambridge, and became 
 president of the College of Physicians ; was 
 also royal physician, and bequeathed his 
 fortune to build a new college to Gonville 
 Hall, which then became Gonville and 
 Caius College. 
 
 Caius, Saint {d. 296) , native of Dahnatia, 
 and nephew of Diocletian, became pope in 
 283. 
 
 Caius, Thomas {d. 1572), master of Uni- 
 versity College, Oxford, translated Euripides, 
 Aristotle, Erasmus, etc., and also wrote on 
 the antiquities of the college. 
 
 Cajetan, Cardinal, Thomas de Vio (i. 
 1469, d. 1534), ItaUan ecclesiastic, became 
 general of the Dominican order 1508, and 
 papal legate in Germany 1518, when Luther
 
 Cal 
 
 (179) 
 
 Cal 
 
 was summoned before him at Augsburg to 
 retract his opinion on indulgences. 
 
 Calamis, Greek scidptor of the 5th cen- 
 tury B.C., left a Bacchus f a Fenus, and 
 many other works. 
 
 Calamy, Edmund {b. 1600, d. 1666), 
 clergyman of the Church of England, in 
 consequence of the Book of Sports became 
 a bitter Nonconformist, and was one of the 
 Prssbyterian representatives at the Savoy 
 Conference. He was steadily opposed to 
 the death of Charles I. 
 
 Calancha, Frey Antonio de la, Peruvian 
 wiiter of the early half of the 17th century, 
 and prior of a convent in TruxiUo, wrote 
 on the antiquities of his coimtry. 
 
 Calandra, Giovanni Battista {b. 1568, d. 
 1644), worker in mosaic, employed by 
 Urban VIIX to replace with mosaics some 
 paintings in St. Peter's which were injured 
 by damp. 
 
 Calandrelli, Ludovico {b. 1817, d. 1859), 
 Italian officer of artillery, took a biilliant 
 part in the defence of Home against the 
 French, and on the fall of that city retired 
 to Berlin. 
 
 Calandrucci, Giacinto ib. 1646, d. 1707), 
 painter of note, pupil of Carlo Maratti at 
 Rome, executed some valuable works for 
 the churches and convents of Palermo. 
 
 Galas, Jean {b. 1698, d. 1762), Pro- 
 testant citizen of Toulouse, cruelly put to 
 death on a charge of strangling his son to 
 prevent his becoming a Roman Catholic ; 
 his innocence was afterwards estabhshed. 
 
 Calcagnini, Celio {b. Ferrara, 1479, <^. 
 1541), learned man who combined with 
 military and diplomatic business the study 
 of literature and science, and forestalled 
 GaHleo in discovering the earth's motion. 
 
 Calcar, Johann Stephan von {b. 1499, d. 
 1546), pupil of Titian, to whom many of 
 his paintings have been attributed. He 
 also imitated Raphael with considerable 
 success. 
 
 Calceolari, Franqoie, an Italian botanist 
 and apothecary of Verona in the 16th 
 century, left a treatise on the flora of Moimt 
 Baldo, entitled Iter Baldi Montis. The 
 calceolaria was named in his honour. 
 
 Calchi, Tristan (b. 1462, d. 1516), called 
 the " Livy of Milan," wrote a history of 
 Milan to 1323, entitled Historia Patrice. 
 
 Caldara, Antonio (b. 1678, d. 1763), 
 musical composer and author of operas, 
 went to Rome and to Vienna, where he 
 taught the emperor Charles VI. 
 
 Caldas, Francisco Jose de (jb. circa 1770, 
 d. 1816), American scientifit, measured 
 h2 
 
 the heights of Chimborazo and Timgu- 
 eragua, and was director of the observatory 
 at Bogota. He espoused the cause of in- 
 dependence, and was executed by Morillo. 
 
 Caldecott, Randolph (*. 1846, d. 1886), 
 artist unrivalled in the representation of 
 htimour in animals, and scenes of old- 
 fashioned country life, best known from 
 his illustrated books for children. In 1882 
 he became a member of the Institute of 
 Painters in' Water Colours, and occasionally 
 exhibited in the Royal Academy. 
 
 Calder, Sir Robert {b. 1745, d. 1818), 
 EngUsh admu-al, served with distinction in 
 the battle off Cape St. Vincent. In 1805 he 
 encountered the French and Spanish fleet 
 with a greatly inferior force, and though 
 he took two of the enemy's ships, was 
 reprimanded for not continuing the combat. 
 
 Calderon, Don Serafin Estevan {b. 
 1801, d. 1867), Spanish poet, and pro- 
 fessor of poetry and rhetoric at Granada, 
 wrote Poesias del Solitario, Christianas y 
 Moriscos, and other works. 
 
 Calderon, Philip Hermogenes, R.A. (J. 
 Poitiers, 1833), historical and subject 
 painter, has exhibited By Babylon^ s Waters 
 (1853), Whither (1868), Home they brought 
 her Warrior Dead (1877), St. EUzabeth oj 
 Hungary (1891), and many other pictures, 
 in the Royal Academy. 
 
 Calderon de la Barca, Don Pedro {b. 1600, 
 d. 1681), Spanish dramatist, educated at the 
 Jesuit college at Madrid, and the imiversity 
 of Salamanca. His mind early assumed a 
 religious cast, first shown in the drama La 
 Devocion de la Cruz, vrritten at the age of 
 eighteen. WhUe serving against the Mila- 
 nese in the Low Countries he wrote the 
 Siege of Breda, and on the death of Lope 
 de Vega, in 1635, became the leading poet 
 in Spain. In 1651 he took holy orders, and 
 thenceforward wrote little else than sacred 
 dramas, or "autos." His position as 
 court chaplain enabled him to give full rein 
 to his imagination, and he left altogether 
 170 dramas, secular and sacred, besides 
 many smaller poems, sonnets, etc His 
 works, which received a rare appreciation 
 during their author's hfe, still enjoy a 
 world-wide reputation, and have been 
 translated into the various languages of 
 Europe. 
 
 Calderwood, Rev. Henry (J. 1830), pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy in the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, and author of works 
 on ethics, psychology, and metaphysics. 
 
 Caldwell, George Chapman {b. 1834), 
 American chemist, and authority on 
 chemistry as apphed to agriculture, has 
 written on chemical analysis and kindred 
 topics.
 
 Cal 
 
 (ISO) 
 
 Cal 
 
 Calendario, Filippo, Italian architect of 
 the earh' part of the loth century, exe- 
 cuted the work of the porticoes around the 
 Piiizzo San Marco at Venice. 
 
 Calepino, Ambrogio {b. 1435, d. 1511), 
 Italian monk and pmlologist, author of one 
 of the earliest Latin dictionaries (1502), 
 -which formed the groundwork of later 
 collections. 
 
 Camoun, John Caldwell (b, 1782, d. 
 1850), American lawyer and statesman, 
 effected great reforms as secretary of 
 waj in 1817, and in 1825 became vice- 
 president of the United States. He 
 advocated slavery and the dissolution of the 
 Union. 
 
 Calidasa, Hindoo poet of the 1st or 2nd 
 century B.C. His most celebrated tragedy 
 SakunUxhi, or The Fatal Ring, has been 
 translated into English by Professor Monier 
 Williams (1855) and others. 
 
 Caligula, Cains Caesar Augustus Ger- 
 manicus {b. 12, d. 41), Emperor of Rome, 
 son of Germanicus and Agrippina, suc- 
 ceeded his patron Tiberius in 37, and 
 for a few months set himself to reform 
 the state and society. Soon, however, 
 he underwent a complete change ; he 
 claimed divine honours ; his madness, 
 cruelty, and extravagance were indescrib- 
 able, and he was murdered by the 
 Praetorian guards. 
 
 Calkoen, Johann Frederik van Beek (5. 
 1772, d. 1811), Dutch astronomer, studied 
 at Amsterdam, was appointed professor of 
 astronomy and mathematics at Leyden, and 
 regulated the weights and measures in com- 
 mon use. 
 
 CaU, Sir John (i. 1732, d. 1801), chief 
 military engineer at Fort St. David, and 
 afterwards at Madras ; also distinguished 
 himself in the campaign against Hyder 
 Ali. 
 
 CaUanan, James Joseph (b. Cork, 1795, 
 d. Lisbon, 1829), Irish poet, leaving 
 Trinity College, enlisted, and after his 
 release gained a scanty livelihood by teach- 
 ing. He wandered through Ireland collect- 
 ing its legends, and afterwards went as 
 private tujfor to Portugal. Besides writing 
 lyrics, of which Gougane Barra is the most 
 famous, he translated some Portuguese 
 poetry. 
 
 CaUcot^, Sir Augustus Wall, R.A. {b. 
 1779, d. 1844), at first a chorister, aban- 
 doned music, and became a painter of 
 landscapes and sea-pieces; some of his 
 pictures are now in the South Kensington 
 Museum. 
 
 Callcott, John WaU (A. 1766, d. 1821), 
 
 brother of the preceding, organist and 
 musical composer, famous for his glees, 
 catches, and canons; helped to form the 
 Glee Club. Died insane. 
 
 Callcott, Maria, Lady {b. 1785, d. 1842), 
 daughter of Rear-Admiral George Dundas, 
 and wife of Sir A. W. Callcott, travelled in 
 India, South America, and Italy ; wrote 
 Three Months in the Environs of Rome, a 
 History of Spain, etc. 
 
 Callicrates, Greek architect of the 5th 
 century B.C., who, with Ictinus, was 
 employed by Pericles to construct the 
 Parthenon of Athens. 
 
 Callicrates {d. 149 b.c), native of Leon- 
 tiuiu in Achaia, appointed general of the 
 Achaean league, always subordinated the 
 interests of liis country to those of Rome. 
 
 Callicratidas {d. 406 b.c), Spartan 
 general, superseded Lysander in the com- 
 mand of the tieet at Ephesus ; was success- 
 ful at Delpliiuium, Troas, and Methymna, 
 but was drowned the same year in an 
 engagement with the Athenians. 
 
 Calli^res, Francois de {b. 1645, d. 1717), 
 French diplomatist and writer, acted as 
 plenipotentiary at the congress of Ryswick. 
 
 Callimaclius {d. circa 240 b.c), Greek 
 grammarian and poet, born at Cyrene, tutor 
 of Apollonius Rhodius, against whom he 
 wrote the Ibis, imitated by Ovid. Of his 
 works only a few hymns and epigrams 
 remain. 
 
 Callippus {d. 351 b.c), native of Athens, 
 and disciple of Plato ; went to Syracuse 
 and became a friend of Dion, but conspired 
 against him, and assumed the government. 
 He was soon afterwards defeated and 
 assassinated by the friends of Dion. 
 
 Callippus {b. circa 330 B.C.), Greek as- 
 tronomer, introduced into the calendar 
 the " Callippic cycle," in which a day was 
 to be subtracted every seventy-six years, 
 commencing in 330 B.C. 
 
 Callisthenes, Olynthus (5. circa 365 B.C., 
 d. 328 B.C.), great-nephew of Aristotle, 
 accompanied Alexander the Great to Asia 
 as historian of the expedition, but was 
 accused of conspiring against him, and 
 executed. His works have perished. 
 
 Callistus I. {d. 224), pope, bom in 
 slavery, constructed the cemetery on the 
 Appian way. 
 
 Callistus IL {d. 1124), elected pope 
 during the controversy respecting investi- 
 ture. The E.nperor Henry V. had set up 
 the anti-pope Burdin, but Callistus reduced 
 Rome, made Burdin prisoner, and con- 
 cluded a concordat with the emperor, who
 
 Cal 
 
 (181) 
 
 Cam 
 
 relinquished his right to spiritual investiture 
 by ring and crozier. 
 
 Callistus III.— 
 
 (1) An anti-pope, elected 1168, through 
 the influence of Frederick Barbarossa. 
 
 (2) CalUstus ni. {d. 1458), pope, of 
 Spanish birth, noted for his zeal agaiost the 
 Tuiks. 
 
 CaUoigne, Jean Robert (jb. 1775, d. 1830), 
 Flemish sculptor, originally a potter. 
 
 Callot, Jacques {b. 1592, d. 163o), French 
 engraver, studied at Rome and Florence, 
 where he was patronised by Cosmo II. ; 
 afterwards safctled at Nancy. Among his 
 best engiuviugs are those of the captiu'e of 
 Breda, and the sieges of Rochelle and the 
 Isle of Rh^. 
 
 Calomarde, Don Francisco Tadeo, Duke 
 (b. 1775, d. Toulouse, 1842), Spanish states- 
 man, attempted to restore absolutism in 
 Spain. He induced Ferdinand III. to change 
 the succession while on his death- bed, and 
 was forced to flee to France. 
 
 Calverley, Charles Stuart (b. 1833, d. 
 1884), won a high reputation as a scholar 
 at Oxford and Cambridge, and wrote 
 Verses and Translations (1862), Fly Leaves 
 (1872), and a Verse- Translation of Theo- 
 critus (1869). His parodies are facile and 
 humorous. 
 
 Calvert, Cecil {d. 1676), second Lord 
 Baltimore, planted the colony of Maryland, 
 but does not seem to have visited it himself. 
 The colonists were mostly Roman CathoHcs, 
 but all Christians were tolerated. 
 
 Calvert, George Henry {b. 1803), Ameri- 
 can author, descendant of the Baltimore 
 family, studied at Harvard and Got- 
 tingen, edited the Baltimore American, 
 and wrote Count Julian (a tragedy), Scenes 
 and Thoughts in Europe, etc. 
 
 Calvert, Sir Harry, General {b. circa 1763, 
 d. 1826), entered the army 1778, became 
 adjutant-general 1799 ; served in America 
 under Clinton, Howe, and Comwallis, and in 
 Holland under the Duke of York ; foimded 
 military colleges and the miUtary asylum 
 at Chelsea, and received a baronetcy in 
 1818. 
 
 Calvert, Leonard {d. 1647), brother of 
 Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, and sent out 
 by him as first governor of Maryland in 
 1633. 
 
 Calvl, Lazzaro {b. 1501, d. 1606), 
 Italian artist, pupil of Pierino del Vaga, 
 worked in conjunction with his brother 
 Pantaleo, their most famous painting being 
 The Continence of Scipio. He poisoned 
 Giacomo Bargone, and through jealousy 
 
 of Cambiaso led a seafaring life for twenty 
 years. 
 
 Calvin, John (*. 1509, d. 1564), bom at 
 Noyon, educated at the colleges of La 
 Marche and Montaigu, Paris, held some 
 livings, but preferring the legal profession 
 did not proceed to priest's orders. While 
 studying law at Bouiges he learnt Greek, 
 and on reading the New Testament became 
 a Protestant. He removed to Paris, and 
 wrote a commentary on Seneca's De 
 dementia, but forced by persecution to 
 leave France, took refuge in Basle. In 
 1536 appeared his Institutions of the Chris- 
 tian Religion. In conjunction with Farel 
 he attempted to establish a kind of theo- 
 cracy at Geneva, but they were expelled by 
 the council in 1538, and retired to Zurich. 
 Passing on to Strasburg, Calvin became 
 pastor to the French refugees, married, and 
 published his Romans. In 1541 Calvin was 
 invited back to Geneva. The theocratic 
 government was resumed, and here he 
 laboured till his death. Calvin did more 
 than any other man towards formulating 
 the doctrines of the Reformed Church. The 
 opinions on predestination and election 
 called " Calvinistic " are rather those of his 
 disciples than his own. 
 
 Calvisius, Sethus {b. 1556, d. 1617), 
 German chronologist and musician, director 
 of the school of music, Leipsic, left 
 numerous works, including Opus Chrono- 
 logicum. 
 
 Calvo, Jean Sauveur de (b. 1625, d. 
 1690), joined the French army, and 
 distinguished himself in Flanders, and 
 afterwards against the Duke of Lorraine, 
 and in the war between France and Spain. 
 
 Cam, Diego, Portuguese navigator of 
 the 15th century, explored the African 
 coast, and discovered the Congo. 
 
 Cambaceres, The Abbe (b. 1722, d. 1802), 
 French divine, who fearlessly denounced 
 the irreligion of his time. 
 
 Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis de, 
 Duke of Parma [b. 1753, d. 1824), French 
 jurist and statesman ; minister of justice 
 under the Directory, and also during the 
 Himdi-ed Days ; second consul with Na- 
 poleon. 
 
 Cambert, Robert {b. circa 1628, d. 1677), 
 French musician, and the first to compose 
 an opera ; went to England in 1673, and 
 became master of the band of Charles I. 
 
 Cambiaso, or Cangiagio, Luca {b. 1527, 
 d. 1585), Italian paiuter, who, on the 
 invitation of Philip II., went to Spain, 
 and executed several paintings in fresco and 
 oil for the Escurial. Among his Genoese 
 works are the Martyrdom of St, George^ 
 and the Rape of the Sabines.
 
 Cam 
 
 (182) 
 
 Cam 
 
 Cambini, Giuseppe (5. 1746, d. circa 
 1330), musical composer, after traveUing 
 in Italy and Germany went to Paris in 
 1770, and there composed many oratorios, 
 concertos, etc. Died in the hospital of 
 Bicetre, a ^'ictim to want and intemper- 
 ance. 
 
 Cambray-Digny, Guglielmo, Conte di 
 {b. 1823), Italian statesman, minister of 
 fixiance in 1867. The unpopularity of his 
 measures resulted in the fall of the govern- 
 ment two years later. 
 
 Cambridge, H.R.H. Adolphus Frederick, 
 Duke of (i. 1774, d. 18.50), seventh and 
 youngest son of George III., served xm.der 
 the Duke of York in Flanders, and was 
 Viceroy of Hanover from 1813 to 1837. 
 
 Cambridge, H.R.H. George "William 
 Frederick, Duke of (J>. 1819), son of the 
 preceding, succeeded his father in 1850, 
 distinguished himself in the Crimea, and 
 was nominated commander-in-chief of the 
 British army in 1856. 
 
 Cambridge, Rev. Octavius Pickard (Jb. 
 1835), uatm'aUst, has contributed papers 
 to the Zoologist a.ui Entomologist, and written 
 works on the Arachnida, concerning which he 
 is considered the highest living authority. 
 
 Cambronne, Pierre Jacques Etienne, 
 Baron de (*. 1770, d. 1842), French gen- 
 eral, served under Massena in Switzerland, 
 took part in the battle of Zmich, distin- 
 guished himself in the campaign of 1812-13, 
 accompanied Napoleon to Elba, and com- 
 manded a division at Waterloo. 
 
 Cambyses {d. 521 B.C.), King of Persia, 
 succeeded his father Cyrus in 529, con- 
 quered Egypt and took King Psammetichus 
 captive ; died from the effect of a wound 
 accidentally inflicted by himself. 
 
 Camden, Charles Pratt, Earl of (b. 1713, 
 d. 1794), English judge, called to the bar 
 in 1738, became Attorney-General under 
 Pitt, was appointed Chief Justice of the 
 Common Pleas in 1762, and in that capacity 
 declared general warrants illegal, granting 
 Wilkes £1,000 damages, a course which ren- 
 dered him extremely popular. In 1765 he 
 was created Lord Camden, and was Lord 
 Chancellor from 1766 to 1770. He disap- 
 proved of the taxation of the American 
 colonies, and was always opposed to Lord 
 North's administration. In 1782 he was 
 made president of the Council, and in 1786 
 received the title of earl. 
 
 Camden, John Jeffreys Pratt, Marquis of 
 (J). 1759, d. 1840), statesman, son of the first 
 Earl of Camden, entered Parliament in 
 1730, smd became a follower of his father 
 and Pitt ; was for more than sixty years one 
 of the tellers of the Exchequer, and held 
 
 office as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland (1795-8) 
 and Secretary for the Colonies (1804-5). 
 
 Camden, William (b. 1551, d. 1623), be- 
 came a master in Westminster school in 
 1575, was ten years writing Britannia, or a 
 Chorographical description of England, Scot' 
 land, and Ireland (1586), which established 
 his fame ; became head-master of Westmin- 
 ster in 1593, and in 1597 published his Greek 
 grammar, which rapidly passed through 
 forty editions. 
 
 Camelli, or Kamel, George Joseph, 
 Jesuit and botanist of the 17th century, 
 while occupied as a missionary in the 
 Philippine Islands made some valuable ob- 
 servations, published in Ray's Universal 
 History of Plants. 
 
 Camerarius, Joachim {b. 1500, d. 1574), 
 scholar, successively rector of the universi- 
 ties of Tubingen and Leipsic. He was a 
 friend of Melaucthon, and highly esteemed 
 by the Emperor Maximilian. 
 
 Camerarius, Joachim {b. 1534, d. 1598), 
 pliysician and botanist, head of an academy 
 of medicine founded at Nuremberg in 1592. 
 
 Cameron, John {b. 1579, d. 1625), 
 Scottish scholar and divine, went to France, 
 and returning in 1620, was appointed pro- 
 fessor of divinity in the university of Glas- 
 gow. 
 
 Cameron, John (6. circa 1579, d. 1625), 
 Scottish divine, principal of the university of 
 Glasgow in 1620, which office he resigned 
 on account of his views on " passive 
 obedience." 
 
 Cameron, John Alexander (i. 1851, d. 
 1885), war correspondent; was in Natal in 
 1380 ; witnessed the bombardment of Alex- 
 andria, and perished with General Stewart's 
 column on the Nile. 
 
 Cameron, Richard (d. 1680), Scottish Pres- 
 byterian, and opponent of Charles II. ; was 
 executed for treason-rebellion at Edin- 
 burgh. 
 
 Camicia, Chimenti, Florentine architect 
 of the 15th century, long employed at the 
 Hungarian court. 
 
 Camillo, Francisco {h. 1610, d. 1671), 
 Spanish painter, whose works are to be 
 found in Madrid, Toledo, and other towns. 
 His picture of Our Lady in the church of St. 
 John at Madrid is especially admired. 
 
 CamiUus, Marcus Furius (d. 365 B.C.), 
 Roman general ; was made dictator in 
 396, captured Veil and Falerii ; went into 
 voluntary exile, but was recalled by the 
 Senate on the capture of Rome by the 
 Gauls, whom he defeated. He was five 
 times dictator.
 
 Cam 
 
 ( 183 
 
 Cam 
 
 Camoens, or Camoes, Luis de (jb. circa 
 1524, d. 1579), Portuguese poet, bom 
 at Lisbon, educated at the university of 
 Coimbra, remained at the court of John 
 HI. till driven from it owing to his pas- 
 sion for a lady of rank, perhaps Catarina 
 d'Atayde. In 1550 he joined an expedition 
 to Africa, and there lost his right eye whilst 
 boarding a Moorish vessel. He returned in 
 1552, but iiuding himself neglected sailed to 
 Goa, whence, after many adventures, he 
 was banished by the governor, Francisco 
 Ban-eto, in 1556. He remained for three 
 years in exile at Macao, engaged on the 
 Lmiad; on the appointment of a new 
 governor he attempted to return to Goa, 
 but was shipwrecked on the coast near 
 Cochin, and lost everything but his poem, 
 with which he swam to land. After under- 
 going an imprisonment for debt, Camoens 
 returned to Portugal in 1569, and published 
 the Lusiad (a beautiful but somewhat 
 mythical description of Vasco de Gama's 
 expedition to India) in 1572. He fell into 
 great poverty, and is said to have died in an 
 almshouse. 
 
 Campan, Jeanne Louise Henrietta [b. 
 1752, d. 1822), lady of the bedchamber to 
 Marie Antoinette, after the Reign of Terror 
 kept a school at St. Germaiu : was made by 
 Napoleon superintendent of the imperial 
 school at Ecouen ; wrote Mimoires sur la 
 Vie Frivee de Marie Antoinette. 
 
 Campanella, Tommaso {b. 1568, d. 1639), 
 Italian metaphysician and political philoso- 
 pher, attempted to substitute an inductive 
 method for the purely deductive reasoning 
 of the schoolmen. His theory that all 
 nations would at last become united, and 
 evil be extinguished, may be regarded as the 
 germ of modem socialism. Persecuted on 
 account of his political and religious views, 
 he left Italy for Paris, where he enjoyed 
 the patronage of Richelieu. 
 
 Campbell, Andrew {b. 1821), American 
 engineer, invented the brush - drawer's 
 vise in 1837, constructed the largest 
 American omnibus in 1846, and the longest 
 single-span wooden bridge over Cedar 
 river, Iowa, in 1850; since 1851 has made 
 great improvements in the construction of 
 printing presses. 
 
 Campbell, Sir Colin. {See Clyde, Lord.] 
 
 Campbell, Sir George {h. 1824, d. 1892), en- 
 tered the Indian Civil Service iu 1S42 ; was 
 called to the bar in 1854. Again proceeding' 
 to India, he held various offices, and in 1871 
 became lieutenant-governor of Bengal. He 
 returned to England in 1874, and was elected 
 M.P. for Kirkcaldy in the Liberal interest 
 in 1875, and agaia in 1880 and 1885. 
 
 Campbell, George (J. 1719, d. 1796), 
 
 Scottish divine, principal of the Marischal 
 College, Aberdeen, in 1759, was author of 
 the Fhilosophy of Rhetoric (1776). 
 
 Campbell, John, Baron (*. 1779, d. 1861), 
 English judge, son of a Scottish Presby- 
 terian minister, came to London as a pri- 
 vate tutor iu 1798, entered Lincoln's Inn 
 in 1800, and was called to the bar iu 1806. 
 In 1821 he married the daughter of Sir 
 James Scarlett (afterwards Lord Abinger), 
 and continued to rise steadily in his profes- 
 sion. He entered the House of Commons 
 (1830), was attorney-general in 1834, and 
 in 1841 was raised to the peerage and made 
 Lord Chancellor of Ireland. In 1850 he 
 became chief justice of the Queen's Bench, 
 and nine years later Lord Chancellor of 
 England. To the statute-book he added 
 the Libel Act, allowing a person to plead 
 justification, and the Act for the suppres- 
 sion of obscene publications, whilst to 
 literature he contributed the Lives of the 
 Lord Chancellors (1845), and the Lives of 
 the Chief Justices (1849). 
 
 CampbeU, Thomas {b. 1777, d. 1844), 
 poet, educated at Glasgow University, 
 was for some time a private tutor, went 
 to Edinburgh in his twentieth year, 
 and in 1790 published The Pleasures 
 of Hope, which at once established his 
 reputation as a poet. He visited Geiinany 
 in 1800, and there wrote The Battle of 
 Hohenlinden and other popular ballads. In 
 1803 he married and settled at Sydenham, 
 where he remained twenty years, after 
 which he lived in Middle Scotland Yard. 
 He edited magazines, and wrote other 
 poems, of which Gertrude of Wyoming 
 (1809) is the best known. 
 
 Campe, Joachim Heiurich {b. 1746, d. 
 1818), German educationalist and author; 
 his Robinson the Yoimger (1779), a pedagogic 
 imitation of Robinson Crusoe, has had a wide 
 circulation throughout Europe. 
 
 Campeggio, Lorenzo, Cardinal {b. 1474, 
 d. 1539), was sent to England in 1519, as 
 legate to Germany (1524) to check the 
 progress of the Reformation, and again to 
 England in 1529, when, with Wolsey, he 
 presided over the court appointed to decide 
 on Henry VIII.' s claim to be divorced from 
 Catherine of Aragon. 
 
 Campen, Jacob van {d. 1638), Dutch archi- 
 tect, studied in Italy, and designed several 
 public buildings, including the town-hall at 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Camper, Pierre (*. 1722, d. 1789), 
 Dutch anatomist, filled the chairs of medi- 
 cine and surg-^ry at Franeker, Amster- 
 dam, and Grijuingen successively, _ made 
 important discoveries in natural history, 
 and left many valuable works.
 
 Cam 
 
 (184) 
 
 Can 
 
 Cauupliausen, Ludolf (b. 1803), Prussian 
 lioUtician, president of the council and 
 plenipotentiary to the conference at Frank- 
 fort in 1848, remained leader of the 
 moderate liberals till driven into private 
 life by the tide of reaction in 1850. 
 
 Campliuysen, Dirk Theodore Eaphael {b. 
 1580, d. Iti2(j), Dutch painter aud theolo- 
 gian, famous for his pen-and-ink sketches. 
 
 Campi, Bernardino (b. 1522, d. 15S4), a 
 painter of the same family, pupil of Giulio 
 Campi, excelled in drawing the nude figure. 
 His works are to be found at Cremona, 
 Mantua, and Milan. 
 
 Campi, Galeazzo {b. 1475, d. 1536), head 
 of a family of painters, of whom his son 
 Giulio {b. 1500, d. 1572) is the best known. 
 
 Campion, Edmund {b. 1540, d. 1581), 
 English Jesuit, at first a zealous defender of 
 the Church of England, became a Roman 
 Catholic, studied at Douay, and was sent to 
 England by Gregory XIII. He was appre- 
 hended on a charge of high treason, and 
 hung at Tyburn. 
 
 Campo-Basso, Nicola, Count di, Italian 
 condottiere of the loth century, aided the 
 Duke of Anjou against the Aragonese 
 dynasty in Naples, but went over to 
 Charles the Bold of Burgundy, in whose 
 murder he is supposed to have had a 
 share. 
 
 Campomanes, Pedro Rodriguez, Count de 
 (b. 1723, d. 1802), Spanish politician and 
 author, president of the Cortes in 1788, 
 became director of the Royal Academy of 
 History, and wrote an essay on the Knights 
 Templars, aud dissertations on law and 
 political economy. 
 
 Campos, Arsenio Martinez {b. 1834), 
 Spanish general, in 1874 proclaimed Alfonso 
 XII. King of Spain, extinguished the 
 Carlist rebellion (1876) and the Cuban 
 insun-ecdon (1877), and was afterwards 
 minister of war. 
 
 Campra, Andre {b. 1666, d. 1744), French 
 musician of high repute, became master of 
 the chapel royal, and wrote several operas. 
 
 Camus, Armand Gaston (*. 1740, d. 1804), 
 French advocate, deputy to the States 
 General and National Convention, and 
 keeper of the archives; in 1796 was presi- 
 dent of the CouncU of Five Hundred, 
 
 __Camus, Charles Etienne Louis {b. 1699, d. 
 1768), a French mathematician and as- 
 tronomer. 
 
 ^Camus, Francois Joseph de (*. 1672, d. 
 1732), French mechanician, wrote Tralte 
 des Forces Motivantes (1722), invented auto- 
 mata, and introduced many improvements 
 
 in the making of capstans, guns, coaches, 
 etc., and in the tempering of metals. 
 
 Cauale, Nicolas, Venetian admiral, by 
 the burning of Eno in 1469 provoked the 
 enmity of Mahomet II., who laid waste 
 Scyros and took Negropont. In 1470 
 Canale was condemned for misconduct 
 during the war and exiled. 
 
 Canaletto, Antonio {b. 1697, d. 1768), 
 Italian artist, son of Bernardo Canale, under 
 whom he studied at Venice, went to Rome 
 aud painted landscapes, but returned to 
 Venice in later life, and is best knovra by 
 his views of its palaces, churches, and 
 canals, among which that of the Great 
 Canal is the most famous. 
 
 Canani, Giovanni Battista {b. 1515, d. 
 1579), anatomist, physician to Julius III., 
 wrote Itinectio Picturata Musculorum Cor- 
 poris Mumani, etc. 
 
 Cancrin, Georg, Count of {b. 1774, d. 
 1845), Russian statesman of German origin, 
 went to St. Petersburg in 1796, was general 
 superintendent of the army in 1812, and 
 minister of finance from 1823 to 1844. He 
 restored the national credit by ruthless 
 exactions from the peasantry, was the most 
 trusted minister of Alexander I. and 
 Nicholas, and may be regarded as the em- 
 bodiment of the Russian system. He wrote 
 several works on political economy. 
 
 Candace, Queen of Ethiopia (a country 
 lying in the south of Egypt and including 
 the modern Abyssinia) in the time of 
 Augustus. 
 
 Candiano, an ancient house of Venice, to 
 which several doges of the early republic 
 
 belonged. 
 
 Candiano I., Pietro {d. 887), doge in 886, 
 was slain in a war with the pirates of the 
 Adriatic. 
 
 Candiano II., Pietro {d. 939), son of the 
 preceding, doge in 932. During his rule 
 commenced the struggle between Venice 
 and Ravenna for the possession of the rich 
 fishery of Comacchio. 
 
 Candiano III. , Pietro, son of the preced- 
 ing, doge in 942, was chiefly engaged in 
 vainly endeavouring to repress the ambi- 
 tious designs of his son Pietro. 
 
 Candiano IV., Pietro {d. 976), son of the 
 preceding, doge in 959, sought to render the 
 office hereditary in his family by allying 
 himself with Otto I. of Germany and the 
 Marquis of Tuscany, but was massacred by 
 the Venetians. 
 
 Candiano V., Vitale, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, doge in 977, after ruling peaceably 
 for about fourteen months gave up hu
 
 Can 
 
 (185) 
 
 Can 
 
 dignity to the tribune Memo, and retired to 
 a convent. 
 
 Candlish, Robert Smith, D.D. {b. 1807, 
 d. 1873), leader of the Free Church of 
 Scotland, succeeded Dr. Cunningham as 
 principal of New College, Edinburgh 
 
 (1862). 
 
 Candolle, Augustin Pyramus de {b. 1778, 
 d. 1841), botanist, pupil of Desfontaines, 
 was commissioued in 1806 by the govern- 
 ment to observe the state of agriculture 
 throughout the French empire, and occu- 
 pied successively the chairs of botany at 
 MontpelHer, and of natural histoiy at 
 Geneva. He completed a revised edition of 
 Lamarck's Flora of France in 1815, and 
 wrote among other works an Elementary 
 Thtory of Botany, in which he developed 
 his new classification of plants, and an In- 
 trodtution to the Natural System of the 
 Vegetable Kingdom, containing a classifica- 
 tion of all plants by orders, genera, and 
 species. 
 
 Canga-Arguelles, Don Jose {b. 1770, d. 
 1843), Spanish statesman, distinguished 
 himself in the revolution, and after being 
 exiled in 1814 became minister of finance 
 in 1820. 
 
 Canina, Luigi {b. 1793, d. 1856), Italian 
 architect, learned in Roman archaeology, 
 was superintendent-general of the excava- 
 tions carried on in Rome and its neigh- 
 bourhood, and filled the chair of architec- 
 ture at Turin. 
 
 Canning, Charles John, Viscount {b. 
 1812, d. 1862), youngest son of the preced- 
 ing, entered the House of Lords iu 1836, 
 was under-secretary for Foreign Affairs 
 (1841-46), Postmaster-General (1852-55), 
 and Governor-General of India (1855-62). 
 
 Canning, George {b. 1770, d. 1827), 
 bom in London, son of a barrister of good 
 family, entered Parliament in 1793 as a 
 supporter of Pitt; was made under-secre- 
 tary of State in 1796, and started The Anti- 
 Jacobin ; supported a motion for abolishing 
 the slave-trade in 1798, and was strongly in 
 favour of the union with Ireland. He left 
 ofiice with Pitt in ISOl, and returned in 
 1804, becoming Foreign Secretary imderthe 
 Duke of Portland in 1807, an of&ce which 
 he again held from 1822 to 1827, when he 
 became Premier. Canning always favoured 
 Catholic emancipation, but was opposed to 
 parliamentary reform. He showed most 
 ability in the conduct of foreign affairs, and 
 especially in his detenniued resistance to 
 Spain during the years 182G and 1827. 
 
 Canning, Stratford. [See Stratford de 
 Eedcliffe.] 
 
 Cano, Alonzo (4. 1601, d. 1665), Spanish 
 
 painter, sculptor, and architect. He studied 
 painting at beville under Pacheco and Cas- 
 tillo : in consequence of a duel fled to 
 Madrid and became painter to Phihp IV. ; 
 was charged with the murder of his wife in 
 1644, but acquitted ; in 1652 became minor 
 canon in the cathedral of Granada. He 
 executed many works for Granada cathe- 
 dral and the churches of Madrid. 
 
 Cano, Juan Sebastian del (d. 1526), 
 native of Biscay, sailed with Magellan in 
 1519, and returned after three years, having 
 circumnavigated the world. 
 
 Canonica, Luigi Delia Qj. 1742, d. 
 1834), Itahan architect, built the Carcano 
 theatre, and the amphitheatre I)ella Forta 
 Vercellina at Milan. 
 
 Canova, Antonio (6. 1757, d. 1822), bom 
 at Possaguo, near Treviso, the greatest 
 follower of the classic style iu modern sculp- 
 ture, began life as a stonemason ; he studied 
 at Venice under Toretti, and afterwards 
 at Rome ; was much befriended by Napo- 
 leon, and received commissions from other 
 potentates. Among his best-known works 
 are Hercules and Lycas at Rome, Theseus 
 and the Minotaur at Vienna, the Ft,yche in 
 the Louvre, and the mausoleums for the 
 Popes Clement XIII., Clement XIV., and 
 Pius VI. He died at Venice. 
 
 Canovas del Castillo, Antonio {b. 1830}, 
 Spanish statesman, president of the mini- 
 stry formed on the return of Alfonso XII, 
 (1874), an office which he held intermittently 
 tiU 1885. 
 
 Canrobert, Francois Certain {b. 1809), 
 marshal of France, served for many years 
 in Algeria ; attached himself to Louis 
 Napoleon iu 1850. During the Crimean war 
 was appointed successor to Saiut Amaud, 
 shortly after the battle of Abna, but in 1855 
 resigned that command to General PeHssier, 
 and returned to France. He also took 
 part iu the Italian war of 1859, and the 
 Franco- German war; and after the capitu- 
 lation of Metz was for some time a prisoner 
 in Germany. 
 
 Cantacuzene, John V. (b. circa 1292), 
 Emperor of the East, was in 1328 prime 
 minister of Audrouicus the Younger, who 
 left him governor of the empire and guar- 
 dian of his son. He was crowned by the 
 army in 1341, and after six vears recognised 
 as joint ruler with John "[Palasologus, the 
 rightful heir. Forced to resign iu 1354, he 
 withdrew to a monastery, and there wrote a 
 history of the empire from 1320 to 13(50. 
 
 Cantacuzene, Serban II. {b. circa 1640, d. 
 1688), a pretended descendant of the em- 
 peror, made an unsuccessful attempt on the 
 empire, and is said to have died of poison.
 
 Can 
 
 (186) 
 
 Cap 
 
 Cantarini, Simone (J. 1612, rf. 1648), 
 Italian jxiinter and engraver, pupil of Guido, 
 whose st3'le he imitated. 
 
 Cantemir, Autiochus {b. 1709, d. 1744), 
 fourth sou of Demetrius Cautemir, was an 
 eminent statesman and writer, and ifor some 
 time ambassador at London and Paris. 
 
 Cantemir, Constantine {d. 1693), bom in 
 Moldavia, and descended from a Tartar who 
 fled thither in 1.540, served in Poland under 
 Ladislaus and Casimir ; afterwards held a 
 post in the Turkish army, aud was made 
 commander of the Moldavian forces. 
 
 Canter, Wilhelm (b. 1542, d. 1676), author 
 of JVovce Lectiones, a critical ezaminatioa of 
 the text of the classics. 
 
 Canterbury, Charles Manners Sutton, 
 Viscount (i. 1780, d. 1845), Speaker of 
 the House of Commons (1817-1835), a 
 post which he held with distinction and 
 success. 
 
 Canterzani, Sebastian© (b. 1734, d. 1819), 
 professor of mathematics at Bologna, and 
 afterwards president of the Institute. 
 
 Canton, John {b. 1718, d. 1772), EngUsh 
 electrician, inventor of the "pith-ball" 
 electroscope, and other scientific apparatus. 
 
 Cantii, Cesare (b. 1805, d. 1881), Italian 
 historian, a liberal and yet an Ultramon- 
 tane, has written a Universal History, 
 Margherita Fusterla (a novel), and some 
 educational works. 
 
 Canute I., son of Thyra Danebod, fomided 
 the kingdom of Denmark in the 10th cen- 
 tury, and was one of the earliest Danish 
 invaders of England. 
 
 Canute II., sumamed The Great {d. 
 103ti), succeeded his father Sweyn as king of 
 Denmark in 1014, and invaded England, 
 which Sweyn had almost entirely con- 
 quered, but was opposed by Edmund Iron- 
 sides, with whom he divided the kingdom, 
 till the death of that prince in 1016 left 
 Canute sole ruler. He did much to protect 
 the Uves and liberties of his subjects, and at 
 his death was in undisputed possession of 
 England, Denmark and Norway. 
 
 Canute III., sumamed Hardi Canute {d. 
 1042), son of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded as king of Denmark. He became 
 king of England on the death of his brother, 
 Harold Harefoot. 
 
 Canute IV., "The Pious" {d. 1026). King 
 of Denmark, succeeded his brother Harold 
 in 1080, but was slain at Funen six years 
 later during an insurrection. 
 
 Canute V. {d. 1157), King of Denmark, 
 attempted to gain the throne on the death 
 
 of Eric, but was assassinated after a struggle 
 of ten years. 
 
 Canute VI. {b. 1162, d. 1202), King of 
 Denmark, son of Waldemar the Great, 
 whom he succeeded in 1 182, subdued Pome- 
 rauia, introduced Christianity into Livonia 
 and Esthonia, aud encouraged the progress 
 of civilisation and letters. 
 
 Canuti, Domenico Maria {b. 1620, d. 1684), 
 Italian artist, pupil of Guido, left many 
 works, including A Descent from the Cross 
 by Moonlight, in the church of the Olivet- 
 ans at Bologna, known as the Notte del 
 Canuti. 
 
 Canz, Israel Gottlieb {b. 1690, d. 1753), 
 German philosopher and Protestant theo- 
 logian, was successively professor of poetry, 
 logic, and moral theology at Tiibingen, 
 
 Capece, Conrad, Marino, and Jacopo (d. 
 1268), members of an ancient and illustrioua 
 Neapolitan family, beheaded as Ghibellinea 
 by Charles of Anjou. 
 
 Capecelatro, Giuseppe (b. 1744, d. 1836), 
 a reformer of ecclesiastical abuses, who, 
 although an archbishop, opposed papal 
 theocracy. 
 
 Capeflgue, Jean Baptiste Honor^ Ray- 
 mond (6. 1802, d. 1872), French historian 
 and journalist, has written an account of 
 Europe during the first empire, and other 
 works. 
 
 Capel, Arthur (b. 1600, d. 1649), sat in 
 the Long Parhament, was made a peer in 
 1641, and defended Colchester against Fair- 
 fax and Ireton, but was made prisoner and 
 beheaded. 
 
 Capel, Arthur {b. 1635, d. 1683), son of the 
 preceding. Earl of Essex, Lord-Lieutenant 
 of Ireland in 1672, was implicated in the 
 Rye-House plot, and committed suicide in 
 the Tower. 
 
 Capel, Right Rev. Monsignor Thomas 
 John {b. 1836), rector of the Roman Catholic 
 university in Kensington from 1874 to 1878, 
 has written an answer to Mr. Gladstone's 
 attack on the Vatican Decrees (1874), and 
 other works. 
 
 Capell, Edward (b. 1713, d. 1781), an 
 editor and critic of Shakespeare. 
 
 Capella, Martianus Mineus Felix, Roman 
 poet and philosopher, lived in the end of 
 the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century. 
 
 Capellen, Godard Gerard, Baron van 
 (i. 1778, d. 1848), Dutch statesman, was 
 governor-general oif the Dutch colonies in 
 the East Indies from 1819 to 1825. 
 
 Capellen, Theodor Friedrich {b. 1762, d. 
 1824), Dutch admiral, commanded the fleet
 
 Csn 
 
 (187) 
 
 Gar 
 
 in the Mediterranean, and distinguished 
 himself in the attack on Algiers made by- 
 Lord Exmouth ia 1816. 
 
 Capet, Hugh. [See Hugh.] 
 
 ; Capistrano, San Giovanni de (b. 1385), 
 Franciscan friar, bitterly opposed the Hus- 
 sites, and by his preaching animated the 
 defenders of Belgrade agaiast the Turks. 
 
 Capito, Cains Ateius (5. ci>-ca 37 B.C., d. 
 22 A.D.), Roman jurist, who defended the old 
 form of laws against the attacks of Labeo. 
 
 Capitoliuus, Julius, a Roman writer 
 about the end of the 3rd century, con- 
 tributed the biographies of nine emperors 
 (119 to 284 A.D.) to the Historia Augusta, 
 
 CapitoliQUS, T. Quinctus Barbatus, 
 Roman patrician, six times consul ; vic- 
 torious over the Volsci and ^qui ; refused 
 the dictatorship in 439 B.C. 
 
 Capiton, or Koepstein, Wolfgang Fabricius 
 (b. 147S, d. 1542), German theologian of the 
 reformed faith ; endeavoured to reconcile 
 the Lutherans and Calviuists, and took part 
 in the conferences of Zurich, Augsburg, 
 etc. 
 
 Capmany y de Montpalan, Antonio de 
 {b. 1742, d. 1813), Spanish historian and 
 philologist, wrote A History of Barcelona, 
 etc. 
 
 Capo d'lstria, or Capodistrias, Comte 
 
 de {b. 1776, d. 1831), president of Greece, 
 was in 1803 appointed secretary of state to 
 the Ionian republic, but wheu the islands 
 fell again under the dominion of France, 
 went to St. Petersburg, and entered the 
 Russian diijlomatic service. He was present 
 at the treaty of Paris (in 1814), but in 1820 
 withdrew to Geneva, where he lived in re- 
 tirement till his election (1827) to the presi- 
 dency of Greece. His administration was 
 at first popular, but his Russian sympathies 
 aroused suspicion, a rebellion broke out in 
 1831, and Capo d'lstria was assassinated. 
 
 Cappellini, Alfredo Luigi [h. circa 1836, 
 d. l.-irtB), Italian naval officer, com- 
 manded the I'alestro at the battle of Lissa. 
 The ship took fire, and Cappelliui and his 
 crew perished with her, preferring death to 
 falling into the hands of the enemy. 
 
 Cappellus, or Cappel. Louis {b. 158o, d. 
 16o8), French Protestant divine, educated 
 at Oxford, became professor of Oriental 
   languages at the imiversity of Saumur. He 
 wrote several works, including Arcanum 
 Functuationis Revelatum on the Hebrew 
 vowel points. 
 
 Capponi, Neri di Gino, military com- 
 missary of the republic of Florence during 
 the league between that city and Venice 
 
 against the Duke of Milan (1440), wrote a 
 chronicle of contemporary events. 
 
 Capponi, Piero di Gmo {d. circa 1496), 
 defended the Uberty of Florence against the 
 ambitious Medici, and is noted for his 
 answer to Charles VIII., when, on his 
 journey through Tuscany to Naples (1493), 
 he sought to compel the allegiance of 
 Florence. 
 
 Capranica, Domenico, Cardinal {b. 1400, 
 d. 1458), a supporter of the Roman 
 court, mediated successfully between the 
 Pope and Alfonso of Aragon, and wrote 
 Be Contemptu Mundi and other works. 
 
 Caprivi de Caprera de MontecucuUi, 
 
 Georg Leo von ib. 1831), the eldest son of 
 Julius Edward von Caprivi, who held a legal 
 post under the Prussian government, entered 
 the Prussian army in 1848, distinguished 
 himself in the campaigns of 1864 and 1866, 
 commanded a division at Metz in 1883, and 
 in 1884 was transferred to the naval service, 
 being appointed head of the admiralty. 
 Soon after the beginning of the present 
 reign Caprivi reorganised the navy, and 
 shortly afterwards became commander of 
 the 10th army corps. On the retirement 
 of Bismarck he was appointed Chancellor. 
 
 Cara Yazid, Abdul Halim {d. 1602), 
 headed a rebelUon against Mahomet III., 
 was forced to capitulate, but was afterwards 
 assisted by the governor of Bagdad and 
 completely vanquished the Turkish army. 
 He was ultimately conquered and fled to the 
 mountains on the border of the Black Sea. 
 
 Cara Yousouf {d. 1420), chief of the 
 
 " Black Sheep," dwelt at the foot of the 
 
 Armenian mountains, and harassed the 
 pilgrims to Mecca. 
 
 Caracalla.the simiame of Marcus Aurelius 
 Antoninus Bassianus {h. 188, d. 217), Em- 
 peror of Rome. He succeeded his father, 
 Severus, in 211, and disgraced his reign by 
 wholesale and cold-blooded murders. 
 
 Caraccioli, Francesco {b. 1770, d. 1799), 
 NeapoUtan admiral, in 1793 commanded 
 the Neapolitan fleet before Toulon, en- 
 tered the service of the Parthenopean 
 republic, and on the capture of Naples by 
 Ruffo (1799) was executed, in violation of 
 the terms of capitulation. 
 
 Caradog, or Caractacus, King of the Silu- 
 rians, a British tribe, after resisting the 
 Romans for niue years, was overcome, and 
 took refuge with Cartismandua, Queen of 
 the Brigantes, by whom he was betrayed to 
 the Romans in 51. He was released by 
 Claudius. 
 
 Caradog of Llancawan [d. circa 1147), 
 Welsh ecclesiastic and chronicler, wrote in
 
 Cax 
 
 (188) 
 
 Car 
 
 Latin a history of the Wekh kings ; a 
 Welsh translation still remains. 
 
 Caxafa, Michele (b. 1785, d. 1872), Nea- 
 politan musical composer, enjoyed great 
 popularity during his lifetime, and wrote 
 Ze Solitaire, La Violette, Masaniello, and 
 other operas. 
 
 Caraman, Pierre Paul Riquet de Bon- 
 repos. Comte de (*. 1646, d. 1730), French 
 general, served ia Flanders in 1702, and 
 distinguished himself at the defeat of the 
 French at Gette. 
 
 Caramuel de Lobkowitz, Juan (h. 
 1606, d. 1682), Spanish theologian, pro- 
 fessor of theology at Alcala, renovrned for 
 his eloquence and for his valour at the siege 
 of Prague in 1648. 
 
 Caramuru, or Diego Alvarez, a Portu- 
 guese seaman of the 16th century, who was 
 wrecked off the coast of Bahia, in South 
 America, and overawing the natives by the 
 use of firearms, was made king of the 
 country. His companions were put to 
 death. 
 
 Carausius, Marcus Aurelius Valerius {b. 
 circa 250, d. 293), a native of Flanders, put 
 in command of a fleet by Maximian, sailed 
 to Britaia and proclaimed himself emperor. 
 He was acknowledged by Diocletian, and 
 reigned till murdered by AUectus, who 
 succeeded him. 
 
 Caravaggio, Michael Angelo Amerigi da 
 (fi. 1569, (/. 1609), a self-taught Italian 
 artist, for some years painted portraits 
 remarkable for their fidelity, and. after 
 studying the works of Giorgione. lurmed 
 the style of chiaro-oscuro, imitated by 
 many subsequent paiuters. Among his best- 
 known works are the Entombment of Christ 
 and the Death of the Virgin. He died in 
 poverty and obscurity. 
 
 Caravaggio, Polidoro da {b. 1495, d. 
 1543), Italian painter of humble birth, his 
 genius was noticed by Raphael, who em- 
 ployed him to paint the friezes for his works 
 at the Vatican. Among his best works is the 
 Christ led to Calvary at Messina. 
 
 Carbajal, Luis de (b. 1534, d. 1591), 
 Spanish i ..inter, employed by Philip II. 
 in the Eseurial, where he depicted the his- 
 tory of the Virgin. 
 
 Cardano, Girolamo (b. 1501, d. 1575), 
 bom at Pavia, natural philosopher and 
 mathematician, to some extent the fore- 
 runner of Galileo iu scientific observation. 
 Visited England under Edward VI., and 
 afterwards taught mathematics at Milan 
 and Bologna. Was renowned as a physician. 
 
 Cardi, Ludovico (*. 1559, d. 1613), 
 
 Italian painter, was called the " Florentine 
 Correggio," on account of his close imitation 
 of that artist, especially observable in his 
 Martyrdom of St. Stephen. His master- 
 piece, St. Peter healing the Cripple, has been 
 destroyed by damp. 
 
 Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, Earl 
 of, K.C.B. (h. 1797, d. 1868), led the Light 
 Brigade in their charge at Balaclava (1854). 
 
 Caxducci, Bartolomeo {b. 1560, d. 1610), 
 Italian artist, pupil and friend of Frederigo 
 Zucchero, whom he assisted in painting the 
 great cupola of the cathedral at Florence, 
 Accompanying Zucchero to Madrid, he 
 worked with him in the Eseurial, and, 
 in conjunction with Perugino, Tibaldi 
 and Pellegrini, painted the ceiling of the 
 library : the figures of Aristotle, Euclid, 
 Archimedes, and Cicero are the work of 
 Carducci. His masterpiece is a Descent from 
 the Cross, in the church of St. Philip elReal 
 at Madrid. 
 
 Carducci, Viocenzo (b. 1568, d. 1638), 
 brother and pupil of the preceding, whom 
 he followed to Spain. He painted the 
 history of Achilles on the walls of the 
 gallery in the palace of the Prado, and was 
 painter to Philip III. and Philip IV. 
 
 Card-well, Edward {b. 1787, d. 1861), 
 ecclesiastical historian, completed part of a 
 synodical history based upon Wilkins's Con- 
 cilia Magna Britannicce. 
 
 Cardwell, Edward, Viscount (*. 1813, 
 d. 1886), was President of the Board of 
 Trade (1852-5), and Secretary for War 
 (1868-74), in which capacity he effected the 
 abolition of purchase. 
 
 Carew, Bampfylde Moore (o. lt)»3, d. circa 
 1765), king of the gypsies. 
 
 Carew, Sir George, Earl Totnes (fi. 1557, 
 d. 1629), was Lord President of Munster in 
 1599, and reduced the Earl of Desmond. 
 
 Carew, Thomas {b. 1589, d. 1639), a writer 
 of lyrics in the courtly style of the 17th 
 century. 
 
 Carey, Henry (6. 1696, d. 1743), musical 
 composer and author of songs, of which 
 Sally in our Alley is the best known. 
 
 Carey, Henry Charies (*. 1793, d. 1879), 
 an American political economist, wrote The 
 Past, the Present, and the Future (1848), 
 Principles of Social Science (1859), and other 
 works. i 
 
 Carey, Matthew (*. 1760, d. 1839), Irish ' 
 political writer, started the Freeman'' s Jour- • 
 Hal, the violence of which occasioned his 
 imprisonment. He fled to America, where 
 he became a publisher, and amassed a 
 large fortune. Among his works was
 
 Car 
 
 (189) 
 
 Car 
 
 the Vindiei(B Hibemicce (1818). He died 
 at Philadelphia. 
 
 Carey, WilUam (b. 1761, d. 1834), Orien- 
 talist and missionary, founded the Baptist 
 mission at Serampore (1799), and was 
 appointed professor of Sanscrit, Bengalee, 
 and Mahratta at Fort William (1801). 
 
 Carissimi, Giacomo {b. 1582 or 1604, d. 
 1671), musical composer, was one of the first to 
 compose the cantata, and brought the recita- 
 tive to perfection. Jephtha is considered his 
 best composition. 
 
 Carlen, EmiUe (b. 1807, d. 1883), Swedish 
 noveUst ; has in her books depicted various 
 phases of Swedish society. 
 
 Carleton, Sir Guy {b. 1724, d. 1808), 
 English general, governor of Quebec, which 
 town he defended successfully during the 
 American war, and also defeated Arnold in 
 1776. In 1781 he was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief in America, and afterwards 
 raised to the peerage as Lord Dorchester. 
 
 Carleton, WilHam (b. 1798, d. 1869), 
 Irish novelist and graphic delineator of Irish 
 character, wrote Traits and Stories of the 
 Irish Feasantry, The Black Prophet, etc. 
 
 Carli, or Carli Rubbi, Giovanni Rinaldo, 
 Coimt de {b. 1720, d. 1795), Italian 
 scholar and author, eminent as a mathema- 
 tician and archaeologist, was in 1771 ap- 
 pointed president of the council of finance, 
 at Milan. His chief work is Delle Anti- 
 chit a Italiche. 
 
 Carlile, Richard (fi. 1790, d. 1843), 
 editor of pohtical pamphlets, whose pub- 
 lication continually embroiled him with the 
 government. 
 
 Carlingford, Chichester- Fortescue, Lord 
 (b. ISiy), son of Colonel Chichester- 
 Fortescue, in 1847 entered Parliament as 
 Liberal member for Louth, and retained his 
 seat till 1874. He was successively Chief 
 Secretary for Ireland, President of the 
 Board of Trade, Lord Privy Seal (1881), and 
 Lord President of the Council (1883), but 
 resigned office with his party in 1885. He 
 became Baron Carlingford in 1874, and was 
 mainly instrumental in carrying the Irish 
 Land Bill through the House of Lords. 
 
 Carloni, Giovanni (*. 1590, d. 1630), 
 Italian fresco -painter, pupil of Passignani 
 at Florence. 
 
 Carloni, Giovanni Battista (i. 1594, d. 
 1680), brother of the preceding, whom he 
 assisted in painting in the cathedral of the 
 Guastato at Genoa. 
 
 Carlos, Don (b. Valladolid, 1545, d. 1568), 
 eldest son of Philip II. of Spain and Mary 
 of Portugal, was constantly at variance 
 
 with his father, who finally placed him in 
 confinement, where he died. 
 
 Carlos, Don Luis Maria Fernando da 
 Bourbon, Count of Montemolin {b. 1818, d. 
 1861), eldest son of Carlos, Count of 
 Molina, and first cousin to Isabella II.. on 
 his father's abdication (1845) claimed the 
 title of Carlos VI. of Spain. In 1848 
 Cabrera and others carried on a desultory 
 war in his favour in the north of Spain. 
 
 Carlos, Don Maria de los Dolores, Juan 
 Isidore Josef Francesco (Jb. 1848), Duke 
 of Madrid, son of Don Juan, brother 
 of Carlos, Count of Molina, began active 
 attempts on the Spanish crown in 1869. 
 In 1872 his brother, Don Alfonso, roused 
 the inhabitants of northern Spain. Don 
 Carlos himself arrived in 1873, and a 
 desultory warfare ensued, marked on 
 the Carlist side by continual breaches 
 of military honour. The proclamation 
 of Alfonso XII. (1874), and the reduc- 
 tion of the fortresses of Bilbao, £stella and 
 Tolosa (1876) proved fatal to his cause. 
 Don Carlos left the country, and after visit- 
 ing England and America took up his resi- 
 dence on the Continent. 
 
 Carlos, Don Maria Isidor of Bourbon {b. 
 1788, d. 1855), Count of Molina, called by 
 his adherents Carlos V. of Spain, was the 
 second son of Carlos IV., and brother and 
 for many years heir-apparent to Ferdinand 
 yil. Ferdinand died in 1833, leaving an 
 infant daughter, and though the repeal of 
 the Salic law had made her the direct heir, 
 Carlos insisted upon his ovsTi right to the 
 throne. For six years the war between 
 the CarUsts and Christinos (supporters of 
 the Queen Regent Christina) ravaged the 
 north of Spain, but in 1839 Don Carlos was 
 driven into France, and in 1845 abdicated 
 in favour of his son. He afterwards with- 
 drew to Austria, where he remained tiU his 
 death. 
 
 Carlyle, Rev. Joseph Dacre (b. 1759, d. 
 1804), appointed professor of Arabic at 
 Cambridge in 1794, travelled extensively, 
 and wrote Specimens of Arabic Poetry, etc. 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas {b. 1795, d. 1881), 
 Scottish historian and essayist, was the son 
 of a small farmer of Ecclefechan, Dum- 
 friesshire, and was educated at the parish 
 school of Annan, and the UuiversitT 
 of Edinburgh. Instead of entering the 
 Church, as his parents had intended, he 
 became a schoolmaster, but his literary 
 ambition led him back to Ediuburgli. In 
 1823 he wrote the Life of SchiUer, and going 
 to London in 1824 as tutor to Charles Buller, 
 translated Goethe's Wilhehn Meister for 
 the London Magazine. In 1826 he married 
 Jane Bailhe Welsh, and in 1828 went with 
 her to Craigenputtock, a Dumfriesshire
 
 Car 
 
 (190) 
 
 Car 
 
 farmhouse, and during six years' retirement 
 there composed Sortor Resartus, containing 
 his philosophy of life, which appeared first 
 in Frasei-''s Magazine. In 1834 Carlyle left 
 Scotland for Chelsea, which was henceforth 
 his home. Among his other works the chief 
 are The French Ilevolidion (1837), Heroes 
 and Hero JVurship (1841), Past and Present 
 (1843), Lattcr-l)ay Pamphlets (1850), the 
 Life of John Sterling (18ol), and the History 
 of Frederick the Great, concluded in 1864. 
 
 Caxmagnola, Francesco {b. 1390, d. 1432), 
 originally a swineherd, entered the service 
 of Philip Visconti, Duke of Milan, hecame 
 his commander-in-chief, and won much 
 territory for him from the Venetians, to 
 whom he afterwards transferred his ser- 
 vices, but incurred their suspicion and was 
 beheaded. 
 
 Caxmichael, James {b. 1776, d. 1853), 
 practical engineer, invented the Tan-blowing 
 machine, and made improvements in the 
 steam engine. 
 
 Carmicliael, Richard (*. 1779, d. 1849), 
 Irish surgeon, one of the founders of the 
 " Carmichael ' ' school of medicine in Dublin. 
 
 Carmona, Don Salvador {b. 1730, d. 1807), 
 Spanish engraver, pupil of Charles Dupins ; 
 enjoyed a high reputation. 
 
 CarmonteUe (A. 1717, d. 1806), French 
 dramatic writer, author of Proverbes Dra- 
 matiques, and other works. 
 
 Carnarvon, Henry H. M. Herbert, fourth 
 Earl of {b. 1831, d. 1890), Colonial Secre- 
 tary under Lord Derby (1866-7), and Dis- 
 raeli (1874-8) ; in 1885 became Lord-Lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland, but was compelled by 
 ill- health to resign in 1886. 
 
 Cameades {b. circa 213 e.g., d. 129 B.C.), 
 Greek philosopher, founder of the New 
 Academy, and opponent of the Stoics. 
 Being sent to Rome on a diplomatic mission, 
 his eloquence provoked the anger of Cato, 
 ■who persuaded the senate to expel him from 
 the city. 
 
 Camot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite (A. 
 1753, d. 1823), French statesman and mathe- 
 matician, sat in the Legislative Assembly, 
 and as a member of the Committee of Pubuc 
 Safety directed the wars of the republic 
 with great ability. Proscribed in 1795, he 
 was recalled in 1799 by Napoleon, who 
 made him minister of war. 
 
 Camot, Marie Francois Sadi {b. 1837), 
 President of the French republic, 1887. 
 
 Caro, Annibale {b. 1507, d. 1566), Italian 
 writer, made translations from the Greek 
 and Latin, and left letters. 
 
 Carolan, Turlough O' (J>. 1670, d. 1738), 
 
 famous Irish bard and musical composer. 
 At an early age he lost his sight, but became 
 extremely skilful on the harp, and wan- 
 dered through the country as an itinerant 
 musician. 
 
 Caroline Amelia Augusta {b. 1768, d. 
 1821), second daughter of Charles William, 
 Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenblittel, was mar- 
 ried in 1795 to the Prince of Wales, after- 
 wards George IV. The marriage was un- 
 happy, and a separation took place soon 
 after the birth of the Princess Charlotte. A 
 " delicate investigation " into her conduct 
 was undertaken by the Privy Council in 
 1806, and though the charges against her 
 were refuted, she withdi-ew to the Continent 
 in 1814. In 1820 she retmmed, claiming 
 her rights as Queen Consort, whereupon a 
 Bill to dissolve her marriage was laid before 
 the House of Lords, but withdrawn after 
 the third reading owing to the state of 
 public feeling, always strongly in favour of 
 the queen. At the coronation of George 
 IV. (1821) she was refused admittance to 
 Westminster Hall. 
 
 Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark 
 {b. 1751, d. 1775), daughter of Frederick, 
 Prince of Wales, and wife of Christian VII. 
 of Denmark, was of an amiable disposition, 
 but excited the dislike of her husband's 
 grandmother and stepmother, who preju- 
 diced the king against her. In 1773 her 
 marriage was declared void, and she was 
 imprisoned in the castle of Zell till her 
 death. 
 
 Caroline Wilhelmina Dorothea (A. 1682, 
 d. 1737), daughter of John Frederick, Mar- 
 quis of Brandenburg, was married in 1705 
 to George, Electoral Prince of Hanover, and 
 on his accession in 1727 became Queen of 
 England. 
 
 Carolostadt, Andreas Bodenstein {b. 1483, 
 d. 1541), reformer, and at first the friend 
 and ally of Luther. He soon developed 
 ultra-Protestant views, which he afterwards 
 retracted pubUcly. 
 
 Caron, or Carron, Frans [d. 1674), was 
 director of the Dutch commerce vrith Japan, 
 and afterwards director- general of French 
 commerce in India. 
 
 Carove, Friedrich W. (b. 1789, d. 1852), 
 German lawyer, pupil of Hegel, wrote 
 many works on theologicjil and philoso- 
 phical subjects. 
 
 Carpenter, Francis Bicknell (b. 1830), 
 American portrait-painter, has had among 
 his sitters President Lincoln, J. R. Lowell, 
 and other distinguished men. He painted 
 the large historical picture of President 
 Lincoln signing the proclamation of the 
 emancipation of slaves, which now hangs in 
 the House of Representatives in Washington.
 
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 Car 
 
 Carpenter, George W. (b. 1802, d. 1860), 
 American scientist, and recognised autho- 
 rity on geology ; has left numerous papers 
 on scientific subjects. 
 
 Carpenter, Dr. Lant (b. 1780, d. 1840), 
 Unitarian divine, became minister of the 
 Unitarian Church at Exeter in 1805, whence 
 he removed to Bristol in 1817. 
 
 Carpenter, Mary {b. 1807, d. 1877), 
 daughter of the preceding, a zealous philan- 
 thropist, took an active interest in destitute 
 children, juvenile crimiaals, and the women 
 of India. 
 
 Carpenter, Margaret {b. 1793, d. 1872), 
 portrait-painter, daughter of Captain Alex- 
 ander Geddes. Among her portraits are 
 those of Archbishop Sumner and Dr. 
 Whewell ; others are in the National Por- 
 trait Gallery. 
 
 Carpenter, PhiUp Pearsall (b. 1819, 
 d. 1877), son of Dr. Lant Carpenter, was 
 for many years a Presbyterian minister, and 
 also interested himself in philanthropic 
 schemes, but from 1855 onwards his life was 
 almost entirely devoted to the study of con- 
 chology. There is a full report on his shells 
 in the British Association Reports for 1856, 
 and further details may be found in the 
 Smithsonian Reports for 1860. 
 
 Carpenter, William Benjamin {b. 1813, 
 d. 1885), physiologist, son of Dr. Lant 
 Carpenter, wrote Principles of General and 
 Comparative Physiology, etc., and in 1861 
 received the medal of the Royal Society. 
 
 Carpenter, The Right Rev. William Boyd 
 {b. 1842), Bishop of Ripon (1884), and author 
 of several works. 
 
 Carpentier, Pierre {b. 1697, d. 1767), 
 French antiquary, wrote Glossarium ad 
 Scriptores Mediae et Infimce Zatinitatis, etc. 
 
 Carpi, Girolamo da (6. 1501, d. 1556), 
 Italian painter, and admirer of Correggio, 
 whose style he successfully imitated. 
 
 Carpi, Ugo da {b. 1486, d. 1530), artist, 
 who discovered the method of wood-en- 
 graving called chiaro-oscuro, and in this 
 manner copied many of Raphael's cartou . ■•. 
 
 Carpioni, Giulio {b. 1611, d. 1674), 
 Venetian painter, whose works are extremely 
 rare and valuable. 
 
 Carpmael, Charles (b. 1846), meteorologist, 
 in 1870 was a member of the British 
 "EcUpse" expedition to Spain. Two years 
 later he went to Canada, and became at- 
 tached to the observatory at Toronto. 
 
 Carpocrates of Alexandria, foimder of 
 the Gnostic sect of the Carpocratians in the 
 time of Hadrian. 
 
 Carr, Sir Robert (d. 1667), one of 
 the four commissioners appointed to regu- 
 late the affairs of New England in 1664. 
 They encoimtered much resistance, but 
 succeeded in capturing New Amsterdam 
 from the Dutch, and renamed it New 
 York. He died at Bristol. 
 
 Carracci, Agostino {b. circa 1558, d. 1601), 
 Italian artist, born at Bologna, painted some 
 of the frescoes in the Farnesian gallery at 
 Rome ; The Communion of St. Jerome in 
 the Bolognese gallery is considered his 
 masterpiece. 
 
 Carracci, Annibale {b. 1560, d. 1609), 
 brother of Agostino, was for eight years 
 employed by Cardinal Famese in painting 
 his palace. 
 
 Ca,rracci, Ludovico (b. 1555, d. 1619), 
 studied the works of the Lombard and 
 Venetian schools, especially those of Cor- 
 reggio. His picture, Susannah and the 
 Elders, is in the National Gallery. 
 
 Carrara, an Italian family, lords of 
 Padua in the 14th century. 
 
 Carrenno de Miranda, Don Juan {b. 1614, 
 d. 1685) , a Spanish artist, painter to Philip IV. , 
 who employed him to decorate his palace, 
 
 Carriera, Rosalba (b. circa 1672, d. 1757), 
 Italian painter of portraits, especially 
 miniatures, practised crayon-painting with 
 much success, went to Paris in 1721, and 
 afterwards to Vienna. In 1746 she became 
 blind. 
 
 Caxroll, Lewis, the pseudonym of the 
 Rev. Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (b. circa 
 1833), hmnorist. and author of Alice in 
 Wonderland (1865), Through the Looking- 
 glass (1872), The Htmting of the Snark 
 (1876), Rhyme andReason (1883), A Tangled 
 Tale (1886), Sylvie and Bruno (1889), and 
 other works. 
 
 Carruthers, Robert (*. 1799, d. 1878), 
 Scottish miscellaneous writer, best known as 
 editor and biographer of Pope. 
 
 Carstairs, William {b. 1649, d. 1715), 
 Scottish divine and politician, was accused of 
 participating in the Rye House plot, and 
 withdrew to Holland, but returned with 
 William III., and exercised great influence 
 at his court. 
 
 Carstens, Asmus Jacab (i. 1764, d. 1798), 
 Danish painter, of humble birth, produced 
 several large pictures in imitation of 
 Raphael. 
 
 Carte, Thomas (*. 1686, d. 1754), an 
 English clergyman, chaplain to Bishop 
 Atterbury, wrote The Life ofJam^s, Duke of 
 Ormond, and a History of England, to which 
 Hume was much indebted.
 
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 Carter, Elizabeth (i. 1716, d. 1806), 
 learueii English lady, very proficient iu 
 Greek, and also a good Latin and Hebrew 
 scholar. 
 
 Carteret, John, Earl of Granville (J. 1690, 
 d. 1763), warm supporter of the Hano- 
 verian succession, was Lord Lieutenant of 
 Ireland (1724-30), and became Prime 
 Minister after the fall of Walpole, but was 
 obliged to resign, owing to his Hanoverian 
 tendencies. 
 
 Cartier, Jacques (5. 1494), French navi- 
 gator, discovered the estuary of the St. 
 Lawrence, and sailed up the river as far as 
 the site of MontreaL 
 
 Cartwright, Edmund {h. 1743, d. 1823), 
 the inventor of the power-loom. 
 
 Cartwright, Thomas (*. 1535, d. 1603), 
 
 grofessor of divinity at Cambridge, became 
 ead of the Puritans, but was forced to take 
 refuge in Holland. 
 
 Cams, Karl Gustav {h. 1789, d. 1869), 
 physician and physiologist, professor of 
 medicine at Leipsic. Hia works were 
 numerous and valuable. 
 
 Carus, Marcus Aurelius {d. 283), 
 Roman emperor, elected by the army in 
 282, repelled the Sarmatians, and carried on 
 a successful war against the Persians. 
 
 Carvalio da Costa, Antonio (5. 1650, d. 
 1715), Portuguese ecclesiastic, author of a 
 topographical description of his country, 
 entitled Chorographia Portugueza. 
 
 Carver, John {d. 1621), sailed in the 
 Mai(riower from Leyden ; became first 
 governor of Plymouth colony, and acted 
 with discretion, establishing friendly rela- 
 tions with the Indians. 
 
 Cary, Alice (i. 1820, d. 1871), American 
 writer of prose and verse, after encountering 
 various difficulties, came with her sister to 
 New York, where her ability soon attracted 
 attention. 
 
 Cary, Phoebe {b. 1824, d. 1871), sister of 
 the preceding, wi'ote Poems and Parodies, 
 Poems of Faith, Hope, and Love, and other 
 verses marked by a bright and cheerful 
 
 tone. 
 
 Cary, Annie Louise {b. 1842), singer, of 
 American birth, travelled much in Europe, 
 and in 1870 returned to America, where she 
 became very popular. After her marriage 
 (1832) she withdrew from public life. 
 
 Cary, the Picv. Henry Francis (i. 
 1772, d. 1844), poet and translator, in 
 1805 published a verse translation of the 
 Inferno. His translation of the Livina 
 Commedia was completed in 1812. He also 
 
 wrote lives of the later English poets, and 
 was an intimate friend of Coleridge and 
 Charles Lamb. He was from 1826 to 1838 
 assistant librarian at the British Museum. 
 
 Casa, Giovanni deUa {b. 1503, d. 1556), 
 Italian ecclesiastic, devoted himself wholly 
 to the classics, and became a great Italian 
 and Latin scholar. 
 
 Casanova, Giovanni Jacopo {b. 1725, d. 
 1803), Venetian adventurer, who moved in 
 high Ufe, and wrote Memoirs of his ex- 
 perience at various European towns. 
 
 Casati, Gaetano (6. 1838), Italian ex- 
 plorer, served in the army till 1879, when 
 he resigned and set out for Khartoum. 
 After visiting Gessi Pasha, he proceeded to 
 Kumbeck (Oct. 1880). No more was heard 
 of him till Dec. 1881, when a letter arrived 
 saying that he had been made prisoner by a 
 chief named Azauga and had j ust escaped. 
 At Lado he met Emiu Pasha and Junker, 
 the Russian explorer, and here the three 
 found themselves shut in by the forces of 
 the Mahdi. He afterwards went as resident 
 to the territory of King Kabba Rega of 
 Unyoro, who condemned him to death, but 
 he escaped to Albert Nyanza, and there 
 received succour from Emin (March 1888). 
 Casati, with his companions, reached 
 Zanzibar in 1889, and he proceeded thence 
 to Italy. 
 
 Casaubon, Isaac (6. 1559, d. 1614), Greek 
 scholar, jprof essor at Geneva and Montpellier 
 successively, became royal librarian at 
 Paris, and afterwards went to London, 
 where he was well received by James I. 
 
 Casiliar, John (6. 1811), American 
 painter and engraver, and member of the 
 Academy. 
 
 Casimir L (b. 1022, d. 1058), King of 
 Poland, ascended the throne in 1041, and 
 did much to promote the civihsation of his 
 people. 
 
 Casimir II. {b. 1117, d. 1194), King of 
 Poland, protected the peasants against the 
 nobles, and was sumamed " the Just." 
 
 Casimir III. (b. 1309, d. 1370), King of 
 Poland, sumamed " the Great," succeeded 
 Vladislas in 1333. He limited the authority 
 of the Palatines by establishing a court of 
 appeal at Cracow. 
 
 Casimir IV. {d. 1492), King of Poland, 
 succeeded to the throne in 1447. 
 
 Casimir V. (6. 1609, d. 1672), King of 
 Poland, son of Sigismund III., was pre- 
 viously a cardinal. 
 
 Casimir-Perier, Auguste Casimir Victor 
 Laurent (6. 1811, d. 1876), French states- 
 man, elected to the Legislative Assembly in
 
 Cas 
 
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 Cas 
 
 1849, to the Chamber in 1871, and the same 
 year became minister of the interior. Elected 
 life senator in 1875. 
 
 Cass, Lewis (b. 1782, d. 1866), American 
 statesman and general, appointed governor 
 of Michigan in 1813. He showed great 
 prudence in his management of Indian 
 affairs, and in 1831 became secretary of 
 war in the administration of President 
 Jackson. Whilst representative of the 
 United States in France, he protested 
 vigorously and effectually against the terms 
 of the quintuple treaty, and returning to 
 America was elected to the senate in 1845. 
 In 1857 he became secretary of state, but 
 about five years later withdrew from public 
 life. 
 
 Cassagnac, Paul Adolphe Marie Prosper 
 de Granier de (6. 1843), French journalist 
 and politician, became editor of the Pays in 
 1866, which paper has been several times 
 prosecuted, and in 1877 Cassagnac was im- 
 prisoned. He has been an imtiring enemy 
 of the republic. 
 
 Cassander, King of Macedonia (fi. circa 
 354 B.C., d. 297 B.C.), son of Antipater, 
 appointed Chiliarch under Polysperchon on 
 his father's death, with the assistance of 
 Ptolemy and Antigonus defeated both 
 Polysperchon and Olympias, mother of 
 Alexander. He afterwards assumed the 
 title of king and by the victory of Ipsus, 
 (301) established himself firmly on the 
 throne. 
 
 Cassander, George (6. 1515, d. 1566), 
 Eoman Catholic, who endeavoured to effect 
 a reconciliation between his own church and 
 the Protestants. 
 
 Cassard, Jacques {h. 1672, d. 1740), 
 French naval oificer, served with distinction 
 against the English, but was neglected by 
 his countrymen, and died in confinement at 
 Ham. 
 
 Cassell, John {b. 1817, d. 1865), temper- 
 ance refonner and publisher, founder of 
 the house of CasseU and Co. , was of humble 
 birth, first interested himself in temper- 
 ance whilst working as a carpenter at 
 Manchester. After holding an appoint- 
 ment as travelling temperance lecturer, he 
 became a tea and coffee merchant in 
 London. He always retained his interest 
 in the temperance cause, in behalf of which 
 he printed several tracts, and started a 
 paper called the Teetotal Times, thus laying 
 the foundation of the house at Ludgate 
 Hill. He was a friend of Lord Brougham, 
 and agitated for the repeal of the paper 
 duty. 
 
 Casserio, Julius (b. 1545, d. 1616), 
 Italian anatomist, professor of anatomy 
 
 N 
 
 at Padua, made many important dis- 
 coveries, and wrote Tabulae Anatomicce, 
 etc. 
 
 Cassian, John {b. 351, d. 448), leader 
 of the Semi-Pelagians, wrote a book on 
 the Incarnation against the Nestorian 
 heresy. 
 
 Cassie, James {b. 1819, d. 1879), Scottish 
 painter, excelled in landscapes and sea- 
 pieces. 
 
 Cassin, John {b. 1813, d. 1869), American 
 ornithologist, who has described and 
 classified many birds not noticed by 
 Audukon and Wilson. 
 
 Cassinl, Jean Dominique (b. 1625, d. 
 1712), appointed professor of astronomy 
 at Bologna in 1650, went to France at the 
 invitation of Colbert in 1672, and was in- 
 stalled at the royal observatory. He 
 discovered four new satellites of Saturn, 
 and left valuable tables on the motions of 
 those of Jufiiter. 
 
 Cassini de Thary, Cesar rran9ois {b. 
 1714, d. 1784), French mathematician, 
 member of the Academie des Sciences, and 
 famous for his trigonometrical survey of 
 France, to which he devoted his life. 
 
 Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius {b. circa 
 468, d. 562), was made governor of Sicily 
 by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, 
 and became sole consul in 514. Dismissed 
 by King Vitiges from his offices, he 
 retired to the monastery of Viviers in 
 Calabria, where he lived many years in 
 seclusion. 
 
 Cassius, Avidius {d. 175), general of 
 Marcus Aurelius, against whom he rebelled, 
 but was shortly afterwards assassinated by 
 two of his own officers. 
 
 Cassius, Longinus Caius {d. 42 B.C.), fol- 
 lowed Crassus as quaestor against the Par- 
 thians, and saved the remnant of his army. 
 He took a principal part in Caesar's mur- 
 der, and commanded the left wing at the 
 battle of Philippi, after which he committed 
 suicide. 
 
 Cassivelaunus or Cassibelan, a British 
 prince, vigorously but unsuccessfully op- 
 posed Caesar's invasion (54 B.C.). 
 
 Castagno, Andrea del, painter of the 15th 
 century, son of a Tuscan peasant, studied 
 and painted at Florence, his masterpieces 
 being the Flagellation in Santa Croce, 
 and the paintings in Santa Maria Nuova. 
 He excelled in design and composition. 
 On his deathbed he confessed that he had 
 murdered his rival, Domenico Veneziano. 
 
 Castanos, Don Francis Xavier de, Duke 
 of Baylen (b. 1753, d. 1852), a Spanish
 
 Cas 
 
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 general, served against the French, distin- 
 guishing himself at the battle of Vittoria. 
 
 Castel, Rene Louis Richard {b. 1758, d. 
 1832), French poet and naturalist. 
 
 Castelar, Emilio {b. 1832), Spanish 
 statesman and writer, condemned to death 
 owing to his attacks on the government 
 in 1868. He fled to France, but shortly 
 returned, and espoused the cause of the 
 Federal republic ; was appointed dictator 
 on the resignation of Amadeus (1873), but 
 resigned a few months later. He is an 
 eloquent speaker, and has vpritten many 
 works. 
 
 CasteU, Edmund (*. 1606, d. 1685)' pro- 
 fessor of Arabic at Cambridge, and author 
 of the Lexicon Heptaglotton, or dictionary of 
 seven languages. 
 
 eastern, Benedetto (*. 1577, d. 1644), 
 Italian mathematician and disciple of 
 GaUleo, devoted himself chiefly to hydrau- 
 lics, on which he left a treatise. 
 
 eastern, Giovanni Battista {b. 1500, 
 d. circa 1570), called "II Bergamasco," 
 architect, sculptor, and painter, exe- 
 cuted many frescoes in the churches of 
 Genoa, his masterpiece being Christ re- 
 ceiving the Elect, on the ceiling of the church 
 of Portoria. He was invited by Charles V. 
 to Madrid, and assisted in decorating the 
 palace of the Prado. 
 
 eastern, Valerio (b. 1625, d. 1659), 
 Italian painter, whose frescoes in the cupola 
 of the church of the Annunziata in Genoa 
 are much admired. 
 
 eastelvetro, Lodovico {b. 1505, d. 1571), 
 a learned Italian, who devoted his life to 
 the study of his own language. 
 
 easti, Giambattista (*. 1721, d. 1803), 
 Italian wit, popular amidst Uterary and 
 courtly circles in various European capitals, 
 especially at Vienna, author of 6li Animali 
 Parlanti, a political satire on monarchs and 
 diplomacy. 
 
 eastiglione, Baldassare (Jb. 1478, d. 1629), 
 bom at Mantua, accomplished knight and 
 Bchoiar, who spent much time in the various 
 courts of Europe. 
 
 Castimo, Antonio Felicianode (b. 1800, d. 
 1875), Portuguese poet, author of His- 
 torical Pu tures of Portugal and other works. 
 
 CastiUa, Ramon (b. 1797, d. 1867), a 
 Peruvian general, in 1844 overthrew the 
 dictator Vivanco, was president from 1845 to 
 1851, overcame his successor Echenique, 
 and was again supreme ruler in 1855. He 
 now abolished slavery, and in 1860 intro- 
 duced universal suffrage, and forbade all 
 religions but the Roman Catholic. 
 
 Castillo, Bernard-Diaz del (*. 1519, d. 
 156U) , Spanish soldier, accompanied Cortes to 
 Mexico, and wrote a history of the conquest. 
 
 eastiUo y Saavedra, Antomo del {b. 1603, 
 d. 1667), Spanish painter, whose best works 
 are in the cathedral of Cordova. 
 
 eastlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount, 
 second Marquis of Londondeny {b. 1769, 
 d. 1822), statesman, entered political life 
 as Chief Secretary of the Lord -Lieutenant 
 of Ireland (1796), and has been charged 
 with cruelty in suppressing the rebellion 
 of 1798, but without due cause. He 
 was Secretary for War in 1805, and from 
 1807 to 1809, and fought a duel with 
 Canning, which led to his retirement. In 
 
 1812 he became leader of the House of 
 Commons and Foreign Secretary, and was 
 accused by his enemies of conspiring against 
 liberty iu both capacities. His unpopu- 
 larity and iU-success so preyed upon his 
 mind as to unhinge his reason, and he died 
 by his own hand. 
 
 Castren, Matthias Alexander {b. 1813, d. 
 1852), professor of Scandinavian languages 
 in the imiversity of Helsingfors, also eminent 
 as a Finnish scholar. 
 
 Castro, Inez de {d. 1355), married Dom 
 Pedro of Portugal in 1354, but was put to 
 death by his father, Alfonso IV. 
 
 Castro, Joao de {b. 1500, d. 1548), Por- 
 tuguese general, viceroy of the Indies (1547). 
 
 Castruccio, Castracani (b. 1284, d. 1328), 
 chief of the Ghibelline party in Tus- 
 cany, became supreme in Lucca through 
 his military exploits and political talents. 
 He made war against the Florentines, de- 
 feating them in 1328. 
 
 Catalan!, Angelica (J. 1779, d. 1849), 
 Italian singer, made her debut at Milan in 
 1801; spent seven years in England, and 
 was enthusiastically received in the principal 
 cities of Europe. She retired to Florence in 
 1830. 
 
 Catesby, Mark (b. 1680, d. 1749), 
 naturalist, travelled in America, and wrote 
 and illustrated The Natural History of 
 Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, 
 
 Cathcart, Hon. Sir George {b. 1790, 
 d. 1864), general, third son of the first Earl 
 of Cathcart, served in the campaigns of 
 
 1813 and 1814, was present as aide-de-camp 
 to the Duke of WeUington at Quatre-Bras 
 and Waterloo, became governor at the 
 Cape in 1852, and commanded the fourth 
 division in the Crimean war, but was mor- 
 tally wounded at Inkermann. 
 
 Cathcart, William Shaw, first Earl of 
 {Jb. 175,3, d. 1843), English general, served
 
 Cat 
 
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 Cat 
 
 in the American war of Independence 
 (1779), commanded the expedition to the 
 Baltic in 1807, and, after the capitulation of 
 Copenhagen and the surrender of the Danish 
 fleet, was raised to the peerage, and became 
 an earl in 1814. He was for many years 
 ambassador at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Cathelineau, Jacques {b. 1759, d. 1793), 
 commander-in-chief of the Vendeans, took 
 the field on behalf of the king in 1793, but 
 was mortally wounded in an attack upon 
 Nantes. 
 
 Catherine Howard (6. circa 1522, d. 1542), 
 fifth wife of Henry VIII. of England, was 
 accused of immorality by Archbishop Cran- 
 mer, found guilty by a commission, and 
 beheaded on Tower HiU, seventeen months 
 after her marriage. 
 
 Catherine Parr {b. 1512, d. 1548), 
 daughter of Sir T. Parr, was married fii-st to 
 Edward Borough, secondly to Lord Latimer, 
 and in 1543 became the sixth and last wife 
 of Henry VLII. She was learned in theology 
 and a zealous Protestant, and, according to 
 Foxe, on one occasion only escaped death as 
 a heretic by timely submission to the king. 
 She survived Henry, and in 1547 married 
 Lord Seymour of Sudeley, who was accused 
 of hastening her death (in child-birth) by 
 poisoning. 
 
 Catherine of Aragon, Queen of Eng- 
 land {b. 1483, d. 1536), daughter of Fer- 
 dinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, 
 married first Arthur, Prince of Wales, 
 and subsequently his brother, afterwards 
 Henry VIII. She was beautiful and vir- 
 tuous, yet the king in 1527 sought a 
 divorce on the ground that the marriage 
 was uncanonical. After much temporising 
 on the part of the Pope, the marriage was 
 in 1533 pronounced invalid by Cranmer, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, and his sentence 
 was ratified by Act of Parliament. Catherine 
 spent the rest of her life in Kimbolton castle. 
 
 Catherine of Braganza (^>. 1638, d. 
 1705), Queen of England, was daughter 
 of John IV. of Portugal, and in 1662 was 
 married to Charles II. of England, bringing 
 Tangiers and Bombay as i^art of her dowry. 
 She returned to Portugal in 1693, acted 
 as regent for her brother Pedro, and dis- 
 played much wisdom and prudence. 
 
 Catherine de Medicis {b. 1519, d. 1589), 
 great granddaughter of Lorenzo the Mag- 
 nificent, niece of Pope Clement VII., and 
 queen to Henri II. of France, acted as 
 regent during the minority of her second 
 son, Charles IX. ; her policy was to play off 
 the parties of the Guises and the Cond^s 
 against one another. She instigated the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 Catherine I., Empress of Eussia (J. circa 
 N 2 
 
 1685, d. 1727), was the outcast infant of a 
 Livonian peasant-girl, and became nurse in 
 the family of the Protestant minister of 
 Marienburg. In 1701 she married a Swedish 
 dragoon, who soon afterwards went with 
 his regiment to Eiga, and never returaed. 
 After the capture of Marienburg by the 
 Eussians, Catherine became the mistress 
 first of General Bauer, with whom she lived 
 at Moscow, secondly, of Prince Meuschikoif, 
 and finally, of Peter the Great, who married 
 her privately near Warsaw in 1711, and 
 pubUcly the next year at St. Petersburg. 
 She then embraced the Greek religion, and 
 took the name of Catherine. On the death 
 of Peter, in 1725, she was proclaimed 
 Czarina. Her death was the result of 
 intemperance. 
 
 Catherine II., Empress of Eussia (b. 1729, 
 d. 1796), the Princess Sophia Augusta, 
 daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, 
 on her marriage in 1745 with Peter, nephew 
 and heir of the Empress Ehzabeth, assumed 
 the name of Catherine Alexiovna. Her 
 refinement and love of study contrasted 
 with her husband's vulgarity and intem- 
 perance ; neglected by him, she ingratiated 
 herself with some of the nobles ; her 
 intrigues were discovered by Peter, and, on 
 ascending the throne in 1762, he threatened 
 to repudiate her, whereupon she imprisoned 
 him and had him strangled. The subsequent 
 murder of Ivan, the next heir, left Catherine 
 in undisputed possession of the throne. As 
 Empress she seized the Crimea, and took 
 part in the dismemberment of Poland. She 
 promoted the welfare of Eussia by en- 
 couraging literature and commerce, but her 
 reign was sullied by disgraceful amours. 
 
 Catilina, Lucius Sergius {d. 62 B.C.), a 
 Eoman patrician, and in early life a partisan 
 of Sulla, after failing to obtain the consulship 
 in 63, organised a conspiracy, which was de- 
 nounced by Cicero in the senate. He fled 
 to his partisans in Etruria, where he was 
 defeated and slain near Pistoria. 
 
 Catinat de la Fauconnerie, Nicolas de 
 {b. 1637, d. 1712), French soldier, became 
 marshal of France in 1693. 
 
 Cato, Dionysius, author of Distkha de 
 Mortbus ad I'ilium, a collection of distichs in 
 hexameter verse, formerly used in schools. 
 
 Cato, Marcus Porcius, called Cato Major 
 (b. B.C. 234, d. B.C. 149), after holding 
 the offices of military tribune in Sicily, 
 qucestor in Africa, under Scipio (204), 
 and praetor in Sardinia (198), became 
 consul in 195. He showed gi-eat ability as 
 proconsul of Spain, distinguished himself 
 against Antiochus in Greece, and in 184 B.C. 
 was elected censor with L. Valerius 
 Flaccus. This office he discharged with a 
 strictness and integrity which made him
 
 Cat 
 
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 Cav 
 
 mauy euemies. He was one of the chief 
 instigators of the third Punic war. 
 
 Cato, Marcus Porcius, sumaraed Uticensis 
 (b. B.C. 95, d. B.C. 46), great-grandson of Cato 
 Major, was early marked by his sternness 
 and force of character, and adopted Stoic 
 principles. He supported Cicero against the 
 Catilinariaus, and sided with Pompey 
 against Cffisar. After the battle of Pharsalia 
 he retired to Utica ; here he received tidings 
 of the defeat of his party at Thapsus, and, 
 after a night spent in studying Plato's 
 Fluedo, died by his own hand. 
 
 Cats, Jacob {b. 1577, d. 1660), Dutch 
 poet, author of Trouwring, etc. 
 
 Cattaneo, Carlo {b. 1803), Italian writer, 
 founder of a scientific journal called 
 Folitecnico. His papers embrace a wide 
 range of subjects. He took a prominent 
 part in the insurrection of Milan in 1848. 
 
 Cattermcrte, George (i. 1800, d. 1868), 
 English water-colour artist and historical 
 painter. 
 
 Catullus, Caius Valerius {b. circa 87 B.C., 
 d. circa 47 B.C.), Roman poet, went with 
 Memmius to Bithynia as praetor, in the 
 vain hope of repairing the fortune he had 
 impaired in the pursuit of pleasure. Among 
 his poems the elegy on his brother is the 
 most famous. He wrote many lyrics. 
 
 Cauchy, Augustin Louis {b. 1789, d. 1857), 
 French mathematician, whose essay, Sur 
 la Theorie des Glides, gave rise to the undu- 
 latorj- theory of light ; he also gave much 
 attention to the integral calculus. 
 
 Caus, Cauls, or Caux, Salomon de (d. circa 
 1635), French architect and engineer, 
 wrote Les Eaisons des Forces Mouvantes, 
 Institution Harmonique, etc. 
 
 Caussin de Perceval, Jean Jacques An- 
 toine {b. 1759, d. 1835), French Orientalist, 
 became professor of Arabic at the College of 
 France (1783), and keeper of oriental 
 manuscripts in the royal Hbrary (1787). 
 
 Cavagna, Giovanni Paolo (J). 1560, d. 
 1627), artist who excelled in painting old 
 men and children. His masterpiece is a 
 Crucifixion, in the church of Sta. Lucia 
 at Venice. His style resembles that of 
 Paolo Veronese. 
 
 Cavagnari, Major Sir Pierre Louis 
 Napoleon, K.C.B. {b. 1841, d. 1879), of 
 French descent, but educated in England, 
 in 1858 joined the 1st Bengal Fusiliers, 
 served in the Indian mutiny, held several 
 civil appointments in India, and in 1879 
 was sent with a small escort on an embassy to 
 Cabul, where he was attacked, and, after a 
 brave resistance, massacred with all his 
 companions. 
 
 Cavaignac, Louis Eugene (b. 1802, d. 1857), 
 French general and politician, appointed go- 
 vernor-general of Algeria by the provisional 
 government of 1848, returned to Paris, 
 became dictator, and drove the insurgents 
 from the barricades (1851). 
 
 Cavalcanti, Guido (d. 1300), born at 
 Florence, Italian writer of lyrical and Icvo 
 poems ; was a leader of the Bianchi party 
 in Florence, and an intimate friend of 
 Dante. 
 
 Cavalcaselle, Giovanni Battista {b. circa 
 1820), art student and critic, well known 
 in England by his works on the history of 
 Flemish and Italian painting. He took part 
 in the Italian revolution (1848-9) as a 
 follower of Garibaldi. 
 
 Cavaliere, Emilio del {b. circa 1550, d. 
 1601), ItaUan nobleman, one of the first 
 to introduce the form of music since de- 
 veloped into the opera and the oratorio. 
 
 Cavalieri, Bonaventura (5. 1598, d. 
 
 1647), Italian mathematician, pupil of 
 
 Galileo, and author of a Geometry of 
 
 Indivisibles. 
 
 Cavalli, Francesco {b. 1610, d. 1676), 
 musician and composer of operas ; was 
 maestro di capella at the cathedral of 
 St. Mark, in Venice. 
 
 Cavalli, Giovanni, General (Jb. circa 
 1816), distinguished military and scientific 
 man, inventor of the gun called by his 
 name. 
 
 Cavallini, Pietro {b. 1279, d. 1364), 
 Italian painter, pupil of Giotto, whom he 
 assisted in the mosaic over the grand en- 
 trance of the church of St. Peter. Most of 
 his works are at Rome. His masterpiece is 
 a Grticifixion at Assisi. 
 
 Cavanilles, Antonio Josef {b. 1745, _ d. 
 1804), Spanish ecclesiastic and botanist, 
 who left many valuable works. 
 
 Cave, Edward {b. 1691, d. 1754), printer 
 and publisher, founder of the Gentleman'' s 
 Maijaziiie, and friend of Dr. Johnson, who 
 wrote his biography. 
 
 Cavedone, Giacomo [b. 1577, <^. 1660), 
 Italian painter, pupil of the Carracci, went 
 to Venice to study Titian, and his manner 
 is a happy compound of the two styles. 
 Some of his works are in the churches of 
 Bologna. 
 
 Cavendish, Lord Frederick Charles (b. 
 1836, d. 1882), second son of the Duke of 
 Devonshire; succeeded Mr. W. E. Forster 
 as Chief Secretary for Ireland, but a few 
 days later was murdered in Phoenix Park, 
 Dublin, by a band of assassins calling them- 
 selves "the Invincibles."
 
 Cav 
 
 (197) 
 
 Cec 
 
 Cavendish, Henry (i. 1731, d. 1810), 
 aatnral philosopher, was son of Lord 
 Charles Cavendish, and nephew of the 
 third Duke of Devonshire. Independently 
 of Watts he discovered the composition of 
 water (1781), at the same time showing how 
 it may be synthetically formed ; determined 
 the composition of nitric acid ; but gained 
 most renown through his determination of 
 the specific gravity and therefore the weight 
 of the earth. 
 
 Cavendish or Candish, Thomas {b. 1564, 
 d. 1593), English navigator, passed through 
 the Straits of Magellan, ravaged the coast- 
 line of ChiU and Peru, taking immense 
 booty, and returned to England by way 
 of the Pacific and the Cape of Good 
 Hope, after circumnavigatiag the world in 
 little more than two years. 
 
 Cavour, Count Camillo Benso di {b. 1810, 
 d. 1861), Italian statesman, born at Turin, 
 and descended from an ancient Piedmoutese 
 family, began life as an ofiicer in the Sardinian 
 army, but soon resigned his commission, and 
 sought by travel in England, France, andelse- 
 where> and the study of political and social in- 
 stitutions, as well as of finance and agricul- 
 tm-e, to gain a mass of experience which he 
 might turn to the advantage of his country. In 
 1846 he started the Risorgimento, a paper of 
 moderate and constitutional views ; in 1848, 
 when Charles Albert granted a constitution, 
 took his seat in the chamber as representa- 
 tive of one of the Turin constituencies, was 
 minister of agriculture and conmierce from 
 1850 to 1852, and prime minister from 1852 
 onwards. He contrived that Sardinia should 
 co-operate in the Crimean war, and brought 
 the grievances of Italy before the Congress 
 of Paris (1856). With the help of Louis 
 Napoleon a successful war was carried on 
 against Austria, and, notwithstanding the 
 disappointing peace of Villafranca (1859), 
 Cavour was able, by securing the annexa- 
 tion of Tuscany and Emilia, and by effecting 
 a jimction with the forces of Garibaldi, to 
 accomplish the aim of his life, and see Italy 
 a united kingdom under the rule of Victor 
 Emmanuel. 
 
 _ Cawton, Thomas {h. 1605, d. 1659), Eng- 
 lish divine, and celebrated linguist. 
 
 Caxton, William \l>. circu 1420, d. 1491), 
 the earliest English printer, acquired a 
 knowledge of the art whilst in the Low 
 Countries, and set up a printing press at 
 Westminster, probably in 1474. 
 
 Cayley, Arthur {I: 1821), mathematician, 
 was in 1863 api^ointed first Sadlerian pro- 
 fessor of pure mathematics at Cambridge, 
 and in 1883, as president of the British 
 Association, delivered an address on the 
 possibilities and present limitations of mathe- 
 matics, which attracted much attention. 
 
 Caylus, Anne Claude Philippe, Comte de 
 {b. 1692, d. 1765), French archaeologist, 
 wrote A Collection of Egyptian, Etruscan, 
 Greek, Roman, and Gallic Antiquities, etc. 
 
 Ca3rx,Eemi Jean Baptiste Charles {h. 1795, 
 d. 1858), French historian, inspector of the 
 Academy of Paris in 1837; wrote on the 
 history of his own country, and that of the 
 Roman empire. 
 
 Cazales, Jacques Antoine Marie de {b. 
 1758, d. 1805), French orator and poli- 
 tician ; was a member of the first Xational 
 Assenibly, but left France on the fall of the 
 constitutional monarchy. 
 
 Cazan Khan (d. 1304), able and enlightened 
 king of Persia of the Mogul dynasty. 
 
 Gazes, Pierre Jacques {b. 1676, d. 
 1754j, French artist, was director (1744) 
 and afterwards (1746) chancellor of the 
 Academy. 
 
 Gazette, Jacques {b. 1720, d. 1792), 
 French writer of romances and tales, 
 chiefly remembered as having correctly 
 prophesied the deaths of several persons ia 
 the coming revolution. He himself suffered 
 by the guillotiue. 
 
 Cazouyny or Cazwyny, Zacharie Ben 
 Mohammed Ben Mahmoud (b. circa 1210, 
 d. 1283), celebrated Arabian naturalist, 
 author of a work on geography, and another 
 on celestial and terrestrial phenomena. 
 
 Cecco d'Ascoli, the name given to Fran- 
 cesco StabiU {b. Viol, d. 1327), scientific poet, 
 author of the Acerba, a sort of encyclopaedia 
 in verse ; he was condemned to the stake by 
 the Inquisition. 
 
 Cecil, Richard {b. 1748, d. 1810), Eng- 
 lish evangelical divine. 
 
 Cecil, Robert. \_See SaUsbury.] 
 
 Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh [b. 1520, 
 d. 159S), minister of State, son of Richard 
 Cecil, of Burleigh, in Northamptonshire, 
 rose steadily during the reign of Edward 
 VI. , opposed Lady Jane Grey, found favour 
 with Mary, and became Elizabeth's chief 
 Secretarj' of State. In this capacity he did 
 more than any other man to promote that 
 feeling of national unity which is the dis- 
 tinctive mark of the Elizabethan period. 
 Recognising that the patiiotism of the 
 country centred in the queen, he continually 
 besought her to marry, and thus secure for 
 England a succession of Protestant rulers. 
 It was under his management that a settled 
 form was given to the English Church, 
 and, though personally disposed to favour 
 the Puritans, his political sagacity led him 
 to adopt in all matters a prudent and middle 
 course. Both his religious and political
 
 Cec 
 
 (198) 
 
 Cer 
 
 views led him to urge on the execution of 
 Mary, Queen of Scots. 
 
 Cecilia, Saint, the patron saint of music, 
 a Roman virgin, is supposed to have suf- 
 fered martyrdom about the beginning of the 
 3rd century. 
 
 Cedd, Saint {d. 664), brother of St. Chad, 
 and bishop of the East Saxons. 
 
 Celakowsky, Frantisek Ladislaw (A. 1799, 
 d. 1852), philologist and author, professor 
 of the Bohemian language at the University 
 of Prague. 
 
 C6leste, Marie (b. 1815, d. 1882), French 
 actress and ballet dancer, very popular in 
 England and America. She withdrew from 
 the stage in 1870. 
 
 Celesti, Cavaliere Andrea (b. 1637, i:^. 1706), 
 Venetian painter of landscapes and historical 
 and sacred pieces, some of whose works may 
 still be seen in the churches of Venice. 
 
 Celestine I. (_d. 432), pope in 422, con- 
 tributed to the supremacy of the pontifical 
 see by exerting his authority in the East 
 with reference to the Nestorian controversy. 
 
 Celestine IL {d. 1144), pope in 1143, 
 quarrelled with Boger, the Norman king of 
 the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Celestine III. (d. 1198), pope in 1191, 
 aided Henry VI. of Germany in establish- 
 ing his power in Sicily. 
 
 Celestine rV., pope in 1241, reigned only 
 seventeen days. 
 
 Celestine V., Pietro Moroue (b. 1215, d. 
 1296), pope in 1294, was previously an 
 anchorite, near Sulmona. His inexperience 
 and simplicity made him a mere tool in the 
 hands of Charles II. of Anjou. He was 
 persuaded to resign his office, and spent the 
 rest of his days in confinement. 
 
 Cellarius, Christoph (b. 1638, d. 1707), 
 German teacher and writer of works on 
 Latin and Hebrew, 
 
 Cellini, Beuveiiuto (b. 1500, d. 1571), bom 
 at Florence, sculptor and goldsmith, led an 
 adventurous life. He worked for Francis I. 
 of France, and at Florence for Cosmo de 
 Medici. According to his autobiography, 
 an Italian classic, he killed the Constable de 
 Bourbon at the siege of Rome. 
 
 Celsius, Andreas {b. 1701, d. 1744), 
 Swedish astronomer, introduced the " centi- 
 grade scale " for thermometers. 
 
 Celsixs, Aulus (or Aurelius) Cornelius, 
 philosopher, supposed to have lived at Rome 
 in the 1st century, wrote De Medicina. 
 
 Celtes, Protucius Conrad (J>. 1459, d. 
 
 1508), German poet, whose real name was 
 Meissel. He was professor of rhetoric at 
 the imiversity of Vienna, and librarian to 
 Maximilian I. 
 
 Cenci, Beatrice {d. 1599), Roman lady, 
 who with lier stepmother Lucretia, and her 
 brother Giacomo, compassed the death of 
 her cruel and incestuous father, Count 
 Francesco Cenci. The three murderers 
 were seized and executed at Rome. There 
 is a doubtful portrait of Beatrice by Guido 
 in the Colonna Palace at Rome, aud her 
 story is the subject of a drama by Shelley. 
 
 Censorinus, Appius Claudius {d. 269), 
 was saluted emperor in 269, and assassinated 
 seven days afterwards. 
 
 Centlivre, Susannah {b. circa 1667, d. 
 1723), English dramatist, wrote The TFoti' 
 der, The Busybody, etc. In 1706 she was 
 married to Joseph Centlivre, chief cook to 
 Queen Anne. 
 
 Ceo, Violante do (6. 1601, d. 1693), 
 Portuguese poetess, early entered the order 
 of the Dominicans. 
 
 Ceolfrid or Ceolfirth (A. 642, d. 716), 
 Saxon, founder of the Abbey of Wear- 
 mouth : amongst his pupils was the Vener- 
 able Bede. 
 
 CepMsodotus, Athenian sculptor of the 
 4th century B.C., executed a group in 
 marble for the temple of Jupiter Soter at 
 Megalopolis. 
 
 Cephisodotus the Younger, a son of 
 
 the great Praxiteles, lived about 300 B.o. 
 Amongst his works was a statue in wood 
 of Lycurgus. 
 
 CeraccM, Giuseppi {b. circa 1760, d. 1802), 
 Corsican sculptor, who with three others 
 was executed in 1801 for attempting to as- 
 sassinate Napoleon. 
 
 Cerdic {d. 534), Saxon chieftain, founder 
 of the kingdom of Wessex. 
 
 Cerintlius, heresiarch of the 1st century, 
 said to have been educated at Alexandria. 
 Some have supposed that the Gospel of 
 St. John was written in refutation of his 
 doctrines. 
 
 Cerquozzi, Michelangelo {b. 1602, (^. 1660), 
 Roman artist, called Michelangelo delle 
 Battaglie from the excellence of his battle 
 pieces. One of his pieces, representing a 
 mob cheering Masaniello, is in the Palazzo 
 Spada at Rome. 
 
 Cervantes de Saavedra, Miguel de (5. 
 1547, d. 1616), Spanish author, bom 
 at Alcala de Henares, belonged to an 
 ancient Galician family, and was educated 
 at the university of Salamanca, where ha
 
 Cer 
 
 (199) 
 
 Cha 
 
 spent his time chiefly in writing verses. 
 After following Cardinal Aquaviva as 
 chamberlain into Italy, he enlisted under 
 Marc Antonio Colonna, and distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Lepanto (1571), 
 where he lost his left hand; in 1575 was 
 captured by a corsair, and spent five years 
 in slavery "at Algiers. In 158S he settled at 
 Seville, and for the next ten years devoted 
 his time mainly to writing dramas. In 1605 
 the first part of Do7i Quixote apjjeared, and 
 the second followed ten years later. Among 
 the other works of Cervantes are Kovelds 
 Exemplares, Tiage al Farnaso, and Galatea. 
 
 Cervolle, Arnaud de {b. circa 1300, d. 
 1366), sumamed i'Archipretre, chief of one 
 of the "companies" which devastated 
 France in the 14th century. 
 
 Cesalpino or Csesalpinus, Andrea {b. 
 1519, d. 1603), eminent Italian botanist, 
 was one of the first to attempt a scien- 
 tific method in the study of botany and 
 mineralogy. 
 
 Cesare, Giuseppe. {See Arpino.] 
 
 Cesari, Antonio {b. 1760, d. 1828), ecclesi- 
 astic, sought to restore ItaUan to its early 
 puritj' through the study of writers of the 
 14th century. 
 
 Cesarotti, Melchiore {b. 1730, d. 1808), 
 Italian poet, and professor of Greek and 
 Hebrew at Padua, wrote an Essay on the 
 Philosophy of Language, translated Homer, 
 .SJschylus, Demosthenes, etc., and was very 
 successful in rendering Ossian in Italian 
 blank verse, 
 
 Cesi, Bartolommeo {b. 1550, d. 1629), 
 Italian artist, friend and rival of the 
 Caracci. Among his works are The 
 Descent of the Hohj Ghost, in the Certosa, 
 and the frescoes, illustrating the life of 
 .ffineas, in the Palazzo Favi. 
 
 Cesi, Cario (b. 1626, d. 1686), histori- 
 cal painter and engraver; one of his best 
 works is The Judgment of Solomon, in Sta. 
 Maria Maggiore. 
 
 Cesi or Csesius, Frederico, Prince of 
 {b. 1585, d. 1636), patron of science, was the 
 founder of the Academy "de' Lincei" in 
 Borne. 
 
 Cesnola, Coimt Luigi Palma di (6. 1832), 
 Italian explorer, bom at Turin, whilst 
 American consul at Lamn'':i in Cyprus in 
 1865 began a series of excavations, which 
 he continued for about ten years. The 
 statuettes, vases, and coins he discovered 
 are now in the Museum of Art at New 
 York. He pubhshed an account of his 
 labours in 1878. 
 
 Cespedes, Pablo de {b. 1533, d. 1608), 
 
 Spanish painter, sculptor, scholar, and 
 writer, visited Eome, where he painted 
 some frescoes in the church of the Trinity. 
 His chief works are at Cordova. 
 
 Cesti, Marc Antonio {b. circa 1620, d. 
 1681), ItaUan musician, maestro di capella 
 at Florence in 1646. 
 
 Cetewayo, King of Zululand {b. 1821, d. 
 1884), became regent for his father Panda 
 in 1856, and succeeded him iu 1873. His 
 poUcy towards Natal was at first couciha- 
 tory, but harassed by aggressions of the Boers, 
 for whose conduct Britain became respon- 
 sible on annexing the Transvaal, he became 
 tyrannical and suspicious, and the British 
 declared war in 1879. The war ended in the 
 burning of Cetewayo's kraal at Ulimdi; 
 he fled, but was captured and sent as a 
 prisoner to Cape Town, his coimtry being 
 divided among thirteen petty chieftains. In 
 1882 the British Government determined 
 to restore Cetewayo, and after visiting 
 England he returned to Zululand, January, 
 1883. Internal troubles and wars broke 
 out ; Cetewayo failed to drive out Usibepu, 
 and after surrendering to the British re- 
 sident, he died suddenly in 1884. 
 
 Chabanon, Michael Paul Gui de (*. 
 1730, d. 1792), French poet and musician 
 of note, bom at St. Domingo ; left several 
 dramas and poems. 
 
 Chabert, Joseph Bernard, Marquis de {b. 
 1724, d. 1805), French admii-al and man of 
 science, went on several voyages to correct 
 the naval charts then in use ; served in the 
 American war; during the French revo- 
 lution retired to England ; returned in 1802, 
 and was well received by Bonaparte. 
 
 Cliabot, Francois (b. 1759, d. 1794), 
 French Capuchin friar, who was guillotined 
 as an accomplice of Danton. 
 
 Chabrol de Crouzol, Andre Jean, Count 
 (b. 1771, d. 1836), French statesman, who 
 as minister of marine (1824) and of finance 
 (1829) rendered great public services. 
 
 Chabrol de Volvic, Gilbert Joseph Gas- 
 pard. Count {b. 1773, d. 1843), brother of 
 the preceding, accompanied the Egyptian 
 expedition in a scientific capacity. He was 
 appointed prefect of the Seine in 1812, and 
 retained the office after the restoration. 
 
 Chad or Ceadda, Saint (d. 672), Bishop of 
 York, and afterwards of Lichfield. 
 
 Chahyn Gherai, last Khan of the Crimea, 
 was in 1783 compelled by the Russians to 
 abdicate. 
 
 Chaillu, Paul Belloni du {b. 1835), African 
 explorer, autlior of Explorations and Ad- 
 ventures in Equatorial Africa (1861), and 
 The Land of the Midnight Sun (1881).
 
 Cha 
 
 (200) 
 
 Cha 
 
 Cliaka or Charka {d. 1829), King of the 
 Zulus, assassinated by his brothers. 
 
 Chalcondylas, Demetrius {b. circa 1424, d. 
 1510K Greek grammarian, who taught at 
 Florence and Milan. 
 
 Chalcondylas, Laouicos {d. circa 1464), 
 Bj-zautine liistoriau, wrote in Greek a His- 
 tory of the Turks from 1298 to 1462. 
 
 Challemel-Lacour, Paul Amaud (b. 1827), 
 French politician and writer, was asso- 
 ciated with Gambetta in establishing the 
 Revue Tolitique (1808), and the llcpuhlique 
 Franqaise (l^ill). His proceedings as pre- 
 fect of the Rhone in 1870 gave rise to 
 much unfavourable comment. He was 
 foreign secretary iu 1883. 
 
 Chalmers, Alexander (*. 1759,^. 1834), mis- 
 cellaneous writer, edited the Morning Herald, 
 and wrote a General Biographical Dictionary. 
 
 Chalmers, Thomas {fi. 1780, d. 1847), 
 Scottish divine, educated at St. Andrews, 
 where he taught mathematics after his 
 ordination. In 1815 he became a minister 
 at Glasgow, and at once attracted attention 
 by his eloquence. He was subsequently 
 professor of moral philosophy at St. 
 Andrews (1823) and of theology at Edin- 
 burgh (1828). On the disruption of the 
 Church of Scotland (1843) he joined the 
 Free Church party, and became moderator 
 of its assembly and principal of its college. 
 His writings embrace a wide range of sub- 
 jects, including natural science and political 
 economy. 
 
 Chaloner, Sir Thomas, the elder {b. 1521, 
 d. 1565), diplomatist and author, was sent 
 by Elizabeth as ambassador to the Emperor 
 Ferdinand and to Philip II., and resided in 
 Spain from 1561 to 1564. He wrote a 
 treatise Of the Right Ordering of the English 
 RepubUc. 
 
 Chaloner, Sir Thomas, the younger {b. 
 1561, d. 1615), son of the preceding, was 
 much esteemed by James I., and became 
 tutor to his son Henry. 
 
 Chalybseus, Heinrich Moritz {b. 1796, 
 d. 1862), professor of philosophy at Kiel 
 (1839-52), vrrote a History of Speculative 
 Philosophy from Kant to Hegel, a System of 
 Speculative Ethics, etc. 
 
 Cham, the pseudonym of Amedde de 
 Noe {b. 1819, d. 1879), caricatiurist and 
 humorist, connected with the Charitiari for 
 about thirty years. Douze Annies Comiques 
 (1880) and Les Folies Parisiennes (1883) are 
 collections of his contributions to comic 
 journals. 
 
 cnamberlain, Rt. Hon. Joseph {b. 1836), 
 politician, was educated at University 
 
 College school, and entered his father's busi- 
 ness as a manufacturer of wood-screws at 
 Birmingham. He acquired local celebrity as 
 an exponent of Radical views, tinged with 
 repubUcauism, was mayor of Birmingham in 
 1873 and the two following years, in 1876 
 was returned as member for that town, and 
 in 1880 obtained a seat in Mr. Gladstone's 
 Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. 
 To him arc owing the Bankruptcy BiU . 
 (1883), the Married Women's Property Bill, 
 and the Patent Law Amendment Bill. In 
 1883 he advocated manhood suffrage, equal 
 electoral districts, and paid members ; and 
 from 1885 onwards his proposals showed 
 the influence of State Socialism, especially 
 in regard to the land. His views were 
 fully develoi^ed in I'he Radical Programme, 
 published by the Liberal Federation in 1885. 
 In 1886 he became president of the Local 
 Government Board, but resigned owing to 
 his disapproval of the Home Rule Bill. Siuce 
 then he has been one of the supporters of 
 the Unionist party, but has not otherwise 
 taken a conspicuous part in political life. 
 In 1887 he was one of the conunissioners 
 appointed to settle the fisheries disputes 
 between the United States and Canada. 
 
 Chambers, Ephraim {b. circa 1680, d, 
 1740), wrote a well-known encyclopeedia, 
 the first edition of which appeared in 1728. 
 
 Chambers, Robert (b. 1802, d. 1871), bro- 
 ther of William, in 1832 joined him ia 
 estabUshiug a publishing house ; besides his 
 contributions on social, philosophical, and 
 humorous subjects to Chambers''s Journal, 
 wrote on geology and Scottish history and 
 romance, and was the author of Vestiges of 
 the Natural History of Creation. Among his 
 best works are his Life of Burns and the 
 Book of Days. 
 
 Chambers, William {b. 1800, d. 1883), 
 Scottish publisher and author, vdth his 
 brother Robert established Chambers'' s Jour- 
 nal in 1832. Henceforward they took 
 an active part in the popularisation of 
 knowledge. William was also interested in 
 schemes of sanitary improvement, and in 
 1865 was elected lord provost of Edinburgh. 
 
 Chambers, Sir William (6. Stockholm 
 1726, d. 1796), architect, of Scottish parent 
 age, designed the gardens at Kew, and built 
 Somerset House and other mansions. 
 
 Chambord, Henri Charles Dieudonne, 
 Comte de {h. 1820, d. 1883), the last of the 
 elder branch of the Bourbons, was the son 
 of the Due de Berry. Charles X. resigned 
 in his favour, but he was compelled to Hve 
 abroad. 
 
 Chamier, Daniel {b. circa 1570, d. 1621), 
 French divine, professor of theology at 
 Montauban, and a vigorous defender of
 
 Cha 
 
 (201) 
 
 Cha 
 
 Protestantism, was slain during the siege 
 of Moutauban by Louis XIII. 
 
 Chammaxd, Michel de {b. 1651, d. 1721), 
 French statesman, whose maladministration 
 of the finances (1699-1708) nearly ruined his 
 country. 
 
 Chamilly, Noel Bouton, Comte de (b. 
 1636, d. 1715), French marshal, who gal- 
 lantly defended Grave against the Prince of 
 Orange. 
 
 Cbamisso, Adalbert von {b. 1781, d. 
 1838), German poet and botanist, of French 
 descent, entered the Prussian army in 1798, 
 but, caring more for hterature, and becom- 
 ing connected with the young romantic 
 school, left it in 1807. In 1815 he joined a 
 Russian exploring expedition to Behring's 
 Straits, and returning in 1817 became cus- 
 todian of the botanical gardens iu Berlin. 
 He wrote Peter Schlemihl (a novel), and 
 many ballads and lyrics. 
 
 Chamousset, Claude Humbert Piarzon de 
 (b. 1717, d. 1773), French philanthropist, 
 introduced many reforms into the hospitals 
 of Paris. 
 
 Champagne or Champaigne, Philippe de 
 [b. 1602, d. 1674), Belgian artist, employed 
 with Poussin in the Luxembourg. 
 
 Championnet, Jean Etienne (*. 1762, d. 
 1800), French general, took part in the 
 revolution, and was employed against the 
 Girondists; captured Naples in 1799, and 
 commanded the army of the Alps, but re- 
 signed on the coup d'etat of Napoleon. 
 
 Champlain, Samuel de (*. 1570, d. 
 1635), the first French governor of Canada; 
 founded Quebec in 1608, and gave his name 
 to Lake Champlain. 
 
 Champollion, Jean Francois (*. 1790, 
 d. 1832), French Orientalist, in 1822 an- 
 nounced to the Academy of Inscriptions his 
 discovery of the key to the hieroglj-phics. 
 In 1828 he was sent to Eg}^pt by the govern- 
 ment, and published the result of his re- 
 searches on his return. 
 
 Chancellor, Richard {d. 1556), navigator, 
 joined Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition 
 in 1553, made his way to the White Sea, 
 visited Moscow, and was weU received by 
 Ivan IV. On his return in 1554 formed 
 the Muscovy Company. 
 
 Chandler, Edward, D.D. {b. 1671, d. 
 1750), Bishop of Lichfield, wrote a Defence 
 of Christianity, praised by Leland. 
 
 Chandler, Richard, D.D. {h. 1738, d. 
 1810), scholar and writer, travelled in 
 Greece and Asia Minor, and wrote Ionian 
 Antiquities, etc. 
 
 Chandler, Samuel, D.D. {b. 1693, d. 
 
 1766), Presbyterian divine, wrote many 
 works defending Christian rationalism, and 
 attackiiig Deism. 
 
 Chan -OS, Sir John {d. 1370), English 
 captain, served iu France under Edward 
 III., and was Ueutenant-general of the 
 Enghsh forces in Guienne. He was slain 
 near Poitiers. 
 
 Changarnier, Nicolas Theodule [b. 1793, 
 d. 1877), French general, governor of 
 Algiers in 1848, crushed the Parisian 
 outbreak in 1849, but was arrested and 
 exiled by Louis Napoleon. 
 
 Channing, "William EUery (b. 1780, d. 
 1842), American preacher and writer, was 
 educated at Harvard College, and in 1803 
 became pastor of a congregation in Boston, 
 where he remained till his death. From 
 1835 onward he took a leading part in the 
 anti-slavery movement, and suggested 
 many schemes for the improvement of 
 the poor. His sermons are eloquent and 
 show breadth of view. He also wrote on 
 literary subjects. 
 
 Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, R.A. (b. 1781, 
 d. 1841), son of a carpenter, became eminent 
 as a sculptor of busts, notably one of Scott. 
 Some of his larger works are also famous, 
 especially the group of The Sleeping Children 
 in Lichfield cathedral. 
 
 Chanzy, Antoine Eugene {b. 1823, d. 1883), 
 French soldier, was apjjointed general of 
 division by the government of the National 
 Defence during the Franco-German war, 
 and in January, 1871, fought a six days' 
 battle with Prince Frederick Charles, while 
 retreating from Le Mans ; was afterwards 
 governor of Algeria and ambassador to St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 Chapman, George (*. 1557, d. 1634), 
 English dramatist, educated at Oxford, wrote 
 many plaj's, but is best known by his trans- 
 lation of Homer. He also translated Hesiod, 
 Ovid, etc. 
 
 Chapone, Hester (^. 1727, d. 1801), daugh- 
 ter of Thomas Mulso, married a barrister 
 named Chapone. She wrote Letters on the 
 Improvement of the 3£ind (1773). 
 
 Chappe, Claude (b. 1763, d. 1806), French 
 mechanician, inventor of a system of 
 telegraphy used iu France for some years. 
 
 Chappe d'Auteroche, Jean {b. 1722, d. 
 1769), French astronomer, commissioned 
 by the Academy of Sciences to observe 
 from Tobolsk a transit of Venus (1761). On 
 his return to France he published the 
 Voi/age en Slberie. 
 
 ChappeU, William (b. 1582, d. 1649), 
 Bishop of Cork (1638), wrote Methodus 
 Concwnandi, and other works.
 
 Clia 
 
 (202) 
 
 Cha 
 
 Chaptal, Jean Antoine Claude, Comte de 
 Chanteloup (Ik 17o6, d. 1832), French chemist 
 and statesman ; Napoleon made him mini- 
 ster of the interior, a post which he re- 
 signed iu 1804, after doing much to improve 
 French trade. In 1815 he was made director 
 of commerce and manufactures by Louis 
 XVIII., and became a peer of FraoQce. He 
 left several works ®n chemistry. 
 
 Chardia, Jean {b. 1643, d. 1713), French 
 traveller, went to the East Indies in search 
 of diamonds, and resided six years at 
 Ispahan. He left an account of his travels. 
 
 Chares {b. circa 400 B.C., d. circa 330 B.C.), 
 Athenian general, was entrusted with the 
 conduct of the Social war, and rendered some 
 service in the Olynthian. He was one of the 
 commanders at Chaeronea. 
 
 Charette de la Contrie, Francois Athanase 
 {b. 1763, d. 1796), Vend^an general, in 1793 
 headed the peasant insurgents of his neigh- 
 bourhood, and obtained several successes in 
 conjunction with Cathelineau, but was 
 finally defeated, captured, and executed. 
 
 Charlemagne (Charles the Great) {b. 742, 
 d. 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of 
 the West, on the death of his father, Pepin, 
 in 768, obtained the sovereignty of Neustria, 
 Austrasia, and part of Germany, and on that 
 of his brother, Carloman, in 771, became 
 sole monarch of a territory embracing 
 France and about half of Germany. He 
 immediately attacked the Saxons, whom he 
 subdued after a war of thii-ty years. A 
 descent into Italy in 774, undertaken at the 
 request of Pope Adriau, residted in the 
 capture of Pavia, and defeat of Desiderius, 
 king of the Lougobardi. He assumed the 
 crown of Lombardy himself, and was recog- 
 nised by the pope as patrician of Rome and 
 suzerain of Italy. In 778 he marched against 
 the Saracens in Spain, and drove them 
 beyond the Ebro, but on his return home his 
 rear guard was defeated at Koncesvalles, and 
 his follower, Roland, slain. On Christmas 
 day, SCO, he was crowned Emperor of the 
 West in Rome, by Leo III., and assumed 
 the titles of Csesar and Augustus. He was 
 acknowledged by Nicephorus, Emperor of 
 the East, and the boundaries of the two 
 empii-es were determined. Charlemagne de- 
 voted himself to the advancement of learn- 
 ing and religion, and publishedthe Capitti- 
 laries, a collection of ecclesiastical and civil 
 regulations. 
 
 Charles I., King of England (b. 1600, d. 
 1649), second son of James I., succeeded his 
 father in 1625, and was almost immediately 
 involved in disputes with the Parliament, 
 first about his favourite Buckingham, and 
 then respecting the redress of grievances. 
 After reluctantly granting the Petition 
 of Right (1628), he ruled for eleven years 
 
 without a parliament, under the influence 
 of the Earl of Strafford and Archbishop 
 Laud. During this period he resorted to 
 various unconstitutional methods of filling 
 his exchequer, the exaction of ship-money 
 being the most famous, and caused a re- 
 belUon in Scotland by attempting to force 
 episcopacy upon the people. In 1640 the 
 Long ParUament met, Strafford was im- 
 peached and executed, and Laud imprisoned. 
 After his failure to arrest the five members, 
 Charles raised his standard at Nottingham, 
 and the Civil war began. The parlia- 
 mentary victories at Marston Moor (1644), 
 Naseby (1645), and elsewhere induced 
 Charles to surrender himself to the Scots, 
 by whom he was delivered to the English 
 ParUament. After some months of confine- 
 ment iu various places he was tried and con- 
 demned by a self-created tribunal in West- 
 minster Hall, and executed at Whitehall, 
 Jan. 30th. 
 
 Charles II., King of England (*. 1630, d. 
 1685), son of the preceding, after Naseby 
 joined the queen at Paris ; iu 1650 landed in 
 Scotland, took the covenant, and was 
 crowned at Scone, Jan. 1, 1651, but his defeat 
 at Worcester (Sept. 3rd) necessitated his 
 return to the Continent. He there led a 
 wandering life till recalled by the ParHament 
 in May, 1660. On his restoration every- 
 thing in Chui-ch and State was restored to its 
 former footing. Wars with the Dutch broke 
 out, and after the Triple Alliance between 
 England, Holland, and Sweden had been 
 formed in 1668, it was found that Charles, at 
 the instigation of the ministry called the 
 " Cabal," had secretly become the pensioner 
 of the French king. This he had done in 
 the hope of rendering himself absolute, and 
 from 1681 he ruled iu an arbitrary man- 
 ner without a parliament, in consequence of 
 which there were many plots to overthrow 
 the government. 
 
 Charles Edward Louis Philip Casimir 
 Stuart {b. 1720, d. 1788), the "Young 
 Pretender," was grandson of James II. of 
 England, and son of James, the " Old Pre- 
 tender." In 1745 he made an attempt to 
 gain the throne in his father's name, landed 
 iu Inverness- shire, and, after a victory at 
 Prestonpans, marched into England as far 
 as Derby, but was forced to retrace his steps ; 
 was again victorious at Falkirk (Feb., 1746), 
 but defeated at Culloden in April, and after 
 months of privation and disguise, escaped to 
 France. Compelled to leave that country by 
 the terms of the peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe 
 (1748), he spent the rest of his life chiefiy in 
 Italy, where for many years he was known 
 as Count d' Albany. He died at Rome. 
 
 Charles I., of France, " the Bald " {b. 823, 
 d. 877), son of Louis le Debonnaire, on the 
 death of his father joined his step-brother,
 
 Cha 
 
 (203 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 Louis, against their eldest brother, Lothaire, 
 ■who was conquered at Fontenai. An 
 arrangement was then made by which 
 Charles became king of France in 843. In 
 87o Charles became Emperor of the "West, 
 and was on his way to the pope when news 
 arrived that his nephew, Carloman, was 
 advancing against him. The tidings are 
 supposed to have hastened his death, which 
 has also been attributed to poison. 
 
 Charles II., of France, "le Gros." [See 
 Charles III., of Germany.] 
 
 Charles III., of France, " the Simple " {b. 
 879, d. 929), sou of Louis the Stammerer, 
 was a posthumous child. The throne was 
 successively occupied by Charles the Fat 
 and Eudes, Count of Paris, but on the death 
 of the latter (898) Charles became king. 
 Unable to resist the Normans, he gave his 
 daughter, Gisele, in marriage to RoUo, their 
 leader, whom he created Duke of Normandy. 
 In 922 Charles was deposed and imprisoned 
 by Robert, brother of Eudes, but finally 
 jjermitted to reside in the castle of Peronne 
 till his death. 
 
 Charles IV., of France, "the Fair" (b. 
 1294, d. 1328), Count of La Marche and 
 King of Navarre, succeeded his brother, 
 Philip the Tall, on the throne of France 
 in 1322. A war with Edward II. of England 
 was terminated in 1326. 
 
 Charles v., of France, "theWise" (b. 1337, 
 d. 1380), son of John, acted as regent during 
 the eight years of his father's captivity, and 
 succeeded him in 1364. The disorder in Eng- 
 land which followed the death of Edward 
 III., and his own crafty method of warfare 
 enabled him to regain most of the territory 
 lost by his predecessors. He founded the Bib- 
 liotheque Royale in Paris, and the BastiUe. 
 
 Charles VI., of France, "the Silly" 
 {b. 1368, d. 1422), son of the preceding, 
 succeeded his father in 1380, and was 
 led by his uncle, the Duke of Burgundy, 
 against PhiUp van Artevelde, leader of the 
 Flemish insurgents, whom he defeated at 
 Rosbecque in 1382. In 1388 he took the 
 government into his own hands, but shortly 
 afterwards lost his reason. His reign was 
 most disastrous. Agincourtwas lost iu 141.5, 
 and by the treaty of Troyes iu 1420 Henry V. 
 became virtually Kiug of France. 
 
 Charles VII., of France, "the Victorious" 
 {'). 111)3, d. 1461), son of the preceding, 
 assumed the title of king on the death of his 
 father (1122), but remained inactive, 
 owdug to his indolence, till aroused by 
 Joan of Arc. The relief of Orleans (1429) 
 was followed by the coronation of Charles 
 at Rheims. Paris submitted to him in 1436, 
 and he pur.sued his career of victory till in 
 1456 uothmg but Calais was left to the 
 
 English. Such was his dread of being poi- 
 soned by his son Louis, that he submitted to a 
 fast of seven days, which resulted in his death. 
 
 Charles VIIL, of France, "the Affable" 
 {b. 1470, d. 14!j8), son of Louis XI., suc- 
 ceeded to the throne in 1483 under the 
 guardianship of his sister, Anne of Beaujeu. 
 A war with Germany, and her allies Eng- 
 land and Spain, was concluded by the treaty 
 of Senlis (1493). In 1495 Charles marched 
 on Naples, to which he laid claim, and seized 
 the town, but hearing that his retreat was 
 being cut off, was obliged to return. He 
 met and defeated his foes at Fomovo, but 
 lost Naples, and never reconquered it. 
 
 Charles IX., of France {b. 1550, d. 1574), 
 succeeded his brother, Francis II. in 1560. 
 The government was conducted by his 
 mother, Catherine de Medici. The king- 
 dom was desolated by a religious war ; 
 a peace made in 1570 was followed in 1572 
 by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, to 
 which the king assented, but is said to have 
 afterwards felt remorse. 
 
 Charles X., or more properly Charles of 
 Bourbon-Vendome (b. 1517, d. 1590), fifth 
 son of Charles de Bourbon, entered the 
 Church, and was a cardinal and Archbishop 
 of Rouen, when, on the assassination of 
 Henri III., Mayeune declared him king in 
 opposition to the claims of his nephew, 
 Henri IV. Charles, however, was iu prison 
 at the time, and languished there till his 
 death a few months later. 
 
 Charles X., of France (/-. 1757, d. 1836), 
 Comte d'Artois, youngest son of the 
 Dauphin, and grandson of Louis XV., left 
 France on the destruction of the Bastille 
 (1789), but on the abdication of Napoleon 
 (1814) was appointed regent for his brother, 
 Louis XVIII. On the death of Louis in 
 1824 he ascended the throne, but after 
 the disturbances of July, 1830, abdicated in 
 favour of the Duke of Bordeaux. 
 
 Charles Martel (6. circa 689, d. 741), King 
 of the Franks. Defeated the Saracens at 
 Tours (732)-. 
 
 Charles the Bold {b. 1433, d. 1477), Duke 
 of Burgundy and Count of Charolais, suc- 
 ceeded in 1467. He was for most of his reign 
 at enmity with Louis XI. of France, on one 
 occasion taking him prisoner and releasing 
 him ouly on his own terms He was unsuc- 
 cessful in his expedition against the Swiss, 
 and was slain whilst endeavouring to regain 
 the town of Nancy. 
 
 Charles de Blois {b. 1320, d. 1364), or de 
 Chatillon, on the death of John III. of 
 Bretagne, claimed the dukedom in right of 
 his wife, Jeanne de Peuthievre, daughter of 
 Gui de Bretagne, but was opposed by Joha 
 de Montfort, half-brother of the late king,
 
 Cha 
 
 (204) 
 
 Cha 
 
 who was supported by the English. Charles 
 was defeated aud slain at Auray. 
 
 Charles I., '•leBou"{h. circa 1084, d. 1127), 
 Count of Flanders, son of Canute IV. of 
 Denmark, succeeded Baldwin VII. of Flan- 
 ders in 1119. He was offered the crowns of 
 Jerusalem and Germany, both of which he 
 refused. 
 
 Charles of Artois (b. 1393, d. 1472), Count 
 of Eu, was allied to the Orleans faction in 
 the reign of Charles VI. He was made 
 prisoner at Agiucourt, and confined for 
 twenty- three years in the Tower of London. 
 
 Charles of Valois (3. 1270, d. 1325), third 
 son of Philip le Hardi, received Maine and 
 Aujou in right of his wife Marguerite. He 
 took a prominent part in the war with 
 Edward II. of England. 
 
 Charles I., of Germany. [See Charle- 
 magne.] 
 
 Charles II., of Germany. [See Charles I., 
 of France.] 
 
 Charles III., of Germany (b. 832, d. 888), 
 younger son of Louis the Germanic, 
 elected emperor 881, accepted the throne 
 of France 884. Instead of making an 
 attempt to consolidate his dominions, he 
 signed an infamous treaty with the Nor- 
 mans, and was deposed in 887. 
 
 Charles IV., of Germany {b. 1316, d. 1378), 
 son of John, King of Bohemia, was elected 
 emperor in 1347, and annexed Brandenburg 
 and Silesia to Bohemia. He held his court 
 at Prague, and in 1353 issued the "golden 
 bull," since regarded as the basis of the 
 Germanic constitution. 
 
 Charles V., of Gei-many (b. 1500, d. 1558), 
 son of the Archduke Philip of Austria, and 
 Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon, 
 inherited the Netherlands on the death of 
 his father in 1506: became sovereign of 
 Castile and Aragon, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, 
 and Spanish America, on the death of Fer- 
 dinand in 1516 ; aud in 1519 was electee em- 
 peror in succession to his paternal grand- 
 father, Maximilian. In 1521 Luther ap- 
 peared before him at the Diet of Worms. 
 He was constantly at variance with 
 Francis I. of France, ivhom he took prisoner 
 at Pavia in 1525. The Pope sided with 
 Francis after his liberation, whereupon 
 Charles attacked aud took Rome. A tem- 
 porary peace was effected by the treaty of 
 Cambray in 1529. Charles made a suc- 
 cessful expedition against Tunis in 1535, but 
 failed in an attack on Algiers in 1541. He 
 strove unsuccessfully against the Protestant 
 princes of Germany, being forced in 1552 
 to conclude the treaty of Passau, confirmed 
 at Augsburg in 1555. In the same year 
 he resigned the crown of Spain and the 
 
 Netherlands to his son Philip, and in 1556 
 that of Germany to his brother Ferdinand. 
 He spent the rest of his life in a monastery 
 in Estremadura. 
 
 Charles VI., of Germany (b. 1685, d. 1740), 
 second son of Leopold I., engaged, with the 
 assistance of England, Holland, and Por- 
 tugal, in a struggle with Philip V. for the 
 throne of Spain, but by the treaty of Rastadt 
 (1714) renounced his claim. On the death 
 of his brother Joseph in 1711, he succeeded 
 to the dominions of the house of Austria, 
 and was elected emperor. He engaged in 
 wars with the Turks, to whom he ceded 
 Servia and Wallachia at the peace of Bel- 
 grade (1739). 
 
 Charles VII., of Germany (b. 1697, d. 
 1745), eldest son of Maximilian, Elector of 
 Bavaria, claimed the imperial throne, as a 
 desceud.ant of Ferdinand I., on the death of 
 Charles VI., in opposition to his daughter, 
 Maria Theresa. Through the assistance 
 given him by France aud Prussia he was 
 crowned at Frankfort in 1742 ; but Frederic 
 of Prussia was won over by Maria Theresa, 
 and the French defeated at Dettingen by 
 George II. of England (1743). Thus the 
 struggle was decided in favour of Maria 
 Theresa. 
 
 Charles Louis, Archduke of Austi-ia (b. 
 1771, d. 1847), son of Leopold II., Emperor 
 of Germany, conducted the campaigns 
 against the French republic and the Em- 
 peror Napoleon, being appointed in 1796 
 commander-in-chief of the Austrian armies. 
 He was successful against Jourdan in 1797 
 and 1799, and in 1800 opposed Massena 
 with skill in Switzerland, but was forced 
 through ill-health to give up his post. He 
 afterwards became minister of war, and de- 
 feated Massena at Caldiero in 1805. In 
 1809 he again checked the French at Aspern 
 and Essling, but Napoleon crossed the 
 Danube and defeated him at Wagram. 
 
 Charles I., of Spain. [-See Charles V., of 
 Germany.] 
 
 Charles II., of Spain {b. 1661, d. 1700), son 
 of Philip IV., succeeded to the throne in 
 1665, under the regency of his mother. Don 
 John of Austria gained the control of the 
 government, aud protected the interests of 
 the country ; after his death, Charles was 
 prevented bj^ his weakness of body and mind 
 from maintaining his position. Portugal 
 secured her independence, and Louis XIV. 
 endeavoured to annex the Low Countries, 
 and to secure a Bourbon successor to the 
 throne of Spain, but was prevented by the 
 interposition of England, Germany, and 
 Holland. The wars which followed lasted 
 till the peace of Ryswick (1697). 
 
 Charles III, of Spain (b. 1716, d. 1788),
 
 Cha 
 
 ( 205 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 younger son of Philip V. , received from his 
 father the crown of the Two Sicilies, and on 
 the death of his brother, Ferdinand VI., in 
 1759, became king of Spain. The Bourbon 
 league involved him in a war with England, 
 during which he lost Manilla and other 
 colonies. He joined with France in aiding 
 the American colonies ; at the close of the 
 war Florida and Minorca were ceded to 
 Spain. 
 
 Charles IV., of Spain (J). 1784, d. 1819), 
 son of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 1788, was a capricious and in- 
 capable ruler. In 1795 he allied himself 
 with France, but his fleet was destroyed by 
 Nelson at Trafalgar. He fled before the 
 advance of Murat, and was forced to ab- 
 dicate in favour of Napoleon (1808). 
 
 Charles VII., of Sweden (the six preceding 
 of the name being fabulous) was assassinated 
 in 1168. 
 
 Charles VIII. {d. 1470), first regent, and 
 from 1448 King of Sweden, drove the de- 
 posed king Eric from the isle of Gothland, 
 and in 1449 was elected kiug of Norway, 
 but was obliged to yield the throne to his 
 rival, Christian, Eang of Denmark. 
 
 Charles IX., of Sweden {b. 1550, d. 1611), 
 created a regular standing army, and was 
 occupied in constant wars with Denmark, 
 Poland, and Russia. 
 
 Charles X., of Sweden {b. 1622, d. 1660), 
 was cousin to Queen Christina, who abdi- 
 cated in his favour in 16.: 4. He carried 
 on successful wars against Poland and 
 Denmark. 
 
 Charles XI., of Sweden (b. 1655, d. 1697), 
 succeeded his father in 1660. 
 
 Charles XII., of Sweden (*. 1682, d. 
 1718), son of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 160". In 1700, Denmark, Poland, 
 and Russia alhed themselves against him, but 
 he defeated the Danish fleet, routed the 
 Russians at Narva with a much smaller 
 army, and then proceeded against Augustus, 
 Kiug of Poland, who was defeated and 
 deposed, Charles compelliug the PoHsh Diet 
 to choose Stanislaus Leczinsky in his place 
 (1704). In 1708 he imdertook a campaign 
 into Russia, but the inclemency of the 
 climate and the scarcity of provisions 
 greatly reduced his forces, and brought 
 about his overthrow by Peter the Great at 
 Pultowa. He took refuge with the Sultan 
 of Turkey, who allowed liim to reside at 
 Bender, but afterwards removed him to 
 Adrianople. He returned to Sweden in 
 1714, and in 1718 invaded Norway, but was 
 killed by a cannon-ball at the siege of 
 Friedrichshall. 
 
 Charles XIU., of Sweden {b. 1743, i. 1813), 
 
 was proclaimed Mug in 1809, upon the pro- 
 scription of his nephew, Gustavus IV., for 
 whom he had acted as regent since 1792. 
 In this reign (1814) Norway was annexed 
 to Sweden. 
 
 Charles XIV., of Sweden {b. 1764, d. 1844), 
 Jean Baptiste Jules Bemadotte, son of a 
 lawj^er of Pau, entered the French army as 
 a private soldier, and had become general of 
 division by 1794 ; fought under Jourdau in 
 1796, and by his skill in tlie Italian campaign 
 won the favour of Bonaparte, who, however, 
 suspecting his designs, gave him the post of 
 minister at Vienna. He was minister of 
 war in 1799, and in 1804, on the creation of 
 the empire, became marshal of France. 
 After breaking the Russian centre at 
 Austerlitz, he received the title of Prince of 
 Ponte-Corvo (1806). In 1810 he was 
 elected Crown Prince of Sweden, adopted 
 the name of Karl Johann, and as regent 
 had no small share in the overtlirow of 
 Napoleon. He effected the annexation of 
 Norway to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel 
 (1814). In 1818 he succeeded Charles XIII. 
 
 Charles I., of Navarre. [See Charles IV., 
 of France.] 
 
 Charles II., " the Bad," King of Navarre, 
 Count d'Evreux {b. 1332, d. 1387), crowned 
 at Pampeluna (1350), joined the English 
 against the Dauphin (afterwards Charles V.) , 
 and also fought against Castile. 
 
 Charles III., "the Noble," King of 
 Navarre {b. 1361, d. 1425), son and successor 
 of the preceding ; by a treaty with 
 Charles VI. of France obtained the duchy 
 of Nemours. 
 
 Charles IV., of Navarre, Prince of Viane, 
 Count of Barcelona {b. 1421, d. 1461), son of 
 John II., inherited the kingdom in right of 
 his mother, daughter of Charles III. On 
 her death, his father, John, retained the 
 throne, and married Joanna of Castile, 
 He attempted to assert his I'ight, but was 
 defeated and made prisoner ; was released, 
 but after his father's death fell iuto the 
 power of Joanna, and died ia prison at 
 Barcelona. 
 
 Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and 
 Sicily {b. circa 1225, d. 1285), youngest 
 son of Louis VIII. of France, received 
 the crown of the Two Sicilies from 
 Pope Urban. He defeated and slew 
 the usurper Manfred. The cruelty of 
 his rule provoked the massacre of French- 
 men called the Sicilian Vespers. Don Pedro 
 of Aragon obtained Sicily, and his admiral 
 burned Charles's fleet. His preparations to 
 recover it were broken off by his death, 
 
 Charles II., of Naples (6. 1248, d. 1309), 
 son of the preceding, was crowned kiug of
 
 Cha 
 
 (206 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 Naples, Apulia, and Jerusalem iu 1280, and 
 acquired the crown of Hungary in right of 
 his ■vrife. 
 
 Charles m., "the Little," King of 
 Naples and Hungary (4. 1345, d. 1387), 
 sou of the Count of Ciravina, was at first 
 adopted by Joan I. of Naples, but being 
 rejected in favour of Louis of Anjou, 
 seized the kingdom, and put Joan to death. 
 In 1385 he accepted the throne of Hungary, 
 in place of the regent, Elizabeth, who 
 caused his assassination. 
 
 Chaxles Emmanuel III., King of Sardinia 
 (b. 1701, d. 1773), ascended the throne on the 
 abdication of his father, Victor Amadeus ; 
 at first joined France and Spain against 
 Austria, but afterwards sided with Hungary 
 against his former allies. He increased the 
 prosperity of his kingdom, and published 
 the code of laws known as Corpus Caro- 
 linum. 
 
 Charles-Felix, Giuseppe Mario, King of 
 Sardinia (b. 1798, d. 1831), fourth son of 
 Victor Amadeus III., succeeded his brother, 
 Victor Emmanuel, in 1821. 
 
 Charles Albert, King of Sardinia (*. 
 1798, d. 1849), son of Charles Emmanuel, 
 Prince of Savoy-Carignano, as regent for 
 Victor Emmanuel I., in 1821, introduced 
 reforms which were declared null by his 
 successor, Charles Felix. He succeeded 
 to the throne in 1831. In 1848 he gave his 
 subjects a Liberal constitution, and joined 
 the insurgents in Lombardy and Venetia 
 against Austria. At first he was successful, 
 but was beaten at Custozza, forced to yield 
 Milan, and finally overthrown at Novara; 
 in 1849 he abdicated in favour of his son, 
 Victor Emmanuel, hoping thus to obtain 
 less onerous conditions of peace. 
 
 Charles, Elizabeth Bundle, Mrs. (i. circa 
 1826), wrote the Chronieles of the Schonberg- 
 Cotta Famihj, and other tales. 
 
 Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar (b. 1746, 
 d. 1823), French physicist, used hydrogen 
 gas instead of heated air in his balloon 
 experiment of 1783. 
 
 Charlotte Caroline Augusta, Princess of 
 Saxe-Coburg (b. 1796, d. 1817), daughter 
 of George IV. and wife of Prince Leopold, 
 afterwards King of the Belgians. Her 
 premature death caused general grief. 
 
 Chamock, Job (d. 1693), one of the early 
 servants of the East India Company, second 
 governor of the Bengal presidency, founded 
 Calcutta in 1690. 
 
 Chamock, Stephen (*. 1628, d. 1680), 
 Nonconformist minister, was chaplain to 
 Henry Cromwell in Dublin, where his 
 preaching drew large crowds. He was 
 
 afterwards attached to a congregation in 
 London. His most celebrated treatise is his 
 Discourse on the Existence and Attributes of 
 God. 
 
 Charpentier, Francois Philippe {b. 1734, 
 d. 1817), French mechanician, was ap- 
 prenticed to an engraver, and invented a 
 method of taking coloured copies of pictures. 
 
 Charron, Pierre {b. 1541, d. 1603), 
 French ecclesiastic and philosopher, a friend 
 of Montaigne, who died in his arms. His 
 chief work is his Traite de la Sagesse. 
 
 Chartier, Alain (b. 1390, d. 1458), 
 the greatest French writer of the 15th 
 century, sought by his compositions iu 
 prose and verse to arouse a patriotic spirit, 
 as for example in Quadrilogue Invectif, and 
 Le Laij dts Qiiatre Dames, directed against 
 the English. 
 
 Chartres, Eobert Philippe d'Orleans, Due 
 de {b. 1840), younger brother of the Comte 
 de Paris, was educated in Germany : went to 
 America and served as a volunteer for the 
 Northerners (1860-1863), and in 1S70 served 
 under General Chauzy, being known as 
 " Eobert le Fort." 
 
 Chase, Pliny Earle {b. 1820), American 
 scientist, whose discoveries and verifications 
 of physical laws are numerous and impor- 
 tant. 
 
 Chase, Salmon Portland (*. 1808, d. 
 1873), American politician, early dis- 
 tinguished himself by his opposition to 
 slavery. As secretary of the treasury 
 under President Lincoln (1861) he succeeded 
 in raising money for the war, having re- 
 course, among other expedients, to the 
 invention of "greenbacks." From 1864 to 
 his death he was chief justice of the 
 United States. 
 
 Chasles, Michel (*. 1793, d. 1880), 
 French mathematician, regarded as founder 
 of the new, or higher geometry. 
 
 Chass6, David Heurik, Baron {b. 1765, 
 d. 1849), Dutch general, defended Antwerp 
 against the French in 1830 and 1832. 
 
 Chassepot, Antoine Alphonse {b. 1833, d. 
 1886), inventor of the gun known by his name, 
 was the son of a gunsmith, became principal 
 of the government works of St. Thomas 
 at Paris in 1864, and was afterwards 
 superintendent of the factory of arms at 
 Chatellerault. 
 
 Chastelain, Georges, called *' I'Aventu- 
 reux " {b. 1403, d. 1475), soldier and writer, 
 quitted the army in 1443, and entered the 
 service of Philippe le Bon, Duke of Bur- 
 gundy. 
 
 Chastelard, Pierre de Boscosel de {b.
 
 Cha 
 
 (207) 
 
 Che 
 
 1540, d. 1563), French poet, was enamoured 
 of Maiy, Queen of Scots, and, being twice 
 found in her chamher without permission, 
 was tried and executed. 
 
 Chateaubriand, Fran(jois Auguste, Vi- 
 comte de {b. 1768, d. 1848), was intended for 
 the navy, studied for the Church, and 
 finally entered the army. He i was in Paris 
 during the early part of the revolution, but 
 in 1791 sailed to America, where he 
 wandered among the Indians. Returning 
 the following year, he joined the first 
 emigration and took refuge in London, 
 remaminif there till 1800. In 1806 and 1807 
 he travelled along the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. He was devoted to the Bourbon 
 dynasty, under which he was ambassador 
 toBerhn (1820), to London (1822), and to 
 Rome (1828), and in 1824 was foreign 
 minister. He refused to take the oath to 
 Louis PhiUppe, and was imprisoned in 1832. 
 His chief works were Atala (1801), Rene 
 (1802), Le Genie du Ghristiamsme (1803), 
 and memoirs. 
 
 Chatel, Francois du {b. 1626, d. circa 
 1680), Flemish painter, the favourite pupil 
 of David Teniers. 
 
 Chatliain, William Pitt, Eaxl of {b. 1708, 
 d. 1778), English statesman, son of Robert 
 Pitt ; became member of parliament in 1735, 
 attaching himself to the so-called patriotic 
 party under the Prince of Wales ; he 
 attacked Walpole and Carteret successively, 
 and after the retirement of the latter in 
 1744, supported the ministries of Pelham 
 and Newcastle, and was made paymaster of 
 the forces, a post which he lost owing to his 
 anti-Hanoverian speeches. As Secretary of 
 State in 1756, and agaiu in 1757, under 
 Newcastle, he carried on the war against 
 France with great vigour and success, but 
 on the accession of George III. had to give 
 
 §lace to his favourite, the Earl of Bute. 
 itt's health was now shattered, but he was 
 carried down to the House to speak against 
 the peace of Paris in 1762, and after- 
 wards supported the repeal of the Stamp 
 Act, an Act which led to the revolt of the 
 American colonies. In 1766 he was created 
 Earl of Chatham, and from his place in the 
 House of Lords continued to urge a policy 
 of conciliation towards America. It was 
 while thus engaged that he sank down in 
 the fit of apoplexy from which he never 
 recovered. 
 
 Chatterton, Thomas (*. 1752, d. 1770), 
 son of a schoolmaster at Bristol, early 
 displayed a taste for antiquities and poetry, 
 which he indulged by fabricating the literary 
 forgeries, of which the Foems of Rowley are 
 the most celebrated ; these he pretended to 
 have discovered in some chests in the muni- 
 ment room of St. Mary RedclifEe at Bristol. 
 
 He was apprenticed to an attorney, but dis- 
 missed, and coming to Loudon, sought to 
 gaiu a Uvelihood by writing for the news- 
 papers and magazines, but found himself 
 reduced to a state of starvation, and died 
 by his own hand. 
 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey (i. circa 1340, d. 1400), 
 poet, son of a London vintner, became in 
 1357 a page in the household of Prince 
 Lionel, and served in the French war, being 
 taken prisoner in 1359. He married 
 Philippa, sister of Katherine, mistress and 
 afterwards wife of John of Gaimt, wfth 
 whom he thereby established a connection 
 which lasted till the latter's death. In 1372 
 he was sent on a commercial mission to 
 Italy, and it is probable from allusions in 
 the Clerk'' s Tale that he there met Petrarch. 
 After his return he held a number of public 
 posts, which secured him a competence till 
 his death ; he was also occasionally sent 
 abroad on the royal service. He wrote the 
 Assembly of Foich, Troilus and Cressida, the 
 House of Fame, the Legend of Good Women, 
 and numerous other poems, but his great 
 work is the Canterbury Tales, and especially 
 the prologue thereto, with its vivid picture 
 of contemporary English Uf e. 
 
 Chaudet, Antoine Denis {b. 1763, d. 1810), 
 eminent French sculptor, who executed 
 groups for the Pantheon. 
 
 Chauncey, Charles {b. 1592, d. 1672), 
 Nonconformist divine and distinguished 
 Orientalist. 
 
 Chauveau-Lagarde, Claude Francois (*. 
 1756, d. 1841), French lawyer, eminent as 
 the advocate of Marie Antoinette, Madame 
 Elisabeth, General Miranda, Charlotte Cor- 
 day, Brissot, and others. 
 
 Cheke, Sir John (i. 1514, d. 1557), 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 was professor of Greek in that uni- 
 versity from 1540 to 1551, and tutor to 
 Prince Edward and probably to the Prin- 
 cess Elizabeth. He supported Lady Jane 
 Grey and was imprisoned by Mary in 
 the Tower, but afterwards allowed to 
 settle in Strasbuig. He fell into the 
 hands of Philip II. of Spain, who sent him 
 to London, where he was forced to recant 
 his opinions, and soon afterwards died of 
 remorse. 
 
 Chelmsford, Frederick Thesiger, Baron 
 {b. 1794, d. 1878), called to the bar in 
 1818, became attorney- general (1845), and 
 was twice lord chancellor (1858 and 1866). 
 
 Chenery, Thomas (*. 1826, d. 1884), 
 oriental scholar and editor of the Times; 
 after being called to the bar, was corre- 
 spondent to the Times at Constantiuople 
 till the close of the Crimean war, and while
 
 Che 
 
 (208) 
 
 CM 
 
 there acquired his proficiency in oriental 
 languages. He was professor of Arabic at 
 Oxford from 1868 to 1877, and assisted in 
 the revision of the Old Testament. At the 
 same time he continued his connection with 
 the Times, becoming editor iu 1677. 
 
 Chenier, Andre-Marie de (b. 1762, d. 1794), 
 French poet, spent his early youth in Lan- 
 guedoc ; was educated at the College of 
 Navarre; travelled in Europe in 1784-6; 
 opposed the extreme revolutionists, and 
 was guillotined. He wrote Le Mendiant, 
 VAvengle, U Invention, etc. 
 
 Chenier, Marie Joseph Blai.e de (i. 1764, 
 d. 1811). French poet, brother of the pre- 
 ceding. His lyrical pieces were very popular 
 during the revolution. 
 
 Cherubini, Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio 
 
 Salvatore {b. 1760, d. 1842), Italian composer, 
 after visiting Loudon in 1785, settled in Paris, 
 and there wrote many operas, Les I)eux 
 Journks (1800) being the most famous. 
 
 Ciiesney, Francis Eawdon {h. 1789, d. 
 1872), an officer of the Eoyal ArtUlery, in 
 1829 surveyed the isthmus of Suez, and 
 pronounced the canal a feasible entei-prise; 
 afterwards^ journeyed four times to the 
 East, hoping to open up a route to 
 India by way of Syria and the Euphrates. 
 He wrote a Narrative of the Euphrates 
 Expedition (1868), etc. 
 
 Chesney, George Tomkyns, General {b. 
 1830). famous as the author of the Battle of 
 Borkntg (1871), a realistic account of a 
 supposed German invasion of England. 
 
 Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, 
 Earl of {h. 1694, d. 1773), gained some pro- 
 ficiency in classics, mathematics, and philo- 
 sophy at Cambridge, and on his return from 
 the European tour in 1715 became recognised 
 as the beau-ideal of a gentleman. He suc- 
 ceeded to the title in 1726, and attached 
 himself to the Prince of Wales, whom he 
 undertook to polish. In 1728 he went as 
 ambassador to the Hague, and on his return 
 opposed Walpole, but failed to obtain office 
 on his fall. In 1 745 he went to Ireland as 
 Viceroy, and in 1 746 was made Secretary of 
 State, but ill -health soon necessitated his 
 retirement. He is now best remembered by 
 his Letters to his son. 
 
 Chevreul, Michel Eugene {h. 1786, d. 
 1889), French chemist, paid much attention 
 to colour, and published many scientific 
 works. 
 
 Cheyne, George {h. 1671, d. 1743), 
 physician of considerable reputation, both 
 as a practitioner and writer. 
 
 Cheyne, James {d. 1602), Scottish mathe- 
 matician and philosopher, remained in 
 
 France during the Reformation, and became 
 professor of philosophy at Douay. 
 
 Cheyne, John {h. 1777, d. 1836), phy- 
 sician, directed his attention chiefly to 
 diseases of children, acute diseases, and epi- 
 demics, and left some medical works. 
 
 Ch^zy, Antoine Leonard de {h. 1773, d, 
 1832), Orientalist, left nmnerous works of 
 great value and interest. 
 
 Ch^zy.Wilhebnvon (A. 1806, «?. 1865), Ger- 
 man novelist, son of the preceding, wrote 
 Wanda, Wielopolska (a romance), Camoens 
 (a tragedj^), etc. 
 
 Chiabrera, GabrieUo {b. 1552, d. 1637), 
 Italian poet, abandoned the habitual imita- 
 tion of Petrarch and sought to write lyrics 
 in the Pindaric style. 
 
 Chichester, Sir Arthur {b. 1563, d. 1625), 
 soldier and statesman, was sent by Eliza- 
 beth to Ireland, where the success of his 
 measures as lord-deputy, particularly the 
 plantation of Ulster, caused him to be 
 created Baron Chichester of Belfast. In 
 1615 he became Lord High Treasurer. 
 
 Child, Lydia Maria {b. 1802, d. 1880), 
 American authoress, whose anti- slavery 
 writings contributed largely to the forma- 
 tion of public opinion on that subject. 
 
 CMldebert I., King of the Franks {b. circa 
 495, d. 558), third son of Clovis I., at whose 
 death he received the central division of 
 the FranMsh monarchy. 
 
 ChUdebert II., King of the Franks (6. 
 circa 570, d. 596), son of Sigebertand Brune- 
 haut, and king of Austrasia, afterwards in- 
 herited Burgimdy from his uncle Guntram. 
 
 Childebert III., " the Just " {b. circa 683, 
 d. 711), succeeded Clovis III. in 695. 
 
 Childeric I. (*. circa 436, d. 481), suc- 
 ceeded his father Merowig in 458. 
 
 Childeric II. {b. 649, d. 673), son of Clovis 
 II., became sovereign of all the Frank 
 dominions in 670. He was assassinated, 
 
 ChUderic III., "the Idiot" {d. Ibb), the 
 last of the Merovingian kings, ascended the 
 throne in 742, and was deposed by Pepin 
 in 752. 
 
 Childers, Rt. Hon. Hugh Culling Eardley 
 (t. 1827), educated at Cambridge, emigrated 
 to Victoria in 1850, where he became Com- 
 missioner of Trade and Customs ; returned as 
 agent-general for Victoria in 1857 ; entered 
 Parliament in 1859; held office as First Lord 
 of the Admiralty (1868-71), Secretary for 
 War (1880-82), and Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer (1882-85). In 1885 he was defeated 
 on the budget resolutions.
 
 Chi 
 
 (209) 
 
 Chr 
 
 Climinffwortli, WiUiam (b. 1602, d. 1644), 
 theologian, educated at Oxford, was per- 
 suaded by the Jesuit Fisher to abjure 
 Protestantism and join the College at 
 Douay. Induced by Laud to come back in 
 1631, he gradually returned to his former 
 faith, publishing the Religion of Protestants 
 in 1637. He joined the Royal army, was 
 taken prisoner by the Parliamentarians, 
 and died in captivity at Chichester. 
 
 CMn Kilich Khan, " Nizam-ool-MooIk " 
 {b. 1644, d. 1748), au officer of the Mogul 
 empire, rose to eminence imder Aurung- 
 zebe, was appointed soubadar of the Deccan 
 in 1713, and under the title of Xizam-ool- 
 Moolk founded in 1720 the iudepeudent 
 state now held by his descendant called the 
 Nizam. 
 
 Chirac, "Pierre {b. 1650, d. 1732), French 
 physician, appointed professor of niediciue 
 at Montpellier in 1687, accompanied the 
 Duke of Orleans in his Italian and Spanish 
 campaigns, and became physician to Louis 
 XV. 
 
 Chlapowski, Desiderius (b. 1788, d. 1879), 
 Polish general, served under Napoleon, and 
 took part in the revolution of 1830, gaining 
 several victories. When the Polish army 
 retreated, he was allowed by the king of 
 Prussia to settle on his estates in that 
 country. 
 
 ChlopicM, Joseph (i. 1772, d. 1854), Polish 
 general, fought under Kosciusko, served 
 in the French army duiing the Penin- 
 sular war, and followed Napoleon in his 
 Russian campaign. When the revolution 
 of 1830 broke out he was proclaimed dicta- 
 tor, but counselling submission to Russia, 
 was deposed in 1831, and soon afterwards 
 retired to Cracow. 
 
 Chmelnitzky, Nicholas Ivanovitsch {b. 
 1789, d. 1846), Russian comic poet, was 
 governor of Smolensk, and afterwards of 
 Archangel, devoted the latter part of his life 
 to literature, and translated Le Tartufe and 
 VEcole des Femmes into Russian. 
 
 Chodowiecki, Daniel Nicholas {b. 1726, d. 
 1801), painter and engraver, who settled at 
 Berlin in 1743. 
 
 Choiseul, !l6tienne Francois, Due de {b. 
 1719, d. 1785), French politician, gained an 
 ascendency over Louis XV. through the 
 friendship of Mdrae. de Pompadour, and 
 held high posts in the government, but fell 
 from power on her death, and was banished 
 to his estates in 1770. 
 
 Chopin, Frederic Francois (i. Warsaw, 
 
 1810, d. Paris, 1849), studied the piano under 
 
 Zwyny, and composition under Eisner; he 
 
 took refuge in Paris in 1831, and there won 
 
 o 
 
 renown as a writer of concertos, songs, 
 noctumfs, and mazurkas. 
 
 Choron, Alexandre Etienne {b. 1771, 
 d. 1834), French musician, founder of the 
 Institution Royale de Musique Classique et 
 Religieuse. 
 
 Christian I. {b. circa 142.5, d. 1481), King 
 of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, Count 
 of Oldenburg, ascended the throne of Den- 
 mark in 1449, and that of Sweden in 1458, 
 and in 1459 was elected Duke of Schleswig 
 and Count of Holstein. His claim to Sweden 
 was disputed by Carl Knutson, and after- 
 wards by Carl's nephew, Steen Sture, who 
 defeated him at Brunkebjerg, and drove 
 him from the country. 
 
 Christian II. (A. 1481, d. 1559), King of 
 Denmark, Norway, ana Sweden, grandson 
 of Christian I., ascended the throne in 1513, 
 attacked Sweden, and was crowned at 
 Stockholm in 1520, did much to ameliorate 
 the condition of the people, but was 
 dethroned by the nobles and clergy in 1522. 
 After nine years of exile he returned to 
 Norway, but was made prisoner, and died 
 in the castle of Kallundborg. 
 
 Christian III., King of Denmark and 
 Norway (b. 1502, d. 155U), on becoming king 
 in 1536 made Lutheranism the State 
 religion, and had the Bible translated into 
 Danish. He acquireil Courland and Q3sel. 
 
 Christian IV., King of Denmark and 
 
 Norway {b. loll, d. 1648), crowned in 1596, 
 reigned peaceably for 15 years, founded the 
 towns of Christiauia and Christiausuud, fitted 
 out a magnificent fleet, and established the 
 academy of Soroe. Taking part in the Thirty 
 Years' war, lie was defeated by Tilly in 
 1626; he also suffered some losses at the 
 hands of the Swedes. 
 
 Christian V. , King of Denmark and Nor- 
 way {b. 1646, d. 1699), was the first hereditary 
 king, the monarchy having always been 
 elective. 
 
 Christian VI., King of Denmark and Nor- 
 way (/'. 1699, d. 1746), ascended the throne in 
 1730, and enjoyed a peaceful and prosperous 
 reign. 
 
 Christian VII., King of Denmark and 
 Norway {b, 1749, d. 1808), crowned in 
 1766, married Caroline Matilda, sister of 
 George III. of England, but was divorced 
 from her in 1773. He afterwards became 
 imbecile, and the government fell into the 
 hands of the queen -dowager. 
 
 Christian VIII., King of Denmark {b. 1736, 
 d. 18 IS), was elected king of Norway in 
 1814, but forced to cede it to Sweden after a 
 few months. In 1839 he succeeded his cousin, 
 Frederic VI., on the throne of Denmark.
 
 Chr 
 
 (210) 
 
 Chu 
 
 Christie, William Henry Mahouey, 
 F.R.S. (h. lS4o), astronomer, educated at 
 Cambridge, was in 1870 appointed chief 
 assistant at the Royal Observatory, Green- 
 wich. In 1881 he succeeded Sir G. B. Airy 
 as astronomer royal. 
 
 Christina, Queen of Sweden {b. 1626, 
 d. 1689), succeeded her father, Gustavus 
 Adolphus, in 1632. After her coronation 
 in 1650 she fell under the influence of 
 favourites, and ceased to interest herself 
 in state affairs. She resigned the crown to 
 her cousia, Charles Gustavus, in 1654, was 
 baptised by the Pope, and lived for some 
 time at Paris. On the death of Charles 
 Gustavus, in 1660, she vainly endeavoured to 
 regain the throne. She died at Rome. 
 
 Christina, Maria, Regent of Spain (h. 1806, 
 d. 1878), daughter of Francis I., King of 
 the Two Sicilies, on the death of her hus- 
 band, Ferdinand VII., in 1833, became 
 regent for her infant daughter, Isabella. 
 For six years she was unable to suppress 
 the Carlist rebellion, and was driven from 
 Spain by a revolution headed by Espartero 
 (1840). She returned in 1843, but was 
 forced to leave the country permanently 
 in 1854. 
 
 Christina, Maria Henrietta, Queen-Regent 
 of Spain {b. 1858), married in 1879 Alfonso 
 XI., of Spain. On his death in 1885 she 
 was appointed regent. 
 
 Christophe, Henri (b. 1767, d. 1820), 
 negro King of Hayti, fought with courage 
 in the war of 1790, became ruler over the 
 northern part of Hayti in 1806, and was 
 crowned as Henri I. in 1811, but became 
 unpopular through his cruelty, and com- 
 mitted suicide. 
 
 Christopoulous, Athanasius (b. 1772, 
 d. 1847), Greek poet and grammarian. 
 
 Chrysippus {b. circa 280 B.C., d.20S B.C.), 
 a stoic philosopher of Cilicia, disciple of 
 Cleanthes. 
 
 Chrysostom, St. John, one of the Greek 
 fathers {b. circa 344, d. 407), gave himself, 
 from an early age, to a life of prayer and 
 asceticism, and in 397 was made Bishop 
 of Constantinople by the Emperor Ar- 
 cadius. He was renowned for his elo- 
 quence and almsgiving, and his zeal as a 
 reformer made him many enemies, amongst 
 them the Empress Eudoxia. He was 
 summoned before a synod at Chalcedon, 
 deposed, and banished, but an insurrec- 
 tion of the people led to his immediate 
 recall. He was soon afterwards deposed 
 again, and conveyed to the Taurus moun- 
 tains, whence he was ordered to proceed 
 to Pityus, on the Euxine, but died on the 
 journey at Comana. 
 
 Chrzanowski, Adalbert {b. 1789, d. 1861), 
 Polish general, served in the French army, 
 and afterwards distinguished himself in the 
 Russian campaign of 1829 against the 
 Turks. He took part in the revolution of 
 1830, became governor of Warsaw, and was 
 allowed by the Russians to retire to Paris. 
 In 1840 he was entrusted by Charles 
 Albert of Sardinia with the reorganisation 
 of his army, but after Novara returned to 
 Paris, where he died. 
 
 Chubb, Thomas {b. 1679, d. 1746), deist, 
 assistant to a tallow-chandler, wrote The 
 Supremacy of the Father Asserted, On 
 Future Judgment, etc. 
 
 Church, Frederick Edwin (6. 1826), 
 American landscape painter ; he excelled 
 in representing the mountain scenery of 
 America. 
 
 Church, Sir Richard {b. circa 1785, d. 1873), 
 English general, joined the Greek patriots 
 (1827), and was appointed commander-in- 
 chief of the land forces imder King Otho, 
 He became councillor of state and after- 
 wards senator. 
 
 Church, Very Rev. Richard WilHam {b. 
 1815, d. 1890), became fellow of Oriel 
 College, Oxford, in 1836; and in 1871 was 
 appointed Dean of St. Paul's. His chief 
 works were Essays and Reviews (1854), St, 
 Anse/m (1870), the Beginning of the Middle 
 Ages (1874), Spenser (1878), and Bacon 
 (1884). 
 
 ChurchiU, Charles {b. 1731, d. 1764), 
 poet, was ordained, and in 1758 succeeded 
 his father in his London cure, but con- 
 ducted himself as a man of fashion and a 
 rake ; was the friend of Wilkes, whom he 
 assisted in the North Briton, wrote the 
 Rosciad, The Prophecy of Famine, Night, 
 and other satirical poems. 
 
 Churchill, John. [See Maelboeottgh.] 
 
 Churchill, Lord Randolph Spencer ( J. 1 849), 
 second son of the 6th Duke of Marlborough, 
 entered Parliament in 1874, and in 1880 
 became leader of the knot of Conservatives 
 known as the " Fourth Party," who gave 
 a general support to Sir S. Northcote, but 
 advocated a more vigorous policy, and fre- 
 quently attacked their own side. During 
 the next session Lord Randolph formulated 
 the political creed known as Tory I)emo- 
 cracy. On the formation of Lord Salisbury's 
 ministry in 1885, he became Chief Secretary 
 for India, and in 1886 accepted the 
 Chancellorship of the Exchequer and 
 leadership of the House of Conunons ; but 
 resigned the position at the close of the 
 year, ovdng to what he considered the 
 excessive expenditure of the government 
 In 1891 he visited South Africa.
 
 Cia 
 
 (211) 
 
 Cir 
 
 _ CiaJduu, Enrico {b. 1811), Italian general 
 joined in the revolution of 1831, took 
 retuge in Spain, where he served under 
 Queen Isabella, returned in 1848 and fought 
 under Charles Albert in 1848 and 1849 : was 
 again prominent in the campaign of 1859- 
 66, defeatmg the papal army at Castel- 
 naardo in 1860 ; was appointed commander- 
 m-chief of the army of Central Italy in 
 1«6/, and m 1870 accompanied the Due 
 d Aosta to Spam. He was subsequently 
 Italian ambassador in Paris, but resigned in 
 
 „ T"}^^' 5°?^^ (*• ^^71' '^^ 1757), actor 
 ^ft^^'^^^%^'^''^^ ^'>' Careless Emhand 
 V'^cf'l ^''^ Nonjuror (1717), etc., and in 
 l/JO became poet laureate. In 1740 ap- 
 peared his Apology for his Life. 
 
 Gibber, Susannah Maria (b. 1714, d. 1766) 
 singer and actress, was educated by her 
 father-m-law, Colley Cibber, for tragedy 
 and met with great success. 
 
 Cibrario.Luigi {b. 1802, d. 1870), a student 
 of medieval antiquity, author of Econ- 
 omy of the Middle Ages, and other works. 
 
 Cicero, Marcus Tullius {b. 106 B.C., d. 43 
 BC.), bom at Arpinum, Roman orator and 
 statesman, studied rhetoric under Milo and 
 others ; commenced pleading at the age of 
 twenty-six, and offending Sulla by his suc- 
 cessful defence of Eoscius Amerinus, retired 
 A° ^^t^*^^. ^liere he studied under 
 Antiochus ; went as quaestor to Sicily in 76 
 and on his return impeached Verres, a 
 former governor; was sedile in 69, praetor 
 m 66, and m 64 was elected consul in oppo- 
 sition to CatiKne. His vigour in putting 
 down the conspiracy of the latter gained for 
 him the title of "father of his country " 
 rhe measures passed by his enemy, the tri- 
 bune Clodius, obhged him to withdraw to 
 Orreece. After about sixteen months he was 
 recalled by the senate, and in 52 went as 
 governor to Cihcia. He sided with the 
 senate and afterwards ^vith Pompey against 
 Caesar, but submitted to the latter after 
 Pharsaha, and retiring to his Tusculan 
 villa, wrote his Be hatura Deorum, and 
 other philosophical works. His defence 
 ot Lsesar s murderers and the "philippic" 
 orations_ directed against Marcus Antonius 
 led to his proscription on the formation of 
 the second triumvirate. He was murdered 
 by Antonius' emissaries. 
 
 Cicognara, Leopoldo (*. 1767, d 18.34) 
 wrote a vaXnahU History of Italian Sculpture'. 
 
 Cid Campeador, Ruy, or Rodrigo Bias de 
 iT?'"'. ,®''° °* Spanish fiction, aided Sancho 
 ot Castile against his brother Alfonso, King 
 of Aragon, but on the death of Sancho 
 acknowledged Alfonso as king of Castile 
 He lost the favour of Alfonso, and 
 
 retired from liis court, but obtained some 
 aid from hmi m capturing the city of 
 
 SiS&elS."''^"" "-''"'^^ -^^^ ^« 
 
 .rl^S^f^^' ?^'^°x ^^ 1^28, d. 1719), ItaHan 
 ffnVni '^'^"" "i! ^}^ Clementine school at 
 Bologna, excelled in the painting of 
 
 ?hp P,l^" * t' ™a?ei-piece is the fresco in 
 the cupola of La Madonna del Fuoco in Porli. 
 
 CignaroU, Giambettino {h. 1706, d. 1770) 
 Itahan painter in oils, studied in Venice 
 and belonged to that school. ' 
 
 Cimabue, Giovanni (b. 1240 d 1300^ 
 Italian artist, founder \f the'llorenSe 
 Itf ' f'^^ ^^'^^ f^ee from the t?a^! 
 tions of Bj-zantme art, and by foUowing 
 nature and the impulses of his own geniuf 
 prepared the way for the future greltaess 
 
 hi'Sle°o?Vf ' ^^" • T^^ exlifhi'tton o1 
 chLif • I ^t' l''-9^n for the Eucellai 
 chapel m Santa Maria Novella was the 
 occasion of a public festival. Except the 
 Madonna, httle of his work remains. 
 
 Cimarosa, Domenico {h. 1749 d 1801) 
 Cpiooably) Italian musical composer. 'visited' 
 bt. Petersbui-g in 1789; became director of 
 the court opera at Vienna in 1792, and was 
 
 r^S^ofu'^S.^'^^^ ^ *^^ *^^^^^«'"- 
 
 Cimon (*. oIOb.c, d. 449 b.c), son of 
 Miltiades Athenian general, distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Salamis, and gained 
 many other victories over the Persians, in 
 466 defeatmg their fleet and army in one 
 day at the mouth of the Eur\-medon. In 
 461 he was ostracised through the influence 
 of Pencil!, but recalled in 457, and died 
 whilst besiegmg Citium in Cyprus. 
 
 Cincinnatus. Lucius Quintius {h. circa 
 ■■jZO B.C., d. area 435 B.C.), after being twice 
 consul, was summoned from the plough to 
 take office as dictator ; subjugated the ^qui. 
 and returned to his farm ; was again 
 dictator for a short time in his old age. 
 
 Cinna, Lucius Cornelius {d. 84 b.c), four 
 times consul (86-83), was expelled from 
 Rome m 86, but, returning with an army, 
 attached himself to Marius ; was assassinated 
 whilst preparing to march against Sulla. 
 
 Cinthio, Giovanni Battista Giraldi (rf. 
 15/3), Itahan novelist, wrote Eecatotnithi, 
 or Uento Novelli. 
 
 Cipriani, Giovanni Battista {b. 1727 d 
 1/85), Italian painter, studied in Rome* 
 came to London, and was one of the 
 founders of the Royal Academy. 
 
 Circignano (*. 1560, d. 1620),Xicolo (called 
 Pomarancio, from his birthplace), Italian
 
 Cit 
 
 (212) 
 
 Cla 
 
 painter. His masterpiece is the Martyrdom 
 of St. Stephen, at Rome. 
 
 Cittadlni, Pier Francesco {b. 1616, d. 
 16S1). a pupil of Guido. Several of his 
 paintings are in the churches of Milan. 
 
 Clairaut, Alexis Claude {b. 1713, d. 1765), 
 French mathematician, wrote on the Figure 
 
 of the Earth, etc. 
 
 Clapperton, Hugh {b. 1788, d. 1827), 
 African explorer, in 1822 started on an 
 expedition to the Lower Niger and reached 
 Saccatoo, obtaining information about Lake 
 Tchad. In 1826 went again to Saccatoo, 
 but died at Chungary from an attack of 
 dysentery. 
 
 Clare, John (*. 1793, d. 1864), poet, son 
 of a labourer, wrote Poems Descriptive of 
 Rural Life and Scenery (1820), etc. 
 
 Clare, John Fitzgibbon, Earl of {b. 1749, 
 d. 1802). lord chancellor of Ireland in 1789, 
 was mainly instrumental in bringing about 
 the Act of Union (1801). 
 
 Clarence, Duke of. [See Albert Victor.] 
 
 Clarence, George, Duke of {d. 1478), 
 brother of Edward IV., Lord-Lieutenant of 
 Ireland in 1462, was secretly executed. 
 
 Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of {b. 
 1608, d. 1674), as a member of the 
 Long Parliament opposed the arbitrary 
 government of Charles I., but afterwards 
 attached himself to his cause : went to Jersey 
 in 1646, and there commenced his History 
 of the Rebellion ; followed Prince Charles in 
 his wanderings, and returning with him in 
 1660, became Lord Chancellor. In 1661 
 he was made a peer. In 1667 he withdrew 
 to the Continent to avoid impeachment, and 
 died at Rouen. 
 
 Clarendon, George William Villiera {b. 
 1800, d. 1870), politician and diplomatist, 
 supported Queen Isabella as minister at 
 Madrid in 1833 ; was president of the Board 
 of Trade in 1846, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland 
 from 1847 to 1852, and Foreign Secretary 
 from 1853 to 1858, in 1865-66, and under 
 Mr. Gladstone in 1868. 
 
 Claretie, Arsene Amaud (Jules) {b. 1840), 
 French journalist and writer, has contri- 
 buted to the leading French journals, 
 written Madeleine Bertin (1868), and other 
 novels, an Ristoire de la Revolution de 1870- 
 71, and several dramas. 
 
 Clark, Sir Andrew, Bart., M.D. {b. 1826), 
 educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh, com- 
 menced practice in London in 1854, and has 
 made _ his speciality the diseases of the 
 digestive and respiratory organs. He has 
 written several medical works. 
 
 Clark, Sir James, Bart. (*. 1788, d. 1870), 
 
 a Scottish physician who practised for some 
 years in Rome, and returning to England 
 was appointed physician to the Queen. 
 
 Clark, WilHam Tierney {b. 1783, d. 1852), 
 English engineer, constructed the suspension 
 bridge over the Danube between Pesth and 
 BuJa. 
 
 Clarke, Adam {b. 1762, d. 1832), was 
 brought up as a Methodist, and became 
 an itinerant preacher in 1782, wrote the 
 Commentary on the Bible (1820-26), a Biblio- 
 yraphical dictionary (1802), etc. 
 
 Clarke, Edward Daniel (b. 1769, d. 1822), 
 wrote an account of his travels through 
 Europe, Asia Minor, and Egypt. 
 
 Clarke, Henry Jacques Guillaume, Due de 
 Feltre {b. 1765, d. 1818), entered the French 
 service in 1782, served in the Republican 
 army, and afterwards attached himself to 
 Bonaparte, who made him minister of war 
 in l.Si>7. He was again minister of war 
 in 1815 under Louis XVIII. 
 
 Clarke, Hyde {b. 1815), an English philo- 
 logist, engineer, and diplomatist, has es- 
 pecially studied the languages of the New 
 World, and their relation to those of the Old. 
 
 Clarke, Jeremiah (d. 1707), a musician, 
 was organist of St. Paul's Cathedral and 
 the Chapel Royal. 
 
 Clarke, John (b. 1770, d. 1836), musical 
 composer, was in 1820 appointed organist at 
 Hereford cathedral. 
 
 Clarke, Mrs. Mary Cowden {b. 1809), 
 wrote a Complete Concordance to Shakespeare 
 (1845), besides novels and other works, and 
 in conjunction with her husband edited and 
 annotated CasseWs Illustrated Shakespeare. 
 
 Clarke, Samuel {b. 1675, d. 1729), divine, 
 was Boyle lecturer in 1704 and 1705, and 
 chose as his subjects, The Being and Attri- 
 bntes of God, and The Evidences ofJS'ataral 
 and Revealed Religion ; in the latter he bases 
 morality on the fitness of things. 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas {b. 1760, d. 1846), phil- 
 anthropist, associated himself with Sharp, 
 Dillwyn, and others ; formed his first com- 
 mittee for the abolition of slavery, consist- 
 ing chiefly of members of the Society of 
 Friends, in 1787, and went about to English 
 ports collecting evidense. 
 
 Clauberg, Jean {b. 1622, d. 1665), philo- 
 sopher of the school of Descartes. 
 
 Claude, Jean {b. 1619, d. 1687), French 
 Protestant divine and political writer, was 
 banished in 1685, and received with kindness 
 by the Prince of Orange. 
 
 Claude Lorraine, or Claude Gel6e (b. 
 
 1600, d. 1682) landscape painter, a ohM
 
 Cla 
 
 (213) 
 
 Cle 
 
 of poor parents, apprenticed to a pastry- 
 cook, went to Rome, where he was 
 servant and pupil to the painter Tassi, 
 under whom he became proficient in the 
 art. He painted for Pope Urban VIII. and 
 other princes, and left upwards of 400 land- 
 scapes. 
 
 Claudianus, Claudius, Latin poet, of 
 Greek parentage ; wrote chiefly panegyrics 
 and satires. 
 
 Claudius, Appius Caecus, Roman states- 
 man, censor in 312 B.C., and consul in 296. 
 
 Claudius, Appius Crassus, consul and 
 decemvir 451 B.C. 
 
 Claudius, Marcus Aurelius Flavins Gothi- 
 cus {b. 214, d. 270), Emperor of Rome, 
 succeeded GalUenus in 268, defeated the 
 Alemanni and the Goths, and instituted 
 reforms. 
 
 Claudius, Matthias (b. 1743, d. 1815), a 
 German poet, author of the Rhein-wein-lied. 
 
 Claudius, Tiberius Drusus Nero Germani- 
 cus. Emperor of Rome (i. 10 B.C., d. a.d. 
 64), son of Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, 
 and of Antonia, niece of Augustus, suc- 
 ceeded Caligula in a.d. 40 ; became tyran- 
 nical through the influence of his wife, 
 MessaUna ; afterwards married his niece, 
 Agrippina, who poisoned him. Britain be- 
 came a Roman province in his reign. 
 
 Clausen, Henri Nicolas {b. 1793, d. 1877), 
 Danish theologian and politician, became 
 professor of theology at Copenhagen in 
 1821, and in 1825 published the Constitution 
 of the Catholic and Protestant Churches. As 
 councillor of state and minister of worship, 
 he had a large share in drawing up the 
 Constitution of 1849. 
 
 Clavigero, Francisco Saverio (b. circa 
 1720, d. circa 1793), Mexican Jesuit of 
 Spanish descent, worked as a missionary 
 among the Indians, and wrote a well-known 
 History of Mexico. 
 
 Clay, Henry {b. 1777, d. 1852), American 
 orator and statesman, was educated for the 
 law, and in 1811 entered the House of Re- 
 presentatives, of which he was seven times 
 elected Speaker ; supported the war with 
 Great Britain on the right of search in 1812, 
 and acted as plenipotentiary in the negotia- 
 tions preceding the treaty of Ghent (1814) ; 
 was author of the Missouri compromise, 
 restricting slavery to the southern states 
 (1821), and of the Omnibus Bill, which 
 postponed the Civil war for ten years. 
 
 Cleanthes, Greek Stoic philosopher, dis- 
 ciple and successor of Zeno, lived about 
 300 B.C. ; of his writings only the Hymn to 
 
 Jupiter remains. 
 
 Cleef, or Cleeve, John van (Jb. 1646, d. 
 1716), Flemish painter, excelled in drapery 
 and the heads of women and children. His 
 pictures and altar-pieces may be seen in the 
 churches of Ghent. 
 
 Clemenceau, Eugene {b. 1841), French 
 politician, elected to the National Assembly 
 as an extreme Republican in 1876, sided 
 with Gambetta in resisting the designs of 
 the Monarchists ; afterwards diverged from 
 him, and became leader of the Radicals, as 
 opposed to the Opportunists. 
 
 Clement I. (Clemens Romanus) {d. 100), 
 thud Bishop of Rome, said to have been 
 converted from heathenism by St. Peter, 
 succeeded Linus in 67, and is "supposed to 
 have written the so-called epistles to the 
 Corinthians in the Alexandrian MS. 
 
 Clement II. {d. 1047), previously Bishop 
 of Bamberg, was elected pope in 1046, 
 through the influence of Henry III. of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Clement III. [d. 1191), previously Bishop 
 of Palestina, became pope in 1187, and 
 urged the sovereigns of Europe to under- 
 take a crusade. 
 
 Clement IV. {d. 1268), previously Arch- 
 bishop of Narbonne ; assisted Charles of 
 Anjou in the conquest of the kingdom of 
 Naples. 
 
 Clement V. {b. 1264, d. 1314), Berirand 
 de Goth, Archbishop of Bordeaux, elected 
 pope in 1305 through the influence of PhiUp 
 the Fail', made the papacy subservient to 
 French policy, and transferred the pontifical 
 chair to Avignon. 
 
 Clement VI. {b. 1292, d. 1352), Peter 
 Roger, Archbishop of Rome, elected pope in 
 1342, excommunicated Louis of Bavaria, 
 and deposed him in favour of Charles of 
 Bohemia. He maintained a luxurious court. 
 
 Clement VII. {d. 1534), Giulio de' Medici, 
 became pope in 1523 ; sought to make his 
 family supreme in Florence ; sided alter- 
 nately with Francis I. and Charles V. , till 
 the ransacking of Rome by the Constable of 
 Bourbon (1827) compelled him to make 
 terms with the latter. The pope ceased to 
 exercise authority in England on the passing 
 of the Act of Supremacy (1534). 
 
 Clement VIII. {b. 1536, d. 1605), Ippolito 
 Aldobrandiui, became pope in 1592, and 
 assisted the League in France against Henri 
 IV., who submitted to Rome in 1593. 
 
 Clement IX. {b. 1600, d. 1669), Giulio 
 Rospigliosi, aided the Venetians against the 
 Turks. 
 
 Clement X. {b. 1590, d. 1676), Emilio 
 Altieri, became pope in 1670.
 
 Cle 
 
 (214) 
 
 cu 
 
 Clement XI. (b. 1649, d. 1720), Gian Fran- 
 cesco Albaui, became pope in 1700; roused 
 the Christian powers against the Turks, 
 who were defeated at Peterwaradin ; sup- 
 ported the cause of the Pretender, and 
 issued the bull "Unigenitus" against the 
 Jauseuists. 
 
 Clement XII. {b. 1652, d. 1740), Lorenzo 
 CorsLui, became pope in 1730. 
 
 Clement XIII. {b. 1693, d. 1769), Carlo 
 Eezzouico, became pope in 1758. His sup- 
 port of the Jesuits led to their expulsion 
 from Portugal, Spain, France, and Naples. 
 
 Clement Xrv. {b. 1705, d. 1774), Lorenzo 
 Gangauelli, pope in 1769, supported the 
 party called Regalisti, and suppressed the 
 order of Jesuits in 1773. 
 
 Clement, Jacques {b. 1567, d. 1589), a 
 French Dominican; assassinated Henri III. 
 at St. Cloud, 
 
 Clement, Joseph (b. 1779, d. 1844), me- 
 chanician, pupil of Bramah ; invented several 
 kinds of lathes and screw tools, including 
 the headless tap. 
 
 Clement of Alexandria, Titus Flavius 
 Clemens, presbyter of the church of Alex- 
 andria, a famous Christian teacher of the 
 2nd and 3rd centuries. 
 
 Clementi, Muzio {b. 1752, d. 1832), 
 Italian composer and pianist ; came to 
 London in 1766, and after visiting most of 
 the European capitals, settled there in 1810. 
 He published a collection of studies for the 
 piano, called Gradus ad Farnassum. 
 
 Clennell, Luke {b. 1781, d. 1840), 
 English artist, was apprenticed to Bewick, 
 the wood-engraver, but showed more 
 talent for painting, and coming to London 
 in 1804, painted the Decisive Charge of 
 the British Life Guards at Waterloo. He 
 died in a lunatic asylum. 
 
 Cleomedes, a Greek astronomer of un- 
 known date. 
 
 Cleomenes I., King of Sparta {d. circa 
 490 B.C.), son of Auaxandrides, ascended the 
 throne circa 519 B.C. 
 
 Cleomenes III., King of Sparta {d. 220 
 B.C.), sou of Leonidas II., was long suc- 
 cessful against the Achseans, but at last was 
 defeated, and forced to flee to Egypt, where 
 he committed suicide. 
 
 Cleon (d. 422 B.C.), Athenian demagogue, 
 son of Cieaenetus, a tanner, became promi- 
 nent after the death of Pericles, and won 
 popularity by his successful expedition 
 against the Spartan encampment on Sphac- 
 teria ; was slain whilst leading an expedition 
 against Amphipolis. 
 
 Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt [b. 69 B.C., 
 d. 30 B.C.), celebrated for her beauty, 
 was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, 
 by whose will she was left joint sovereign 
 with her brother Ptolemy (b.c. 51). Ex- 
 pelled by the latter, she sought the assist- 
 ance of Julius CtEsar, who restored her to 
 the throne in conjunction with a younger 
 brother. She afterwards followed Caesar 
 to Rome, and in 41 captivated M. Antonius, 
 who rejected Octavia for her sake. A quar- 
 rel with Octavius ensued ; the fleet of 
 Antonius and Cleopatra was defeated at 
 Actium, and they fled together to Egypt, 
 where they both committed suicide. 
 
 Clery, or O'Cleary, Michael (b. circa 
 1575, d. circa 1645), Irish historian, lay 
 brother of the Franciscan order, wrote ji 
 Catalogue of the Kings of Ireland, the Book 
 of Conquests, and The Annals of Ireland. 
 
 Cleveland, Grover (*. 1837), President of 
 the United States, was called to the bar at 
 Buffalo, and in 1882 elected Governor of 
 New York state ; obtained the presidency 
 in 1884, being the first Democratic president 
 since the war. In 1888 he was defeated by 
 the Republican candidate. General Harri- 
 son. 
 
 Cliflford, William Kingdon, F.R.S. (i. 
 1845, d. 1879), mathematician and physi- 
 cist, was educated at Cambridge ; appointed 
 professor of applied mathematics at Univer- 
 sity College, London, in 1871 ; wrote Seeing 
 and Thinking, Lectures and Essays, and 
 scientific works. 
 
 CUnton, De Witt {b. 1769, d. 1828), 
 American statesman, was mayor of New 
 York almost continuously from 1803 to 
 1815. Owing to his exertions the Erie 
 Canal was constructed in 1825. 
 
 Clinton, George (b. 1739, d. 1812), 
 American general, served under Amherst ; 
 was governor of New York for eighteen 
 years, and twice vice-president. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, G.C.B. {b. 1771, d. 
 1829), English officer, entered the army in 
 1787, served with the Duke of York in the 
 Netherlands, with Lord Lake at Agra, and 
 with Sir John Moore in Spain ; distmguished 
 himself at Salamanca, and commanded a 
 division at Waterloo. 
 
 Clinton, Henry Fynes (b. 1781, d. 1852), 
 classical scholar and chronologist, author of 
 the Fasti Hellenici and Fasti liomani. 
 
 CUssold. Rev. Augustus (b. 1797, d. 1882), 
 Swedenborgian, translated Swedenborg's 
 works, and wrote many treatises in support 
 of his doctrines. 
 
 Clisson, Olivier de {d. 1407), French 
 soldier, Constable of France in 1380.
 
 Cli 
 
 ( 215 ) 
 
 Cob 
 
 Clive, Robert, Lord (b. Styche, Shi-opshire, 
 1725, d. 1774), obtained in 1743 a writership 
 in the service of the East India Company at 
 Madras, assisted in resisting the French 
 attacks, and in 1746 resigned his civil post 
 to enter the army ; distinguished himself as 
 a subaltern in the attack upon Devicotta, 
 and successfully defended Arcot in 1751. 
 He visited England in 1753, and retm-ned 
 as Ueutenant-governor of Fort St. David ; 
 but in 1756 was dispatched to Bengal against 
 Suraj-oo-Doula, retook Calcutta, and on 
 the outbreak of war with France captured 
 the French settlement of Chandernagore ; 
 gained a brilUant victory over Suraj-oo- 
 Doula at Plassey (1757), penetrated to his 
 capital and installed Meer Jaffier in his 
 stead. CUve came to England in 1763 ; but 
 resumed his government in 1765, to check 
 the corruption prevalent in the East India 
 Company, and introduce order into what, 
 through his efforts, had become a British 
 colony. He returned to England in 1767, 
 where the attacks on his administration 
 drove him out of his mind, and he com- 
 mitted suicide. 
 
 Clodius, Publius {d. 52 B.C.), Roman 
 pati'ician of the Claudian family, conceived 
 a hatred for Cicero, and, to effect his banish- 
 ment, gave up his patrician rank in 58, and 
 as tribune procured the passing of a law 
 against anyone who took the Hf e of a citizen 
 uncondemned. He perished iu a street en- 
 counter with Milo. 
 
 Clootz, Johann Baptiste, Baron (b. 1755, 
 d. 1794), travelled through Europe under 
 the name of Anacharsis, and was a promi- 
 nent figure in the French revolution, and 
 was guillotined. 
 
 Clotaire I. (b. 497, d. 561), youngest son 
 of Clovis and Clotilde, became King of 
 Soissons iu 511, and in 558 vmited all the 
 Prankish dominions under his rule. 
 
 Clotaire II. {b. 584, d. 628), son of Childeric 
 I., succeeded as an infant to the throne of 
 Neustria, under the guardianship of his 
 mother, Fredegonde ; and, after the de- 
 thronement and death of Brunehaut, Queen 
 of Austrasia, in 613, became ruler over all the 
 Frank dominions. 
 
 Clotaire III., son of Clovis II., com- 
 menced to reign over Neustria and Bur- 
 gundy in 655, under the care of Ebroin, 
 mayor of the place. 
 
 Clotaire IV., nominal King of Austrasia 
 under Charles Martel from 717 to 720. 
 
 Clotilda, Saint (b. circa 475, d. 543), 
 daughter of Chilperic, king of IBurguudy, 
 and wife of Clovis I. ; converted her hus- 
 band to Christianity, and after hia death 
 retired to a monastery. 
 
 Clougli, Arthur Hugh (b. 1819, d. 1861), 
 poet and essajdst, born at Liverpool, edu- 
 cated at Rugby and Oxford, where he 
 became feUow and tutor of Oriel College, 
 published Ambarvalia, a Long Vacation 
 Pastoral (1848), and Dipsychus (1850). 
 He travelled much on the Continent, 
 was head of University Hall, London, from 
 1849 to 1852, and an examiner under the 
 Education department from 1853 to his 
 death. 
 
 Clovio, Giulio Georgio {b. 1498, d. 
 1578), miniature painter, went to Italy 
 and lived in the household of Cardinal 
 Farnese, for whom he executed a beautifully 
 illuminated missal. 
 
 Clovis I. {b. 465, d. 511), succeeded his 
 father Chilperic I. as king of the Franks in 
 481 ; defeated the Romans at Soissons ; sub- 
 dued the Alemanni, and other tribes; but 
 was defeated by Theodoric, king of the 
 Goths, in 509. In 496 he was converted to 
 Christianity. 
 
 Clovis II., second son of Dagobert, 
 whom he succeeded on the throne of 
 Neustria and Burgundy (638). 
 
 Clovis III. {b. 681, «?. 695), succeeded his 
 father Thierry III., and ruled over Neustria 
 and Bvirgundy imder the direction of Pepin 
 le Gros. 
 
 Cluvier, Philip {b. 1580, d. 1623), geo- 
 grapher, wrote Ger mania Antiqua, Italia 
 Antiqiia, etc. 
 
 Clyde, Lord, Sir Colin Campbell (J>. 1792, 
 d. 1863), of Highland descent, educated at 
 Glasgow ; served in Spain under Sir John 
 Moore and Wellington, was wounded iu the 
 assault of San Sebastian and the passage of 
 the Bidassoa ; served vdth distinction in the 
 American war (1814-15), in Demerara 
 (1823), China (1832), and in the Sikh war 
 (1848), receiving tlie thanks of Parlia- 
 ment and the East India Company. He 
 distinguished himself in the Crimean war, 
 especially at the Alma ; and on the outbreak 
 of the Indian Mutiny was hurriedly sent out 
 as commander-in-chief, relieved Havelock 
 at Lucknow and Windham at Cawnpore, 
 utterly defeated the enemy, and by his sub- 
 sequent manoeuvres re-established the 
 British power in India. For these services 
 he was raised to the peerage and made a 
 field-marshal. 
 
 Cobbe, Frances Power {b. 1822), a well- 
 known contributor to periodical literatme, 
 and a zealous supporter of the " Women's 
 Rights movement." 
 
 Cobbett, William {b. 1762, d. 1835), 
 farmer and political critic, bom at Famham, 
 Surrey, worked iu the king's garden at 
 Kew; enlisted iu 1784, and served in
 
 Cob 
 
 (216) 
 
 Cof 
 
 America from 1785 to 1791, devoting his 
 leisure to the improvement of his education. 
 After obtaining his discharge returned to 
 America in 1792, opened a bookseller's shop 
 in Philadelphia, and conducted a journal 
 under the name of " Peter Porcupine." 
 Returning to England in 1801 he started 
 The Weekly Foiitical Itegister, in which he 
 at first supported Pitt, but about 1804 his 
 views suddenly changed, and he became a 
 champion of popular rights. He spent 
 much time on his farms in Hampshire and 
 Surrey, and after 1S32 sat in the House of 
 Commons as member for Oldham. 
 
 Cotobold, Thomas Spencer {b. 1828, d. 
 18SG), man of science, has made a special 
 study of helminthology, and is considered 
 the first authority on the subject of 
 entozoa. 
 
 Cobden, Richard (*. 1804, d. 1865), states- 
 man, son of a Sussex farmer, educated at 
 an obscure school in Yorkshire ; was after- 
 wards a commercial traveller, and in 1831 
 joined in establishing a cotton-printing 
 business near Manchester. He visited the 
 United States in 1835, and in 1836-37 
 travelled in Turkey and the Levant. The 
 pamphlet England, Ireland, and America 
 appeared in 1835, and Russia in 1836. In 
 1838 he joined Mr. Bright and others in 
 establishing the Anti-Corn Law League, and 
 earnestly advocated a policy of Free Trade, 
 at first in lectures delivered throughout the 
 country, and afterwards in Parliament, 
 which he entered as member for Stockport 
 in 1841. The pressure of the Irish famine 
 convinced Peel of the soundness of his 
 views, and the corn laws were repealed in 
 1846. Cobden represented the West Riding 
 of Yorkshire from 1846 to 1857, in which 
 year he lost his seat, owing to his opposition 
 to Lord Palmerston's Chinese policy. In 
 1859, whilst absent in America, he was 
 elected member for Rochdale, and early in 
 the following year was appointed pleni- 
 potentiary for arranging the treaty of com- 
 merce with France. 
 
 CocMseus, Johan (b. 1749, d. 1552), Ger- 
 man theologian, bitterly opposed Luther and 
 the other leaders of the Reformation. 
 
 Cochrane, Sir Alexander Fon-ester Inglis, 
 G.C.B. (*. 1758, d. 1832), admiral, dis- 
 tinguished himself in the war with France 
 in 1799, and in 1806 earned the thanks of 
 Parliament by his victory over the French 
 fleet. 
 
 Cockbum, Sir Alexander James Edmund, 
 Bart., G.C.B. {b. 1802, d. 1880), dis- 
 tinguished English judge, was called to the 
 bar in 1829, entered Parliament as a Liberal 
 in 1847, in 1850 supported Lord Palmer- 
 ston's poHc^ in the matter of Don Pacifico ; 
 became Solicitor- General the same year, 
 
 Attorney- General in 1851, Chief Justice of 
 the Common Pleas in 1856, and Lord Chief 
 Justice in 1859. At the Geneva arbitration 
 of 1871, imder the "Washington treaty, in 
 the Alabama case, he acted as representative 
 of England. 
 
 Cockburn, Sir George (*. 1772, d. 1853), 
 admiral, served with distinction in the 
 French war, and was present at St. Vin- 
 cent ; in 1812 sailed to America and co- 
 operated with General Ross against the 
 attack upon Washington. He conveyed 
 Napoleon to St. Helena. 
 
 Cockburn, Henry Dundas, Lord {b. 1779, 
 d. 1854), Scottish judge, a diUgent legal 
 reformer, wrote the Life of Lord Jeffrey, 
 
 Memorials of his Time, etc. 
 
 Cockerell, Charles Robert, R.A. (^>. 1788, 
 d. I860), architect and antiquarian, devoted 
 himself to classical architecture, during his 
 travels (1810-17) discovered the ^ginetan 
 marbles now at Munich, and the PhigaUan 
 marbles in the British Museum. He designed 
 many pubUc buildings, including the Tay- 
 lorian Museum at Oxford (1840), and wrote 
 several treatises on architecture, the chief 
 being on the Temples of Jupiter Panhelleniiis 
 in JEffina, and of Apollo Epicurius near 
 Fhigaleia (i860). 
 
 Cockerill, William {b. 1757, d. 1832), in- 
 ventor, went to Russia on the invitation of 
 the Empress Catherine, was imprisoned 
 by her successor, Paul ; fled to Sweden, and 
 thence proceeded to Holland, where he 
 established the great iron foundry for which 
 his name is famous. 
 
 Coddington, William (b. 1601, d. 1678), 
 one of the founders and first governor of 
 Rhode Island, New England. 
 
 Codrington, Sir Edward {b. 1770, d. 1851), 
 admiral, was engaged in the victory off 
 Ushant in 1 794, commanded a vessel at Tra- 
 falgar, shared in the Walcheren expedition, 
 and in 1826 was sent to restrain Ibrahim 
 Pacha from attacking the Greeks. Ibrahim 
 resisted, and was defeated by Codrington at 
 Navarino. 
 
 Codrington, Sir William John (fi. 1804, 
 d. 1884), son of the preceding, distinguished 
 himself in the Crimean war ; he conducted 
 the grand attack on the Redan. 
 
 Coello, Claudio {b. 1621, d. 1693), Spanish 
 painter, pupil of the younger Rizi ; his 
 greatest work is the altar-piece of the Santa 
 Forma at the Escurial. 
 
 Coeln, Wilhekn von, a famous German 
 painter of the 14th century. 
 
 Coffinhal, Jean Baptiste {b. 1754, d. 1794), 
 French revolutionist, took part in the 
 attack on the Tuileries, and was afterwards
 
 Coll 
 
 (217) 
 
 Col 
 
 •vice-president of the revolutionary tribunal. 
 He was executed. 
 
 Cohn, Ferdinand Julius (b. 1828), German 
 botanist, author of several works on botany, 
 and an important treatise on bacteria. 
 
 nn hnh ftim, Julius Friedrich (J. 1839), 
 German pathologist, has made original 
 researches and experiments in connection 
 with the blood, inflammatory processes, 
 etc. 
 
 Coimtora, Don Pedro, Duke of, sumamed 
 
 Alfarrobeira {b. 13',»2, d. 1449), son of 
 John I. of Portugal, commanded the fleet 
 in the first expedition against Ceuta ; in 
 1439 became regent for his nephew, Al- 
 phonso V. ; was deposed by the Duke of 
 Braganza in 1446, and died whilst fighting 
 against him. 
 
 Colter, Volcher {b. 1534), Dutch physician, 
 author of valuable anatomical works; was 
 physician to the French army. 
 
 Coke, Sir Edward (^1. 1552, d. 1634), judge 
 and law writer, educated at Norwich gram- 
 mar school and Cambridge, was called to 
 the bar in 1578 ; early acquired a high 
 reputation, and becam« Solicitor- Geneiul in 
 1592, and Attorney- General in 1594. He 
 showed much harshness in his prosecution 
 of Essex, Ealeigh, and others ; but his 
 loyalty gained him the chief justiceship of 
 the Common Pleas in 1606. In this position 
 and that of Chief Justice of the King's 
 Bench (1613) he opposed James I.'s claim 
 to exercise prerogatives and was tempo- 
 rarily deprived in 1616. Entering Par- 
 liament in 1621, he there resisted the king's 
 encroachments ; was imprisoned in the 
 Tower in 1622, and in 1628 took the chief 
 part in drawing up the Petition of Eight. 
 The remainder of his Uf e was spent in com- 
 piling his Commentaries upon Littleton. 
 
 Coke, Thomas {b. 1747, d. 1814), English 
 clergyman, adopted the opinions of John 
 Wesley, and went as missionary to North 
 America and the West Indies. 
 
 Colbert, Jean Baptiste (b. 1619, d. 
 1683), French statesman, attracted the 
 attention of Cardinal Mazarin, and became 
 comptroller-general and afterwards prime 
 minister of Louis XIV. He pursued a 
 Liberal policy, tolerating the Protestants and 
 encouraging commercial and manufacturiug 
 enterprise, especially the Lyonnese silk 
 trade and the manufacture of French lace. 
 To him France owes her navy. By his skill 
 as a financier he averted national bank- 
 ruptcy, but his economy and aversion to 
 loans becoming distasteful to the king, he 
 was disgraced and soon afterwards died. 
 
 Colby, Major-General Thomas (b. 1784, 
 d. 1852), rendered beneficial services in 
 
 coimection with the ordnance survey, of 
 which he became director in 1820. 
 
 Colden, Cadwallader {b. 1688, d. 1776), 
 Scottish physician, settled in New York, of 
 which he became lieutenant-governor in 
 1761. He wrote a Histori/ of the Five 
 Indian Nations, etc. , and contributed to the 
 jlcta Upsaliensa of Linnseus. 
 
 Cole, Sir Henry, K.C.B. {b. 1808, rf. 1882), 
 became assistant keeper of the records, and 
 was mainly instrumental in establishing the 
 Record Office : was also founder of the South 
 Kensington Museum, of which he became 
 director in 1860. He worked on the com- 
 mittee of the Exhibition of 1852, and was 
 commissioner of the Paris Exhibition of 
 1855, and secretary of the Royal Conmiission 
 at that of 1867. 
 
 Cole, Vicat {b. 1833), English landscape 
 painter, elected R.A- in 1880. 
 
 Cole, WUliam (J. 1714, d. 1782), EngUsh 
 clergyman and antiquary, left a large col- 
 lection of MSS. to the British Museum. 
 
 Colebrooke, Henry Thomas {b. 1765, 
 d. 1837), English Orientalist, became a chief 
 justice and member of the Supreme Council 
 at Bengal ; wrote a Sanscrit grammar, a 
 Sanscrit lexicon, etc., and contributed to 
 Asiatic Researches. 
 
 Colenso, John William (J. 1814, d. 
 1883), Bishop of Natal, master at Harrow 
 (1838-42), and rector of Fomcett St. 
 Mary, Norfolk (1846-53), was in 1853 
 appointed to the new bishopric of Natal. 
 In 1862 appeared the first portion of The 
 Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically 
 Examined, a work which excited the 
 keenest controversy, and was condemned as 
 heretical by both Houses of Convocation in 
 1864. Attempts to depose the bishop and 
 to withhold his salary were, after a long 
 contest, declared illegal by the Master of 
 the Rolls ; nevertheless, a rival bishop was 
 established at Maritzburg in 1869. Bishop 
 Coleuso was also the author of an Arithmetic 
 (184(1), an Algebra (1841), and other works. 
 
 Colepeper, John, Lord {d. 1 660) , as member 
 of the Long Parliament, supported the king, 
 who made him Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 (1642) and Master of the Rolls (1G43). 
 After 1646 he shared the fortunes of Prince 
 Charles ; he died soon after the Restoration. 
 
 Coleridge, Rev. Derwent (b. 1800, d. 
 1883), son of the poet, was principal of St. 
 Mark's College, Chelsea, from 1841 to 
 1864; wrote The Scriptural Character of the 
 English. Church, etc. 
 
 Coleridge. Hartley (*. 1796, d. 1849), 
 son of the poet, passed his early years 
 in the Lake District, whence he went to
 
 Col 
 
 (21S) 
 
 Col 
 
 Oxford, anil became fellow of Oriel, but left 
 withiu a jear. He then lived a wandering 
 life, wi'itiiig much poetry, chiefly in the 
 form of sonnets and lyrics, and contributing 
 to Blackwoodh Muffaziiie. The Worthies of 
 Yorkshire appeared in 1S32. 
 
 Coleridg-e, Henry Nelson (6. 1800, d. 
 18-13). nephew and son-in-law of the poet, 
 was chief editor of his Table Talk and Liter- 
 ary Remains, and wrote an Introduction to 
 the Study of the Greek Classic Poets, etc. 
 
 Coleridge, John Duke, Baron (b. 1821), 
 eldest sou of Sir J. T. Coleridge, was called 
 to the bar in 1846, entered ParUameut as a 
 Liberal in 1865, was Solicitor-General in 
 1868, and becoming Attorney- General in 
 1871, undertook the Crown prosecution of 
 the Tichborne claimant. In 1873 he was 
 appointed Chief Justice of the Common Pleas 
 and raised to the peerage, and in 1880 suc- 
 ceeded Sir A. Cockburn as Lord Chief Justice 
 of England. 
 
 Coleridge, Sir John Taylor (b. 1790, d. 
 
 1876), nephew of the poet, was judge of the 
 King's Bench, and a friend of Keble and 
 Dr. Arnold. His Memoir of Keble appeared 
 in 1869. 
 
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (fi. 1772, d. 1834), 
 
 Eoet, critic and philosopher, bom at Ottery 
 t. Mary, son of the Rev. John Coleridge, 
 passed from Christ's Hospital to Cambridge, 
 but left it suddenly and mysteriously to 
 enlist in a dragoon regiment, from which his 
 family procured his discharge. He was at 
 this time an ardent republican. Visiting 
 Southey at Bristol in 1794, he there met 
 Robert Lo veil, a Quaker. The three "pan- 
 tisocrats" married three sisters, and formed 
 the scheme of founding a communistic 
 society on the banks of the Susquehannah. 
 In 1796 he started a short-lived periodical, 
 the Watchman, and made a tour of the 
 country to canvass for subscribers. After 
 living for a time at Clevedon, he settled at 
 Nether Stowey, where he wrote The Ancient 
 Manner, and the first part of Christabel. 
 The former appeared in Lyrical Ballads, 
 published in conjunction with Wordsworth 
 in 1798. After a visit to Germany he re- 
 moved to Keswick in 1800, but in 1804 was 
 obliged by ill-health to accept the post of 
 secretary to Sir Alexander Ball, governor 
 of Malta, where he remained a year. Re- 
 turning to Cumberland, he started a peri- 
 odical, the Friend, and, on its failure, came 
 to Loudon, and wrote for the Cotirier and 
 Morning Post. In 1816 his practice of in- 
 dulging in opium compelled him to put him- 
 self under the care of Mr. Gillman, of High- 
 gate, with whom he spent the rest of his 
 life. Among his prose works the Biographia 
 Literaria QM\l),Aids to Reflection (182.5), and 
 Lecturei on Shakespeare are the best known. 
 
 Coleridge, Sara {b. 1803, d. 1852), only 
 daughter of the preceding, and wife of 
 Henry Nelson Coleridge, whom she assisted 
 in his literary labours, besides publishing 
 in 1837 an original work entitled Phan- 
 tasmion. 
 
 Colet, Cowper Phipps (fi. 1819, d. 1870), 
 a sailor and inventor, whose early plan for 
 the construction of shot-proof rafts was 
 developed in 1862 into the turret-system. 
 
 Colet, Dr. John {b. 1466, d. 1519), divine, 
 educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, 
 travelled abroad, and became acquainted 
 with Erasmus and other scholars. He was 
 made Dean of St. Paul's in 1505, and 
 founded St. Paul's school in 1512. 
 
 Coligny, Gaspard de {b. 1517, d. 1572), 
 Huguenot leader, of noble bii-th, fought 
 vmder Francis I. and Henri XL, and became 
 Admiral of France in 1552. Having adopted 
 the Protestant faith, Coligny was defeated 
 at Dreux (1562), St. Denys, Jarnac and 
 Moncontour, but in 1570 a peace was con- 
 cluded, and he came to Court, where he was 
 received with favour. In 1572, however, 
 he was wounded in a street in Paris, and 
 perished in the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew two days afterwards. 
 
 CoU6, Charles {b. 1709, d. 1783), French 
 dramatist and song-writer, secretary to the 
 Diike of Orleans, and one of the founders of 
 the Caveau. 
 
 Collenuccio, Pandolfo (d. 1504), writer 
 and politician, after filling several diplo- 
 matic posts, retmned to Pesaro, where he 
 was executed by Giovanni Sforza. His 
 chief work is a History of the Kingdom of 
 Naples. 
 
 CoUetet, GuiUaume (b. 1598, d. 1659), 
 French poet, wrote for the theatre, and 
 left Cynuncle (a drama), Des Espoirs Amou- 
 reux, etc. 
 
 CoUetta, Pietro {b. \llb, d. 1833), began 
 life as a military engineer, was exiled by 
 the Bourbons after the revolution of 1820, 
 but afterwards allowed to settle at Florence, 
 where he wrote his History of Naples from 
 17S4 to 1825. 
 
 Colley, Sir George Pomeroy (b. 1835, d. 
 1881), soldier, served in the Kaffir war of 
 1858, in China (1860). and in Ashautee, 
 and in 1880 succeeded Lord Wolseley as 
 Governor of Natal and High Commissioner 
 of South-East Africa. He was slain at the 
 battle of Majuba Hill. 
 
 Corner, Arthur {b. 1680, d. 1732), 
 English divine and metaphysician, inde- 
 pendently of Berkeley formed the same 
 views as to the non-existence of a material 
 world, set forth in his Clavis Universalis.
 
 Col 
 
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 Col 
 
 Collier, Jeremy (b. 1650, d. 1726), non- 
 juror, was imprisoued, and afterwards out- 
 lawed, but continued to live in London. He 
 wrote many works, including an Ecclesi- 
 astical History of Britain, but is remem- 
 bered chiefly for his attacks on the immo- 
 rality and profaneuess of the stage. 
 
 Collier, John Payne {b. 1789, d. 1883), 
 man of letters, noted as a student of EUza- 
 bethau literature, and especially of Shake- 
 speare, wrote The Poetical Decameron, a 
 History of Dramatic Poetry, New Facts 
 Eegarding the Life of Shakespeare, etc., and 
 edited Dodsley''s Old Plays. 
 
 Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord {b. 1750, 
 d. 1810), admiial, entered the navy in 
 1761, and served in the American war in 
 1774 and 1775 ; proceeded to the West 
 Indies in 1776, where he formed a lasting 
 friendship with Nelson ; took part in Lord 
 Howe's victory (1794) ; commanded a vessel 
 at St. Vincent ; was second in command at 
 Trafalgar, and on Nelson's death became 
 commander-in-chief. 
 
 Collins, John (b. 1676, d. 1729), deist, wrote 
 a Discourse on Freethinldng, Grounds and 
 Reasons of the Christian Religion, and other 
 works, which excited much controversy. 
 
 Collins, William {b. 1721, d. 1759), poet, 
 son of a hatter, educated at Winchester and 
 Oxford, spent his after life in London in 
 poor circumstances, and at last became almost 
 insane. He wrote a number of odes and some 
 pastoral poems entitled Oriental Eclogues. 
 
 Collins, William (b. 1788, d. 1847), artist, 
 pupil of George Morland, studied at the 
 Academy under Etty, and excelled in land- 
 scapes, especially coast scenes. 
 
 Collins, William Wilkie (b. 1824, d. 1889), 
 novelist, wrote The Woman in White (1859), 
 The Moonstone (1868), and other novels. 
 
 CoUinson, Peter (*. 1694, d. 1768), bo- 
 tanist and antiquary, one of the founders of 
 the Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 Collinson, Admiral Sir Richard {b. 1811, 
 d. 1833), surveyor and Arctic explorer, com- 
 manded the Enterprise, sent out in 1850 to 
 search for Franklin, and returned in 1854, 
 after exploring some five thousand miles of 
 coast, and proving the existence of a pas- 
 sage from Behring Straits lo King WiUiara'a 
 Land. 
 
 Collot d'Herbois, Jean Marie {b. 1750, d. 
 1796), French revolutionist, obtained a seat 
 in the Convention, and attached himself to 
 Robespierre ; displayed great cruelty, espe- 
 cially in punishing the revolt at Lyons in 
 1793; was president of the Convention at 
 the time of the fall of Robespierre; was 
 transported to Guiana in 1795. 
 
 Colman, George (b. 1732, d. 1794), dra- 
 matist, became manager of the Haymarket 
 theatre, and wrote Polly Honeycombe, The 
 Jealous Wife, etc. 
 
 Colman, George, the Younger {b. 1762, 
 d. 1836), dramatist, son of the preceding, 
 whom he succeeded at the Haymarket, 
 wrote The Iron Chest, The Heir-at-Laiv, 
 John Bull, etc. 
 
 Colonna, an ancient and noble family of 
 Rome, for many ceutm-ies leaders of the 
 Ghibelline party in Southern Italy. The 
 most celebrated member of the house was 
 Marcantonio Colonna, Duke of CagUano 
 {d. 1584), who distinguished himself in 
 naval warfare against the Turks, especially 
 at the battle of Lepanto. 
 
 Colonna, ^gidius. [See ^gidius.] 
 
 Colonna, Francesco (Jb. circa 1449, (/. 1527), 
 bom at Venice, Dominican, author of the 
 Poliphili Hypnerotomachia (1499), a rare 
 book, illustrated with numerous woodcuts 
 by Giovanni BeUiui. 
 
 Colonna, Vittoria, Marchesa di Pescara 
 (b. 1490, (/. 1547), Italian poetess, daughter 
 of Fabrizio, Duke of Paliano, and wife of 
 Ferdinand, Marquis of Pescara, on the 
 death of her husband in 1525 devoted her- 
 self to works of charity and intellectual 
 pursuits. She was the friend of Cou- 
 tarini, Ariosto, and especially of Michael 
 Angelo. 
 
 Colqulioun, Archibald Ross (Jb. circa 1848), 
 the explorer of Chryse or Indo-China, 
 started from Canton in 1881, and made his 
 way along the Chu-Kiang to the country of 
 the Shaus, and thence north-west to Bhamo. 
 In 1883 he ijublished Across Chryse. 
 
 Colt, Samuel {b. 1814, d. 1862), inventor 
 of the revolver bearing his name. 
 
 Colton, Charles Caleb (Jb. 1780, d. 1832), 
 wrote a remarkable collection of aphorisms 
 called Lacon ; or, Many Things in Few 
 Words. 
 
 Columban {b. 543, d. 615), Irish saint 
 and missionary, after visiting England 
 went to Gaul about 585, and founded the 
 monastery at Luxeuil near Besantjon. 
 Banished twenty years later, he founded 
 the Abbey of Bobio near Naples. 
 
 ColumbkUle, or Columba (b. 521, d. 597), 
 Irish saint of princely birth, for sixteen 
 years journeyed through IroJaud, preaching 
 and building churches and religious houses ; 
 in 563 crossed with twelve attendants to the 
 west of Scotland, and was assigned the 
 island of lona by his kinsman. King Conal ; 
 here he built a monastery and church. 
 
 Columbus, Chriatopher (b. circa 1435, d.
 
 Col 
 
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 Com 
 
 ISOG"*. born at Genoa, the discoverer of ] 
 America, was educated at Pavia, and after I 
 many years of seafaiing life, settled at Lis- 
 bon in 1470 as a maker and seller of maps. 
 Becoming convinced of the existence of laud 
 beyond the Atlantic, he vainly sought assist- j 
 ance from Portugal and England, but i 
 finally set sail from Palos with three ships 
 under the auspices of Ferdinand of Aragon, 
 and after two mouths of despair and mutiny | 
 on the part of the sailors, on October 12th, i 
 1492, sighted Guanahani, or San Salvador, 
 one of the Bahama islands. Sailing on, he | 
 discovered several of the West Indian 
 islands, including Hispauiola (St. Domingo) , 
 where he planted a colony. On his return 
 he was received with honour at the courts 
 of Portugal and Spain. He made several 
 other voyages of discovery, but through 
 the calumnies of his enemies was deprived 
 of the government of Hispauiola and sent 
 back to Spain in chains. He died in poverty 
 at Valladolid. 
 
 Columbus, Diego {b. circa 1474, d. 1526), 
 eldest son of the preceding, was appointed 
 second admiral of the West Indies in 1509, , 
 but being accused of misgoverument [ 
 returned to Spain in 1515, where he 
 remained till his death. 
 
 Columbus, Fernando {b. 1488, d. 1539), j 
 brother of the preceding, sailed to America 
 with his father in 1492, and seems to have 
 twice revisited it. He left a Life of his 
 father. 
 
 Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus, a 
 native of Cadiz in the 1st century, wrote a 
 work De He liustica. 
 
 Colvin, Sir Auckland {b. 1838), son of J. R. | 
 Colvin, was the English representative in ; 
 Egypt under the scheme of Anglo-French 
 control, and the guiding counsellor of the ; 
 Khedive throughout the Arabi insurrec- j 
 tion. From 1883 to 1885 he was his financial 
 adviser. 
 
 Colvin, John E. {b. 1807, d. 1857), 
 Lieutenant-Governor of the North- West 
 Provinces of India during the Mutiny, 
 
 Colvin, Sidney {b. 1845), was elected 
 Slade professor at Cambridge in 1873, and 
 was appointed keeper of the prints at the 
 British Museum. 
 
 Combe, Andrew {b. 1797, d. 1847), physi- 
 cian, wrote several works on physiology. 
 
 Combe, George {b. 1788, d. 1858), phreno- 
 logist, brother of the preceding, wrote The 
 Consiitution of Man considered in Relation to 
 External Objects (1828), etc. 
 
 Combermere, Stapleton Cotton, Viscount 
 {b. 1773, d. 1865), soldier, served under the 
 Duke of York in Flanders and in India 
 
 agaiust Tippoo Sahib ; in 1808 went to 
 Spain in command of a brigade of cavalry 
 and distinguished himself at Salamanca and 
 Orthes ; was raised to the peerage in 1814, 
 and in 1826, as commander-in-chief in 
 India, concluded the Burmese war by the 
 capture of Bhurtpore. 
 
 Comenius, Johann Amos (Komenski), 
 {b. 1592, d. 1671), Protestant divine and 
 writer on education, compelled by per- 
 secution to leave Fulnek, of which he 
 was pastor, fled to Lesna in Poland 
 (1621), where he taught Latin and pub- 
 lished his Janua Llmjuarum Eeserata. He 
 spent many years in Sweden and other 
 countries, remodelling schools and com- 
 pleting a scheme of education, and finally 
 settled at Amsterdam. 
 
 Comines, Phihppe de (b. 1445, d. 1509), 
 French historian of Flemish descent, at 
 first a follower of Charles the Bold of 
 Burgundy, transferred his services to Louis 
 XI. of France, who made him Lord of 
 Argentou. His Memoires are the most valu- 
 able history of the time. 
 
 Commodus, Lucius Aurelius {b. 161, d. 
 192), Emperor of Rome, succeeded his 
 father Marcus Aurelius in 180, and aban- 
 doned himself to every form of cruelty and 
 vice. He was poisoned and strangled, 
 probably by the order of his mistress, 
 Marcia. 
 
 Common, Andrew Ainslie {b. 1841), 
 astronomer, celebrated for his construction 
 of telescopes and photographs of celestial 
 phenomena. 
 
 Comonfort, Ignacio {b. 1810, d. 1863), 
 Mexican general, elected president in 1857, 
 was driven into exile in 1858, and murdered 
 by brigands shortly after his return in 1863. 
 
 Compton, Hem-y {b. 1632, d. 1713), 
 Bishop of Oxford, and afterwards of 
 London ; was entrusted with the education 
 of the princesses Mary and Anne. 
 
 Comte, Auguste {b. 1798, d. 1857), bom at 
 Montpellier, French philosopher, founder of 
 the system of Positive Philosophy, was edu- 
 cated at the Lycee of MoiitpelUer and the 
 £cole Polytechuique, Paris, where he made 
 great progress in mathematics, but after 
 two years was expelled for insubordination ; 
 made the acquaintance of St. Simon in 
 1818, and for six years remained his friend 
 and disciple. In 1826 he conceived in 
 outline his famous synthetic system, and in 
 consequence of the mental strain involved 
 became temporarily insane. The first 
 volume of the Fhilosophie Fositive a^jpeared 
 in 1830, the sixth and last in 1842; while 
 engaged on it he was also professor of 
 mathematics at Seville, and teacher and 
 examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique. He
 
 Com 
 
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 Con 
 
 lost the latter post in 1S44, and spent his 
 later days in great poverty. The Positive 
 Polity occupied >iiTn from 1846 to 1854. 
 
 Comyns, Sir John {b. 1667, d. 1740), 
 created Chief Baron of the Exchequer in 
 1738, wrote a well-known Digest of the 
 Laws of England. 
 
 Concha, Don Manuel de la {h. 1794, 
 d. 1874), Spanish general and supporter of 
 Isabella, served throughout the first CarUst 
 war, and in that of 1874 commanded the 
 army of the North, but was slain in battle 
 near Vittoria. 
 
 Concini, Concino, Mar^chal d'Ancre 
 (d. 1617), Florentiae, accompanied Mary 
 de Medici, queen of Henry IV. , to France 
 in 1600 ; rose to power through his wife's 
 influence over her during the minority of 
 Louis XIII., by whose order he was 
 assassinated. 
 
 Conde, Jose Antonio {b. 1765, d. 1820), 
 learned Spaniard, wrote a History of the 
 Dominion of the Arabs in Spain. 
 
 Conde, Louis de Bourbon, Prince of {b. 
 1530, d. 1569), joiued the Hugueuots after 
 the death of Henri II., and, together with 
 Coligny, became their leader during the 
 reign of Charles IX. He was wounded at 
 Dreux (1562), lost the battle of St. Denys 
 (1567), and was killed at Jamac. 
 
 Conde, Louis de Bourbon, Prince of 
 (b. 1621, rf. 1686), known prior to his father's 
 death in 1646 as the Due d'Enghien. 
 Routed the Spaniards at Eocroi, 1643 ; 
 distinguished himself at Fribourg, at the 
 capture of Philipsburg and other places, at 
 Nordlingen and ta Catalonia; in 1648 
 attacked the Archduke Leopold in the Low 
 Coimtries, took Ypres, and defeated the 
 Imperial army at Lens ; returning to Paris, 
 suppressed the revolt provoked by Cardinal 
 Mazarin, and secured his return and that of 
 the royal family. To gratify the jealousy of 
 Mazarin, he was in 1650 imprisoned in the 
 castle of Vincennes ; released after a year's 
 confinement, he put himself at the head of 
 a revolt, but was forced to retire to Flan- 
 ders. He now served in the armies of 
 Spain, sometimes leading them against his 
 own country, to which he was restored by 
 the peace of 1659. In 166S he aided in the 
 conquest of Franche-Conite, in 1674 defeated 
 the Prince of Orange at Senef, aud in 1675 
 succeeded Turenne as commander-in-chief 
 of the French forces. 
 
 Condillac, fitienne Bonnot de {b. 1715, 
 d. 17»0), French philosopher, of the school 
 of Berkeley and Locke, wrote Essai sur 
 VOrigine des Connaissances Humaines (1746), 
 Traiti des Systimes (1749), Traiti des Sen- 
 tations (1754), etc. 
 
 Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoiae Nicolas 
 de Caritat, Marquis de {b. 1743, d. 1794), 
 French mathematician, philosopher, and 
 political writer, educated at the Jesuit Col- 
 lege in Rheims and the college of Navarre 
 in Paris, won high distiaction as a mathe- 
 matician, and in 1774 pubHshed his fii-st 
 polemical work, the Lettres d'un Theologien. 
 He was a member of the Legislative 
 Assembly, and was elected to the Con- 
 vention ; he held aloof from the struggle 
 between the Girondists and the Mountain, 
 but, becoming identified with the former, 
 was proscribed by the Convention ; was 
 sheltered by Madame Vemet in an attic, 
 where he wrote his chief work, the Esquisse 
 des ProgrSs de V Esprit Huniain^ but, ven- 
 turing outside Paris, was seized in a cottage, 
 and took poison to escape the guillotine. 
 
 Confucius, or Con-foo-tse (b. 551 b.c, 
 d. 479 B.C.), Chinese philosopher, said to 
 have been descended from the imperial 
 family of the Shan dynasty of the king- 
 dom of Loo, after eight years spent in 
 travelling through what is now the em- 
 pire of China, preaching virtue and social 
 order, returned to Loo, became prime 
 minister twelve years later, and effected 
 moral and physical improvements, freeing 
 the poor from oppression, and employing 
 the revenues to advance commerce. Banished 
 through the intrigues of neighbouring 
 princes, he retired to a remote valley, and 
 devoted his last days to the completion ajid 
 revision of his works. These, which consist 
 of the Four Books and the Five Canonical 
 Books, deal mainly with morality and social 
 order. 
 
 Congreve, Richard {b. 1818), Positivist 
 thinker, besides his edition of Aristotle's 
 Politics (1855) and his pamphlets on Gib- 
 raltar and India (1857), has written Eliza- 
 beth of England (1862), Human Catholicism 
 (1876). etc. 
 
 Congreve, William {b. 1670, d. 1729), 
 dramatist, educated at Kilkenny and Trinity 
 College, Dublin, entered the Middle Temple, 
 where he devoted his time to literature, 
 and mixed in the gay society of the town. 
 His chief plays were Love for Love (1695), 
 The Moicrning Bride (1697), and The Way 
 of the World (1700). In 1714 he obtained 
 the post of Secretary for Jamaica. 
 
 Congreve, Sir WUham {b. 1772, d. 1828), 
 inventor of the rocket which bears his 
 name. 
 
 Conington, John {b. 1825, d. 1869), clas- 
 sical scholar, educated at Rugby and Oxford, 
 where he became first Corpus Professor of 
 Latin in 1854. His chief work is his edition 
 of Virgil, published between 1861 to 1868. 
 
 Conkling, Roscoe (J. 1828, d. 1838),
 
 Con 
 
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 Con 
 
 Americau politician, oue of the most pro- 
 niineut members of the Republican party. 
 
 Connauglit, H.R.H. Arthur "William 
 Patrick Albert, Duke of (h. 18.50), third son 
 of Queen Victoria, received his military 
 education at Woolw'ich, and was made 
 major-general in 1880; he accompanied the 
 Egj'ptian expedition of 1882. In 1874 he 
 was created Duke of Connaught, and in 
 1879 married Margaret Louise, daughter of 
 Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia. 
 
 ConoUy, John {b. 1794, d. 1866), phy- 
 sician, chief director to the Hanwell asylum, 
 and author of several works on lunacy. 
 
 Conon (d. circa 388 B.C.), Athenian 
 geueial and admiral, superseded Alcibiades 
 in his command against the Spartans, was 
 defeated by Callicratidas at Mitylene (406) 
 and Lysander at ^gospotamus (405) ; re- 
 tired to Cyprus ; in 394, at the head of a 
 Persian fleet supplied by Artaxerxes, de- 
 feated the Spartans at Cnidus. 
 
 Conrad I., Emperor of Germany, elected 
 emperor in 911, took Thuringia from the 
 Duke of Saxony, and Alsatia from Charles 
 the Simple of France. 
 
 Conrad II., Emperor of Germany {d. 1039), 
 Duke of Franconia, was elected king of the 
 Geimans in 1024, and crowned emperor by 
 the Pope in 1027. He succeeded his uncle as 
 King of Bm'gvmdyin 1033. 
 
 Conrad III., Emperor of Germany {b. 1093, 
 d. 1152), son of Frederick, Duke of Suabia, 
 was elected emperor 1138. During his con- 
 test with Welf, Duke of Saxony, the party 
 names of " Guelph" and "Ghibelline" first 
 arose. He undertook a fruitless and dis- 
 astrous crusade (1146-49). 
 
 Conrad rv., Emperor of Germany {b. 1228, 
 d. 1254), Duke of Suabia, elected king of the 
 Romans in 1237, assumed the title of emperor 
 on the death of his father, Frederick II. , ia 
 1250. The Pope contesting his claim, he 
 invaded Italy and took Naples, but died 
 suddenly. 
 
 Conrad V., or Conradin (*. 1252, d. 1268), 
 son of the preceding, was an infant at his 
 father's death, and fell into the power of his 
 uncle, Manfred. Charles of Anjou, with the 
 aid of the Pope, wrested the crown of Naples 
 from Manfred, and afterwards defeated Con- 
 radin (1268) and beheaded him at Naples. 
 
 Conrart, Valentin {b. 1603, d. 1675), the 
 first secretary of the French Academy, 
 which originated from a meeting of literary 
 friends at his house. 
 
 Conring, Hermann {b. 1606, d. 1681), 
 scholar and statesman, appointed professor 
 of philosophy at Helmstadt in 1 632, left many 
 works on philosophy, law, and medicine. 
 
 Conscience, Hendrik {b. 1812, d. 1883), 
 Flemish poet and novelist, appointed 
 assistant professor at Ghent m 1845, and 
 in 1868 keeper of the Mus^e Wiertz in 
 Brussels ; vn'ote The Year of Miracles 
 (1837), The Lion of Flanders (1838), etc. 
 
 Constable, John (h. 1776, d. 1837), land- 
 scape painter, son of a Suffolk miller, at first 
 followed his father's trade, but attracted the 
 notice of Sir George Beamnont, and in 1799 
 became a student at the Royal Academy. 
 His best-known picture is the Valley Farm 
 in the National Gallery. 
 
 Constans I., Flavins Julius {b. 320, d. 350), 
 on the death of his father, Constantine the 
 Great, in 337, obtained Italy, Africa, and 
 Western Illyiicum, and on that of his elder 
 brother, Constantine, became ruler over the 
 whole western empire. He was slain in 
 Spain by the followers of Magnentius. 
 
 Constans II., Flavius Heraclius {b. 630, 
 d. GG8), eldest son of Constantine III., 
 succeeded to the empire of the East in 641. 
 
 Constant, Benjamin {b. 1767, d. 1830), 
 French politician and orator, tribune under 
 the Dii-ectory, was banished by the First 
 Consul ia 1801, and retired to Germany. 
 Returning in 1814, he at first attacked 
 Napoleon, but accepted a post under him 
 during the Hundred Days. After the second 
 restoration he joined the Liberal opposition. 
 
 Constant, Benjamin {b. 1845), French 
 painter ; amongst his works are The Harem, 
 Samson and JJelilah, and Mahomet II. 
 
 Constantine I., Caius Flavius Valerius 
 Aurehus, the Great ip. Tl\, d. 337), son of 
 Constantius, was in Britain at the time of 
 his father's death, and was proclaimed 
 emperor by the army there. After defeat- 
 ing Maxentius near Rome in 312 was 
 acknowledged by the Senate as emperor of 
 the West, Licinius obtaining the empire of 
 the East. A war broke out between the 
 two princes, Licinius was slain in 324, and 
 Constantine became emperor of the East 
 also. In 330 he removed the seat of 
 government to Byzantium, which he 
 re-named Constantinople. His conversion 
 to Christianity is said to have been due to a 
 vision he beheld whilst marching against 
 Maxentius. He made laws both for the 
 East and West in favour of Christianity, 
 and in 325 assembled the first general 
 council of Nicsea. 
 
 Constantine II. {b. 316, d. 340), son of 
 the preceding, succeeded to Gaul, Spain, 
 and Britain, but was slain whilst waging 
 war against his brother Constans. 
 
 Constantine III. (d. 411), a Roman soldier 
 in Britain, elected emperor in 407, con- 
 quered Gaul and Spain ; was besieged in
 
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 Aries by the general of Honorius, and put 
 to death. 
 
 Constantine III. (b. 612, d. 641), son of 
 the emperor Heraclius, died after reigning a 
 few days. 
 
 Constantine IV. {b. 648, d. 685), sur- 
 named "the Bearded," succeeded his 
 father, Constans II., in 668. He convened 
 a council at Constantinople (680) which 
 condemned the Monothehte doctrine. 
 
 Constantine V. {b. 718, d. 775), sur- 
 named " Kopronj-mos," succeeded his father, 
 Leo III., in 741, and fought valiantly 
 against the Saracens. He was cruel and 
 dissolute. 
 
 Constantine VL (*. 771, d. circa 800), 
 succeeded his father, Leo IV., in 780, but 
 was in 797 deprived of the empire by his 
 mother Irene, who put out his eyes and 
 reigned in his stead. 
 
 Constantine VII., sumamed "Porphyro- 
 genitus" {b. 905, d. 959), son of Leo VI., a 
 slothful and self-indulgent prince, said to 
 have been poisoned by his son Romanus. 
 
 Constantine VIII., son of Romanus 
 Lecapenos, shared the imperial power 
 during the nominal reign of his grandfather, 
 Constantine VII., but was deported to an 
 island in the Propontis. 
 
 Constantine IX. (A. 961, d. 1028), son of 
 Romanus, and grandson of Constantine VII. , 
 succeeded to the throne with his brother, 
 Basil II., in 976. 
 
 Constantine X. {b. circa 1000, d. 1054), 
 a dissolute prince, ascended the throne in 
 1042, as third husband of Zoe, daughter of 
 Constantine IX. 
 
 Constantine XI., Ducas (b. 1007, d. 1067), 
 became emperor in 1059. During his reign 
 the Uxians, a Scythian tribe, overran the 
 empire. 
 
 Constantine XII., Ducas, youngest son of 
 Constantine XI., shared the empire with 
 his brothers Michael and Andronicus from 
 1067 to 1078, when he became a monk. 
 
 Constantine XIIL, Palseologus (b. 1394, 
 d. 1453), succeeded his brother John VII. in 
 1448, and perished at the capture of Con- 
 stantinople by Mahomet II. 
 
 Constantine, Romanoff {b. 1827, d. 1892), 
 Grand Duke of Russia, second son of the 
 Czar Nicholas, as a leader of the Muscovite 
 or National party did much to promote the 
 Crimean war ; became president of the 
 Grand Council of the empire in 1865, but 
 was dismissed from his dignities in 1881 on 
 suspicion of intriguing with the revolu- 
 tionary party. 
 
 Constantine, Paulovich {b. 1779, d. 1831), 
 second son of the Emperor Paul I., was 
 commander-in-chief in Poland, which he 
 governed with much cruelty. On the 
 death of his elder brother, Alexander, in 
 1825, he renounced his claim to the throne 
 in favour of his younger brother Nicholas. 
 
 Constantius, Chlorus (d. York, 306), son 
 of Eutropius, won the title of Caesar by his 
 victories in Britain and Germany, was asso- 
 ciated with Galerius on the abdication of 
 Diocletian in 304. 
 
 Constantius II., Plavius Julius (b. 317, 
 d. 361), second son of Constantine the Great, 
 succeeded to the eastern portion of the 
 empire ; after defeating Magneutius at 
 Mursa, became sole emperor in 358 ; he 
 died whilst marching against Julian, son of 
 Constantius, whom he had created Caesar. 
 
 Contarini, Gaspare, Cardinal {b. 1483, 
 d. 1542), member of a rich Venetian 
 family, went as ambassador to Charles V. 
 and Clement VII., and was made cardinal 
 by Paul III. He belonged to the moderate 
 party and endeavoured to effect a recon- 
 ciliation with the Protestants ; his views on 
 the necessity of reform are expressed in his 
 Relation to Paul III. 
 
 Conway, Moncure Daniel (b. 1832), man 
 of letters, at first a Methodist minister, fell 
 under the influence of Emerson, and after 
 stud3dng at Harvard, opened a lecture-hall 
 at Cincinnati in 1860. He afterwards came 
 to England, and became intimate with 
 Carlyle. Besides memoirs of Carlyle and 
 Emerson, he has written Idols and Ideals, 
 liepublican Superstitions, etc. 
 
 Conybeare, Rev. WilUam Daniel {b. 1787, 
 d. 1857), Dean of Llandaff, an eminent 
 geologist, wrote Outlines of the Geology of 
 England and Wales, and a valuable paper 
 (1821) on the structure of the Plesiosaurus. 
 
 Conybeare, Rev. "William John {b. 1815, 
 d. 1857), divine, principal of the Collegiate 
 Institution, Liverpool, collaborator with the 
 Rev. J. S. Howson, Dean of Chester, in T/ie 
 Life and Epistles of St. Faul. 
 
 Cook, Eliza (6. 1818, d. 1889), minor 
 English poetess. 
 
 Cook, James, Captain {b. 1728, d. 
 1779), navigator, son of an agricultural 
 labourer, was apprenticed to a shop- 
 keeper near Whitby, but obtained employ- 
 ment in the coal-carrying trade, visited 
 the Baltic, and volunteered into the royal 
 navy in 1755 ; was present, as master 
 of a sloop, at the capture of Quebec : in 
 1767 became lieutenant, and in 1768 sailed 
 to the South Pacific in the Endeavour, on a 
 voyage of scientific observation. After re- 
 discovering New Zealand and exploring
 
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 Coq. 
 
 part of New ITolland, which he called New- 
 South Wales, he returned in 1771, and was 
 made commander. In his second voyage 
 (1772-1775), with the Resolution and Adven- 
 ture, he discovered New Caledonia and 
 Sandwich Land, and sailed round the globe. 
 In 1776 he rounded the Cape of Good Hope 
 with the Eesolution and Discover>/, dis- 
 covered the Sandwich Islands, and pene- 
 trated as far north as Icy Cape. He was 
 murdered by the natives of Hawaii. 
 
 Cooke, Benjamin (b. 1734, d. 1793), 
 musical composer, author of many popular 
 glees. 
 
 Cooke, George Frederick (5. 1756, d. 
 1811), actor, educated at Berwick, first 
 appeared in Loudou at the Haymarket in 
 1778, but attracted no attention till his 
 appearance at Covent Garden as Richard 
 III. in 1800. He died in America. 
 
 Cooke, Mordecai Cubitt {b. 1825), English 
 botanist, author of treatises on fungi and 
 fresh-water algae, etc. 
 
 Cooke, Sir WilHam FothergiU (b. 1806, 
 d. 1879), electrician, began to study the 
 electric telegraph in 1836, and in conjunc- 
 tion with Professor Wheatstone and J. L. 
 Ricardo founded the first telegraph company 
 in 1838. 
 
 Cooper, Abraham, R.A. {b. 1787, d. 1868), 
 battle and animal painter, of humble birth, 
 exhibited The Battle of Marston Moor, etc. 
 
 Cooper, Anthony Ashley. \_See Shaftes- 
 bury.] 
 
 Cooper, Sir Astley Paston (b. 1768. d. 
 1841). surgeon to George IV., had a 
 large practice in London. His medical 
 works include an important treatise on 
 hernia. 
 
 Cooper, James Fenimore (b. 1789, d. 
 1851), American novelist; after six years' 
 service in the United States navy, retired 
 in 1811 : wrote The Spy (1821), The Pilot 
 (1823), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), and 
 other novels. 
 
 Cooper, Samuel (b. 1600, d. 1672), 
 English painter of miniatures; painted 
 Cromwell several times, also Milton, Hamp- 
 den, Ireland, Charles II., Catherine of 
 Braganza, and many other celebrities of 
 the period. 
 
 Cooper, Thomas (b. 1805, d. 1892), was 
 a shoemaker, a schoolmaster, and a jour- 
 nahst, in 1840 settled in Leicester and 
 became leader of the Chartists there. 
 Arrested while lecturing in the potteries in 
 1841, he passed two years in Stafford gaol, 
 where he wrote an epic poem. The Purgatory 
 of Suiades. He wrote other WM-ks, and 
 
 in later Ufe was known in London as S 
 political and historical lecturer. 
 
 Cooper, Thomas Sidney, R.A. {b. 1803), 
 bom at Canterbury, a self-taught animal 
 painter, has exhibited largely in the Royal 
 Academy. 
 
 Coote, Sir Charles {d. 1642), military com- 
 mander in Ireland, sent to oppose the rebels 
 in 1641. His most brilliant exploit was the 
 masterly relief of Birr. He was slain 
 while routing the Irish who had surprised 
 Trim. 
 
 Coote, Sir Eyre {b. 1726, d. 1783), general, 
 served in the rebellion of 1745 ; dis- 
 tinguished himself in India at Chander- 
 nagore, Plassey, and Pondicherry, and 
 routed Hyder Ali at Porto Novo in 1781. 
 He died at Madras. 
 
 Cope, diaries West, R.A. (b. 1811, d. 
 1890), painter. His subjects were usually 
 either historical, as in the eight frescoes in 
 the Peers' Comdor at Westminster, or drawn 
 from scenes described by English poets. 
 
 Cope, Edward Drinker (b. 1840), Ameri- 
 can naturalist and comparative anatomist, 
 made a valuable collection of extinct verte- 
 brates, many of which were before unknown, 
 and wrote a Report upon the Extinct 
 Vertebrata obtained in New Mexico in 1874, 
 etc. 
 
 Copelaad, Ralph {b. 1837), Anglo- 
 German astronomer, after being volun- 
 teer assistant in Gottingen observatory 
 (1867-9), accompanied the second Ger- 
 man Arctic expedition (1869-70), observed 
 two transits of Venus (1874-82), detected 
 iron in the spectrum of the comet of 1882, 
 and made other astronomical discoveries. 
 
 Copernicus, Nicolas [b. 1473, d. 1543), bom 
 at Thorn, Prussia, founder of the modem 
 system of astronomy, studied at Cracow and 
 Bologna, and became professor of mathe- 
 matics at Rome. Obtaining a canonry in the 
 chapter of Frauenberg, he there wrote his 
 work in Latin On the Revolution of the 
 Celestial Orbs, which he deferred publishing 
 imtil a little before his death, aware of the 
 opposition it would arouse. 
 
 Copley, John Singleton (6. 1737, d. 1815), 
 bom at Boston, U.S., painter, after visiting 
 Rome in 1774, settled in England in 1775. He 
 painted numerous historical pictures, in- 
 cluding the famous Death of Chatham. 
 
 Coquelin, Benolt Constant {b. 1841), 
 French actor, first appeared at the Theatre 
 Frangais in 1860, and is a favourite in 
 London and in the United States. 
 
 Coques, Gonzales {b. 1618, d. 1684), 
 Dutch painter, followed Vandyck, and
 
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 Cor 
 
 painted for Charles I. of England and other [ 
 princes. 
 
 Coram, Thomas (6. circa 1668, d. 1751), \ 
 English philanthropist, originator of the 
 Foundling Hospital. I 
 
 Corbould, Edward Henry {b. 1815), his- 
 torical painter, usually chooses his themes 
 from mediffival history and literature ; has i 
 illustrated Percy's £eliqms, the Canterbury 
 Tales (1878), etc. 
 
 Corday D'Armans, Marie Charlotte {b. ! 
 1768, d. 1793), bom at St. Satumin, Nor- 
 mandy, of a noble Norman family, sym- 
 pathised with the ideas of the French re- 
 volution, but was horrified at its excesses ; 
 visited Paris in July, 1793, with the purpose, 
 it is said, of assassinating Marat, or Robes- 
 pierre ; obtaining an interview with the for- 
 mer whUe in his bath, she stabbed him with 
 a knife ; was immediately apprehended and 
 executed four days afterwards. 
 
 Corelli, Archangelo (b. 1653, d. 1713), 
 Italian violinist and composer, settled in 
 Kome, and had many distinguished pupils. 
 
 Corinna, a Greek poetess of the 5th 
 century B.C., bom at Tanagra in Boeotia, 
 was a rival of Pindar ; only fragments of 
 her works remain. 
 
 Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, semi-mythical 
 Roman hero, in a war against the Volscians 
 captured their capital, CorioU (493 B.C.), 
 whence his name ; owing to his contempt 
 for the plebeians, was banished from Rome ; 
 joined the Volsci, whom he led against Rome, 
 but was induced by his wife and mother to 
 refrain from attaclang it. His after-history 
 is unknown. 
 
 Cormenin, Louis Marie de la Haie, Vi- 
 
 comte de (b. 1778, d. 1866), French political 
 writer, imder the name of "Timon" at- 
 tacked Louis Philippe's government ; wrote 
 Ze Livre des Orateurs^ etc. 
 
 Comeille, Pierre (5. 1606, d. 1684), French 
 dramatist, bom at Rouen, was educated for 
 the law, but the success of his first comedy, 
 Melite, induced him to devote himself to 
 literature. It was followed by other come- 
 dies, but from 1636 he preferred tragedy, 
 producing Medee (1636), Le Cid (which 
 established his fame), Horace, Cinna, Poly- 
 eucte, La Mort de Pompee, etc. Le Menteur 
 (1642) was another successful comedy. 
 
 Comeille, Thomas (b. 1625, d. 1709), bro- 
 ther of the preceding, wrote Ariane and 
 other plays. 
 
 Cornelia {b. circa 189 B.C., d. circa 110 
 B.C.), daughter of P. Scipio Africanus the 
 elder, married T. Sempronius Gracchus in 
 169, and was mother of Tiberius Gracchus 
 and Caius Gracchus. 
 
 Cornelius, Peter von {b. 1783, d. 1867). 
 German painter, bom at Diisseldorf, pub- 
 lished his designs for Faust at Frankfort 
 (1806), Uvedat Rome from 1811 to 1819, and 
 there illustrated the Nibelungenlied, Dante, 
 andTasso: in 1819 was made director of the 
 Diisseldorf academy, and went to Munich, 
 where is his painting of the Last Judgment 
 in the church of St. Louis. 
 
 ComeU, Ezra {b. 1807, d. 1874), bom at 
 New York, improved the magnetic tele- 
 graph, and founded the ComeU university 
 at Ithaca, New York (1868). 
 
 Cornwall, Barry, the pseudonym of Bryan 
 Waller Procter {b. 1787, d. 1874), poet 
 and dramatist, best known as a writer 
 of songs and short lyrics; he wrote also 
 Mirandola (1821), A Sicilian Story, a 
 Memoir of Charles Lamb (1866), etc. 
 
 Comwallis, Charles, Marquis (*. 1738, d. 
 1805), entered the army in 1756; while ia 
 command of the British forces in South 
 Carolina won the battles of Camden (1780) 
 and Guildford (1781). As Governor-General 
 of India, reduced Tippoo Sahib (1791), and 
 as Viceroy of Ireland brought the rebellion 
 there to a close ; was also employed to nego- 
 tiate the peace of Amiens (1803), and shortly 
 before his death again appointed Governor- 
 General of India. 
 
 Corot, Jean Baptiste CamiUe {b. 1796, d. 
 1875), French painter, bom at Paris, pupil 
 of Michallon and Bertin, and founder of the 
 impressionist school, began to exhibit in 
 1827, but did not produce his masterpieces, 
 Dante and Virgil, and Macbeth meeting tJie 
 Witches, till 1859. 
 
 Corradi, Domenico {b. 1449, d. 1493). 
 [6'«e Ghirlandajo.] 
 
 Correa de la Serra, Jose Francisco de 
 U>. 1750, d. 1823), one of the founders and 
 first secretary of the Academy of Sciences 
 at Lisbon. 
 
 Correggio, Antonio Allegri da (b. 1494, 
 d. 1534), Italian painter of humble birth, 
 bom at Correggio, near Parma, entirely 
 self-educated, passed his Hfe in obscurity, 
 Anuibale Caracci and Titian being the first 
 to recognise his genius. In the Duomo 
 of Parma is his fresco of The Assumption. 
 Among his most famous oil-paintings are 
 The Night at Dresden, and the Holy Family 
 in London. 
 
 Corsini, Eduardo {b. 1702, d. 1765), a 
 leamed ItaUan writer, professor of logic, 
 and afterwards of metaphysics and moral 
 philosophy, at Pisa, wrote Institutiones Phi- 
 losophicce, etc. 
 
 Cort, Cornelia {b. 1636, d. 1578), a
 
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 Con 
 
 Dutch engraver, lived in Italy, and en- 
 graved many of Titian's pictures. 
 
 Cort, Henry {b. 1740, d. 1800), iron- 
 master and first manufacturer of bar-iron, 
 at first a navy agent, started a forge and 
 iron mill near Fareham in 1775, and pa- 
 tented the process called "puddling" in 
 1 784. He was ruined through the defalca- 
 tions of his partner. 
 
 Cortes, Hernando (b. 1485, d. 1547), 
 conqueror of Mexico, sailed to the New 
 World in 1504 ; aided Velasquez in the con- 
 quest of Cuha in 1511 ; sent in command of 
 an expedition to Yucatan in 1518, reduced 
 the Indians there, and sailed on to San 
 Juan d'Ulloa, where he founded the town 
 of Vera Cruz, and, on a mutiny breaking 
 out, burnt his ships to prevent his men 
 from returning. After reducing the Indian 
 republic of Tlascala, marched to the city of 
 Mexico, and compelled the Emperor Monte- 
 zuma to acknowledge himself a vassal of 
 Spain. He next took Narvaez prisoner, who 
 had been sent to supersede him by Velas- 
 quez ; during his absence the Spaniards were 
 attacked and Montezuma slain. Cortes with 
 difficulty quelled the disturbance, taking 
 the city, defeating the new emperor, and 
 becoming captain-general of New Spain 
 (1521). He was recalled in 1526, but well 
 received by Charles V. ; he subsequently 
 discovered California, but suffered much 
 neglect in Spain during his later years. 
 
 Corti, Luigi, Count {b. 1826, d. 1888), after 
 holding diplomatic posts at various Euro- 
 pean courts, represented Italy at the Con- 
 gress of Berlin in 1878, and in 1885 suc- 
 ceeded Count Nigra as Italian ambassador 
 in London. 
 
 Cosel, Countess of (*. 1679, d. 1759), 
 a favourite of Augustus II. of Poland, was 
 exiled in 1716. 
 
 Costa, Lorenzo (b. circa 1450, d. 1530), 
 ItaHan painter, pupil of Era FUippo Lippi ; 
 his best works are at Ferrara. 
 
 Costa, Sir Michael (*. 1810, d. 1884), bom 
 at Naples, musical composer and conductor, 
 of Spanish descent. After various appoint- 
 ments as conductor, became leader of the 
 Handel festival in 1859. He WTote Don 
 Carlos, Malek Adhel, and other operas, 
 besides two oratorios, Naaman and Eli. 
 
 Coster, Laurens Janszoon (b. 1370, d. 
 1440), a native of Haarlem, said by the 
 Dutch to have been the inventor of printing. 
 
 Cosway, Eichard {b. 1740, d. 1821), axtist, 
 celebrated for his miniatures ; also painted 
 in oils. 
 
 Cotes, Eoger (fi. 1682, d. 1716), a mathe- 
 matician of great promise, first Plumian 
 
 professor of astronomy at Cambridge, edited 
 Newton's Frimipia, and left valuable 
 mathematical papers, afterwards published 
 with the title Harmonia Mensurarum. 
 
 Cotman, John Sell (6. 1782, d. 1842), 
 artist, and well-known etcher of architec- 
 tural subjects. 
 
 Cotta, Bernhard von (*. 1808, d. 1879), 
 German geologist, became professor of 
 geology at Freiberg in 1841. 
 
 Cotta, Johann Friedrich, Baron Cotten- 
 dorf {b. 1764, d. 1832), head of a publishing 
 business at Tiibingen, and afterwards at 
 Stuttgart; was the friend and publisher of 
 Schiller, Goethe, Richter, etc. 
 
 Cottenliani, Charles Christopher Pepys, 
 Earl of {b. 1781, d. 1851), entered Parlia- 
 ment as a Whig in 1831, became Solicitor- 
 General and Master of the Rolls in 1834, 
 was Lord Chancellor from 1836 to 1841 and 
 1846 to 1850. 
 
 Cottin, Sophie Ristaud (*. 1773, d. 1807), 
 French novelist, wrote Elisabeth, ou les 
 Exiles de Siberie, and other novels. 
 
 Cottle, Joseph (6. 1770, d. 1853), book- 
 seller and author, lived at Bristol, published 
 the Lyrical Ballads (1798) for Wordsworth 
 and Coleridge, etc. 
 
 Cotton, Charles {b. 1630, d. 1687), English 
 poet and translator, wrote Virgil Travestied, 
 a translation of Montaigne's Essays, etc. 
 
 Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce (b. 1571, d. 1631), 
 antiquary, was created a baronet by James 
 I. ; his valuable library of MSS. and records 
 was placed in the British Museum in 1753. 
 
 Coulomb, Charles Augustinde (b. 1736, d. 
 1806), French physicist, appointed inspector- 
 general of public instruction in 1802. 
 
 Courbet, Gustave (J). 1819, d. 1877), a 
 French painter of peasant parentage, worked 
 and lived in his native village; but after 
 the revolution of 1870 became director of 
 fine arts, and threw in his lot with the Com- 
 mune. 
 
 Courbet, Jean (*. 1827, d. 1885), French 
 naval officer and man of science, commanded 
 the naval division at Tonquin in the war 
 with Annam (1883), and distinguished him- 
 self in that with China. 
 
 Courier, Paul Louis (i. 1773, d. 1825), 
 French pamphleteer, originally an officer in 
 the army (1792-1809). His views were 
 liberal. He was murdered by his servants. 
 
 Court de Gebelin, Antoine (b. 1725, d. 
 1784), French scholar, vrrote Le Monde 
 Frimitif analyse et compare avec Le Monde 
 Moderne, etc.
 
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 Cousin, Victor (*. 1792, d. 1867), French 
 philosopher aud man of letters, educateji at 
 the Lyc^e Charlemagne, entered the Ecole 
 Normale in 1811 ; turned his attention to 
 metaphysics, and in 1815 became professor 
 of the history of philosophy at the Sorbonne. 
 His liberal opinions subjected him to much 
 persecution at the hands of the Bourbons. 
 In 1840 he was made a peer of France, and 
 appointed minister of public instruction. 
 After the fall of the Thiers ministry he 
 lived mostly in retirement, but retained his 
 influence over pubUc opinion. His last 
 years were devoted to French history in the 
 17th century. Besides his eleven volumes 
 on that subj ect, he translated the whole of 
 Plato (1826-40), and wrote a General History 
 of Philonophy (1828), an Examination of the 
 Fhtlosophy of Locke (1829), a treatise Du 
 Vrai, du Beau, et du Bien (1854), etc. 
 
 Cousins, Samuel, E.A. {b. 1801, d. 1881), 
 mezzotint engraver of works by Lawrence, 
 Landseer, Millais, etc. 
 
 Coustou, a French family of sculptors. 
 Nicolas (^. 1658, d. 1733) left a Deacent 
 from the Cross. The groups at the entrance 
 to the great avenue of the Champs Elys^es 
 were the work of his brother GruiUaume 
 (1678-1746). 
 
 Coverdale, MOes (i. 1488, d. 1568), in 
 1535 produced his translation of the Bible 
 into English ; also assisted in the Great Bible 
 (1539), and edited Cranmer^s Bible (1640) ; 
 became Bishop of Exeter in 1551, was im- 
 prisoned by Mary for two years ; after his 
 release lived at Geneva, and returned to 
 England under Elizabeth. 
 
 Cowen, Frederick Hymen (b. 1852), Eng- 
 lish composer of oratorios, cantatas, and 
 songs. 
 
 Cowley, Abraham {b. 1618, d. 1667), poet, 
 eon of a London grocer, educated at West- 
 minster and Cambridge, removed to Oxford 
 in 1643 ; on its surrender followed the queen 
 to Paris ; was employed on secret missions 
 by the king ; after the Restoration was neg- 
 lected by Charles II. , and retired to Barn- 
 elms, and afterwaxds to Chertsey. His best 
 known works are the collection of poems 
 called The Mistress (1647), and his Essays. 
 
 Cowley, Henry R. C. "Wellesley, Earl (i. 
 1804, d. 1884), diplomatist, was ambassador 
 at Paris from 1853 to 1867. In 1860 he was 
 appointed joint plenipotentiary with Cobden 
 to negotiate the French treaty of commerce. 
 
 Cowper, Thomas de Gray, Earl, K.G. 
 (J. 1884), was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland 
 under Mr. Gladstone from 1880 to 1882. 
 
 Cowper, William {b. 1731, d. 1800), poet, 
 son of Rev. John Cowper, rector of Berkhamp- 
 Btead, educated at Westminster, was called 
 f 2 
 
 to the bar in 1754, and lived in the Temple 
 till 1763, devoting his energies to literature, 
 and associating with wits and scholars. He 
 was subject to fits of religious depression, 
 and after an attempt at suicide in 1763, was 
 removed to a private madhouse, where he 
 remained for more than a year. He next 
 found a happy home with the Unwin family 
 at Huntingdon ; and in 1767 removed with 
 Mrs. Unwin to Olney, where he made the 
 acquaintance of John Newton. He was 
 stiU subject to fits of melancholy, especially 
 after the death of his friends. His chief 
 work was TIw Task (1785). 
 
 Cowper, William {b. 1666, d. 1709), snr> 
 geon, made discoveries in anatomy, and 
 wrote The Anatomy of Humane Bodies. 
 
 Cowper, William, Earl, sat in Parliament 
 as a Whig 1695-1700, was Lord Keeper 
 1705-7, and Lord Chancellor 1714-18. 
 
 Cox, David {b. 1783, d. 1859), landscape 
 painter; came to London in 1804, and 
 worked as a painter in water-colours. His 
 love of Welsh scenery attracted him to Here- 
 ford, where he Uved from 1814 to 1827. In 
 1841 he removed from Loudon to Birming- 
 ham, aud there spent the rest of his life. 
 
 Cox, Richard (*. 1600, d. 1581), was 
 master of Eton, and a favourite with 
 Cranmer and Edward VI. ; left England 
 during Mary's reign ; was appointed Bishop 
 of Ely by Elizabeth. He was one of the 
 translators of the Bishops' Bible. 
 
 Coxe, Rev. WUUam (Jb. 1747, d. 1828), 
 wrote a History of the House of Austria, 
 Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings of Spain, 
 Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborotigh, etc. 
 
 Coxwell, Henry Tracey (J). 1819), balloon- 
 ist, editor of the Balloon and the Aerostatie 
 Magazine, has made many daring ascents. 
 
 Coyne, Joseph SterUng {b. 1806, d. 1868), 
 dramatic author and critic, wrote How to 
 settle Accounts with your laundress (1847), 
 and other farces, and was one of the projec- 
 tors and original proprietors of Bunch. 
 
 Crabbe, George (b. 1754, d. 1832), poet, 
 bom at Aldebmgh, Suffolk, after failing as 
 a surgeon at Aldeburgh, came to London in 
 1780, and was introduced by Burke to 
 Dodsley, who pubhshed The Library (1781), 
 followed by The Village in 1783. Having 
 taken orders, he was successively curate at 
 Aldeburgh, chaplain to the Duke of 
 Rutland, curate at Stathem, rector of 
 Muston (1789), and of Trowbridge (1814). 
 His other works were The Newspaper (1785), 
 The Farish Register (1807), The Borough 
 (1810), and Tales of the Hall (1819). 
 
 Craig, Sir James Henrv (6. 1748, d. 
 1812), general, distinguished himself in the
 
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 Cre 
 
 American war; took part in the capture 
 of the Cape of Good Hope (1795), and be- 
 came its first governor. 
 
 Cralk, Dinah Maria {b. 1826, d. 1887), 
 daughter of Mr. Muloch, a clergyman ; 
 besides poems and essays, wrote many 
 novels, of which John Halifax, Gentleman 
 (1856), is the best known. 
 
 Craik, George Lillie {b. 1798, d. 1866), man 
 of letters, wrote The Pursuit of Knowledge 
 under D'lficulties (1831), and other works; 
 and in 1849 was appointed professor of Eng- 
 lish literature at Queen's College, Belfast. 
 
 Cramer, Johann Baptiste (^. 1771, d. 1858), 
 came to England in early childhood. He 
 composed concertos, fanta,sias, sonatas, etc. 
 
 Cranach, Lucas {h. 1472, d. 1553), painter 
 and engraver, excelled in portraits, those of 
 Luther and Melanchthon being especially 
 valuable. 
 
 Cranbrook, Gathome Gathome-Hardy, 
 Viscount (i. 1814), was called to the bar in 
 1840 ; entered Parliament as a Conservative 
 in 1856 ; was Home Secretary (1867-8) ; 
 gained a reputation as a debater; in 1874 
 became Secretary of State for War ; in 1878 
 succeeded Lord Salisbury as Indian Secre- 
 tary, and in 1885-86 was appointed Lord 
 President of the Council. 
 
 Crane, "Walter (5. 1845), allegorical and 
 decorative painter, was a constant contri- 
 butor to the Grosvenor Gallery. 
 
 Cranmer, Thomas {h. 1489, d. 1556), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, obtained the 
 favour of Henry VIII. by furthering his 
 divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and was 
 appointed primate in 1533. He favoured 
 the Eeformed doctrines during the reign of 
 Henry VIII., and in that of Edward VI. 
 Protestantism was thoroughly established, 
 and the Book of Common Prayer compiled 
 (1549) imder his guidance. He was com- 
 mitted to the Tower on the accession of 
 Mary, condemned at Oxford for heresy in 
 1554, and after two years' imprisonment 
 burnt there, openly rejecting the recantation 
 of Protestantism which he had been induced 
 to sign. 
 
 Cranworth, Robert Monsey Rolfe, Lord 
 {h. 1790, d. 1868), lawyer, was Lord Chan- 
 cellor in Lord Aberdeen's ministry from 
 1852 to 1858, and again from 1865 to 1867. 
 He was raised to the peerage in 1850. 
 
 Crashaw, Richard {b. circa 1613, d. 1649), 
 religious poet, expelled by the Parliamentary 
 army in 1644, went to France, where he 
 became a Roman Catholic, and to Italy, and 
 died a canon in the church of Our Lady 
 of Loretto at Rome. He wrote Steps to the 
 Temple, etc. 
 
 Crassus, Lucius Licinius (b. 140 B.C., 
 d. 91 B.C.), a Roman orator, censor in 92 
 B.C. 
 
 Crassus, Marcus Licinus {d. 53 B.C.), the 
 triumvir, defeated the insurgent gladiators 
 under Spartacus (b.o. 72), and in 71 was 
 elected consul with Pompey. In 63 he 
 undertook an expedition against the Par- 
 thians, and was slain near Carrhae. 
 
 Crawford, Francis Marion {b. 1854), Ame- 
 rican novehst, has written Mr. Isaacs (1882), 
 JDr. Claudius {188S), A Roman Singer (1884), 
 Zoroaster (1885), and numerous other novels. 
 
 Crawford and Balcarres, Alexander 
 WiUiam Crawford Lindsay, Earl of (b. 1812, 
 d. 1880), wrote Progression by Antagonism 
 ! (1846), Sketches of Christian Art (1847), 
 i Th^ Zives of the Lindsays, etc. His library 
 at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, was unrivalled 
 among private collections. 
 
 i Crawshay, Richard {b. 1741, d. 1799) , iron- 
 ' master, son of a farmer near Leeds, 
 popidarly known as the " Iron King," 
 ; began life in an ironmonger's warehouse in 
 London ; afterwards leased ironworks at 
 Merthyr Tydvil, where, by adopting the 
 inventions of Henry Cort, he enormously 
 extended his sphere of operations, and 
 opened out the great iron district of South 
 Wales. 
 
 Grayer, Gaspard de (b. 1582, d. 1669), 
 Flemish artist, whose works are to be seen 
 in the chief cities of Flanders. 
 
 Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd {b. 1812, 
 d. 1878), appointed professor of history at 
 University College, London, in 1840, 
 chief justice of Ceylon from 1860 to 1869, 
 wrote The Rise and Progress of the British 
 Constitution, The Fifteen Decisive Battles 
 of the World, The Mistory of the Ottoman 
 Turks, etc. 
 
 Cr^billon, Prosper Jolyot de (6. 1674, d. 
 1762), French dramatist, wrote Idomenee, 
 Xerxes, Catilina, and other tragedies. 
 
 Credi, Lorenzo di {b. Florence, 1454, d. circa 
 1535), ItaUan painter, admirer and imitator of 
 Leonardo da Vinci, worked chiefly at 
 Florence. His best work is the Madonna 
 with Saints in the chapel of CesteUo. 
 
 Creech, Thomas {h. 1659, d. 1701), trans- 
 lator of Lucretius, Horace, and Theocritus. 
 
 Cremieux, Isaac Adolphe {b. 1796, 
 d. 1880), French lawyer and legislator, of 
 Jewish parentage, was minister of justice 
 in the provisional government of 1848, and 
 in the government of national defence 
 (1870) ; in 1875 was elected senator for life 
 of the National Assembly. He was one 
 of the authors of the Code des Codes.
 
 Cre 
 
 ( 229) 
 
 Cro 
 
 Crescimbeni, Giovanni Maria {b. 1663, 
 d. 1728), Italian poet, founder of the 
 academy of Arcadia for improving taste 
 and reviving learning, wrote a history of 
 Italian poetry, etc. 
 
 CresweU, Sir CresweU (b. 1794, d. 1863), 
 lawyer, became justice of the King's Bench 
 in 1842, and created the Divorce Court, over 
 which he was appointed to preside (1858). 
 
 Creswick, Thomas, R.A. (A. 1811, d. 1869), 
 landscape painter, depicted quiet EngUsh 
 Bcenes, and excelled in the representation of 
 foliage. 
 
 Cricliton, James {b. 1560, d. circa 1585), 
 called " the Admirable," a Scotsman of 
 good family, visited Paris, Rome, Venice, 
 and Padua, everywhere exciting admiration 
 by his extraordinary memory and powers of 
 argument and composition. He is said to 
 have been murdered by the son of the Duke 
 of Mantua, to whom he was tutor. 
 
 Crispi, Francesco (fi. 1819), Italian states- 
 man, joined in the conspiracies which led 
 to the overthrow of the kingdom of the 
 Two SicUies (1848) ; planned the second 
 SicOian revolt of 1859-60; fought under 
 Garibaldi ; became a minister of state ; 
 represented Palermo in the first ItaHan 
 ParHament, in which he was leader of the 
 constitutional opposition. In 1877 he was 
 appointed minister of the interior, in 1887 
 president of the council and premier, and 
 resigned in 1891. 
 
 Croesus, last king of Lydia, came to the 
 throne in 560 B.C., and conquered the Greek 
 cities in Asia Minor, but was deprived of 
 his throne by Cyrus, King of Persia, in 
 646 B.C. 
 
 Croft, "William {b. 1677, d. 1727), musical 
 composer, organist of the Chapel Royal, and 
 afterwards of Westminster Abbey. His 
 Musica Sacra appeared in 1724. 
 
 Crofts, Ernest, A.E.A. (J. 1847), pain- 
 ter, studied ia Berlin and imder E. Hiin- 
 ten at Dusseldorf ; has exhibited the 
 Morning of the Battle of Waterloo (1876), 
 Oliver Cromwell at Marston Moor (1877), 
 and other battle-pieces. 
 
 Croke, Sir George (//. 1560, d. 1642), law 
 reporter, became justice of the Common 
 Pleas in 1625: transferred to the King's 
 Bench in 1628, he withstood the king's 
 attempt to control the action of his judges, 
 and gave judgment for Hampden against 
 the king, though at the cost of hia own 
 impeachment. 
 
 Croke, Sir John (h. 1553, d. 1620), brother 
 of the preceding, became a bencher in 1591, 
 waa Speaker of the House of Commons in 
 1601, and was made a justice of the King's 
 Bench in 1607. 
 
 Croke, Rev. Thomas W. {b. 1824), Roman 
 Catholic Archbishop of Cashel, was pre- 
 viously Bishop of Auckland; his name ia 
 coimected with the Land League and Irish 
 NationaUst movement. 
 
 Croker, John Wilson (b. 1780, d. 1857), 
 politician and essayist, entered Parha- 
 ment in 1807; held office as secretary to 
 the Admiralty from 1809 to 1830 ; was a 
 staunch Tory, and never re-entered Par- 
 liament after the passing of the Reform 
 BUI. Contributed to the Quarterly Review 
 from 1810 to 1853, and edited Boswell's 
 Life of Johnson, Lord Hervey^s Memoirs, the 
 Suffolk Papers, etc. 
 
 Croker, Thomas Crofton {b. 1798, d. 1854), 
 antiquary, devoted himself to collecting the 
 legends and songs of the Irish peasantry, 
 and published Fairy Legends and Traditions 
 of the South of Lreland (1825), My Village 
 (1832), etc. 
 
 Crome, John (*. 1768, d. 1821), landscape 
 painter, formed his style chiefly on the 
 Dutch, especially Hobbema. He gained a 
 livelihood by teaching drawing. 
 
 Crompton, Samuel (b. 1753, d. 1827), 
 inventor of the spinning mule (1770). 
 
 CromweU, Henry (b. 1628, d. 1674), 
 youngest son of the Protector, distinguished 
 himself in the Irish campaign, became Lord 
 Deputy of Ireland in 1654, and governed 
 well, but was recalled by Parliament in 1659. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver (*. 1599, d. 1658), the 
 Protector, son of Robert Cromwell, bom 
 at Huntingdon and educated at the free 
 school and at Cambridge, where he did 
 not graduate ; represented Huntingdon in 
 the Parliament of 1628 ; always an advocate 
 of puritanical views, first became seriously 
 religious himself about 1638 ; was member 
 for Cambridge in the Short and Long Par- 
 liaments, and soon made himself prominent 
 by his zeal in the cause of liberty ; on the 
 outbreak of the Civil war raised a troop of 
 horse for the Parliament ; distinguished 
 himself in the battles which followed, and 
 was specially exempted from the Self- 
 denying Ordinance (1645) ; joined the Inde- 
 pendent party iu opposition to the Presby- 
 terians, and by the ejection of members 
 known as " Pride's Purge " secured the 
 condemnation and execution of Charles I. 
 (1649). After reducing Ireland to sub- 
 mission, he attacked the Scottish RoyaUsts, 
 defeating them at Dimbar (165U) and 
 Worcester (1651). He dissolved the Long 
 Parliament in 1653, and, after an un- 
 successful attempt at constitutional govern- 
 ment, assumed the title of Protectwr, and 
 ruled as a military despot, enforcing order 
 at home, and winning the respect oi foreign 
 countriei
 
 Cro 
 
 (230) 
 
 Cru 
 
 CromweU, Ridiard (b. 162G, d. 1712), 
 third sou (if tlie Protector, held several im- 
 portaut offices during his father's protec- 
 torate, aud ou his death iu 16;58 succeeded 
 to his title : showed himself uuiit for pubUc 
 affairs, aud abdicated by the advice of his 
 uucle Desborough (16o9). After residing in 
 France and Switzerlaud, he returned to 
 England in 1680, and spent the rest of his 
 days at Cheshunt in Hertfordshire. 
 
 Cromwell, Thomas, Earl of Essex {b. circa 
 1485, d. 1540), after spending some time on 
 the Continent in a mercantile capacity, 
 entered Cardinal Wolsey's service in 1524, 
 and by his defence of his master in Parlia- 
 ment after his fall, attracted the notice of 
 Henry VIII. ; became his trusted minister, 
 strengthened the royal authority, and as the 
 king's vicegerent in ecclesiastical matters 
 suppressed the monasteries and furthered 
 the Reformed doctrines. In 1539 he was 
 made Earl of Essex, but his unsuccessful 
 attempt to unite Henry in an alliance vrith 
 the Protestant princes of Germany resulted 
 in his condemnation by bill of attainder and 
 execution on Tower HLU. 
 
 Cronaca, Simone {b. 1454, d. 1509), archi- 
 tect, whose masterpiece is the great hall 
 in the Palazzo della Signoria. He also 
 devised and executed the ornamentation of 
 the Strozzi palace, and other buildings 
 in Florence. He was a friend and suppor- 
 ter of Savonarola. 
 
 Crookes, William, F.R.S. (*. 1832), man 
 of science, was in 1854 appointed to super- 
 intend the meteorological department of the 
 EadcUfFe Observatory, Oxford ; accompanied 
 the scientific expedition to Oran in 1871, 
 and has made valuable scientific discoveries, 
 including those of the metal thalliuni and 
 its atomic weight, and of the sodium amal- 
 gamation process of separating gold and 
 silver from their ores. To his experiments on 
 repulsion resulting from radiation the radio- 
 meter is due. 
 
 Cropper, James (b. 1773, d. 1841), a Liver- 
 pool merchant, who exerted himself in the 
 cause of anti-slavery. 
 
 Cross, Mary Ann. [See EUot, George.] 
 
 Cross, Richard Assheton, Viscount, G.C.B. 
 {b. 1823), was called to the bar in 1849 ; re- 
 presented Preston in Parliament from 1857 
 to 1862, and was afterwards member for 
 south-west Lancashire ; was appointed 
 Home Secretary by Mr. Disraeli in 1874, 
 carried an Artisans' Dwellings Bill (1875) 
 and other measures through the House, 
 and in 1884 sat on the Commission of 
 Inquiry into the Housing of the Poor. In 
 1886 he was raised to the peerage, and 
 appointed Secretary of State for Indm. 
 
 Crosse, Andrew {b. 1784, d. 1855), electri- 
 cian, made several important discoveries. 
 
 Crotcll,William (6. 1775, <?. 1847), composer, 
 son of a Norwich carpenter, performed in 
 public in London when he was five years 
 old, and composed an oratorio ; performed 
 at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, when he was 
 fifteen. Removing to Oxford, he became 
 organist of Christ Church (1790) and St. 
 John's College, and professor of music in 
 the University (1797). In 1822 he was ap- 
 pointed principal of the Royal Academy of 
 Music. He composed Palestine, The Cap- 
 tivity of Judah, and other oratorios. 
 
 Crowe, Mrs. Catherine {b. 1800, d. 
 1876), novelist, wrote The Night Side of 
 JSature, a collection of supernatural stories 
 (1848), also Lily Dawson (1847), and other 
 novels. 
 
 Crowe, Eyre, A.R.A. (b. 1824), historical 
 painter, pupil of Delaroche, has exhibited 
 French Savants in Egypt (1876), Sanctuary 
 (1877), Marat (1879), etc. 
 
 Crowther, Samuel Adjai (i. 1812, <;. 1891), 
 Bishop of the Niger Territory, a native of 
 Africa, was sold as a slave in 1819, but 
 rescued by a British ship and lauded at 
 Sierra Leone (1822) ; was baptized (1825), 
 placed in charge of the mission school at 
 Regent's Town, and, after passing through 
 the missionary college at Islington, ordained 
 by the Bishop of London. In 1864 he was 
 consecrated first Bishop of Niger Territory. 
 He accompanied the Niger expeditions of 
 1841 and 1854. 
 
 Cruden, Alexander {b. 1701, d. 1770), 
 published in 1737 a Complete Concordance of 
 the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 CruikshanlE. George (b. 1792, d. 1878), 
 artist and caricaturist, son of Isaac Cruik- 
 shank, engraver and caricaturist, after 
 painting scenes for a theatre, began to 
 design poHtical caricatures, which appeared 
 in the windows of William Hone, the 
 publisher, and attracted much attention. 
 He illustrated a large number of works, 
 including Grimm's Fairy Tales (1823), The 
 Ingoldsby Legends, Oliver Twist, etc., and 
 designed the Bottle (1847) and other plates 
 in furtherance of the temperance cause. 
 
 Cruikshank, William Cumberland {b. 
 1745, d. 1800), anatomist, assistant and 
 successor of Dr. Hunter, wrote a treatise 
 on The Anatomy of the Absorbent Vessels in 
 the Muma'H Body. 
 
 Crum, Walter {b. 1793, d. 1867), a Scottish 
 chemist and analyst, author of a treatise on 
 indigo. 
 
 Crusentolpe, Magnus Jacob (b. 1795, 
 d. 1865), Swedish politician and writer,
 
 Cso 
 
 (231) 
 
 Cuu 
 
 caused great excitement in Sweden by his 
 Politieal Views, Paintings from the History 
 of the Bay, Positions and Relations, and 
 other vigorous pamphlets. 
 
 Csoma de Kords, Alexander {b. 1784, 
 d. 1842), philologist and traveller, educated 
 at Gottingeu, travelled in the East, re- 
 mained four years in Thibet studying its 
 language and literature, and became libra- 
 rian to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. He 
 wrote a Thibetan grammar, etc. 
 
 Cubbon, Sir Mark (*. 1784, d. 1861), Com- 
 missioner of Mysore from 1834 to 1861, did 
 much to promote the prosperity and welfare 
 of the province. 
 
 Cubitt, Sir W. (b. 1785, d. 1861), civil 
 engineer, effected improvements in the 
 navigation and drainage of the coimtry, and 
 invented the treadmill. He was knighted 
 for his services in connection with the build- 
 ing of the International Exhibition of 1851. 
 
 Cudworth, Ralph {b. 1617, d. 1688), 
 divine, one of the school of philosophers 
 known as the "Cambridge Platonists," 
 became Master of Clare Hall (1644) and 
 Christ's College (1654), Cambridge, and 
 regius professor of Hebrew (1645). He 
 wrote The True Intellectual System of the 
 Universe (1678), and a Treatise on Eternal 
 and Immutable Morality. 
 
 Cujas, Jacques (b. 1522, d. 1590), French 
 jurist, studied at the university of Toulouse, 
 and became professor of law at Cahors, 
 Bourges, and Valence successively. He left 
 many works. 
 
 CuUen, Paul, Cardinal, D.D. (b. 1803, d. 
 1878), Roman Catholic Archbishop of 
 Dublin, consecrated Archbishop of Armagh 
 and Primate of Ireland in 1850, and trans- 
 ferred to Dublin in 1852, was distinguished 
 as a theologian and a defender of the 
 Church's rights and dignities. He estab- 
 lished the diocesan college of ClonlifEe and 
 the Roman Catholic university. 
 
 Cullen, Wilham {b. 1712, d. 1790), physi- 
 cian, professor of chemistry at Glasgow, 
 and afterwards at Edinburgh, wrote a 
 Treatise on Materia Medica, etc. 
 
 Culpeper, Nicolas (h. 1616, d. 1654), a 
 writer an astrology and medicine. 
 
 Cumberland, Richard {b. 1632, d. 1718), 
 Bishop of Peterborough, wrote in opposition 
 to Hobbes a treatise I)e Leyibus Natures. 
 
 Cumberland, Richard (Jb. 1732, d. 1811), 
 dramatist, author of The West Indian, The 
 Brothers, etc. 
 
 Cumberland, William Augustus, Duke of 
 (b. 1721, d. 1765), second son of George II., 
 was distinguished for his courage, but was 
 
 defeated at Ponteuoy, Lawfield, and Hasten- 
 beck. He behaved with great cruelty at the 
 battle of Culloden, where he defeated the 
 Young Pretender (1746). 
 
 Cuming, Hugh {b. 1791, d. 1865), natu- 
 ralist, devoted himself to the study of 
 conchology, and made a large collection of 
 shells and plants from the west coast of 
 America, the islands of the Pacific, and the 
 Philippine Islands. 
 
 Gumming, John, D.D. (b. 1810, d. 1881), 
 minister of the Scotch church, Covent Gar- 
 den (1832), was a well-known exponent of 
 prophecy, and wrote The Great Tribulation, 
 etc. 
 
 Gumming, RoualejTi Gordon {b. 1820, 
 d. 1866), the African lion-hunter, after 
 serving in the Indian army joined the Cape 
 Rifles in 1843, and for five years lived in the 
 bush. His experiences there are recorded in 
 Five Years of a Hunter's Life (1850), and 
 Tlie Lion-Hunter of South Africa (1856). 
 
 Cummins, Maria Susanna {b. 1827, d. 
 1866), American novelist, wrote The Lamp- 
 lighter (1854), Haunted Hearts (1841), and 
 other novels. 
 
 Cunard, Sir Samuel {b. 1787, d. 1865), 
 bom at Halifax, Nova Scotia, founder of 
 the Cunard line of Atlantic steamers, which 
 in 1840 was started in accordance with a, 
 Government contract. 
 
 Cunningham, Allan {b. 1791, d. 1839), 
 botanist, collected specimens from South 
 America, Australia, and New Zealand for 
 the gardens at Kew. 
 
 Cunningham, AUan (b. 1784, d. 1842), 
 Scottish man of letters, of peasant paren- 
 tage, after serving an apprenticeship to a 
 stonemason, and palming off some literary 
 forgeries on Croniek, published in Nithsdale 
 and Galloway Song, came to London in 
 1810, and in 1814 was engaged by Chantrey 
 as clerk and overseer in his studio. Be- 
 sides ballads and lyrics, he wrote Lives oj 
 the English Painters, etc. 
 
 Cunningham, Rev. John (5. 1819), di- 
 vine, studied under Sir W. Hamilton, 
 Dr. Chalmers, and others; m 1845 was 
 ordained minister of the parish of Crieff ; 
 has written The Church History of Scotland, 
 etc., and contributed articles to the Edin- 
 burgh Review, and other periodicals. In 
 1886 he was appointed moderator of the 
 General Assembly. 
 
 Cunningham, Peter (b. 1816, d. 1869), man 
 of letters, was chief clerk in the Audit 
 Office- wrote a Handbook of London {\M9), 
 Life of Imgo Jones (1848), Memoir of Tur- 
 fier (1852), etc.
 
 Cnr 
 
 (232 ) 
 
 Cza 
 
 Cureton, William, F.E.S. (4. 1808, d. 
 1864), diviue aud Orieutalist, sub-librarian 
 of the Bodleian library, and afterwards 
 assistant-keeper of mauuscripts in the Bri- 
 tish Museum; published the Syriac versions 
 of The J'.pistles of Ignatius, which excited a 
 warm controversy in England and Germany. 
 
 CurU, Edmund {b. 1675, d. 1747), book- 
 seller and publisher, famous through his 
 connection with Pope, who ridiculed him in 
 the Dunciad. 
 
 Curran, John Philpot (b. 1750, d. 1817), 
 Irish politician, of humble birth, educated 
 at Trinity College, Dublin, was in 1775 
 called to the Irish bar, where he won a 
 high reputation as an orator ; opposed the 
 Union in the Irish parliament; in 1808 
 was made Master of the Eolls in Ireland. 
 
 Curtius, Ernst {b. 1814), Greek scholar 
 and historian : studied at Bonn, Got- 
 tingen, and Berlin, and was professor at 
 Gottingen (1856) and Berlin. He first 
 visited Greece in 1837 ; in 1864 he began 
 his excavations at Oljnnpia, resulting in the 
 discovery of the Hermes and Dionysius 
 by Praxiteles (1877). Among his works are 
 The Acropolis of Athens (1844), Attic 
 Studies (1862), The Discovery of Olympia 
 (1882), and his History of Greece. 
 
 Curtius, George {b. 1820, d. 1885), philolo- 
 gist, brother of the preceding, studied at 
 Bonn and Berlin; became professor of 
 classical philology at Prague in 1849; has 
 written Comparative Grammar in its Mela- 
 Hon to Classical Philology (1845), etc. 
 
 Curwen, John {b. 1816, d. 1880), writer 
 on music and advocate of the Tonic Sol-fa 
 system. 
 
 Cusa, Nicolas de (b. 1401, d. 1464), divine, 
 employed by Eugenius IV. in his efforts to 
 imite the Greek and Latin churches, was 
 afterwards made Cardinal and Bishop of 
 Brixen. 
 
 Cushing, Caleb {b. 1800, d. 1879), Ameri- 
 can lawyer and diplomatist, in 1843 nego- 
 tiated the first treaty of the United States 
 with China ; was attorney- general from 
 1853 to 1857, and one of three jurists 
 entrusted with the revision of the laws of 
 Congress (1866) ; in 1872 he was one of the 
 counsel for the settlement of the Alabama 
 claims. 
 
 Cuthbert, St. (d. 687), originally a 
 shepherd boy, became a monk at Melrose, 
 and was prior of that monastery, and af ter- 
 wa,rds (664-76) of that of Lindisf ame. After 
 living for some time as a hermit on Fame 
 Island, he was consecrated bishop of Lindis- 
 f ame in 684, but returned to the island in 686. 
 
 Cuvier, Georges, Baron (i. 1769, d. 1832). 
 
 French naturalist, bom at Montbeliard, 
 patronised by Charles, Duke of Wiirtembeig, 
 who sent him to the academy of Stuttgart 
 (1784) ; from 1788 to 1794 studied zoology 
 while holding a tutorship near Caen, and 
 conceived the idea of a new classification of 
 animals based on a comparison of fossils 
 with living species. By the advice of the 
 Abbe Tenier he went to Paris, where he 
 held various professorships, and wrote 
 Memoires sur une Nouvelle Division des 
 Manimiferes (conjointly with Saint -Hilaire), 
 Tableau Elementaire de PHistoire Naturelle 
 des Animaux (1798), etc. He was much 
 employed by Napoleon, especially in pro- 
 moting education ; Louis XVIII. made him 
 grand-master of the faculties of Protes- 
 tant theology. Just before his death he 
 bicame minister of the interior. 
 
 Cuyp, Albert {b. 1605, d. 1691), son of 
 Jacob, also a well-known painter. 
 
 Cuyp, Jacol) Gemtee {b. 1575, d. 1649), 
 Dutch portrait and genre painter. 
 
 Cyprian, St. {b. circa 200, d. 258), saint 
 and theologian, was baptized in 246, and in 
 248 became Bishop of Carthage and Primate 
 of Africa. He hid himself during the Decian 
 persecution, but was beheaded in that under 
 Valerian. He held many councils, and de- 
 cided against the validity of baptism ad- 
 ministered by heretics. 
 
 Cj^ril, St. (d. 444), patriarch of Alexandria 
 (412), was a violent and headstrong man, 
 whose rule was marked by the persecution 
 of the Novatians, the expulsion of the Jews, 
 the murder of Hypatia, and the condemna- 
 tion of Nestorius, in consequence of which he 
 was imprisoned by the Emperor Theodosius. 
 
 Cyrus the Great {b. circa 590 b.c, d. 
 529 B.C.), founder of the Persian empire, 
 was the son of Cambyses and Mandane, 
 daughter of Astyages, king of Media. His 
 early history is probably mythical; in B.C. 
 559 he excited the Persians against the 
 Medes, defeated Astyages, and usurped his 
 throne. He subsequently conquered Lydia 
 and Babylon, and marched against the 
 Massegatse, governed by Queen Tomyris, 
 by whom he was defeated and slain. 
 
 Cyrus the Younger (b, 424 b.c., d. 401), 
 eon of Darius, and governor of the western 
 provinces of Asia Minor ; after unsuccessfully 
 plotting against his elder brother Artaxerxes, 
 raised a large army, including about 12,000 
 Greek soldiers, with which he marched 
 against him, but was defeated and slain at 
 Cunaxa. Xenophon then conducted the 
 retreat of the 10,000 surviving Greeks. 
 
 CzacM, Tadeusz (fi. 1765, d. 1813), a Pole, 
 minister of King Stanislas Poniatowski, 
 wrote on history, law, and politics, ana 
 made educational reforms.
 
 Cza 
 
 ( 233) 
 
 Dag 
 
 CzamiecM, Stephen (b. 1599, d. 1665), a 
 Polish soldier, distinguished himself agamst 
 the Cossacks (1648-51), defended Cracow 
 against the Swedes (1655), commanded the 
 army sent to assist the King of Denmark 
 against Sweden, and drove the Lithuanians 
 from Russia in 1660 and 1661. 
 
 CzaxtorysM, Adam Casimir (Jb. 1734, d. 
 1823), a Pole who, as president of the 
 Diet of Warsaw, was mainly instrumental 
 in procuring the election of King Stanislaus 
 Augustus ; he was named marshal of the 
 Diet of 1812, but the following year with- 
 drew into private life. 
 
 CzartorysM, Adam George {fi. 1110, d. 
 
 1861), son of the preceding; joined the 
 force of Kosciusko against the Russians in 
 1792 ; was sent as hostage to Russia in 1795, 
 and won the favour of Duke Alexander, 
 who, on his accession, made him minister of 
 foreign affairs. Taking the popular side 
 in the revolution of 1830, he was appointed 
 president of the provisional government, 
 and placed at the head of the national 
 government (1831). In 1832 he fled to 
 Paris. 
 
 Czemy, Karl {b. 1791, d. 1857), Austrian 
 pianist and composer, taught music at 
 Vienna, numbering Liszt and Dohler 
 among his pupila. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dabelow, Christopher Christian (J. 1768, 
 d. 1830), German jurisconsult, professor of 
 civil law at the imiversity of Dierpt. His 
 treatises on law are valuable. 
 
 Dach, JoTm (i. 1566, d. 1650), German 
 painter, a proteg^ of Rudolph 11. 
 
 Dacier, Andre {h. 1651, d. 1722), French 
 classical writer of eminence, was made per- 
 petual secretary of the French Academy in 
 1713, and had the care of the cabinet of the 
 Louvre entrusted to him. He translated 
 many of the classics into French. 
 
 Dacier, Anne (Lefevre) (S. 1654, d. 1720), 
 wife of the foregoing, was distinguished for 
 her love of classical literature, in which she 
 obtained great proficiency at an early age. 
 
 Da Costa, Isaac {b. 1798, d. 1860), Dutch 
 poet of Je\yish nationality, studied at 
 Leyden, and after he had received the 
 degree of doctor of philosophy, he embraced 
 Christianity. He is considered to hold a 
 foremost place among the poets of Holland. 
 
 Dade, WilUam {b. 1740, d. 1790), York- 
 shire antiquary, whose father and grand- 
 father were clergymen, was himself in 
 holy orders. He published many works on 
 antiquarian subjects, principally connected 
 with the county of York. 
 
 Daendels, Hermann Wilhehn {b. 1762, d. 
 1818), Dutch general ; having taken part 
 in revolutionary disturbances in Holland 
 in 1787, was compelled to seek refuge in 
 France, where for important military ser- 
 vices he was made general of brigade. In 
 1799 he commanded one of the two divisions 
 of the army of the Batavian republic, and in 
 1806 he took service under Louis Bonaparte, 
 
 king of Holland. From 1808 till 1811 was 
 Governor- General of the Dutch East Indian 
 possessions. After the overthrow of Bona- 
 parte the new King of Holland entrusted 
 hi-m veith the organisation of the Dutch 
 colonies on the coast of Africa, where he 
 died. 
 
 Daffome, James {d. 1880), for thirty-five 
 years a voluminous art-writer. 
 
 D' Agar, Jacques (6. 1640, d. 1716), painter, 
 of French nationality, spent the greater part 
 of his life in Copenhagen, where he died. 
 He was for some years in London, and re- 
 ceived much aristocratic patronage in the 
 reign of Queen Anne. 
 
 D'Agincourt, Jean Baptiste Louis George 
 Sereux {b. 1730, d. 1814), French antiquary 
 and art historian. 
 
 Dagobert I., son of Clothaire II. {b. 602, 
 d. 638) , succeeded him ia 628 in the Frankish 
 monarchy. He sustained war against the 
 Saxons from England, the Vascones of the 
 Pyrenees, the Sclavonians, and the Bretons. 
 He obliged the prince of Brittany to give 
 him satisfaction for incursions, and he 
 granted refuge to the Bulgarians, who were 
 flying before the Huns ; but soon after, 
 fearing that these guests might become too 
 powerful for him, he gave orders to have 
 them all massacred, when in one night ten 
 thousand families were put to the sword. 
 
 Dagobert U., son of Siegbert n. and 
 grandson of Dagobert I., was shut up in a 
 convent after his father's death in 656 by the 
 maire of the palace, who gave the crown to 
 his own son. Dagobert was sent to Scot- 
 land, and the report of his death was 
 spread. He married Matilda, a Scottish
 
 Dag 
 
 (234) 
 
 Dal 
 
 princesa, and was eventually acknowledged 
 king of Austrasia. In 679 he was assassi- 
 nated by the Grimwald faction. 
 
 Dagobert in. {b. 699, d. 715) succeeded 
 his father, Childebert III., in 711 as king of 
 France. 
 
 Dagoumer, Guillaume {d. 1745), rector 
 of the university of Paris, and author of 
 
 philosophical works. 
 
 Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande {b. 1789, 
 d. 1S5I), the inventor of photography by the 
 daguerreotype process, by which the por- 
 trait was fixed on a plate of copper thinly 
 coated with silver by the successive action 
 of the vapours of iodine, bromine and mer- 
 cury, in which invention he was associated 
 with M. Niepce Daguerre. He was also 
 celebrated as a dioramic painter, was named 
 by the French G-ovemment as an ofRcer of 
 the Legion of Honour, and granted a pen- 
 sion of six thousand francs. 
 
 Daguesseau. \_See Aguesseau.] 
 
 Dahl, Johann Christian Claude (5. 1788, 
 d. 1857), Norwegian landscape painter, and 
 professor of painting at Dresden. 
 
 Dahl, Michael {b. 1656, d. 1743), Swedish 
 portrait painter, who settled in London, and 
 obtained the patronage of royalty and many 
 members of the aristocracy. 
 
 Dahlberg, Eric, Count de (b. 1625, d. 
 1703), general in the German army, called 
 the Vauban of Sweden for his skill in forti- 
 fication. 
 
 Dahlgren, John Adolph {b. 1809, d. 1870), 
 American naval officer, whose father was 
 Swedish consul at Philadelphia. The son 
 worked his way up by extraordinary 
 zeal and energy till he became chief 
 of ordnance, and he received the world's 
 recognition as a man of science and 
 inventive genius. He was the author of 
 m.iny works on the practice of gunnery. 
 Ee was the inventor of the Dahlgren gun, 
 bionze howitzers for boats, and Hght iron 
 field carriages to make them available on 
 land. 
 
 Dahlgren, Karl Fredrik Q>. 1794, d. 1844), 
 Swedish poet and humorist, from 1815 
 acted as preacher at Stockholm. His works 
 fiU five volumes (1847-52), and consist of 
 novels, humorous tales, poems, and dramas. 
 
 Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph (A. 1785, 
 d. 1860), German historian and politician. 
 Though of Swedish nationality, he directed 
 the whole influence of his life towards Ger- 
 many. After spending some years in poli- 
 tical pursuits in Schleswig-Holstein, which 
 brought him much trouble, he lived in 
 Gottingen and Bonn, taking a large share 
 in the political affairs of the time. 
 
 Dahomey, Kings of — 
 
 (1) Ukzo {d. 1858), succeeded Gaze, his 
 brother, who abdicated in 1818. He was 
 warlike, but not unfavourable to Euro- 
 peans. Was visited by Commander Forbes 
 in 1849, and again in 1851. He left behind 
 him some renown for bravery, though he 
 was defeated by the people of the indepen- 
 dent settlement of Abeokuta. 
 
 (2) Gelele (b. 1820), succeeded his father 
 in 1858. At the "grand customs" in 
 honour of his father he massacred about 
 five hundred men. In 1862 he is said to 
 have crucified Doherty, a Scripture reader. 
 He, too, was defeated by the Abeokutans. 
 In 1876 he severely treated some European 
 traders, which caused a rupture with Eng- 
 land, but in 1877 he made concessions. 
 
 Daill6, Pierre (fi. 1649, d. 1715), a French 
 Protestant divine, who emigrated to 
 America. He wrote several important 
 works, which were translated into Latin 
 and English. 
 
 Daintree, Richard {b. 1831, d. 1878), 
 geologist, who spent his whole life in the 
 exploration of various parts of Australia, of 
 which he published complete and valuable 
 results. 
 
 Dakins, "WUliam (d. 1607), one of the 
 divines employed in the authorised transla- 
 tion of the Bible. 
 
 Dalberg, Carl Theodore Anton Maria von 
 {b. 1744, d. 1817), Elector and Archbishop of 
 Mayence, Prince-primate of the Confedera- 
 tion of the Rhine, grand-duke of Frank- 
 fort, and Archbishop of Ratisbon. He was 
 distinguished for great industry and an in- 
 corruptible love of justice. He was the 
 author of several works on various subjects, 
 and finally, in 1813, resigned all his offices, 
 with the exception of his ecclesiastical 
 dignity, and retired into private life. 
 
 D'Albert, Eugene {b. 1861), son of Charles 
 D'Albert (J. 1815), educated at the National 
 Training School, South Kensington, widely 
 known as a pianist and composer. 
 
 D'Albret, Jeanne, Queen of Navarre {b. 
 1528, d. 1572), who became a Protestant, 
 and died suddenly before the massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew, and is supposed to have 
 been poisoned. 
 
 Dalby, Isaac {b. 1744, d. 1824), a self- 
 taught mathematician, employed on the 
 trigonometrical survey of England, and in 
 1799 professor of mathematics at the Royal 
 Military College, High Wycombe. 
 
 Dale, David (*. 1739, d. 1806), Scottish 
 merchant and philanthropist. 
 
 Dale, Thomas {b. 1797, d. 1870), poet and 
 divine, was Dean of Rochester, held the
 
 Dal 
 
 (235) 
 
 Dal 
 
 chair of English language and literature in 
 the University of London, and afterwards 
 at King's College. He was for several 
 years vicar of St. Bride's, Fleet Street, and 
 afterwards of St. Pancras. He published 
 some volumes of poetry, a translation of 
 Sophocles' sennons, and an edition of the 
 works of Cowper. 
 
 Dalechamp, Jacques (b. 1513, d. 1588), 
 French physician and writer on botany. 
 
 D'Alembert, Jean le Eond. [See Alem- 
 bert.] 
 
 Dalhousie, George Eamsay, Earl of {b. 
 1770, d. 1838), served in Egypt and Spain, 
 and was created a peer of the United King- 
 dom in 1815, became captain -general of 
 British North America till 1828, and then 
 served in India as commander-in-chief. 
 
 Dalhousie, James Andrew Brown-Ram- 
 say, third son of the above, and first Mar- 
 quis {b. 1812, d. 1860), vice-president of the 
 Board of Trade 1843, president 1845, Gover- 
 nor-General of India 1848. He success- 
 fully conducted the Sikh war, which was 
 terminated by the battle of Gujerat, and 
 the annexation of the Pimjab (1849). He 
 directed the second Burmese war (1852) and 
 added Pegu to British India. He also 
 annexed Nagpore (1853), Berar and Sattara, 
 and Oudh (1856). He threw open the Civil 
 Service to Hindoos, instituted great public 
 works, introduced railways and telegraphs, 
 opened out canals and roads, created a 
 legislative council and the lieutenant- 
 governorshrp of Bengal. Ill-health and 
 ^ief caused by his wife's death (1853) 
 induced him to return to England in 1856. 
 He was the last governor-general under the 
 Company. 
 
 Dalin, Olaf von (b. 1708, d. 1763), his- 
 torian and poet, is reckoned the father 
 of Swedish poetry. He died chancellor to 
 the court of Sweden. Author of The 
 Liberty of Sweden and Brunhilda. 
 
 Dallamano, Giuseppe {b. 1679, d. 1758), 
 Italian painter. 
 
 Dallas, Alexander James (d. 1759, d. 
 1817), American lawyer and statesman, 
 was the son of a Scottish physician 
 who emigrated to Jamaica about 1750. 
 He served the United States in various 
 ways, his principal office being Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury, in which he was 
 of great service. He was considered by his 
 abilities to have extricated the United States 
 Government from very serious difficulty 
 and debt, caused by the war with the Bri- 
 tish Government. He published various 
 works, and left unfinished a History of 
 Fennsylvania. 
 
 Dallas. Sir George, Bart. (*. 1758, d. 
 
 1833), in the civil service of the East 
 India Company ; was a voluminous poUtical 
 writer, and was much distinguished by his 
 able defence of Warren Hastings. 
 
 Dallas, George Mifflin {b. 1792, d. 1864), 
 president of the United States 1844, and 
 American statesman and diplomatist, born 
 at Philadelphia, was elected to the Senate 
 in 1831. In 1846, as President of the 
 Senate, he gave a casting vote against a 
 measure opposed to Free Trade. He waa 
 minister at St. Petersburg 1837-1841, to the 
 court of St. James's 1856-1861, and retired 
 from public life on the election of President 
 Lincoln. 
 
 Dallas, Robert Charles, brother of Alexan- 
 der James (b. 1754, d. 1824), author of Recol. 
 lections of Lord Byron and other works, 
 and a friend and counsellor of Lord Byron, 
 whose uncle, Captain Byron, married his 
 sister. 
 
 Dallaway, James {b. 1763, d. 1834), 
 divine, chaplain to the British Embassy at 
 Constantinople, and subsequently held two 
 vicarages in England, and the post of 
 secretary to the Earl Marshal. He is 
 chiefly known as an author. 
 
 DaUing and Bulwer. [See Bulwer.] 
 
 Dal 11 Tiger, WilUam Henry, LL.D., 
 F.R.S. {b. 1841), English biologist, en- 
 tered the Wesleyan ministry in 1861. He 
 worked out, by microscopical research, the 
 Ufe histories of the minute forms of life. 
 His earliest work was rewarded by a grant 
 of £100 from the Royal Society for further 
 research. 
 
 Dallison, Sir William (d. 1558-9), English 
 lawyer, Lord Chief Justice of the Queen'a 
 Bench under Queen Mary and Queen Eliza- 
 beth. 
 
 Dalmatius, Saint, archimandrite of the 
 monastery of Constantinople, took part in 
 the CouncU of Ephesus in 430. 
 
 Dalrymple. [See Stair.] 
 
 Dalrymple, Alexander (*. 1737, d. 1808), 
 hydrographer to the East India Com- 
 pany in 1779, and to the Admiralty in 
 1795, was author of works on geography and 
 hydrography, and was a f eUow of the Royal 
 Society. 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir David. [See Hailes.] 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir Hew Whiteford (b. 1750, 
 d. 1830), served under the Duke of York in 
 1793. Commanded in Guernsey in 1806, 
 and took the command in Portugal in 1808. 
 His convention with Junot was much 
 censured. 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir John (S. 1726, d. 1810), a
 
 Dal 
 
 ( 236 ) 
 
 Dan 
 
 baron of exchequer in Scotland in 1776. He 
 was author of several works, the chief of 
 which was the Memoirs of Great Britain 
 and Ireland. 
 
 Dalrymple, John, F.R.S. (b. 1803, d. 1852), 
 ocohst, now chiefly known as the author of 
 a valuable Essay on the Anatomy of the 
 Sitmun Eye, 
 
 Dalton, John, D.D. (b. 1709, d. 1763), 
 many years rector of St. Mary-at-Hill, 
 London, in his earlier years was tutor 
 to Lord Beauchamp, with whom he 
 travelled tiU his lordship died in Italy. He 
 adapted Comus for the stage, and wrote 
 songs in it, and it was performed for 
 the benefit of Milton's granddaughter. He 
 was also author of some poems and a volume 
 of sermons. 
 
 Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. {b. 1766, 
 d. 1844), natural philosopher, one of the 
 founders of modem chemistry, early in 
 life settled in Manchester. His scientific 
 discoveries, notably his Atomic Theory, 
 brought him the gold medal of the Royal 
 Society. A Life of Dalton, by Lonsdale, 
 appeared in 1874. He was a member of the 
 Society of Friends. 
 
 Daly, Augustin (b. 1838), American 
 dramatist and editor, has written many 
 successful plays, and for several seasons 
 managed the Grand Opera in New York. 
 His company of comedians has more than 
 once travelled with him to England, Ger- 
 many, and France. 
 
 Dalzell, Andrew (5. 1742, d. 1806), clas- 
 sical scholar, one of the founders of the 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh, and one of its 
 secretaries. His works are volimiinous. 
 
 Damasus L (d. 384), the son of a pres- 
 byter, was elected Bishop of Rome after the 
 death of Liberius in 366. Great disorders 
 prevailed during the greater part of his rule. 
 He held several councils for the purpose of 
 condemning heretics ; and St. Jerome is 
 said to have acted as his secretary. 
 
 Damasus II., Poppo, Bishop of Brixen, 
 was elected pope in the year 1048, in the 
 room of Benedict IX., who had been 
 deposed by the council of Sutri for his mis- 
 conduct. He died at Palestrina, only 
 twenty-three days after his election, Leo IX. 
 succeeding. 
 
 D'Amboise. \See Amboise.J 
 
 Darner, the Hon. Anne Seymour [b. 1748, 
 d. 1828), sculptress, daughter of Field- 
 Marshal Conway. She was married to the 
 Hon. John Damer, who left her a widow 
 wdt^iout chUda-en. Amongst the best-known 
 of her works is a bust of Lord Nelson 
 in the Guildhall, London, a statue of 
 
 George III. in the Register Ofiice at Edin- 
 burgh, and a bust of Sir Joseph Banks in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 Damin, Christian Tobias (b. 1699, d. 1778), 
 scholar and theologian, rector of the aca- 
 demy of Berlin, and compiler of a lexicon to 
 Homer and Pindar. He was displaced in 
 1764 on a charge of Socinianism, founded 
 on his translation of the New Testament. 
 
 Damini, Pietro (6. 1592, d. 1630), Italian 
 painter. 
 
 Damon, a distinguished physician of 
 Athens, celebrated also as a Sophist. Late 
 in life he was banished from Athens for his 
 political opinions. 
 
 Dampier, "William (J. 1652, d. 1715), 
 English navigator and hydrographer ; in 
 1679 he joined a party of buccaneers, who 
 crossed the Isthmus of Darien, captured 
 several Spanish vessels, and molested the 
 settlements. In 1684 he made a voyage to 
 the East Indies, from which he returned to 
 England in 1691, and pubUshed A Voyage 
 Round the World. In the service of the 
 government he conducted in 1669 an expe- 
 dition to the South Seas, exploring the 
 western coast of Australia, and other parts 
 of the southern hemisphere. He retirmed 
 home in 1701, and the rest of his life was 
 passed in obscurity. 
 
 Dana, Francis, LL.D. (b. 1743, d. 1811), 
 American statesman and jurist. He was 
 the father of the poet. 
 
 Dana, James Dwight, LL.D. (6. 1813), 
 American naturalist and geologist, pub- 
 lished many valuable works, extending 
 from 1837 to 1872. 
 
 Dana, Richard Henry {b. 1787, d. 1879), 
 American poet and novelist, author of The 
 Buccaneer and other works. 
 
 Dana, Richard Henry {h. 1815, d. 1882), 
 American lawyer and author, son of the 
 preceding, entered Harvard College in 
 1832, but suspended his studies in 1834 
 from weakness of the eyes, and then 
 performed as a common sailor a voy- 
 age to CaUfomia, of which he wrote an 
 interesting and popular narrative, entitled 
 Two Years Before the Mast (1840). He 
 graduated at Harvard in 1837, studied law 
 under Judge Story, and was admitted to the 
 bar. He pubUshed works on seamanship 
 and international law. He was one of the 
 founders of the Free Soil party iu 1848, and 
 an orator of the Republican party. 
 
 Danby, Francis, A.R.A. {b. 1793, d. 
 
 1861), landscape painter, produced many 
 works of high character. His Opening of 
 the Seventh Seal, exhibited ia 1828 at the 
 British Institution, brought him a prize of
 
 Dan 
 
 (237) 
 
 Daoi 
 
 £200. In 1829 a difference with the 
 Academy and other reasons led to his leaving 
 England for eleven years, during which he 
 painted little. On his return he took up his 
 residence at Exmouth, where he died, 
 leaving three sons, aU landscape painters. 
 
 Danby, Henry Danvers, first Earl of (b. 
 1573, d. 1643-4), served iu the Low Countries 
 under Maurice Prince of Orange, and after- 
 wards in France, where he was knighted hy 
 Henry IV., and next in Ireland as 
 lieutenant-general. He was made a peer by 
 James I., and appointed Lord President 
 of Mimster and Governor of Gruemsey. 
 Charles I. made him Earl of Danby and 
 Knight of the Garter. He gave land to 
 the University of Oxford for a botanical 
 garden, and at Malmesbury to establish an 
 almshouse and free school. 
 
 Danby, John (d. 1798), English composer 
 of glees which attained great popularity. 
 
 Danby, Thomas Osborne, Earl of. [See 
 Leeds.] 
 
 Dance, Charles (b. 1794, d. 1863), a writer 
 of burlesques and farces. 
 
 Dance, George (b. 1700, d. 1768), archi- 
 tect, designer of the Mansion House (1739) 
 and many other pubUc buildings. 
 
 Dance, George, R.A. (*. 1741, d. 1825), 
 son of the preceding, rebuilt Newgate 
 (1770-83) , and waa one of the original Eoyal 
 Academicians. 
 
 Dancer, Daniel (b. 1716, d. 1794), miser, 
 of whom many extraordinary stories are 
 related. He bequeathed the whole of 
 his property to Lady Tempest, who had 
 relieved him imder apparent necessity. 
 
 Dancbet, Antoine (6. 1671, d. 1748), 
 French poet, 
 
 Danckerts, a family of Dutch artists. 
 ComeHus {b. 1561) was a celebrated engraver 
 at Antwerp. His son, Danckert Danckerts 
 {b. 1600), excelled his father. John Danc- 
 kerts, a member of the family, came to 
 England and designed plates for Juvenal, 
 which were engraved by Hollar. Henry 
 Danckerts, his brother, came to England as 
 engraver and landscape painter, and was 
 employed by King Charles II. Justus 
 Danckerts was a designer and engraver, at 
 Amsterdam ; and Cornelius Danckerts was 
 an esteemed architect. His son, Peter, was 
 a painter. 
 
 Dancourt, Floreut Carton (b. 1661, 
 d. 1726), brought up to the bar, which he 
 abandoned for the stage, for which he was 
 a prolific writer. 
 
 Dandini, Caesar {b. 1595, d. 1658), a Floren- 
 tine painter. Vincent Dandini (6. 1607), his 
 
 brother, was held in great estunation as an 
 historical painter. Pietro Dandini {b. 1646, 
 d. 1712), a nephew, was also a painter. 
 
 Dandini, Jerome (*. 1554, d. 1634), an 
 Italian Jesuit of note in the time of 
 Clement VUI. 
 
 Dandolo, Andrea (*. 1310, d. 1354), Doge 
 of Venice, lost his life in a war between 
 the Venetians and the Genoese. He was 
 a friend of Petrarch, and wrote the 
 Chronicles of Venice. 
 
 Dandolo, Enrico {b. 1108, d. 1205), was 
 elected Doge of Venice at the age of eighty- 
 four. He undertook with the Crusaders the 
 siege of Constantinople in 1203, at which, 
 notwithstanding age and infirmity, he 
 greatly distinguished himself. 
 
 Daneau, Lambert (*. 1530, d. 1596), a 
 French Protestant divine, who fled in 1572 
 to Geneva, where he was appointed to the 
 chair of theology. He filled a similar post 
 at Leyden, and in 1593 was called as minister 
 to Castres. 
 
 Danes, Pierre {b. 1497, d. 1577), French 
 scholar and divine, professor of Greek at the 
 Royal College, represented France at the 
 council of Trent in 1545. 
 
 Danet, Pierre {b. 1640, d. 1709), a rector 
 of Paris, presented in 1674 to the abbacy of 
 St. Nicholas, in Verdim. He is known 
 principally by his Latin and French Dic- 
 tionary, and a French dictionary of Greek 
 and Roman antiquities, and was one of the 
 persons selected to prepare the Delphin 
 editions of the classics. 
 
 Dangeau, Louis de Courcillon de {b. 1643, 
 d. 1723), French ecclesiastic and man of 
 letters, son of the Marquis de Dangeau. His 
 works were numerous on the subjects of 
 history, grammar, and geography, and he 
 also wrote Dialogues on the Immortality of 
 the Soul. 
 
 Dangeau, Philippe de Courcillon, Mar- 
 quis de (*. 1638, d. 1720), brother of the 
 preceding, was a favourite at the court of 
 Louis XIV. for his many accomplishmeuts, 
 and his taste for literature procured him a 
 seat in the French Academy and in that of 
 the sciences. He left a voluminous diary, 
 the Journal de Dangeau. 
 
 Danican, Francois Andr€ (b. 1727, d. 1795), 
 better known as Philidor, musician, com- 
 poser, and noted chess-player. 
 
 Daniel, Amaud {d. circa 1189), Pro- 
 ven(jal poet and troubadour. His poems 
 were imitated by Petrarch, and Dante 
 speaks favourably of him. 
 
 Daniel, Edward, D.D. {d. 1657), the first 
 scholar sent out from Douay. For six years
 
 Dan 
 
 (238) 
 
 Dan 
 
 was president of tlie Euglish College at 
 Lisbou. Author of Aleditations and a folio 
 volume of controversies. 
 
 Daniel, Gabriel (b. 1649, d. 1728), 
 French liistorian and Jesuit. Louis XIV. 
 appointed him historiographer of the 
 kingdom, mth a pension of 2,000 francs. 
 
 Daniel, Pierre {b. 1530, d. 1603), 
 French antiquary and advocate, in 1562, 
 when the abbey of St. Benoit-sur-Loire was 
 pillaged, he saved valuable MSS., some of 
 which he published, and he prepared an 
 edition of I'etroniits, but it was not brought 
 out in his lifetime. 
 
 Daniel, Robert Mackenzie (b. 1814, 
 d. 1847), litterateur, wrote The Scottish 
 Heiress, The Gravedigger, The Young TFidow, 
 The Yotmg Baronet, and The Cardinal's 
 Daughter. 
 
 Daniel, Samuel {b. 1562, d. 1619), 
 EngUsh poet and historian. His fame 
 stands higher as an historian of the Civil 
 Wars of the Roses than as a poet. 
 
 Daniel, William Barker {b. 1787, d. 1833), 
 author and divine, who died within the 
 rules of the King's Bench, where he had 
 been coniined for twenty years. He was 
 author of Rural Sports (four volumes) , and 
 Plain Thoughts of Former Years upon the 
 Lord's Prayer, with Bcfcrence addressed to 
 Christians at the Present Period. 
 
 DanieU, John Frederick, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
 
 (b. 1790, d. 1845), natural philosopher, 
 his greatest work. Meteorological Essays, 
 appeared in 1823 ; he also published 
 an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy, 
 and supplied a number of contributions 
 to scientific journals. He was appointed in 
 1821 professor of chemistry in King's Col- 
 lege, London, and devoted himself chiefly 
 to the study of voltaic electricity. 
 
 Daniell, Samuel {d. 1811), English scenic 
 artist. 
 
 Daniell, Thomas {b. 1750, d. 1840), 
 English artist. His works were published 
 in six folio volumes. 
 
 Daniell, William, R.A. (6. 1769, d. 
 1857), English artist, nephew of above. 
 Many of his works were in the six volumes 
 pubUshed by his uncle. He published a 
 number of other works between 1814 and 
 1825. 
 
 Damlo I., Pietrovitch Niegosch {b. 1826, 
 d. 1860_), Prince of Montenegro, succeeded 
 his uncle in 1851. He effected various 
 reforms, but was checked by a war 
 with Turkey. He was assassinated at 
 Cattaro, leaving his throne to his nephew 
 Nicholas. 
 
 Dannecker, Johann Heinrich (6. 1758, d. 
 1841), one of the most eminent of modem 
 sculptors, was the son of an ostler at 
 Stuttgart. In 1775 he gained the friend- 
 ship of Schiller, whose bust in the Weimar 
 mut-eum is his best-remembered work. In 
 17^5 he visited Rome, and in 1790 was ap- 
 pointed professor of sculpture at Stuttgart. 
 In 1816 he produced his celebrated Ariadne 
 on the Pantlier. 
 
 Dante Alighieri (J. 1265, d. 1321), Italian 
 poet, was born at Florence. Of his early 
 days httle is known, till, as related in his 
 ^'lta Nuova, he first met "the lady of his 
 heart, Beatrice." According to Boccaccio, 
 she was the daughter of Folco Portinari, 
 and married Simone de Bardi, and to her 
 Dante was passionately but platonically 
 attached. She died in 1290, and shortly 
 afterwards Dante married Gemma Donati, 
 a daughter of one of the "Guelph" 
 families. In 1289 he fought at Campaldino, 
 and was present at the surrender of Caprona. 
 After filling various minor offices, in 1300 
 he became one of the six priors of Florence. 
 In 1301 he went as arubassador to Pope 
 Boniface VIII., and never returned to his 
 native town. Charles of Valois aided the 
 Neri or Black Guelphs against their op- 
 ponents, the Whites, of whom Dante was a 
 supporter, and in 1302 he was banished. 
 He made many unsuccessful attempts to 
 return, and spent the remainiug years of his 
 life wandering from town to town, finally 
 settling in Ravenna, where he died. His 
 most celebrated work is the Divina Commedia, 
 and others are the Vita Ifuova, the Convito, 
 and the Canzoniere. 
 
 Danton, George Jacques {h. 1759, d. 1794), 
 French revolutionist, was educated for the 
 bar, and became a follower of Mirabeau. 
 With Marat and Camille Desmoulins he 
 foimded the cordeliers' club. In 1791 he 
 headed the meeting at the Champ de Mars 
 advocating the dethronement of Louis, and 
 after the king's fall became minister of jus- 
 tice. With Marat and Robespierre, he was 
 at the head of the Jacobinical party in the 
 National Convention. In 1793 he set up 
 the " extraordinary criminal tribunal," and 
 as president of the "Committee of Public 
 Safety " tried to crush the Girondists. He 
 lost ground through his opposition to the 
 guillotine, quarrelled with Robespierre, and 
 was brought before the revolutionary tri- 
 bunal and sentenced to death. 
 
 Dantz, Johann Andreas {b. 1654, d. 1727), 
 Orientalist, and a divine of the Lutheran 
 church, author of a Hebrew grammar, a 
 Chaldee grammar, and several works on 
 biblical subjects. 
 
 Dantzi, Franz (*. 1763, d. 1826), com- 
 poser and performer on the violoncello. He
 
 Dau 
 
 (239) 
 
 Dar 
 
 produced several operas, including the Mid- 
 night Sour and Iphigenia. He also pro- 
 duced a great quantity of instrumental 
 music, and some compositions for the service 
 of the Church. 
 
 Danvers, Henry. [See Danby.] 
 
 D'Anville. {See Anville.] 
 
 Daoud Pacha (d. 1623), a celebrated grand- 
 vizier, brother-in-law of Mustaphal., whom 
 he replaced on the throne of Constantinople 
 in 1622, deposing and killing Othman II., 
 the usurper. He himself was executed a 
 twelvemonth later. 
 
 D'Arblay, Francesca Bumey (i. 1762, 
 d. 1840), English novelist, was the third 
 child of Dr. Charles Bumey. From the age 
 of eighteen to twenty- six she worked at 
 Evelina, which appeared anonymously in 
 1778, and won her fame, and the admiration 
 and friendship of Dr. Johnson. Cecilia 
 (1782) was not so successful ; but her works 
 gained her a position at the court in 1786, 
 and in her Diary she gives a graphic de- 
 scription of its decorous dulness. In 1793 
 she married General D'Arblay, a French 
 refugee. Her later works are Camille (1796), 
 The Wanderer (1814), and the Memoirs of 
 her father. 
 
 Darboy, Georges {b. 1813, d. 1871), 
 French ecclesiastic. Bishop of Nancy 1859, 
 Archbishop of Paris 1863, was an opposer of 
 the doctrine of Papal infallibility. He was 
 shot by the Commune. 
 
 D'Atc, Jeanne. [See Joan of Arc] 
 
 Darcet, Jean {b. 1727, d. 1801), French 
 chemist and physician, befriended by Mon- 
 tesquieu. He contributed greatly to the 
 progress of chemical science. 
 
 Darcet, John Peter Joseph {b. 1787), 
 French chemist, bom in Paris. His father 
 (the above) held the oiiice of director-general 
 of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, and 
 his grandfather was the celebrated Eouelle, 
 the restorer of chemistry in France. In his 
 twenty-fourth year he was made assayer 
 of the mint ; and introduced, among other 
 discoveries, a new process for the prepara- 
 tion of powder on a large scale. His ex- 
 periments led to the establishment of the 
 manxifacture of artificial natron. He ex- 
 tracted alkali from chestnuts, and he in- 
 troduced a process for bleaching linen. 
 One discovery of great importance obtained 
 hinf\ the prize of 3,000 francs which had 
 been provided for the discovery of the means 
 of protection against the fine dust of quick- 
 silver, which had been so unhealthy to the 
 gilders. 
 
 Darcy, Patrick (b. 1603, d. 1668), an active 
 member of the parliament assembled in 
 DubUn in 1640. 
 
 P'Arcy, Patrick, Count (*. 1726, d. 1779); 
 Irish engineer and author, an adherent of 
 the House of Stuart. At seventeen he 
 gave a solution of the curve of equal pres- 
 sure. In 1746 he was taken political prisoner 
 in Ireland, and after that served in the Seven 
 Years' war. He published an Essay on 
 Artillery, a Memoir on the Duration of the 
 Sensation of Sight, and a Memoir on Sy- 
 'draulic Machines. 
 
 Dargan, Edward S., lawyer and jurist of 
 Alabama, U.S., was first a schoolmaster, 
 then studied law. In 1844 was elected 
 mayor of Mobile, and from 1845 to 1847 
 was representative in Congress. He is re- 
 membered as the first proposer of the line 
 of adjustment finally adopted in the set- 
 tlement of the Oregon question with the 
 British Government. He was on his return 
 from Congress elected judge of the supreme 
 court of Alabama. 
 
 Dargan, WUliam (b. 1799, d. 1867), Irish 
 capitalist and railway contractor, was 
 first engaged under Telford in constructing 
 the Holyhead road, after which he returned 
 to Ireland, and embarked in several minor 
 undertakings, and fonned the foimdation 
 of a princely fortune. He was contractor 
 of the DubUn and Kingstown Railway, 
 the first in Ireland, after which there 
 was scarcely a public work in that 
 country with which he was not connected. 
 He was a large holder of railway stock, a 
 steamboat proprietor, a flax-grower, and a 
 farmer. 
 
 D'AxgenvUle, Antoine Joseph DegalUer 
 {b. 1680, d. 1765), French author and 
 member of several learned societies through- 
 out Europe. In 1747 appeared a Treatise 
 on Gardening, and in 1755 the Lives of 
 Famous Painters. He was employed on the 
 Encyclopedie and other works. 
 
 Darius {b. 548, d. 485 B.C.), son of 
 Hystaspes, dethroned Smerdis the usurper, 
 and became king of Persia in 521. He 
 captured Babylon after a siege of twenty 
 months, conquered Thrace, and defeated 
 the Scythians. He sent two armies to 
 Greece to avenge the destruction of Sardis 
 by the Athenians, the fii'st of which was 
 repulsed by the Thracians, and the second 
 by the Athenians at Marathon in 490. He 
 died while organising a third expedition. 
 
 Darius XL {d. 405 B.C.) reigned nineteen 
 years ; sumamed Nothus, being the illegiti- 
 mate son of Artaxerxes I., married Pary- 
 satis, by whom he had two sons, Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon and Cyrus the Younger. 
 
 Darius III. {d. 330 B.C.), last king of 
 the Persians, began his reign in 336. He 
 was defeated at Granicus (334), Issus (333), 
 and Arbela (331) by Alexander the Great,
 
 Dar 
 
 (240 ) 
 
 Das 
 
 and was killed by Bessus, satrap of Bactri- 
 ana. 
 
 Daxling, Grace (b. 1815, d. 1842), the 
 heroiue, was the daughter of the lighthouse 
 keeper on the Fern Islands, near Bam- 
 borough Castle. In September, 1838, the 
 Forfarshire went on the rocks, and with 
 her father she succeeded in rescuing nine of 
 the crew. 
 
 D'Arnaud. {See Arnaud.] 
 
 Damley, Henry Steward, Lord (b. 1546), 
 d. 1567), married Mary, Queen of Scots, 
 July 19th, 1565 ; instigated the murder of 
 Eizzio, and was found dead in the garden 
 of his house, Kirk-of-Field, after it was 
 blown up, probably being killed with fhe 
 consent of the queen. 
 
 Dajquier de Pellepoix, Augustin (Jb. 1718, 
 d. 1802), an eminent French astronomer, 
 and a member of the Institute. 
 
 DarreU, William {d. 1721), an English 
 Jesuit, and president of the CoUege at 
 Liege. He wrote several works of a con- 
 troversial character. 
 
 D'Arrest, Heinrich Ludwig (J. 1822, d. 
 1875), German astronomer, discovered 
 comets in 1844, 1845, 1851, and 1857, and 
 was appointed to the chair of astronomy at 
 Copenhagen. He is best known as the dis- 
 coverer of the planet Freia on October 21st. 
 1862. 
 
 Dartmouth, George Legge, Lord {b. 1648, 
 d. 1691), distiaguished English naval com- 
 mander, at one time governor of Ports- 
 mouth. In 1682 he was raised to the 
 peerage. He was Constable of the Tower, 
 and commanded the fleet at the time of the 
 Prince of Orange's invasion. At the Eevo- 
 lution he was committed to the Tower, 
 where he died. 
 
 Daxu, Pierre Antoine, Count {b. 1767, d. 
 1829), peer of France, and one of the 
 ablest French statesmen of the school 
 of the revolution and Napoleon. His 
 reputation as a poet was estabUshed by his 
 translation of Horace. Under the emperor 
 he was intendant-general in Prussia and 
 Austria, and in 1818 was created a peer by 
 Louis XVni. He wrote a valuable Life of 
 Sully, and the History of Venice (1819- 
 1821). •' ^ 
 
 Daxwin, Charies Robert, F.R.S. {b. 1809, 
 d. 1882), English biologist, was the son of 
 Kobert Wanng Darwin, a medical prac- 
 titioner at Shrewsbury, where the future 
 naturahst was bom. He was educated at 
 Edmburgh and at Christ's College, Cam- 
 bridge. In 1831 he joined the surveying 
 expedition which was despatched in the 
 
 Beagle and Adventure, and visited South 
 America, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and many of the Pacific and Atlantic 
 islands. Returning after a voyage of five 
 years, he married (1839) his cousin. Miss 
 Wedgwood, and in 1842 settled down to a 
 quiet life of study at his countrj'-house at 
 Down, in Kent. In 1839 he published his 
 Journal of Researches during a Voyage 
 Round the World, and in 1842 his Structure 
 and Distribution of Coral Reefs. In 1859 
 appeared The Origin of Species, a work that 
 created an immense sensation, and put 
 before the world what is generally known as 
 the " Darwinian Theory." His other works 
 include The Fertilisation of Orchids (1862), 
 Descent of Man (1871), Expression in Man 
 and Animals (1872), and Earth-worms and 
 Vegetable Mould (1881.) The Life and 
 Letters of Charles Darwin were published by 
 his son in 1887. 
 
 Darwin, George Howard, F.R.S. (*. 
 1846), geologist and astronomer, son of 
 the above, was educated at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, and became a fellow of 
 the Royal Society in 1879. In 1883 he was 
 appointed Plumian professor of astronomy 
 and experimental philosophy at Cambridge. 
 
 Daxwin, Francis {b. 1848), younger brother 
 of the above, author of The Life and Letters 
 of Charles Darwin, was appointed in 1888 
 reader in botany to the University of Cam- 
 bridge, and fellow of Christ's College. 
 
 Darwin, Erasmus {b. 1731, d. 1812), phy- 
 sician and poet, was educated at CambrMge, 
 took his doctor's degree at Edinburgh, and 
 practised as a physician at Lichfield. He 
 settled in Derby in 1 781 , and later removed to 
 BreadsaU Priory, where he died suddenly. 
 In 1789 he published his Botanic Garden, 
 including The Loves of the Plants ; in 1 794-6 
 Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life, and 
 Phytologia in 1799. 
 
 Dasent, Sir George Webbe {h. 1820), 
 Norse and Icelandic scholar, was bom in 
 the West Indies, and educated at Oxford. 
 After being called to the bar, he published 
 in 1842 The Prose, or Younger Edda ; in 
 1855 The Norsemen in Iceland ; and in 1873 
 Tales from the Field; was for some years 
 assistant editor of The Times. He also 
 wrote Annals of an Eventful Life (1871) ; 
 Three to One (1872) ; and Haifa Life (1874). 
 He was knighted in 1876. 
 
 Dashkowa.orDaschkof, Ekatarina Rom- 
 anovna (h. 1744, d. 1810), Russian princess, 
 lady of honour to Catherine II. She took 
 part in the revolution of 1762, by which 
 Peter III. was deposed and Catherine 
 placed on the throne. After the death of 
 her husband she travelled through Europe. 
 On her retum to Russia in 1782 she was 
 appomted president of the Academy of the
 
 Dat 
 
 (241) 
 
 Dav 
 
 Arts and Sciences of St. Petersburg. She 
 was, however, deprived of her offices by the 
 Emperor Paul in 1796, and spent the 
 remainder of her days in retirement. 
 
 Dati, Agostino {b. U20, d. 1478), Italian 
 scholar, who occupied the chair of rhe- 
 toric at Urbiao. On his return to his 
 native town (Sienna) he was employed in 
 several public negotiations, and was agent 
 for his state to Pope Pius II. He died of 
 the plague at Sienna. His works were col- 
 lected and printed by his son in 1503. 
 
 Dati, Carlo {b. 1619, d. 1675), pro- 
 fessor of belles-lettres in his native city, 
 Florence. He is best known by his work, 
 
 The Lives of Ancient Painters. 
 
 Daubenton, or D'Aubenton, Louis Jean 
 Marie {b. 1716, d. 1799), distinguished French 
 naturalist and phj'sician, was tlie f rieud of 
 Buifon, and companion in his work, the 
 anatomical part of which was undertaken 
 by him. He was a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences, and enriched its publications 
 by a number of anatomical discoveries 
 and researches concerning the species 
 of animals and their varieties. He con- 
 tributed to the Eficychpedie. On the last 
 day of the year 1799 he attended the 
 Senate for the first time, and fell sense- 
 less into the arms of his friends in a fit of 
 apoplexy. 
 
 Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle {b. 1795, 
 d. 1867), chemist and botanist, published A 
 Description of Active and Extinct Volcanoes 
 (1826), an Introduction to the Atomic Theory 
 (1831), Lectures on Climate (1862), etc. He 
 was appointed professor of chemistry at 
 Oxford (1822), and of botany (1834). 
 
 D'Aubigne. [See Aubign^.] 
 
 Daubiguy, Charles Francj^is (6. 1817, <?. 
 1878), French landscape painter and book 
 illustrator. Painted Upring-Time (1861), 
 Windmills at Dordrecht (1872), Rising Moon 
 (1877), etc. 
 
 DAubusson. \See Aubusson.] 
 
 Daubuz, Charles (i. 1670, d. 1740), son of 
 a French Protestant who came to England 
 on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, became 
 vicar of Brotherton, and wrote a valuable 
 commentarj^ on the Book of Revelation. 
 
 Daudet, Alphonse (i. 1840), French 
 novelist, wrote poems, essays, plays, and 
 contributed to newspapers for some years 
 before he discovered his true powers as a 
 novelist. He is author of bromont jeune 
 et Risler aine (1874), Jack (1876), ,Le Nabab 
 (1878), Numa Roumestan^ L'Evangeliste 
 (1883), Sappho (1884), Tartarin sur les Alpes 
 (1886), L'Immertel (1888). Several of his 
 a 
 
 novels, notably Sappho, have been dra- 
 matised. 
 
 Daudet, Ernest {b. 1837), brother of the 
 above, novelist and man of letters, is a 
 prominent poUtical writer on the monar- 
 chical side. Among his writings are Therese 
 and Jean le Gueux, and various political 
 works. 
 
 D'Aulnoy, Marie Catherine Jumelle de 
 Bemeville, Countess {b. circa 1650, d. 1705), 
 authoress of Contes des Fees, a series of 
 chaiTuing fairy tales, and some tedious 
 novels. 
 
 D'Aumale. [_See Aumale.] 
 
 Daumer, George Friediich {b. 1800, d. 
 1875), German philosopher and poet, bom 
 and educated at Niiremburg, published 
 Indication of a System of Speculative Phil- 
 osophy (1831) and numerous other philo- 
 sophical works. Of his poems, Hajiz (1846), 
 and <So«y« o/ iLTary (1841-59) maybe men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Daumier, Henri {b. 1808, d. 1879), French 
 caricaturist ; his most remarkable series 
 were the Idylles Parlementaires and Les 
 Representatits representes. 
 
 Daun, Leopold Joseph Marie, Count von 
 (b. 1705, d. 1766), Austrian field-marshal, 
 who fought with success against Frederick 
 the Great. 
 
 Daunou, Pierre Claude Fran9ois {b. 1761, 
 d. 1840), French poUtician and man of 
 letters, was presideut of the Convention, 
 member of the Committee of Public Safety, 
 and first president of the Council of Five 
 Hundred. He withdrew from public life 
 in 18U2, and became guardian of the Pan- 
 theon Library. After the restoration he 
 became a member of the Chamber^nd pro- 
 fessor of history in the College de France. 
 
 Davauzati, Bernardo (b. 1529, d. 1606), 
 Florentine writer, principally known for his 
 translation of Tacitus. 
 
 Davenant, Charles {b. 1656, d. 1714), 
 eldest son of Sir William Davenant, at the 
 age of nineteen distinguished himself by the 
 acting of the only tragedy he wrote, Circe. 
 After this he studied the civil law, and 
 served in Parliament. He was appointed 
 by James II. inspector of plays, then held 
 the office of commissioner of excise, and 
 lastly of inspector-general of exports and im- 
 ports, which office he held until his death. 
 His works on political and financial subjects 
 were collected and published by Sir Charles 
 Whit worth in 1771. 
 
 Davenant, John, D.D. (b. 1576, d. 1641), 
 English prelate, whose learning recom- 
 mended him to James I., who sent him to
 
 Dav 
 
 (242) 
 
 Dav 
 
 the synod of Dort, and he was in 1621 
 raised to the see of Salisbury. He pub- 
 lished a number of works, principally in 
 Latin, and was a strong Calviaist. 
 
 Davenant, Sir William {b. 1606, d. 1688), 
 English Ji-amatic poet, and theatrical mana- 
 geriu the reigns of Charles I. and II., was 
 the son of a tavern-keeper iu Oxford. He 
 was a short time at Lincoln College, but his 
 disposition led him to try his fortunes at 
 court, where he first appeared as page to 
 the Duchess of Richmond. His first tragedy, 
 Albovine, was a distinguished success. In 
 1637 he succeeded Ben Jonson as poet 
 laureate. Political troubles caused his flight 
 to France on two occasions, and once 
 Milton interposed to save his life. He 
 was buried in Westminster Abbey. Amongst 
 his works were Gondibert and The Siege of 
 Rhodes. 
 
 Davenport, Christopher {b. 1598, d. 1680), 
 educated at Oxford, became a friar of the 
 Order of St. Francis, and constituted him- 
 self a Roman Catholic missionary in 
 England. He wrote many books in defence 
 of the Roman Catholic cause, and was 
 chaplain to the queen of Charles I. During 
 the Civil war he was a fugitive, but 
 after the Restoration he was appointed 
 chaplain to Catharine of Portugal, consort 
 of Charles II. 
 
 Davenport, John (A. 1597, d. 1670), brother 
 of the foregoing, a zealous Puritan. After 
 being miaister at St. Stephen's, Cole- 
 man Street, he went to Amsterdam. At the 
 Rebellion he returned, but soon after sailed 
 for America, where he became minister of 
 Newhaven, and died at Boston. 
 
 David, the second king of Israel, was the 
 son of Jesse, a man of Bethlehem. For his 
 valour in slaying Goliath, Saul took him to 
 court, or, according to Samuel, he was ad- 
 vanced for his skill in music. The king's 
 jealousy rendered his Ufe insecure, and he fled 
 to Phihstia. In the cave of Adullam he col- 
 lected a band of followers, with whose aid 
 he attacked his country's enemies in the 
 west and south. When Ishbosheth died 
 he was elected king. His reign was re- 
 markable for warlike vigour, and was dis- 
 turbed by the rebelUon of his sons, Ab- 
 Balom and Adonijah. It is generally ad- 
 mitted that he is the author of some of the 
 Psalms. 
 
 David, Felicien Cesar (b. 1810, d. 1876), 
 French composer, was educated at the Paris 
 Conservatoire under Cherubini. He sailed to 
 the East in 1832, suffered imprisonment in 
 Constantinople, wandered in Egypt, and re- 
 turning to Paris in 1835 pubUshed V\% Melo- 
 dies Orientales. In 1844 his symphonic ode 
 the Desert met with great success, and was 
 qtuckly followed by kindred works. He 
 
 succeeded Berlioz as librarian of the Paris 
 Conservatoire. 
 
 David, or Dewi, Saint, the patron saint of 
 Wales (rf. 601), Bishop of Moni Judeorum, 
 or Menevia, called now St. David's. He 
 was at the Welsh Synods at Brefi, and at 
 " Lucus Victoriae." 
 
 David, Jacques Louis {b. 1748, d. 1825), 
 French painter, studied at Rome, and, on his 
 return to Paris, met with great success. 
 After the outbreak of the revolution he was 
 commissioned by the Assembly to paint The 
 Oath in the Racquet Court. In the Conven- 
 tion he was deputy for Paris in 1792, and 
 acted as one of the king's judges. As a 
 follower of Robespierre he was imprisoned, 
 l)ut released in 1795, when he devoted him- 
 self to his art. Napoleon appointed him his 
 chief painter, and employed him in the 
 decoration of the Hall at Versailles. At the 
 restoration he retired to Brussels. 
 
 David, Pierre Jean (6. 1789, d. 1856), 
 French sculptor, 
 
 David I., King of Scotland {d. 1153), 
 married Maud, the niece of WilUam the 
 Conqueror, succeeded in 1124. After the 
 death of Henry I. he asserted the claims 
 of his wife to the English throne against 
 Stephen, but was routed at the battle of 
 Northallerton in 1138. 
 
 David II. {b. 1324, d. 1371), King of 
 Scotland, son of Robert Bruce, whom 
 he succeeded at five years old. During 
 the invasion of his country by Baliol 
 iu 1332 he was conveyed to France, 
 but returned after the defeat of his 
 enemies in 1341. He was in 1346 made 
 prisoner by Queen Phihppa at Neville's 
 Cross, and was taken to the Tower, from 
 which, after an imprisonment of ten years, 
 he was released on payment of a heavy 
 ransom. 
 
 Davidson, Andrew Bruce, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 {b. 1831), was educated at the Marischal 
 college, Aberdeen, and at the Free Church 
 college, Edinburgh, where, in 1863, he was 
 appointed to the chair of Hebrew and Old 
 Testament Exegesis. He was throughout a 
 member of the Old Testament Revision 
 Committee. 
 
 Davidson, John {d. 1836), an energetic 
 traveller, son of a London tailor, educated 
 as a chemist and druggist, but his fondness 
 for travel induced him in 1826 to give up 
 business for travel. He was robbed and 
 murdered in Africa. 
 
 Davidson, Lucretia Maria {b. 1808, d. 
 1825), American poetess, was bom of poor 
 parents, and appears to have been self- 
 educated. Her writings were published in
 
 Dav 
 
 (243) 
 
 Dav 
 
 New York in 1829, with a biographical 
 sketch by F. L. B. Morse. 
 
 Davidson, Samuel, D.D.,LL.D. (b. 1807), 
 biblical critic, was educated in Ireland at 
 the Roj^al College of Belfast. He entered 
 the Presbyterian ministry, and was called in 
 1835 to the chair of biblical criticism in his 
 own college. In 1842 he became professor 
 of biblical literature and oriental lan- 
 guages in the Congi-egational college at 
 Manchester. He was a member of the Old 
 Testament Revision Committee. 
 
 Davies, Hugh (*. 1739, d. 1821), botanist, 
 bom in Anglesey and educated at Cam- 
 bridge. He successively held the Hvings of 
 Beaumaris and Aber, in Carnarvonshire. 
 
 Davies, John (d. 1618), schoolmaster and 
 poet. 
 
 Davies, Sir John (*. 1570, d. 1626), 
 English poet, lawyer, and political wi-iter. 
 Bom in Wiltshire, he was educated at 
 Queen's College, Oxford, and entered the 
 Middle Temple ; was for misconduct ex- 
 pelled from the society, and then returned 
 to Oxford, and there wrote, in 1599, Jfosce 
 Teipsum. In 1601 he was restored to his 
 chambers in the Temple, and entered Parlia- 
 ment the same year. In 1603 he was sent to 
 Ireland as solicitor-general, and soon after 
 as attorney-general and one of the justices 
 of assize. He was finally appointed Chief 
 Justice for England, but died before he 
 assumed office. 
 
 Davies, Rowland, D.D, {h. 1649, d. 1721), 
 bom in Ireland, for a time was settled in 
 England, where he held a lectureship at 
 Great Yarmouth. At the close of the Civil 
 war he returned to Ireland, when he 
 became Dean of Cork. His writings were 
 principally against the Roman Church. 
 The Camden Society in 1857 reprinted his 
 journal. 
 
 Davies, Samuel {h. 1723, d. 1761), Presby- 
 terian divine, of Welsh descent, born at 
 Summit Ridge, Newcastle, Delaware,United 
 States. He was one of the fotmders of the 
 College of New Jersey, and succeeded Jona- 
 than Edwards as president of it in 1759. 
 
 DavUa, Arrigo-Caterino {h. 1576, d. 1631), 
 Italian historian, who distinguished himself 
 in the French, and subsequently in the 
 Venetian army. He was stabbed whilst on 
 his way to Crema, of which place he had 
 been appointed governor. 
 
 Davis, Jefferson {h. 1808, d. 1889), 
 American statesman and soldier, graduated 
 at West Point in 1826, and served in the 
 army for seven years. In 1845 he was 
 elected to Congress, and was appointed 
 colonel of the first regiment of Mississippi 
 ▼olimteers. In 1853 he was secretary of 
 
 war, and from 1858-61 was again member 
 of the Senate. On February 9th, 1861, he 
 was unanimously elected " President of the 
 Confederate States of America." War 
 followed, and commenced with a Con- 
 federate victory at Bull Run, but the South 
 soon sustained serious reverses, then finances 
 failed, and Grant's defeat of Lee concluded 
 the war. Davis was captured at Irwins- 
 ville, and conveyed to Fort Munroe, where 
 he was imprisoned for two years. He was 
 prosecuted in 1867 for treason, was dis- 
 charged, and his name included in the 
 general amnesty. 
 
 Davis, John {b. 1560, d. 1605), English 
 navigator, who in 1585 was sent in com- 
 mand of an expedition to discover a north- 
 west passage to the East Indies, in which 
 voyage he discovered the strait which was 
 named after him, and on similar voyages in 
 1586, 1587. He subsequently sailed with 
 Cavendish to the South Seas, and made 
 several voyages to the East Indies. He was 
 kiUed by pirates in the Straits of Malacca. 
 
 Davis, John Chandler Bancroft {I. 1822), 
 American lawyer, born at Worcester, Massa- 
 chusetts, and educated at Harvard College. 
 In 1849 he was appointed secretary of lega- 
 tion at London. He was agent of the United 
 States government at Geneva during the 
 meeting of the tribunal of arbitration be- 
 tween the United States and Great Britain 
 (1871-2), and in 1873 became assistant- 
 secretary of state, 
 
 Davis, John Lee {h. 1825), American 
 naval commander, who distinguished himself 
 in the Civil war. In command of the iron- 
 clad, Montaivk, he participated in all the 
 battles of the summer and fall of 1863, in 
 Charleston Harbour with Forts Sumter, 
 Gregg, and Moultrie. In command of the 
 Sassac'cs he took part in several fights, and 
 was recommended for promotion by Admiral 
 Porter, and since the war was constantly 
 employed. 
 
 Davis, Thomas Osborne {b. 1814, d. 1845), 
 Irish poet and patriot, bom at Mallow, 
 graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, and 
 after spending three years in London and 
 on the Continent, was called to the bar in 
 Dublin in 1838. Though a Protestant, he 
 joined the Repeal Association, and with 
 John Dillon jointly edited the Buhlin Morn- 
 ing Register, and in 1842 founded the Nation, 
 but fever brought to a close a promising 
 career. 
 
 Davison, Jeremiah {d. 1745), portrait 
 painter, and friend and disciple of Sir Peter 
 tely. 
 
 Davison, William {d. 1608), a statesman 
 under Queen Elizabeth, to whom he was 
 secretary. He incurred the anger of the
 
 Dav 
 
 (244 ) 
 
 De£ 
 
 queen for despatching the warrant for the 
 execution of Mary Queen of Scots with- 
 out orders, and was heavily fined and im- 
 prisoned. He is commonly believed to have 
 been umoceut, and to have been sacrificed 
 to the policy of the queen and her min- 
 isteia. 
 
 Davitt, Michael (i. 1846), was bom in the 
 village of Straid, County Mayo. In 1866 
 he joined the Irish revolutiouarj^ movement 
 initiated by James Stephens, and in 1870 
 was an-ested in London, tried, and convicted 
 of " treason -felony," and sentenced to 
 fifteen years' penal servitude, from which he 
 was released in seven years on a ticket-of- 
 leave. Ke commenced an anti- landlord 
 agitation in Ireland, and in 1879 founded 
 the Irish Land League. In 1881 he was 
 imprisoned in Portland for breaking his 
 ticket-of-leave, and since then has devoted 
 himself to propagating his views on the 
 land question in Ireland. 
 
 Davoilt, Louis Nicolas (b. 1770, d. 1823), 
 French general, rose in the revolutionary 
 wars to the rank of general, and went with 
 Napoleon to Egypt, where he greatly 
 distinguished himself. In 1800 he became 
 general of division, and in 1804 marshal of 
 the empire. He fought with success at 
 Austerlitz (1805), and for the victory of 
 Auerstadt (1808) was created duke. _ At 
 Wagram he was in command of the right 
 wing, and in 1811 was made . Prince of 
 Eckmiihl. He fought bravely in the Russian 
 campaign (1812), and after the retreat from 
 Moscow was appointed governor-general of 
 the Hanse towns, taking up his residence at 
 Hamburg. At Napoleon's return from 
 Elba he became war minister, and com- 
 manded the French army after Waterloo. 
 He was created a peer of France in 1819. 
 
 Davy, Sir Humphry (6. 1778, d. 1829), 
 English chemist, was a native of Penzance. 
 Two papers on nitrous oxide obtained him 
 the post of assistaut-lecturt-r on chemistry to 
 the Eoyal Institution, Loudon, and in a few 
 weeks he was raised to the chief lectureship. 
 In 1803 he became a fellow, and in 1807 
 secretary of the Royal Society. His 
 Bakerian lecture in 1806 gained him the 
 3,000 franc prize of the French Institute. 
 In 1815 he invented the miner's safety 
 lamp. He was knighted in 1812, made a 
 baronet and elected president of ttie Royal 
 Society in 1820. Failing health cornpelled 
 him to leave England, and he died at 
 Geneva from paralysis. 
 
 Davy, John (*. 1763, d. 1824), musician, 
 whose ballads, including the Bay of Biscay, 
 were exceedingly popular. 
 
 Dawe, George, R.A. (b. n%\,d. 1829), a 
 prolific portrait painter, bom in London, 
 many years first painter to the Emperor of 
 
 Russia, and author of the Life of George 
 
 Mor/iinJ. 
 
 Dawes, Sir William (b. 1671, d. 1724), a 
 learned prelate, Bishop of Chester and Arch- 
 bishop of York. 
 
 Dawkins, William Boyd {b. 1838), 
 geologist, bom at Battingtou vicarage, near 
 Welshpool, aud educated at RossaU school 
 and at Oxford. In 1862 he was appointed 
 to the geological survey, became curator of 
 Manchester Museum in 1869, aud professor 
 of geology at Owens College in 1874. He 
 was employed by the Channel Tunnel Com- 
 mittee in 1862, and the next year on a 
 tuunel under the Humber. He is the author 
 of numerous works on early man. 
 
 Dawood, Khan {d. 1714), soldier in the 
 service of iJahadur Shah, Emperor of Delhi. 
 In 1708 Zulficar Khau appointed him his 
 delegate as imperial viceroy in the Deccan 
 and Camatic. In 1713 he was transferred 
 to Guzerat, and was killed in battle the 
 following year. 
 
 Dawson, George {b. 1821, d. 1876), popular 
 preacher and lectm-er; became pastor of a 
 Baptist church at Rickmansworth, and in 
 1844 of the Mount Zion Chapel, but the 
 breadth of his views caused him to leave this 
 charge, and the "Church of the Saviour" 
 at Birmingham was built for him in 1847, in 
 which he preached till his death. 
 
 Dawson, John {b. 1734, d. 1820), contro- 
 versial mathematician, opposed Newton's 
 system of analysis, Dr. Stewart on the sun's 
 distance. Dr. Wildbore on the discharge of 
 fluids in motion, and Dr. Priestley on philo- 
 sophical necessity. 
 
 Day, Francis {b. circa 1830), writer of 
 ichthyological works, including The Fishes 
 of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Day, George {b. 1501, d. 1556), an English 
 prelate, Bishop of Chichester in 1543, de- 
 prived in 1551, for his opposition to the new 
 doctiiues, and afterwards restored after the 
 death of Edward VI. 
 
 Day, John, dramatist, author of The Blind 
 Beggar of Bednal Green, The Parliament of 
 Bees, etc. He is mentioned by Henslowe. 
 
 Day, Daye, or Dale, John {b. 1522, d. 
 1584), EngUsh printer, native of Dunwich, 
 materially served the cause of the Reforma- 
 tion by his various pubUcatious, and parti- 
 cularly by Foxe's Acts and Motiuments of the 
 Martyrs. 
 
 Day, Thomas {b. 1748, d. 1789), philan- 
 thropist and author, wrote several works m 
 verse, but his best known book is The History 
 of Sandford and Merton. 
 
 Deik, Ferencz Q>. 1803, d. 1876),
 
 Dea 
 
 C245) 
 
 Dee 
 
 Hungarian politician and advocate, was 
 champion of the peasants against the nobles, 
 obtained for them important rights in 1840. 
 After the revolution of 1848 became minister 
 of justice in the cabinet of Count Batthyany. 
 On Kossuth's accession to power he re- 
 signed, and in 1849 withdrew from pubUc 
 affairs to his estate, and refused to return 
 till 1861, when the constitution was granted. 
 He again became leader of the moderate 
 party. He di-ew up an address to the 
 emperor Francis Joseph, demanding certain 
 concessions, which the emperor refused : but 
 on the humiliation of Austria, in 18G6, his 
 efforts were attended with success, and what 
 amounted to Home Rule was granted to 
 Hungary. 
 
 Deas, Charles {b. 1818), American painter, 
 whose best known pictures are Indian and 
 prairie scSnes, many of which have been 
 engraved. 
 
 Deasy, Richard {b. 1812, d. 1883), member 
 of the Irish bar, Q.C. in 1849, and Solicitor- 
 General for Ireland in 1859. He was 
 appointed Attorney-General in 1860, and the 
 following year Baron of the Exchequer in 
 Ireland. He represented Cork from 1855 to 
 1861. 
 
 De Bary, Heinrich Anton {b. 1831, d. 
 1888), German botanist, was appointed in 
 1855 professor of botany to Freiburg. In 
 1867 he went to Halle, and in 1872 to Stras- 
 burg. He published Comparative Anatomij 
 of Fhanerogams and Ferns, Morphology of 
 Plants, and Lectures on Bacteria. 
 
 Deborah, the " Mother of Israel," Hebrew 
 prophetess, judged Israel under a palm-tree 
 on Mount Ephraim. She defeated the 
 Canaanites under Sisera, whose discomfiture 
 she celebrated in the 8ong of Deborah. 
 
 Debrett, John (d. 1822), London book- 
 seller and the original publisher of the 
 Feerage which bears his name. 
 
 De Bry, Theodor {b. 1528, d. 1598), Bel- 
 gian goldsmith and engraver, published a 
 collection of Voyages to the East and West 
 Indies. 
 
 Decaisne, Joseph (b. 1807), Belgian painter 
 and botanist, was appointed in 1848 professor 
 of agriculture in the College of France, and 
 in 1851 professor in the Jardin des Plantes. 
 
 Decamps, Alexandre Gabriel (/*. 1803, d. 
 1860), French historical and landscape 
 painter, visited the Levant about 1827, and 
 painted chiefly oriental scenes with striking 
 light eifects. 
 
 De CandoUe. [See Gandolle.] 
 
 Decatur, Stephen {b. 1779, d. 1820), 
 American naval commander. After serving 
 
 on the Spanish Main and the Mediterranean, 
 in 1804, destroyed the Fhiladelphia, which 
 had been captured by the Turks and was 
 lying in Tripoli harbour. During the war 
 with England in 1812 he commanded the 
 United States, capturing the British frigate 
 Macedonian, but in 1814 was compelled to 
 surrender in the Fresident. In 1815 he was 
 successful in making reprisals on Algiers. 
 He was Mlled in a duel with Commodore 
 Barron. 
 
 Decazes, gUe, Due (J. 1780, d. 1860), 
 minister of the restoration, was born in the 
 Gironde, and, having come to Paris, was 
 employed for a time in the service of Louis 
 Napoleon, King of Holland, became private 
 secretary to Xapoleon's mother, and presi- 
 dent of the law courts in 1811. In 1814 he 
 acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, but 
 was compelled to retire till the second 
 restoration, when he was appointed prefect 
 of police. As such he is supposed to be 
 responsible for the arrest of Marshal Ney. 
 He became minister of the interior in 1818, 
 and in the following year president of the 
 council. In consequence of the assassina- 
 tion of the Due de Berri (in which he was 
 wrongfully suspected of complicity) he 
 became unpopular, and was sent to London 
 as ambassador, where he was kept for a 
 year. He tried to check the downward 
 progress of Charles X., and was with some 
 difficulty induced to continue his services to 
 the state under Louis Philippe, but soon 
 after declined to take further part in public 
 affairs. 
 
 Decebalus (d. 105), king of the Dacians, 
 fought against the Romans in the reigns of 
 Domitian and Nero, but was overthrown by 
 Trajan. 
 
 Dechales, Claude Fran(;ois MiUiet (d. 
 1611, d. 1678), French mathematician, pro- 
 fessor at Clermont and Tmin. 
 
 Decio, Philippo (i.1453, d. 1535), an Italian 
 jurist and legal vsriter. 
 
 Decius (b. circa 200, d. 251), Roman 
 emperor. Being sent by the emperor, 
 Pliilippus, to quell a sedition in Mcesia, he 
 tvimed his arms against the emperor, de- 
 feated him at Verona, and assumed the 
 purple in 249. He was killed in battle with 
 the Goths near Abricum. He was a relent- 
 less persecutor of the Christians. 
 
 Decort, Frans {b. 1834, d. 1878), Flemish 
 lyrical poet, in 1862 published a Flemish 
 translation of Burns's songs. 
 
 Dee, Dr. John (b. 1527, d. 1608), English 
 divine, astrologer, alchemist, and mathema- 
 tician, was a favourite of Queen Elizabeth. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, where he 
 became a fellow of Trinity, and travelled
 
 Def 
 
 (246) 
 
 Del 
 
 and lectured over the Contmeut. lu 15S1 
 he joined another quack, Edward Kelly, and 
 visited Poland. He returned to England in 
 1.5s:}, and died in absolute povertj'. 
 
 Deffand, Marie de Vichy Chararond, 
 Marquise du (*. 1697, d. 1780), a French 
 lady, who became the centre of a literary 
 circle composed of the moat distinguished 
 characters of the age. She corresponded 
 with Horace Walpolo, Voltaire, D'Alem- 
 bert, Montesquieu, and others. 
 
 Defoe, Daniel {0. 1061, d. 1731), author, 
 was the son of James Foe, a butcher in St. 
 Giles', Cripplegate. He was educated for 
 the dissenting ministry, but soon took to 
 politics, and appeared as a pamphleteer in 
 his nineteenth year. In 1685 he joined 
 Monmouth's rebellion, and narrowly escaped 
 the gallows. He next became a wool- 
 trader, and several times visited Spain, and 
 afterwards took to tile-making with scant 
 success. In the meantime his literary 
 activity had been unceasing, and he was 
 fined, pilloried, and imprisoned in 1703 for 
 his famous pamphlet. The Shortest Waijwith 
 Dissenters. While in Newgate he started 
 his Review. In 1704 Harley obtained his 
 release. In 1706, to promote the Union, he 1 
 published an Essay at Removing the Prejudices 
 aginnst a Union with Scotland, and in 1709 
 the History of the Union. In 1715 was 
 published the tirst volume of Robinson Oritsoe, 
 which was completed the year after by the 
 sequel. This was followed by Memoirs of a 
 Cavalier and Captain Singleton (1720), Moll 
 Flanders and the History of the Plague 
 (1722), and numerous other works. He 
 died in Ropemaker's Alley, Moorfields, and 
 was buried in Bunhill Fields. 
 
 Defregger, Franz {h. 1835), German 
 painter, studied under Piloty, and became a 
 professor at the Munich Academy. He 
 chiefly paints Tyrolean subjects. 
 
 De Grey, the Right Hon. Thomas Philip, 
 Earl (/;. 1731, d. 1859), Baron Lucas of Crud- 
 well. Wiltshire, and Baron Grantham of 
 Grantham, Lincolnshire, First Lord of the 
 A'lmiraltv in 1834-5, and in 1841 was 
 appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and 
 bemg very popular, his retirement in 1844 
 was rauc^ regretted. At his death the 
 earldom of De Grey and the barony of 
 Grantham descended to his nephew, the 
 Earl of Ripon, son of his half brother. 
 
 De Grey, William, Lord Walsingham (A. 
 1719, d. 1781), English judge, educated at 
 Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1742. 
 Became Solicitor-General in 1763. and 
 Attorney-General in 1766. In 1771 he was 
 made Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, but 
 retired in 1780, and was created a peer. He 
 represented Tamworth and Cambridge in 
 Parliament. 
 
 Dejazet, Marie Virginie {>>. 1797, d. 1875), 
 French actres.s, appeared chiefly at the Palais 
 Royal. 
 
 Dejoux, Claude {b. 1731, d. 1816), French 
 sculptor. 
 
 De la Beche, Sir Henry Thomas (6. 1796, 
 d. 185.3), geologist, born in London, and 
 educated at the grammar school of Ottery 
 St. Mary and the Royal Military College 
 At eighteen he entered the anuy, but .soon 
 withdrew in order to give full scope to his 
 studies, and three years afterwards he 
 became a fellow of the Geological Society, 
 of which he was afterwards secretary and 
 president in 1847. While in Switzerland he 
 published a jjaper on the temperature and 
 depth of the Lake of Geneva. He subse- 
 quently visited Jamaica, and wrote on the 
 geology of the island. He also published a 
 Manual of Geology (1831), Researches in 
 'Theoretical Geology (1834), and a Geological 
 Observer (1853). He undertook a geological 
 map of England, and the Government, under 
 his superintendence, undertook the geolo- 
 gical survey. He founded the Geological 
 Museum and the School of Mines. In 1848 
 he was knighted, and in 1853 was elected 
 member of the Academy of Sciences. 
 
 De la Borde, Henry Francois, Count {b. 
 1764, d. 1830), French general, son of a 
 baker at Dijon. At the commencement of 
 the revolution he enlisted, and in 1793 he 
 had become general of brigade, and after 
 distinguishing him.self in different parts of 
 the Continent, was ennobled in 1808. On 
 the return of Napoleon from Elba he at once 
 declared for him. 
 
 Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor Eugene (b. 
 1799, d. 1863), French painter, the most 
 prominent member of the Romantic schooL 
 He studied in the school of Guerin, and in 
 1822 he produced his first work, Dante and 
 Vtrgil, and followed it in 1824 with The 
 Miissncre at Chios. In 1830, after the revo- 
 lution, appeared his Liberty Guiding the 
 People on the Barricades. His other works in- 
 clude Sardanapalus (1827), Algerian Women 
 (1834), Medea (1838), and Hamlet (1839). 
 
 Delambre, Jean Baptiste Joseph {h. 1749, 
 d. 1822), French astronomer, bom at Amiens, 
 studied under Lalande. His Tables of the 
 Orbit of Uranus were crowned by the 
 Academy in 1790. In 1807 he was appointed 
 professor of astronomy in the College of 
 France. In 1814 he published a Treatise on 
 Theoretical and Practical Astronomy and a 
 History of the Three Periods of Astronomy 
 (1817-1821). 
 
 Delamer, George Booth, Lord {d. 1684), 
 an adherent of Charles I. , who raised forces, 
 and fought for him against Cromwell, when 
 he was defeated and sent to the Tower till
 
 Del 
 
 ( 247 ) 
 
 Dem 
 
 the Restoratiou, when he received a parlia- 
 mentary grant, and was created Baron 
 Delamer. 
 
 Delane, John Thaddeus (6. 1817, rf. 1879), 
 editor of The 'Times, was educated at 
 Oxford, and joined the staff of The Times in 
 1839, and in 1841 became editor, which post 
 he retained for thirty-six years. 
 
 Delanne, Thomas {d. 1785), nonconform- 
 ist divine. His book called A Plea for Non- 
 conforintti/ gave so much offence to the High 
 Church party that he was tried and sen- 
 tenced to pay a heavy fine, and died in 
 prison. 
 
 Delany, Patrick, D.D. (6. 1686, d. 1768), 
 Irish divine and wit, was a friend of Dean 
 Swift, by whose influence he was succes- 
 sively made Chancellor of Christ Church, 
 prebend in the cathedral of St. Patrick, and 
 (1744) Dean of Down. He pubUshed Reve- 
 lation Examined with Candour, and other 
 works. 
 
 De la Rive, Auguste {b. 1801, d. 1873), 
 Swiss natural philosopher, published several 
 valuable works on electricity. 
 
 Delaroche, Hippolyte, or Paul (6. 1797, d. 
 1856), French artist, educated by Baron 
 Gros and Gericault. His first picture, Joash, 
 was exhibited in 1822, and this was followed 
 by, amongst others. The J)eath of Queen 
 Elizabeth (1827), Cromivell Opening Charles 
 I.'s Coffin (1831), The Young Martyr (1846), 
 Bonaparte Crossing the Alps (1851). 
 
 De la Rue. Warren (6. 1815, d. 1889), 
 man of science, educated at Paris, devoted 
 himself to the study of electricity and 
 astronomical photography, and was especially 
 known for his photographs of the sun dui'ing 
 the total eclipse of 1860. He was President 
 of the Royal Astronomical Society, and was 
 secretary of the Institution. 
 
 Delavigne, Jean Francjois Casimir {h. 1703, 
 d. 1843), French dramatist, satirist, and 
 lyrist, at one time one of the most popular 
 writers in France, but now his works liave 
 not a very high repute. A ballad. La 
 Toilette de Cons(a)ice, is perhaps liis best 
 work, and his plays Louis XL, Les J'ipres 
 Siciliennes, and L'Lcole dcs Vieillards were 
 well known. 
 
 Delbriick, Martin Friedrich Rudolf von 
 {b. 1817), Prussian statesman, was private 
 tutor to the Emperor Frederick and to the 
 present Gemian Emperor. He was presi- 
 dent of the Imperial Council of the German 
 empire till 1876, when he resigned. 
 
 Delhi, the Emperors of, styled Grand 
 Moguls. Shah Alum {d. 1806) ascended 
 the throne in 1771, and became a Britisli 
 pensioner in 1803. Behandur Sbab ('/. 
 
 1862), his son, succeeded him, aided the 
 mutineers, and was condemned to perpetual 
 banishment. 
 
 DeliUe, L'Abbe Jacques (6. 1738, d. 1813), 
 French didactic poet, author of Les Jardins, 
 Pity, Lmagination, and several translations. 
 
 Delisle, Claude (6. 1644, d. 1720), French 
 historian. 
 
 DeUsle, Guillaume {b. 1675, d. 1726), 
 sou of the preceding, French geographer. 
 
 Delisle, Joseph Nicolas (6. 1688, d. 
 1768), youngest brother of the preceding, 
 astronomer, and friend of Newton and 
 Halley, was twenty-one years astronomer 
 royal at St. Petersburg, and was afterwards 
 professor of mathematics in the Royal 
 College in Paris. 
 
 Delisle, Louis (d. 1741), brother of the 
 preceding, astronomer, geographer and 
 traveller. 
 
 DeUtzsch, Franz {h. 1813, d. 1890), 
 German theologian and Hebraist of pro- 
 found learning, author of several exegetical 
 and historical works of great value. 
 
 Delitsch, Friedrich (6. 1850), son of the 
 above, has made a name as an Assyriologist, 
 the first of his works on the subject being 
 published when he was only twenty-four 
 years of age. 
 
 DeUus, Nikolaus (J>. 1813, d. 1888), 
 German Shakespearean scholar and critic. 
 
 De Lolme, Jean Louis (4. circa 1745, d. 
 1807), pohtical writer, bom in Geneva, spent 
 most of liis years in England, wliero he 
 published many works. 
 
 Delorme, Marion (6. circa 1612), famous 
 Frenchwoman, noted for her beauty and 
 wit, and her amours. She died probably in 
 1650, though strange traditions transfer the 
 date to 170G, or even 1741. 
 
 Delorme, Philibert {b. 1518, d. 1577), 
 French architect, designer of the palace of 
 the Tuileries. 
 
 Demades, {d. 318 b.c), Athenian orator, 
 opponent of Demosthenes, was put to death 
 by Antii)ater for his treacliory. 
 
 Demarnbray, Stoplien Charles (6. 1710, d. 
 1782), English writer on electricity. 
 
 Dembinski, Henri {h. 1791, d. 1864), 
 Polish g(uieral, fought under Napoleon 
 against Russia and at Leipsic. Dis- 
 tinguislied himself in tlie Polish revolution 
 of 1830, and in 1833 joined Mehemct All. 
 He supported Kossuth in the Hungai-ian 
 rebellion, but was defeated at Kapolna 
 (1849), fled to Turkey, and finally retired to 
 Paris in 1850.
 
 Dem 
 
 (248) 
 
 Den 
 
 Demetrius, cynic philosopher at the 
 bcgiuuiiig of the Christian era, died in 
 banishmeut. 
 
 Demetrius {d. 180 b.c), son of Philip, 
 last king of Macedon, was sent as a hostage 
 to Rome. 
 
 Demetrius, suruamed Poliorcetes, King of 
 MiK-edon {d. 28G B.C.), was defeated near 
 Gaza by Ptolemy in 318. He delivered 
 Athens from Demetrius Phalereus, but the 
 successors of Alexander defeated him at 
 Ipsus (301). . In 290 he seized the throne of 
 Macedonia, but was expelled (287), and died 
 in captivity. 
 
 Demetrius Phalereus (6. 34.5 b.c, d. 284 
 B.C.), Greek orator, was a native of Athens. 
 Banished from that state, he fled to Egypt, 
 where he died. He wrote a considerable 
 number of works, none of which are extant. 
 
 Demetrius I., surnamed Soter (Jb. 187 
 B.C., d. 150 B.C.), King of Syi-ia. 
 
 Demetrius II., surnamed Nicanor {h. 165 
 B.C., d. 127 B.C.), King of Syria, son of the 
 above. 
 
 Demetz, Frederic Auguste (b. 1796, d. 
 187o), French philanthropist, founder of an 
 institution at Mettray, near Tours, for the 
 reformation of juvenile offenders. 
 
 Demidoff, Auatol {b. circa 1810, d. 1858), 
 Count of Sau Donato, Eussian traveller and 
 writer. 
 
 Democritus {b. b.c 460), Greek philo- 
 sopher, vp-as called the "laughing philo- 
 sopher." 
 
 Demoivre, Abraham (Jb. 1667, d. 1754), 
 bom at Vitri, in Champagne; was driven 
 from France by the revocation of the edict 
 of Xantes, and settled in England. He was 
 a fellow of the Royal Society, and member 
 of the Academies of Science of Berlin and 
 Paris ; is best known for his Doctrine of 
 Chances. 
 
 De Morgan, Augustus (b. 1806, d. 1871), 
 matliematician and logician, bom in India, 
 and educated at Cambridge. He became 
 the first professor of mathematics at Uni- 
 versity College, London. 
 
 Demosthenes {b. circa 385 e.g., d. 322 
 B.C.), Greek orator, resolved to study 
 rhetoric, though his lungs were weak, his 
 pronunciation bad, and his gesture awkward. 
 He persevered till he surpassed all other \ 
 orators, and is noted for his Philippics and I 
 OljTithiacs, aimed against Philip of Ma- 
 cedon. On the advance of Antipater he 
 fled, and poisoned himself in preference to 
 fallmg into his enemies' hands. 
 
 Dempster, Thomas {b. 1579, d. 162.5), 
 
 Koman Catholic writer, born in Scotland, 
 and studied at Cambridge. He taught 
 successfully at Paris, Toulouse, Nismes, and 
 Pisa. He was the author of several his- 
 torical works. 
 
 D'EngMen, Louis Antoine Henri de Bour- 
 bon, Due {b. 1772, d. 1804), French prince, 
 born at Chautilly, son of the Duke of 
 Bourbon, and the last representative of the 
 family of Conde. He fought against the 
 republic till the army was disbanded in 
 1801. He then retired to Ettenheim in 
 Germany, but was there arrested by order 
 of Napoleon, on the charge of conspiracy, 
 and taken to the castle of Vincennes, where 
 he was shot. 
 
 Denliam, Sir John (b. 1615, d. 1668), 
 English poet, wliose father was chief baron 
 of the Irish exchequer, and afterwards a 
 judge in England. His chief works were a 
 tragedy. The Sophy (1641), and Cooper's 
 
 HiUixdAS). ^ V ^' i- 
 
 Denina, Giacomo Maria Carlo {b. 1731, d. 
 1813), Italian historian, for many years pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at Turia, and later librarian 
 to Napoleon I. 
 
 Denison, George Anthony {b. 1805), arch- 
 deacon, a well-known leader of the High 
 Church party, was in 1845 appointed vicar 
 of East Brent, Somersetshire. He has more 
 than once been charged with heresy, is a 
 stem opponent of secular education, and 
 advocates an advanced ritual in the services 
 of the Church, the use of the confessional, 
 and the revival of Church authority. 
 
 Denman, Thomas, baron {b. 1779, d. 
 1854), politician and judge, son of Dr. 
 Thomas Denman, a London physician, 
 was elected to Parliament in 1818 for the 
 pocket borough of Wa.reham, and in 1820 
 was elected for Nottingham, which place he 
 represented as long as he sat in the House. 
 He always voted with Lord Brougham and 
 the Whig party. In 1832 he succeeded Lord 
 Tenterden as Lord Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench, and was afterwards raised to 
 the peerage, 
 
 D'Ennery, Adolphe Philippe {b. 1811), 
 French dramatist, author of nmnerous 
 successful pieces. 
 
 Dennis, John {b. 1657, d. 1734), English 
 poet and critic, after a tour through the 
 Continent, took his place among the wits and 
 men of fashion in London. He squandered 
 a considerable fortune, and then the Duke 
 of Marlborough obtained him a situation at 
 the Custom House, but this he mortgaged. 
 He was one of the best-abused men in 
 English literature, and was assailed by both 
 Swift and Pope. He died in poverty, aggra- 
 vated by blindness.
 
 Den 
 
 ( 249 ) 
 
 Der 
 
 Dentatus, Marcus Aimius Curius {b. circa 
 320 B.C.), Roman general, vanquished the 
 Samnites, Sabines, and gained a great 
 victory over Pyrrhus, near Tarentum, 274 
 B.C. He was three times consul. 
 
 D'Eon de Beaumont, Charles Genevieve 
 Timothee (b. 1728, d. ISIO), known as "The 
 Chevalier d'Eon," French adventurer, was 
 sent on a diplomatic mission to London in 
 1762, hut was recalled by Louis XVI., who 
 compelled him to wear female costume, 
 which he had before iised as a means of dis- 
 guise. A doubt existed as to his sex, which 
 was only dispelled after his death, in 
 destitution. 
 
 Depping, George Bernard {b. 1784, d. 
 1853), French historical and miscellaneous 
 writer. 
 
 Depretis, Augustino {b. 1811, d. 1888), 
 Italian statesman, took an active part against 
 Austria, and in 1862 became minister of 
 public works, and in 1 866 of marine and of 
 finance. In 1878 he was called to office as 
 leader of a coalition ministry, retired after 
 six months, but again returned to office in 
 1881, when he carried out various electoral 
 reforms. After brief resignations in 1884 
 and 1885 he died in harness. 
 
 De Quincey, Thomas {b. 1785, d. 1859), 
 English essayist, was bom at Manchester. 
 His father, Thomas Quincey (not De 
 Quincey) , was a merchant, aud left his family 
 well provided for. De Quincey was first 
 educated at Salford and at Bath, and after- 
 wards at Winckworth and the Manchester 
 grammar school, from which he ranaway, and 
 subsequently went through the adventures 
 and privations which he described in the 
 Confessions of an English Upturn Eater. In 
 1803 he went up to Worcester College, 
 Oxford, which he left without a degree, and 
 soon after became acquainted with Coleridge 
 and Wordsworth, took a cottage at Gras- 
 mere, and became one of the famous Lake 
 scholars. Here he remained for many years, 
 occasionally visiting London and Edinburgh. 
 In 1830 he removed with his wife and eight 
 children to the latter place, and lived there 
 till his wife's death in 1837. He had 
 acquired the habit of taking opium by using 
 it to cure an attack of neuralgia, and so 
 greatly did it grow upon him that he was 
 known to take as many as 12,000 drops, 
 equal to ten wineglasses, in a day. He 
 was engaged in preparing fourteen volumes 
 of his works for the press within a few days 
 of his death. Besides the Opium Eater, the 
 following works may be mentioned : Murder 
 Considered as one of the Fine Arts (1827), 
 Suspiria de Frofiindis (1845), The English 
 Mail Coach, and A Vision of Sudden JJeath 
 (1849). 
 
 Derby, Eliza, Countess of. \See Farren.] 
 
 Derby, James Stanley, seventh Earl of (i. 
 1596, d. 1651). He fought on the Eoj'aUst 
 side in the Civil war, and being taken 
 prisoner at the battle of Worcester was 
 beheaded at Bolton. His countess, Charlotte 
 de la Tremouille, is famous for her heroic 
 defence of Lathom House (1644), and of the 
 Isle of Man (1651). 
 
 Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 
 fourteenth earl of {b. 1799, d. 1869), English 
 statesman, was educated at Eton and Christ 
 Church. Oxford, and was elected member 
 for Stockbridge in 1820. In 1830 he was 
 appointed Chief Secretary to the Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland under Earl Grey, in 
 1833 Secretary of State for the Colonies, but 
 the following year left the Whig party, and 
 for some years remained an independent 
 member. He again became Colonial Secre- 
 tary in 1841, and in 1844 was called ut. to tlie 
 Lords in his father's barony of Stanley. In 
 1845 he resigned on account of Sir Eobert 
 Peel's determination to repeal the Corn 
 Laws,_ and henceforvrard led the Tory party. 
 In 1852 he was Premier for a short'period, 
 and again in 1858. He returned to office in 
 1866, and carried the Reform Bill of 1867, 
 and resigned the following year. He was 
 one of the greatest parliamentary debaters. 
 
 Derby, Edward Henry Smith Stanley, 
 earl of {h. 1826), son of the above, educated 
 at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 entered Parliament iu 1848 as member for 
 King's LjTin. In 1852 he was Under- 
 Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and in 1855 
 Secretary for India, when he arranged the 
 transfer of the Indian Government from the 
 Company to the Crown. In 1866 he was 
 Foreign Secretary, aud succeeded his father 
 in the earldom in 1869. In 1874 he resigned 
 his post as Foreign Secretary, and seceded to 
 the Liberal party iu 18S0, being appointed 
 Secretary to the Colonies in 1882. In 1886 
 he left Mr. Gladstone, differing from him on 
 the Home Rule question. 
 
 Derham, William (/;. 1657, d. 1735), 
 English clergyman, educated at Trinity 
 College, Oxford, was vicar of Warbridge, 
 Berkshire, and afterwards rector of L'^p- 
 miuster, Essex, and canon of Windsor. He 
 is best known by his Fhijsico- Theology. 
 
 Dering, Edward {d. 1576), English puritan 
 divine and writer. His works appeared in a 
 collective form in 1595, 1597, aud 1614. 
 
 Dering, Sir Edward {b. 1598. d. 1644), 
 politician, who embraced the Royal cause iu 
 the Civil war, raising a regiment at his own 
 expense. 
 
 Dermody, Thomas (b. 1775, d. 1802), Irish 
 poet, who tired numerous benefactors by his 
 dissipated life, and died in poverty and 
 wretchef'ness near Sydenham.
 
 D^r 
 
 ( 250 ) 
 
 Des 
 
 D^roulede. Paul {b. 1848), French poet 
 and dramatist, was put to the law, but chose 
 the army in preference. His Chants du Soldat 
 were extremely popular. He espoused the 
 Boulangist cause, and was chairman of the 
 "League of Patriots." 
 
 De Ruyter, Michel Adriaanzoon {b. 1607, 
 d. 167o), Dutch admiral, made several 
 voyages to the West Indies and Brazil, and 
 in 16il was made rear-admiral. In 1(352 he 
 defeated the English ofE Plymouth, but a few 
 months later was worsted off the Flemish 
 coast. In 1667 he took Sheerness and sailed 
 up the Thames, and fought successfully in 
 Solibay. He was mortally wounded in an 
 action with the French off Messina. 
 
 Dervisli, Pasha {b. 1813), Turkish general 
 and diplomatist, was educated in London 
 and Paris. On his return to Turkey he was 
 nominated engineer-in-chief of the mines of 
 Keban and Argana, in Asia Minor, and 
 afterwards professor of chemistry and 
 physics in the military school of Constanti- 
 nople, and then general of brigade. He 
 was afterwards Ottoman commissioner for 
 settUng the frontier-line between Turkey 
 and Persia. In 1856 he was delegated to 
 attend the great coimcil of war which had 
 been summoned to assemble in Paris. In 
 1862 he was engaged in military operations 
 in Montenegro, and in concert with Husein 
 Pasha compelled Prince Nicholas and his 
 father, Miako, to sign the peace of Scutari. 
 In the Russian war he was engaged in the 
 defence of Batoum ; in 1880 he was employed 
 in reducing Albania, and in 1882 was sent on 
 a mission to Egypt. 
 
 Derwentwater, James Radclyife, Earl of 
 (b. 1(588, d. 1716), took an active part in the 
 rebellion of 1715, but was compelled to 
 surrender at Preston. He was beheaded on 
 Tower Hill. 
 
 Deryck or Derick, Peter Cornelius (h. 
 1568, d. 1030), a landscape and portrait 
 painter of Delft. 
 
 Desagruliers, Jean Theophile {b. 1683, d. 
 1744), natural philosopher, was born in 
 France, but his parents brought him to 
 England when he was two years of age, and 
 he ultimately settled for some time at West- 
 minster. After some years he obtained a 
 living, first in Norfolk, then in Essex, and 
 was chaplain to the Prince of Wales. He 
 was a member at the Royal Society, and 
 contributed many valuable papers and 
 lectures. 
 
 Desalx de Veygoux, Louis Charles 
 Antoine ('). 1768, d. 1800), one of Bonaparte's 
 favourite generals, killed by a musket-ball 
 at the battle of Marengo. 
 
 Desaugiers, Marc (b. 1772, d. 1827), one 
 of the best song writers of France. 
 
 Desbarres, Joseph Frederick Wallet (b. 
 1722, d. 1824), mihtary engineer, who 
 rendered great services in North America. 
 Bom in England, in 1756 he sailed as a 
 lieutenant in the 60th Foot to America, 
 where he commanded a corps of field ar- 
 tillery. In 1757 he won over the Indians, 
 who had taken Fort Schenectady, and was 
 aide-de-camp to Wolfe at Quebec. He con- 
 trolled the operations during the conquest of 
 Canada, and was made quarter- master- 
 general in the expedition that captured 
 Newfoundland in 1762. He also surveyed 
 Nova Scotia, and made charts of the North 
 American coasts for Lord Howe. He 
 was appointed lieutenant - governor of 
 Cape Breton and of Prince Edward 
 Island. 
 
 Descartes, Rene {b. 1596, d. 1650), French 
 philosopher and mathematician, was edu- 
 cated at the college of La Fleche, which he 
 left in 1612, dissatisfied with its methods and 
 dogmas. He entered the Dutch arniy in 
 1616, and that of the Duke of Bavaria in 
 1619, but renounced the mihtary profession 
 in 1621, and then travelled, and settled in 
 Holland in 1629, in order to devote himself 
 to the study of mathematics, astronomy, 
 metaphysics, etc. He made important dis- 
 coveries in algebra and geometry, and was 
 the first who introduced exponents, or applied 
 the notation of indices to algebraic powers, 
 and gave a new and ingenious solution of 
 equations of the fourth degree. In 1641 he 
 published Medttationes de Frima Philosophia, 
 which gave a wonderful impulse to philoso- 
 phical inquiry. In 1644 he brought forth 
 his Fri»cipia'Philosophi(e, in which he pro- 
 pounds his theory of the world. The French 
 court granted him a pension of 3,000 livres 
 in 1647. He went to Stockholm in 1649, 
 where he died. 
 
 Deschamps, Emile (*. 1791, d. 1871), 
 French poet and dramatist, produced in 
 1818 two successful comedies — Sflmours et 
 Fhrian and Le Tvvr de Fareur. lu 1828 he 
 published a volume of poems called French 
 and Foreign Studies, and he contributed prose 
 tales to the journals. 
 
 Deschamps, Eustache {b. 1328, d. 1415), 
 French poet, led an eventful life as soldier, 
 magistrate, and courtier. He composed 
 numerous haUitdes, rondeaux, virelais, and a 
 long poem, the Miroir de Mariage. 
 
 Deschanel, Martin (J. 1819), French author 
 and editor of the Journal des Debats. 
 
 Heshze, RajTnond {b. 1750, d. 1828), coiin- 
 cillor of the parliament of Bordeaiix, and 
 one of the counsel who defended Louis XVI. 
 He was imprisoned, but escaped the scaffold, 
 but could not be induced to serve under the 
 Directory. On the return of the Bourbona 
 he held several distinguished of&ces, and waa
 
 Des 
 
 (251 
 
 Die 
 
 made a peer of France, and president of the 
 Court of Appeal. 
 
 Desfontaines, Rene Louiche {b. 1752, d. 
 1833), French naturalist, made a successful 
 expedition to Barbary in 1783, and in 1786 
 was chosen professor of botany at the Jardin 
 des Plantes, Paris. His principal work was 
 Flora Atlantica. 
 
 Desboulieres, Antoinette du Ligier de la 
 Garde (/a circalQM,d. 1694), French poetess, 
 the wife of the Seigneur Deshoulieres, and a 
 very prominent figure in the literary circles 
 of Paris during the reign of Louis XIV. 
 She wrote much, both in poetry and prose, 
 and was known among her contemporaries 
 as the "Tenth Muse." 
 
 Desmoulins, Camille {b. 1760, d. 1794), 
 French revolutionist and writer, was a prime 
 mover in the 1789 revolution, his writings 
 exercising a great influence, notably La 
 Lanterne aux Farisiens, and Les Rerolutwns 
 de France et de Brabant. He became secretary 
 to Danton, and was elected by Paris to the 
 National Convention; but afterwards his 
 moderation led to his execution with 
 Danton. 
 
 Desnoyers, Auguste Gaspard Louis 
 Boucher, Baron {b. 1779, d. 1857), French 
 engraver and designer, whose talent dis- 
 played itself at an early age, and who was 
 taken up by Darcis. Among his many en- 
 gravings of the old masters, those after 
 Raphael are best known. 
 
 Dessalines, Jean Jacques {b. 1760, d. 
 1806), negro emperor of Hayti. Taken to 
 Hayti as a slave, he joined Toussaint 
 rOuverture's cause, and after his leader's 
 transportation drove the French from the 
 island, and procured the proclamation of 
 himself as emperor. His cruelties brought 
 about his assassination two years later. 
 
 Deutsch, Emanuel Oscar Menahem (6. 
 1829, d. 1873), German Talmudist, of 
 Hebrew descent. In 1855 he came from 
 Germany to England to occupy a post in the 
 British Museum, and he held the position 
 till his death. In 1867 he published in the 
 Qnartei-ly Beriew an article on the Talmud, 
 which at once gave him the highest reputa- 
 tion, and which was followed by other 
 writings of great erudition. He died in 
 Egypt, whither he repaired in 1872 to 
 recruit his broken health. 
 
 De Vere, Aubrey Thomas {b. 1814), poet 
 and political writer of Irish nationality, first 
 published, in 1842, The JFaldetises. In 1872 
 he produced the Legends of iSt. Patrick ; in 
 1879, Legends of the Saxon Saints, and in 
 1882, The Foray of Queen Meade, and othtr 
 jjegends of Ireland's Heroic Age, eta 
 
 Devonshire, Duke of, Spencer Compton 
 Cavendish (6. 1833), eighth duke, statesman, 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge; 
 was attached to Lord Granville's mission to 
 Russia in 1856, and returned for North Lan- 
 cashire as a Liberal 1857. In 1859 he moved 
 and carried a vote of no confidence against 
 Lord Derby, and in 1863 entered upon 
 oifice as Lord of the Admii-alty and under- 
 secretary for War. In 1866 he was for a 
 short time Secretary for War in Lord Rus- 
 sell' s administration. Having lost his former 
 seat in 1868, he was elected for the Radnor 
 Burghs, was Postmaster-General under Mr. 
 Gladstone till 1871, then Chief Secretary for 
 Ireland till 1874. During the succeeding 
 period he led the Opposition in the House 
 of Commons, and after 1880 was invited to 
 form an administration. He declined, but 
 took oifice as Secretary for India, and waa 
 from 1882 Secretary for "War. He had re- 
 gained his Lancashire seat, and was re- 
 elected for it in 1885 and 1886. In 1886 
 he broke with Mr. Gladstone on Home Rule. 
 In 1891 he was chairman of the Royal Cora- 
 mission on Labour Questions. He succeeded 
 to the title in 1892. 
 
 Diaz, Bartholomew (d. 1500), Portuguese 
 navigator, in 1486 commanded an expedition 
 to Africa, and, being diiven southward by a 
 gale, he doubled the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Dibdin, Charles (^1. 1745, dA9,U), nautical 
 song writer and dramatist, appeared on the 
 London stage, but failed as an actor, though 
 his musical sketches were a great success. 
 His ballads of the sea, such as Tom Boivling, 
 and Blow High, Blow Low, at once achieved 
 great popularity. 
 
 Dickens, Charles {b. \%\2,d. 1870), novelist, 
 was born at Laiidport, Portsmouth, where his 
 father held a small appointment in the Navy 
 Pay-Office ; but when this position was lost 
 the family came to London and Dickens' 
 youth was spent in constant penury and 
 want. For some time he was employed in a 
 blacking factory, but at twelve years of age 
 he was again sent to school, and after three 
 years' tuition he entered an attorney's office. 
 Then he became a shorthand writer, and at 
 nineteen obtained the position of parlia- 
 mentary reporter. During the years 1831 to 
 1836 he represented various papers— latterly 
 the Morning Chronicle— und in 1836 his 
 Sketches by Bo:: were published in a collected 
 form. A publishing firm wishing to pro- 
 duce an illustrated periodical, Dickens 
 undertook the lettei-press, and produced the 
 Piclfirick Papers. At the same time he was 
 writin.g Oliver Twist. In 1842 he visited 
 America, and wrote on his return the 
 Ameririin Notes. In 1843 he began to pub- 
 lish 3L.(rtin Chuzzlewit, which at first fell 
 rather flat, and, in order to economise, 
 I Dickens went to live at Genoa. When the
 
 Did 
 
 ( 252 ) 
 
 Dig 
 
 Dai?;/ yews was started Dickens was ap- 
 pointed editor, but he retired very soon, and 
 busied himself in further novel-writing — 
 Dumhe;/ a»d Sun. David Copperjicld, llli-ak 
 House, ahA. Little ]>orrtt, all being produced 
 between 1846 and 1855. In 1850 he started 
 tlie perioilical Household Words, afterwards 
 changed to All the Year Round. In 1858 he 
 separated from his wife. In this year he 
 first appeared as a public reader of his own 
 works, and from 1866 to 1870 he was almost 
 continuouslj' employed in this task, his 
 success being unexampled. In 1867 he made 
 a lecturing tour in America, where he was 
 received with great enthusiasm, despite his 
 unpalatable American Notes. The strain 
 proved too great for his constitution, and 
 he died suddenly at his house at Gadshill, 
 leaving his last novel, Edwin Drood, incom- 
 plete. 
 
 Diderot, Denis (b.UlS, d. 1784), French 
 writer. As a young man his great love of 
 study disinclined him from any profession, 
 andhe supported himself by teaching for some 
 years, his father having stopped his allow- 
 ance. In his penury he secretly married a 
 sempstress ; but after a time he seut his 
 wife and child to live \\'ith his father, and 
 himself remained in Paris carrying on a 
 liaison. He now began to write indus- 
 triously, and in 1746 published his Pensees 
 Fhilosophiques, while he suffered imprison- 
 ment for his Lettre sur les Aveugles. To- 
 gether with D'Alembert the Encyclopedie des 
 Sciences des Arts des Metiers was begun, and 
 was carried on by Diderot alone, who dis- 
 played the most untiring industry iu its 
 compDation. His thriftlessness, and the 
 readiness with which he lent his services to 
 those who asked for them, obliged him in 
 Ms old age to sell his books. They were 
 bought by the Empress Catherine, who ap- 
 pointed Diderot custodian, and who treated 
 him so handsomely that after his visit to 
 Russia he returned to France a rich man. 
 He only survived his good fortune twelve 
 days. 
 
 Diebitscli-Sabalkanski, Hans Karl Fried- 
 rich Anton {b. 1785, (/. 1831), Count von 
 Diebitsch and Wardin, Russian general, 
 bom in Silesia, passed from the Prussian 
 service to that of Russia. He was wounded 
 at Austerlitz, and greatly distinguished 
 himself in the campaign of 1812, and later 
 at the battles of Dresden and Leipzig. He 
 was commander-in-chief during the Turkish 
 war of 1828, his famous passage of the 
 Balkans procuring for him the name Sabal- 
 kanski. He served in Poland in 1830. 
 
 Diemen, Antoin van {b. 1593, d. 1645), 
 Dutch Governor of Ba.tavia, which post he 
 held under the Dutch East India Company. 
 Besides doing much for the island, he fitted 
 out several expeditions of exploration, 
 
 discovering Tasmania, or Van Diemen's 
 Land. 
 
 Dieterici, Karl Friederich Wilhelm (6. 
 1790, d. 1859), German economist, in 1831 
 became a privy councillor ; and in 1834 was 
 appointed professor of political economy iu 
 Berlin university ; while in 1844 he suc- 
 ceeded to the directorship of the national 
 bureau of statistics. He was the author of 
 several economical and statistical works of 
 authority. 
 
 Diez, Christian Friedrich (J). 1794, d. 1876), 
 Gei-man philologist, for many years pro- 
 fessor at the Bonn university. The 
 Romance languages fonned the subject of 
 his most devoted study, and in this con- 
 nection he wrote many most valuable and 
 authoritative works, such as Grauimar of 
 the Romance Language, Etymological Die- 
 tio)iary of the Romance Languages, and Tht 
 Life and Works of the Troubadours, 
 
 Digby, Sir Kenelm (b. 1603, d. 1665), 
 son of Sir Everard Digby, who was executed 
 for participation in the Gunpowder Plot, 
 was knighted by James I., and held court 
 appointments under Charles I. In 1628 he 
 fitted out a squadron at his own cost, and 
 defeated the combined fleets of Venice and 
 Algiers. During the Civil war he was im- 
 prisoned by Parliament for some time, and 
 then retired to France, returning in 1661. 
 He was the author of several philosophical 
 works. 
 
 Digby, Lord George (b. 1612, d. 1676), son 
 of the preceding, as a member of the House 
 of Commons was concerned in the impeach- 
 ment of Strafford, but refusing to sign the 
 bill of attainder was expelled from Parlia- 
 ment. He took a prominent part in the war 
 on the Royalist side, and at its close with- 
 drew to France and afterwards to the 
 Netherlands. At the Restoration he again 
 took part in public affairs, offering great 
 opposition to Lord Clarendon. 
 
 Digby, John, Earl of Bristol {b. 1580, d. 
 1653), knighted by James I. in 1605, and 
 subsequently created first Baron Digby, a,nd 
 then Earl of Bristol, was sent on a mission 
 to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince 
 Charles with the Infanta. Returning, he 
 was banished from Court and forbidden to 
 sit in the House of Lords. His property 
 was confiscated by the Long Parliament, 
 and he died in exile. 
 
 Digges, Sir Dudley (b. 1583, d. 1639), 
 English politician, knighted by James I., 
 and served in the parliamentary commission 
 which formulated the charges against 
 Bacon. In 1626 he took an active part in 
 the impeachment of Buckingham, and was 
 committed to the Tower by the king. In 
 1636 he was appointed Master of the Rolls.
 
 Dil 
 
 (253) 
 
 D'ls 
 
 Dilke, Ashton Wentworth {b. ISoO, d. 
 1882), politician, was educated at Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge. In 1880 he was returned 
 for Newcastle in the Radical interest, retiring 
 shortly before his death. He was an authority 
 on Russian affairs, and was the proprietor 
 of the Weekly Despatch, 
 
 Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart. 
 (p. 1S43), brother of the above. After 
 being educated at Trinity Hall, Cain- 
 bridge, and taking his degree at the head 
 of the law tripos, he was called to the 
 bar at the age of tweuty-three. Two 
 years later he was returned by a large 
 majority as member of Parliament for 
 Chelsea in the Radical interest. He worked 
 with Mr. Forster in amending the Education 
 Bill, and was strongly iu favour of giving 
 women a vote at municipal elections. 
 Being re-elected for Chelsea iu 187-1, Sir 
 Charles went for his second tour round_ the 
 world, and distinguished himself as a writer, 
 also publishing some of his grandfather's 
 papers under the title Papers of a Critic. 
 In 1878 he carried in the House of Commons 
 the measure extending the hours for polling 
 at the London elections, which is still called 
 "Dilke's Act." In 1879 he opposed the 
 Government in its management of affairs in 
 South Africa. In 18^, on the return to 
 office of a Liberal Government under Mr. 
 Gladstone, he entered the Ministry as Under- 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affaii-s. Two 
 years later Sir Charles succeeded to the pre- 
 sidency of the Local Government Board, and 
 was made a member of the cabinet. In 1885 
 he took a leading part in conducting the Re- 
 distribution Bill through the Lower House, 
 and afterwards endeavoured strongly to 
 obtain a reform of local government. In 
 1886, having lost his seat, he retired into 
 private life, shortly before this having 
 married Emilia, widow of the Rev. Mark 
 Pattisou. In 1892 he reappeared in politics 
 as member of Parliament for the Forest of 
 Dean division. 
 
 DiUmann, Christian Friedrich August {b. 
 1823), theologian and professor of Oriental 
 languages, was bom at lUingen in Wiirtem- 
 berg, and afterwards became professor of 
 exegesis at Tiibingen university, where he 
 had studied. Later he took high positions 
 at Kiel, Giessen, and Berlin, devoting much 
 of his time to the study of the .^thiopic 
 languages and publishing numerous works 
 on this subject. 
 
 Dillon, John, M.P. [b. 18.51), was educated 
 at the CathoUc university of Dublin. He 
 assisted Pamell and Michael Davitt in 
 founding the Land League in America, and 
 in 188Q was elected member of Parliament 
 for county Tipperary (a position his father, 
 John Blake Dillon, had pre\'iously held). 
 In May, 1881, he was arrested, but in a few 
 
 months was liberated on the ground of ill- 
 health, and for a time withdrew from the 
 political arena, not sympathising with 
 Pamell's attitude towards the Land Act. 
 Afterwards, being associated with the " No- 
 Rent" manifesto of the Land League, he 
 was committed to Kilmaiuham prison, with 
 Messrs. Parnell, Sexton, and O'Kelly, where 
 he remained till May, 1882. In 188o he 
 again took his seat iu Parliament as member 
 for East Mayo, and in 188(3, in consequence 
 of his supporting the '' Plan of Campaign," 
 was indicted for conspiracy, and bound over 
 to keep the peace. Under Lord Salisbury's 
 admiuistration of 188G he took one of the 
 most prominent parts in opposition to the 
 Government as a leader of the Irish party, 
 and was twice convicted under the Irish 
 Crimes Act. After enduring an imprison- 
 ment of three months, he went to AustraUa 
 to collect funds for the Irish party. Re- 
 turning, he was again, vrith O'Brien, con- 
 victed under the Crimes Act, but escaped 
 from Ireland in a yacht, and went to 
 America to collect funds. During his ab- 
 sence Parnell's leadershij) was repudiated by 
 the larger section of the Irish party, and 
 Dillon came to France to endeavour to heal 
 the breach. The negotiations having proved 
 fruitless, he returned to England, and was 
 at once arrested and imprisoned under the 
 sentence passed upon him before his tour in 
 America. 
 
 Diocletianus, Caius Valerius Jovius {b. 
 245, (/. 313), succeeded in 284 Numerian as 
 Roman emperor, having raised himself to 
 that position from the rank of common 
 soldier. His reign was distinguished by his 
 victories over the barbarians and his deter- 
 mined persecution of the Christians. In 304 
 he abdicated, and retired to Saloue. 
 
 Diogenes [b. 412 B.C., d. 323 B.C.), cynic 
 philosopher. The greater part of his life 
 was spent in Athens. In his old age he was 
 captured by pirates, by whom he was sold 
 to a wealthy Corinthian, whose firm friend 
 he became. 
 
 Disraeli, Benjamin, [See Beaconsfield.] 
 
 D'lsraeU, Isaac, D.C.L. {b. 1766, d. 1848), 
 the only sou of a Venetian merchant, for 
 many years resident in England, was an 
 earnest student of history and criticism, in 
 wliich he attained considerable distinction. 
 After publishing many valuable books, he 
 produced, in 1816, his Commentaries on the 
 Life and Reign of Cliarles I., for which the 
 University of Oxford conferred on him the 
 degree of D.C.L. A comprehensive history 
 of literature, which it was intended by 
 D' Israeli to extend to six volumes, had to be 
 abandoned, owing to its author being 
 stricken with blindness. He was a con- 
 tributor to the Quarterly Review, and hia
 
 Dix 
 
 (254) 
 
 Dol 
 
 Iteview of Spoicc^s Anecdotes, in 1820, led 
 to the famous Pope controversy. Other 
 •works of his axe Curiosities of Literature, 
 Calamities of Authors, and Quarrels of 
 Authors. 
 
 Dix, John Adams {b. 1798, d. 1879), 
 American general and politician, entering 
 the army at an early age, soon rose to 
 distinction under General Benin. In 1828 
 he left the army for the law, but on the out- 
 break of the Civil war was appointed major- 
 general of the New York militia. In 1863 
 he was transferred to New York, of which 
 he had command at the time of the riots. 
 At the close of the war he was appointed 
 minister in Paris, and in 1872 was elected by 
 the Republican party as governor of the 
 state of New York, but in 1874, when he 
 and his party were defeated by Mr. Tilden, 
 General Dix retired from pubUc Ufa. 
 
 Dixon, Denham {b. 1785, d. 1828), soldier 
 and explorer, served in Spain against the 
 French and fought at Waterloo. In 1821 
 he joined Oudney and Clapperton in their 
 African expedition, when they penetrated to 
 the interior from Tripoli, Dixon returning in 
 1825. In 1826 he was appointed superin- 
 tendent of the colony of Sierra Leone, where 
 he died. 
 
 Dixon, WiUiam Hep worth (b. 1821, d. 
 1879), man of letters, began his career at 
 Cheltenham, where he acted as editor to a 
 local newspaper. At twenty-five years of 
 age he went to London, where he entered as 
 student of the Inner Temple, and associated 
 himself with the Daily News. For this 
 paper he wrote articles on the Literature of 
 the Lower Orders and on London Prisons, 
 which were published in book form in 
 1850. From 1853-66 Mr. Dixon edited The 
 Athcnaum, and during this time made a 
 systematic study of the State archives, and 
 produced, in 1860, The Personal History of 
 Lord Bacon, in 1865, The Holy Land, and in 
 1866, New America. In 1868 he travelled 
 through Russia, and two years later brought 
 out his Free Russia, after which, to the time 
 of his death, he wrote no less than twenty- 
 five volumes of history, travel, and fiction. 
 In 1872 an action for libel was brought by 
 Mr. Dixon against the Pall Mall Gazette 
 for some severe criticisms on New America, 
 Spiritual Wives, and Free Russia, and after a 
 long trial he was awarded one farthing 
 damages. 
 
 DobeU, Sydney {b. 1824,^. 1874), poet and 
 man of letters, known also by the name 
 "Sydney Yendys." In 1850 he brought out 
 his first poem, The Roman, a drama, which 
 was favourably received, but his next work. 
 Balder (1854), was severely attacked. In 
 1855 he published, jointly with Mr. 
 Alexander Smith, his Sonnets of the War, 
 
 and the year following England in Time of 
 War. In politics he was always the friend 
 of Uberty, and he was probably the first to 
 introduce the system of co-operation into 
 his business, which was that of a wine 
 merchant. 
 
 Dobson, Henry Austin {b. 1840), poet and 
 man of letters. In 1856 he obtained a clerk- 
 ship in the Board of Trade, and his first 
 verses were published in 1873. Since that 
 time he has published numerous volumes of 
 verse, such as Proverbs in Porcelain, Old 
 World Idylls, and At the Sign of the Lyre. 
 He is also the author of several able 
 biographies. 
 
 Dobson, William Charles Thomas (*. 1817), 
 artist. In 1843 he was appointed head-master 
 of the Government school of design at 
 Birmingham, and in 1845 left the post to 
 travel on the Continent. In 1872 he was 
 elected Royal Academician, and in 1875 he 
 was elected a member of the Society of 
 Painters in Water Colours. His oil paint- 
 ings proved very popular, and his Alms- 
 deeds of Dorcas was painted by command of 
 the Queen. 
 
 Doderidge, John (*. 1555, d. 1628), 
 English lawyer, who was at the same time 
 an authority on art, theology, and antiquity. 
 He passed from the ofiice of solicitor-general 
 to the Pi-ince of Wales to a judgeship, and 
 was one of those judges who were cited 
 before the House of Lords for refusing to 
 admit Hampden to bail. 
 
 Doherty, .John (b. 1783, d. 1850), Irish 
 judge. In 1826 he was returned to Parlia- 
 ment for Kilkenny as a Tory, where his 
 reputation as a debater was so quickly 
 established that in 1827 he became Solicitor- 
 General. He is remembered especially for 
 his parliamentary encounters with O'Connell. 
 In 1830 he was made Chief Justice of Com- 
 mon Pleas in Ireland. 
 
 Dohrn, Anton (b. 1842), German zoologist, 
 established a zoological station at Naples in 
 1874, his own private contributions to this 
 great undertaking being supplemented by 
 those of the German and Italian govern- 
 ments. He has been a prolific contributor 
 to the scientific journals, and has made some 
 very valuable biological collections. 
 
 Dolet, :6tienne {b. 1509, d. 1546), French 
 printer, scholar, and poet, was the writer of 
 many valuable books, the most famous being 
 Com-nie»tarion<m Lingum Latina, which ob- 
 tained for him from Francis I. the privilege 
 of printing, during ten years, all the books 
 written, translated, or annotated by himself. 
 In 1543 the Parliament of Paris judged a 
 phrase in his translation of the Axiochus to 
 be heretical, and ordered him to be cruelly 
 tortured and strangled.
 
 D61 
 
 ( 255 ) 
 
 Don 
 
 Dollinger, Johann Josef Ignaz [b. 1799, d. 
 1890), theologian, became a priest in 1882, 
 and shortly sifter was appointed professor of 
 ecclesiastical history at Munich, when he 
 published The Meformation : its Development 
 and Results. In 1845 he sat in the Bavarian 
 parliament as representative of the Munich 
 university, and in 1851 was a delegate to 
 the parliament at Frankfort, where he ad- 
 vocated the separation of church and state. 
 In 1861 he delivered a course of lectures 
 against the temporal supremacy of the 
 Pope, and in the QEciunenical Council of 
 1869-70 he took up a very strong attitude 
 against the Vatican decrees. He became 
 the leader of the "Old Catholic" party, 
 and was excommunicated by the Archbishop 
 of Munich. In 1871 he was elected rector 
 of his university, and 1873 became president 
 of the Royal Academy of Science. At the 
 conference of the Old Catholics, held at 
 Bonn, in 1874, over which he presided, he 
 still fui'ther receded from the orthodox 
 church, and, ki fact, his sect established an 
 episcopacy of its own. 
 
 Dolomieu, Deodat Guy Silvain Tancrfede 
 Gratetde [h. 1750, d. 1801), French geologist. 
 Entering the Order of Malta at an early age, 
 he was imprisoned for a fatal duel with a 
 knight of the order, and during his confine- 
 ment he studied physical science. Pursuing 
 his studies after his release, he published 
 several treatises on geology, which obtained 
 for him election to the Academie des Sciences. 
 In 1777 he made a pedestrian tour in the south 
 of Europe, in the interest of geological obser- 
 vation, and in 1798 he joined the scientific 
 expedition to Egypt. Returning, he was 
 imprisoned for nearly two years by the 
 Knights of Malta, into whose power he fell. 
 
 Dombrowski, Jan Henryk {b. 175.5, d. 
 1818), Polish general. In 1770 he entered 
 the service of the Elector of Saxony, but in 
 1792, on the outbreak of the Polish insurrec- 
 tion, he returned to Warsaw, and took part 
 in the struggle against Russia and Prussia. 
 His services were so brilliant that, at the 
 conclusion of the war, he was oflfered com- 
 mands in the armies of both Russia and 
 Prussia. In 1796 he went to France, and 
 formed and commanded a Polish legion in 
 the Republican anny, which greatly dis- 
 tinguished itself in the Italian campaign. 
 In 1806 he was commissioned by Napoleon 
 to raise his countrymen in arms, and made a 
 triumphal entry into Warsaw. Heservedwith 
 much distinction in the Russian campaign 
 of 1812, and commanded the Polish division 
 in the Prussian campaign of 1813. In 1815 
 he was appointed general and Polish senator 
 by the Emperor Alexander of Russia. He 
 published the History of the Folish Legions in 
 Italy. 
 
 Domett, Alfred (b. 1811, d. 1887), poet 
 
 and statesman of New Zealand, was bom 
 and educated in England, and afterwards 
 travelled in America and on the Continent. 
 He settled in New Zealand in 1841, and in 
 1851 became secretary of state for New 
 Zealand, while, in 1862, he was called upon 
 to form a government. In 1865 he became 
 registrar-general of land, and in 1871 he 
 returned to England. His verses are 
 numerous. 
 
 Dominic, St., Dominigo de Guzman {b. 
 1170, d. 1221), Spanish priest who founded 
 the order which is named after him. He is 
 reputed to have been the initiator of the 
 Inquisition, and, at any rate, he filled the 
 office of inquisitor. His order were allowed 
 to settle in London in the district known as 
 Blackfriars. 
 
 Domitian, Titus Flavins Sabinus Domi- 
 tianus Augustus {b. a.d. 52, d. 96), Roman 
 Emperor. He was the youngest son of the 
 Emperor Vespasian, and succeeded his 
 brother, Titus, in 81. He undertook several 
 expeditions against the barbarians; but his 
 rule was so cruel and corrupt that it was 
 ended by his assassination. 
 
 Donaldson, James {b. 1831), philologist, a 
 native of Aberdeen. In 1852 he was 
 appointed Greek tutor in the University of 
 Edinburgh, and in 1881 professor of Latin 
 at Aberdeen University. In 1886 he sue- 
 ceeded Principal Shairp as principal of St. 
 Andrew's University. He has published 
 many valuable works on Greek literature 
 and on historical and theological subjects. 
 
 Donatello, or Donato di Betto Bardi 
 
 (b. 1386, d. 1466), Italian sculptor, a native 
 of Florence, received his fii'st instruction 
 from Lorenzo Bicci, and his first great works 
 were St. Peter and St. Mark, and the church 
 of St. Michael at Florence. His other 
 works were numerous, including an 
 equestrian statue in bronze of Erasmus 
 Gatemelata at Padua. 
 
 Donati, Corso (d. 1308), Florentine 
 nobleman, and the leader of the Neri 
 party, was such a disturbing influence in 
 the republic that his banishment was 
 decreed. Proceeding to Rome, he induced 
 Boniface VIII. to send Charles of Valois to 
 Florence as pontifical vicar, and he 
 employed this papal interference for the 
 purpose of proscribing his enemies. In this 
 proscription his relative Dante was included. 
 Finally he was again compelled to fly from 
 Florence, and was assassinated soon after. 
 
 Donati, Giambattista {b. 1826, d. 1873), 
 ItaUan astronomer, became famous by his 
 astronomical observations while at the 
 Florence observatory. In 1860 lie published 
 his work on the upectra of stars, which first 
 drew attention to that branch of astronomy,
 
 Don 
 
 ( 256 ) 
 
 Dor 
 
 and two years previously he discovered a 
 new comet, called " Douati's comet." lu 
 1864 he succeeded to the directorship of the 
 observatory, aud spent much time in the 
 establishmeut of a new observatory. He 
 died of cholera. 
 
 Donati, Vitaliauo {b. 1713, d. 1763), 
 Italian naturalist, was a professor at Turin 
 university, aud made many scientific 
 collections in the course of his naturalist 
 tours through the length of the Italian 
 peninsula. Later he went to Egyjjt and the 
 East, but was shipwrecked and drowned on 
 the return voyage. 
 
 Donizetti, Gaetano {b. 1798, d. 1848), 
 Italian musician and composer ; entered the 
 academy of Naples, but for many years his 
 talent was obscured from recognition by the 
 
 Eopularity of Eossini. In 1830 he produced 
 is opera Anna Bokna, which had a very 
 great success in France and England as well 
 as in Italy. His best known work, Lucia di 
 Lammeriiioor, was first produced at Milan 
 in 1835. Lucrezia Borgia., which was 
 founded on Victor Hugo's Zucrece Borgia, 
 was for some time excluded from France, 
 but in 1842 it was produced in London with 
 great success. Among his other works were 
 B'Elisir d' Amove, a comic opera; Don 
 Fasquale in 1843 ; La Figlia del Reggimento ; 
 and La Favorita. 
 
 Donne, John [b. 1573, d. 1631), poet and 
 divine, born of CathoUc parents, joined the 
 Protestant faith while reading for the bar, 
 and about this time he published his first 
 poems. In 1594 lie went to Italy and Spain, 
 and on his return he became secretary to 
 Lord Ellesmere, Lord Keeper of the Great 
 Seal. While in this position he privately 
 married Lord Ellesmere's niece, and, on the 
 marriage being discovered, he was imprisoned 
 bj- Sir George More, his wife's father. 
 After his hberation he lived with his wife in 
 Loudon and Paris, and when he returned to 
 England was induced by James I. to take 
 orders, subsequently being presented with 
 the deanery of St. Paul's. His poetical 
 works are numerous, aud of a very varied 
 character. He began by vsritiug erotic poetry, 
 and in later life devoted himself to meta- 
 physical compositions. It was to his work, 
 The Psetido Martin; a composition directed 
 against the Catholics, that he largely owed 
 the favour of James I. 
 
 Donoso, Cortes Juan Francisco, Maria de 
 la Salad, Marquis de Valdegamas (b. 1809, 
 d. 1853), Spanish writer and diplomatist. 
 Joining, in 1832, the popular party on the 
 question of the royal succession, he wrote 
 and sent to the king a treatise, which pro- 
 cured for him a post in the ministry. For a 
 short time after the death of Ferdinand VII. 
 he was secretary to the council of ministers, 
 
 and he retired to France with the queen- 
 mother during the dictatorship of Espar- 
 tero. In 1843 he returned to Spain aud sub- 
 sequently became minister- plenipotentiary 
 at Berlm. His principal work was Essays 
 on Catholicism, Liberalism, and Socialism. 
 
 Doo, George Thomas (b. 1800, d. 1886), 
 historical engraver. In 1824 he produced 
 his engraving, 2Vte Duke of York, after Sir 
 Thomas Lawrence, and for this he was 
 appointed engraver to his Royal Highness. 
 Having spent some time studying in Paris, 
 he helped to form an Academy of Sculpture 
 in the Savoy, and then occupied himself 
 with lecturing on the history and develop- 
 ment of art. In 1836 he was appointed 
 historical engraver to William IV., and in 
 1842 to Queen Victoria. In 1856 he was 
 elected Eoyal Academician, and later was 
 chosen as one of the four representatives of 
 the Royal Academy at the Congrfes Artistique 
 held at Antwerp. Among his principal 
 works are Ralfaelle's Infant Christ, Cor- 
 regio's Ecce Homo, and Wilkie's Knox 
 Preaching before the Lords of the Covenant. 
 
 Doran, John (b. 1807, d. 1878), journalist 
 and man of letters, was first known as a 
 contributor to the Literary Chronicle, and in 
 1835 produced his History of Reading. Until 
 1846 he edited a London weekly newspaper, 
 and succeeded Mr. Thorns as editor of Notes 
 and Queries. From time to time, also, he 
 edited the Athenccuin. Besides his contribu- 
 tions to periodical literature, he published an 
 annotated edition of Xeuophon's Anabasis, 
 a Life of Dr. Young, Saints and Sinners, 
 Knights and their Days, and other works. 
 
 Dore, Paul Gustavo (b. 1832, d. 1883), 
 French painter and book illustrator, was 
 bom at Strasbourg and educated at a 
 Parisian lycee. He became known by his 
 illustrations of Rabelais and Don Quixote, 
 and for some years was a constant con- 
 tributor to the Journal pour Rire. At the 
 time of the Crimean war he produced his 
 Alma and InJcermami ; in 1861 he published 
 the first of his famous illustrations to Dante's 
 Divine Comedy; and next his illustrations 
 to the Bible, Paradise Lost, The Ancient 
 Mariner, and The Idylls of the King. These 
 works secured for him a greater reputation 
 in England than was accorded to him in his 
 native coimtrj\ He afterwards devoted 
 himself to the production of large pictures 
 on religious subjects, such as The Dream of 
 Pilate's Wife, The Entry into Jerusalem, axi.6. 
 Ecce Homo. 
 
 Doria, Andrea (6. 1468, d. 1560), Genoese 
 patriot, entered the Genoese navy when 
 quite young, and rendered distinguished 
 services. In 1527 he fought with the French 
 under Francis I. against the emperor, 
 Charles V., but, becoming disgusted with the
 
 Dor 
 
 (257) 
 
 Don 
 
 treatment of Genoa by the French, he joined 
 the emperor. As admiral of the imperial 
 fleet he raised the siege of Naples, and drove 
 the French from Genoa, becoming a magis- 
 trate of the republic. In the naval war 
 with the Turks he achieved several triumphs 
 on behalf of the Emjjeror Charles. In his 
 latter days a conspiracy was formed against 
 him, but, owing to the death of the leading 
 conspirator, it failed, and Doria retained his 
 power and popularity until his death. 
 
 Dorigny, a family of French artists. 
 Michael {b. 1617, d. 1665), was a professor 
 at the Paris Academy. Loms, son of the 
 above (b. 16.54, d. 1742). Sir Nicholas, 
 brother of the above {b. 165S, d. 1746), was 
 the engraver of the Raphael cartoons at 
 Hampton Court, and was knighted by 
 George I. 
 
 Dorregaray, Don Antonio, Marquis of 
 Eraul {b. 1820, d. 1882), Curlist leader, 
 passed, in 1839, from the service of Don 
 Carlos, which he entered in 1836, to the 
 royal army, distinguishing himself in the 
 Morocco campaign. In 1872 he gave his 
 allegiance to the younger Don Carlos, and in 
 the following year won the battle of Estella. 
 In 1874 he assumed chief command of the 
 CarUst forces, and in 1876 fled to England 
 with his leader. He died in Madrid. 
 
 D'Orsay, Alfred, Comte (b. 1798, d. 1852), 
 the noted beau and dilettante, was born in 
 Paris, and entered the army. In 1827 he 
 married Lady Harriet Gardiner, a daughter 
 of Lord Blessington, but was soon separated 
 from his wife. On the death of his father- 
 in-law he succeeded to property in Ireland, 
 which enabled him to live in London as one 
 of the leaders of the fashionable life. Meet- 
 ing Prince Louis Napoleon, he followed him 
 to Paris, and exerted his influence on the 
 side of moderation, when that prince became 
 head of the state. 
 
 Dost Mahommed (b. 1806, d. 1863), Ameer 
 of Cabul, succeeded Shah Soojah, who was 
 driven from the country, and who took 
 refuge in India. In 1834 he defeated Shah 
 Soojah in an attempt to recover his 
 dominions, and then endeavoured to wrest 
 Peshawar from the Sikhs. Failing in this, 
 he entered into intrigues with Eussians and 
 Persians, which provoked the Afghan cam- 
 paign of 1839. He was defeated, and com- 
 pelled to fly, and after a long struggle he 
 surrendered to the British general. Till 1842 
 he was detained in India, and on his restora- 
 tion he joined the Sikhs in the second Sikh 
 war. In 1856 he entered into alliance with 
 the British, by whom an army was sent to 
 aid him against the Persians, who had seized 
 Herat. 
 
 Dostoieffsky, Feodor (*. 1821, d. 1881), 
 Russian novelist, entered the army in 1343, 
 
 but soon gained favour by his novel. Poor 
 Folk. In 1849 he was transported to Si- 
 beria, where he was detained till 1854, when 
 he served as a common soldier till 1858. In 
 1861 he married and settled in St. Peters- 
 burg. Amongst his other works may be 
 named Buried Alive (1858) and Crime and 
 its Punishment (1866). 
 
 Douglas, Sir Archibald (d. 1368), brother 
 of Lord James Douglas, an adlierent of 
 King David II., defeated Baliol at Annan 
 in 1362, and in 1368 he was chosen regent 
 of Scotland. In the same year, however, 
 he was defeated at Halidon Hill, where he 
 was mortally wounded. 
 
 Douglas, Sir Charles {d. 1789), naval 
 officer, served for some time in the 
 Dutch navy. He afterwards distinguished 
 himself in the British service, fought in the 
 American war, and commanded Rodney's 
 vessel on " the r2th of June." 
 
 Douglas, Sir Howard (5, 1776, d. 1861), 
 distinguished general, and son of the pre- 
 ceding. He served in the Peninsular war, 
 in 1823 was governor of New Brunswick, 
 and in 1835 Commissioner of the Ionian 
 Islands. In 1842 he was returned to Parlia- 
 ment for Liverpool. He left several military 
 works. 
 
 Douglas, James, Lord (d. 1331), sur- 
 named "The Good," and son of Sir Wil- 
 liam Douglas, the friend of Wallace, waa 
 active in the cause of Bruce, and com- 
 ,manded a division at Bannockbum. When 
 Bruce went to Ireland he was left as re- 
 gent, and in 1319 made a victorious raid 
 into England. In 1327 he again defeated 
 the English, and penetrated as far as Dur- 
 ham. He was one of the commissioners 
 who concluded the Treaty of Northampton, 
 and on Bruce's death set out to convey the 
 patriot's heart to the Holy Sepulchre at 
 Jerusalem. He was killed in Spain on his 
 way. 
 
 Douglas, Stephen Arnold (b. 1813, d. 
 1861), American politician, was bom in 
 Vermont, where he practised as a lawyer, 
 and where he became a leader of the Demo- 
 cratic party. In 1841 he became a judge of 
 the Supreme Court of Illinois, and 1843 a 
 member of Congress. From 1847 to 1859 he 
 sat in the United States senate for Ilhnois, 
 supporting Clay's " Compromise Measures," 
 and enimciating his "Popular Sovereignty" 
 doctrine on the slavery question. In 1858 
 he defeated Abraham Lincoln in the contest 
 for the representation of Illinois in the 
 senate, but he strongly supported the 
 Government after the outbreak of the Civil 
 war. 
 
 Douglas, Sir William {d. 1353), the 
 Knight of Liddesdale. Taken prisoner by
 
 Don 
 
 ( 258 ) 
 
 Doy 
 
 the English in 1332, he was strictly confiiied 
 by Edward III. On his release he drove 
 the English from Teviotdale, and was made 
 governor of Roxburgh Castle by David II. 
 He was taken prisoner at Neville's Cross, 
 and was assassinated in 1353 by his godson, 
 Lord William Douglas. 
 
 Douglas. William, first Earl of (d. 1384), 
 the son of Sir Archibald Douglas. In 1346 
 he returned to Scotland from France, and 
 succeeded in driving out the Eiighsh in- 
 vaders from Teviotdale. In 13o3 he m\u'- 
 dered his godfather, Sir William Douglas, 
 the Knight of Liddesdale. He fought at 
 Poictiers, and was created earl next year. 
 
 Douglas, James, second Earl of {d. 1388), 
 son of the preceding, married Margaret, 
 daughter of Robert II. He displayed great 
 soldierly qualities ia his English raids, and 
 in 1388 he reached York. On his return he 
 met and defeated the Percies at Otterbum, 
 but he himself was killed. 
 
 Douglas, Archibald, fourth Earl of (d. 
 1424), headed the Scottish army which, in 
 1402, invaded England, and was defeated at 
 Homildon Hill. Taken prisoner by Percy, 
 he joined that nobleman against Henry IV., 
 and was taken prisoner again at the battle 
 of Shrewsbury. In 1421 he went to France, 
 where he was created Duke of Touraine. 
 He was killed at the battle of Vemeuil. 
 
 Douglas, William, eighth Earl of (d. 
 1462), son of James the Gross, appointed 
 lieutenant-governor by King James II., 
 he defeated the English, and assumed a 
 quasi-independence, making pacts vnth 
 foreign powers, and alliances with other 
 great Scottish nobles. Deprived of his 
 office by the king, he levied war upon the 
 king's friends, and put Sir John Herpies to 
 death. At an interview with the king at 
 Stirling he was assassinated. 
 
 Douglas, James, ninth Earl of (d. 1488), 
 brother of the preceding, nailed a defiance 
 of the king to the walls of the Parhament 
 House, and then openly declared war. De- 
 serted by the Angus family, he was defeated 
 at Arkenholme, in 1455, and was compelled 
 to fiy to England. In 1484 he was taken 
 prisoner in a border foray, and confined in 
 a monastery for the rest of his Ufe, with 
 him ending the peerage. 
 
 Douglass, Frederick (b. 1817), American 
 orator, was born a mulatto slave in 
 Maryland, but he escaped as a young man, 
 and in 1841 began to dehver lectures against 
 slavery, which attracted much attention. 
 In 1846 he made a very successful lecturing 
 tour in England, and, returning to America, 
 he became a newspaper editor. From 1877 
 to 1881 he was United States marshal for 
 the district of Columbia. 
 
 Dousa, James, or Jan Vander Does, Lord 
 
 of Moordwyck {b. 1545, d. 1604), Dutch 
 statesman, and man of letters, was a 
 member of the deputation sent by the re- 
 volted Netherlands to Queen Elizabeth in 
 1572, and in 1574 he was governor of Ley- 
 den during the siege by the Spaniards. Em- 
 ployed on several diplomatic missions, he 
 was made keeper of the Dutch archives in 
 1585, and wi'ote the annals of the country 
 in prose and verse. In 1591 he was ap- 
 pointed to the sovereign council. 
 
 Dove, Heinrich Wilhehn (A. 1803, d. 1879), 
 German savant, having attained the dignity 
 of a i^rofessorship at Berlin University and 
 admission to the Royal Academy of Sciences, 
 he published, in 1855, a Treatise on the 
 Metrical Standards of Different Nations. He 
 secured an international reputation by his 
 researches into the laws of cyclone storms, 
 while other investigations led to numerous 
 optical discoveries. He was largely respon- 
 sible for the organisation of the storm signal 
 department ia Germany. 
 
 Dover, George James Welbore Agar Ellis, 
 Baron {b. 1797, d. 1833), historian, enteredPar- 
 liament at the age of twenty-one, and in 1826 
 published a volume on the Iron 3Iask, de- 
 monstratiug the prisoner to have been Count 
 Matthioli. In 1828 he published Historical 
 Enquiries Respecting the Character of Edward 
 Hi/de, Earl of Clarendon, and in 1829 The 
 Ellis Correspondence. Among his other works 
 were Life of Frederick, King of Prussia; 
 Letters of Horace Walpole to Sir Horace 
 Mann ; and Lives of the Most Eminent 
 Sovereigns of Modern Europe. 
 
 Dow, Gerard {b. 1613, d. 1675), Dutch 
 painter, a pupil of Rembrandt. His works 
 stand very high in the class of genre 
 paintings — the minuteness of detail being a 
 peculiar feature. Among his works are The 
 Dropsical Woman, The Village Grocer, TJie 
 Mountebank, and The Dentist. 
 
 Dowland, John (*. 1562, d. 1626), musi- 
 cian, very celebrated in his own day, and a 
 contemporary and friend of Shakespeare. 
 He took a musical degree at Oxford in 1588, 
 and in 1597 produced his first work, A Collec- 
 tion of Songs. He was an accomplished 
 vocalist and player of the lute, and at one 
 time held the post of lute-player to the king 
 of Denmark. 
 
 Doyle, John (b. 1789, d. 1868), caricaturist, 
 born of Irish parents, he came to London ia 
 1822. Not succeeding as an artist, he took 
 to producing lithograph likenesses of public 
 men of the day, and, as these proved popular, 
 he turned to caricature, adopting the sig- 
 nature "H.B.," and for many years his 
 productions were eagerly looked for. 
 
 Doyle, Richard (b. 1826, d. 1883), artist,
 
 Doz 
 
 (259) 
 
 Dre 
 
 son of the preceding, was one of the 
 original artists of Punch, but in 1850 he 
 severed his connection, and devoted himself 
 to hook-illustration. Besides his Fairy Tales 
 and Continental Tour, he produced his Comic 
 History of £»(/ land a,ud his BircVsEye Views 
 of Society, the latter appearing in Cornhill. 
 
 Dozy, Reiuhart (*. 1820, d. 1884), Dutch 
 Orientalist and professor of history at the 
 Ley den university. In 1S61 he produced 
 his Histoire des Musyulmans d'K^pagne, and 
 this was followed by his Researches in the 
 Folitical and Literary History of Spain 
 During the Middle Ages. Besides his in- 
 valuable SuppUment aux l)ictionnaires 
 Arabes, he published several works of value 
 on Mohammedanism and the Moors, 
 
 Draco, a lawgiver of Athens about 620 B.C. 
 
 Dragut (d. 1565), Turkish corsair, bom of 
 Christian parents. He entered the Turkish 
 service, and obtained the command of a 
 squadron. Captured by the Genoese, he was 
 imprisoned for four years, when he was 
 ransomed, and, resuming his command, he 
 raided the coasts of Italy, and captured 
 several places from the Spaniards. He died 
 from a wound received at the siege of Malta 
 by the sultan, Solyman II. 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis (b. 1545, d. 1596), 
 English naval commander, early entered 
 upon a seafaring hfe, and in 1566 sailed with 
 his kinsman. Sir John Hawkins, to the 
 Spanish MaLa. This voyage was followed 
 by several others, undertaken merely in the 
 hope of plunder, and in 1572, with two 
 vessels, he attacked Nombre de Dios and 
 Vera Cruz. After serving in Ireland, he set 
 out again for the Spanish Main (1577) in 
 command of five vessels, this time with the 
 sanction of Elizabeth. He passed through 
 the Straits of Magellan, and plimdered the 
 Spanish settlements on the west coast of 
 South America ; then, fearing to return by 
 the same route, he sailed across the Pacific 
 to the East Indies, and, doubling the Cape of 
 Good Hope, reached Plymouth with a 
 remnant of his fleet, in 1580. The queen 
 knighted Drake for this exploit, and dined 
 with him on board his vessel. In 1585 he 
 again sailed with a fleet to the Spanish West 
 Indies, and captured St. Jago, St. Domingo, 
 and Carthagena. In 1587, while the Ar- 
 mada was being collected, he sailed to Cadiz, 
 where he destroyed an enormous quantity of 
 shipping, and he served as vice-admiral of 
 the English fleet against the Armada. In 
 1595 he sailed with Hawkins to the West 
 Indies again, but the expedition was baffled 
 at several points, and Drake died ofE Porto 
 Belle. 
 
 Drake, Friedrich (A. 1805, d. 1882), German 
 Bculptor, was a pupil of Ranch, and executed 
 
 some large allegorical subjects for King 
 Friedrich WUhelm IV. His reputation 
 chiefly rests on his busts and statues, such 
 as those of Mciser, Ranch, Humboldt, Bis- 
 marck, and Ranke. 
 
 Draper, Henry {b. 1837, d. 1882), Ameri- 
 can scientist, took an M.D. at New York, 
 and in 1859 liecame professor of physiology 
 at the university; from 1873 to 1882 he 
 taught analytical chemistry, and in the 
 latter year succeeded his father as professor 
 of systematic chemistry. He made valu- 
 able researches into the spectra of the stars, 
 and greatly developed the use of photo- 
 graphy in his astronomical observations. 
 In 1874 he superintended the photographic 
 department of the Transit of Venus Com- 
 mission. He spent large sums from his 
 private fortime on the pursuit of scientific 
 research, and had secured a wide reputation 
 when he met an untimely death a few 
 months after his father. 
 
 Draper, John William (i. 1811, d. 1882), 
 father of the preceding, chemist and physi- 
 ologist, was bom in Liverpool, and studied 
 at the London University, going to America 
 in 1833. After a distinguished academic 
 career he became professor of chemistry 
 and natural history at the university of 
 New York, and later professor of chemis- 
 try and physiology at the University 
 Medical College. He wrote several valu- 
 able memoirs on the chemical action of 
 light, besides such philosophical and his- 
 torical works as History of the Intellectual 
 Development of Europe, The Conjlict between 
 Religion and Science, and The History of the 
 American Civil War. 
 
 Drayton, Michael (b. 1563, d. 1631), poet; 
 but little is known of his life. The latter 
 part of his life, however, was spent in the 
 residence of the Earl of Dorset, to whom he 
 was indebted for patronage. His chief works 
 are The Polyolhion and Nymphidia. He was 
 buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Drew, Andrew {b. 1792, d. 1878), British 
 naval officer. Entering the navy at the age 
 of fourteen, he saw constant service through 
 the Napoleonic wars. In 1824, with 160 
 men, he held Cape Coast Castle against 
 50,000 Ashantees, and in 1838 he even sur- 
 passed this exploit. During the rebellion iu 
 tipper Canada he cut out the rebel steamer, 
 Caroline, which was can-ying across arms and 
 men from the States to the rebels encamped 
 at Navy Island on the Niagara river. He 
 captured the vessel by crossing the streain 
 with a few men in open boats, and for this 
 action he received the thanks of the Cana- 
 dian legislature. In 1842 he discovered a 
 very dangerous shoal in the West Indies. 
 
 Drew, Samuel {b. 1765, d. 1833), Metho 
 dist preacher. Settled in St, Austell as a
 
 Dri 
 
 (260) 
 
 Dub 
 
 shoemaker, he was excited by the preaching 
 of Dr. Adam Clarke to join the Methodist 
 Conuexiou, and soon he became a preacher 
 of great popularity, Though quite unedu- 
 cated, he set himself to study, reading 
 science and metaphysics. In 1799 he pub- 
 lished an answer to Paine's A(/e of Reason, 
 and in 1802 an Essay on the Im)naterialit>j 
 and Immortality of the Soul. He also wrote 
 a History of Cornwall. 
 
 Driz, Fran9ois Xavier Joseph {b. 1773, d. 
 1S50), French writer, served for three years 
 in the army of the Rhine, and then in 1779 
 produced his first effort in literature, L' Essai 
 sur PArt Oratoire. This was followed by 
 the romance Lina, and several philosophical 
 essays ; and in 1823 his De la Philosophie 
 Morale gained him the Monthyon prize, and 
 admission into the Academie Franqaise in 
 1824. His great work was Sistoire du 
 Reyne de Louis XVI. 
 
 Drouais, Jean Germain {b. 1763, d. 1788), 
 French painter, was a pupil of David, 
 whom he accompanied to Italy, where he 
 died of fever. His first work to attract 
 attention was the Woman of Canaan at the 
 Feet of Jesus. 
 
 Drouet, Jean Baptiste (b. 1765, d. 1844), 
 French general. In 1782 he entered the 
 army as a private soldier, and in 1799 he 
 was appointed general of brigade. His 
 constant and distinguished services gained 
 for him the title of Count of Erlon in 1807, 
 with an annuity. In 1834 he was appointed 
 governor-general of the French possessions 
 in the north of Africa, and in 1843 marshal 
 of France. 
 
 Drouot, Antoine, Count {b. 1774, d. 1847), 
 French general of artillery, surnamed by 
 Napoleon, "The Sage of the G-reat Army." 
 He fought at Hohenlinden, Wagram, Boro- 
 dino, and Liitzen with much distinction, 
 and at Bautzen in 1813 he commanded the 
 Imperial Guard. Appotuted aide-de-camp 
 to Napoleon and general of division, he 
 followed the emperor to Elba, and accom- 
 panied him on his return to France, fight- 
 ing at Waterloo. Created a peer of France 
 in that year, he lived in retirement after the 
 restoration. 
 
 Drouyn de Lhuys, Edouard {b. 1805, d. 
 1881), French statesman and diplomatist, 
 began his pubUc career at the age of twenty- 
 six, when he became attached to the French 
 embassy at Madrid, and later was promoted 
 to charge d'affaires at the Hague, at the 
 time when Belgium was separated from 
 Holland. After holding important positions 
 in the French Chamber, he was dismissed 
 from office by M. Guizot for his opposition 
 to the government, and became a member 
 of the Reforme party. In 1848 he became 
 minister of foreign affairs under Prince 
 
 Louis Napoleon, and again, on the coup d'etat 
 of 1851, was appointed to that position, and 
 for the third time in 1863, during the Dauo- 
 German war, he held the same important 
 office. In 1871, at the fall of the empire, he 
 fled to Jersey, but later returned to his 
 native country. 
 
 Drummond, William, {b. 1585, d. 1645), 
 Scottish poet and man of letters, known aa 
 "Drummond of Hawthomden," from the 
 place of his residence. In 1613 he published 
 his first poem Tears on the Death of MosUades, 
 which was followed by a volume of poema 
 iu 1616. Ai.ter some years of foreign travel 
 he wrote a History of the Five Jameses, and 
 in 1632 he married. He was visited ia his 
 home by many of the literary men of his 
 time, including Ben Jonson, who walked 
 from London to see him. Among other 
 works he wrote Notes of Ben Jonson' s Con- 
 versations, and he also wrote in the Royalist 
 interest on the pohtical events of the day. 
 
 Drusus, Marcus Livius, Roman orator; 
 tribune of the people, 122 b.o. 
 
 Drusus, Nero Claudius {b. 38 B.C., d. 9), 
 brother of Tiberius, was surnamed Ger- 
 manicus for his successes against the Ger- 
 mans. He married Ajitonia, daughter of 
 Mark Antony. 
 
 Dryden, John {b. 1631, d. 1700), the poet 
 of the Restoration, came to London in 1657, 
 and produced an elegy on the death of 
 Cromwell. The Restoration he hailed with 
 his Astrcea Redux, and from this time 
 he rapidly rose in reputation and position, 
 marrying the sister of Sir Robert Howard. 
 Aiter some attempts at dramatic composi- 
 tion he wrote his Essay on Dramatic Poetry, 
 which was followed by several successful 
 tragedies. In 1667 he wrote the Annus Mira- 
 bilis, and in 1668 he was appointed poet 
 laureate. In 1681 he wrote his greatest poem, 
 Absalom and Achitophel, a pohtical satire, 
 directed against Shaftesbury and Bucking- 
 ham, which was followed by the Medal, a 
 further attack on Shaftesbury, and Religio 
 Laid, a defence of the Church of England 
 against Dissent. After the accession of 
 James II. Dryden joined the Church of 
 Rome, and in 1687 published The Hind and 
 the Panther, a religious allegory. The Re- 
 volution deprived Dryden of all his posts, 
 and he reverted to dramatic writing. He 
 translated Virgil and other classics into 
 English verse. 
 
 Dabarry, Marie Jeanne, Comtesse (b. 
 1746, d. 1793), mistress of Louis XV., was 
 executed during the reign of terror. 
 
 Dubois, Guillaume (*. 1651, d. 1723), 
 French statesman and prelate, having acted 
 as tutor to the Duke of Chartres, he was 
 appointed Abbot of St. Just, and employed
 
 DuC 
 
 (261) 
 
 Dnd 
 
 on diplomatic missions, being one of the 
 signatories to the Triple Alliance. Later he 
 became councillor of state, and foreign 
 minister, and in 1772 prime minister. In 
 1720 he was appoiated Archbishop of Cam- 
 bray, and next year was made a cardinal. 
 
 Du Cane, Sir Edmund Frederick, KC.B. 
 {b. 1S30), helped to carry out the convict 
 estabhshment in Western Australia as 
 planned by Lord Grey, and subsequently 
 held the positions of director and inspector 
 of prisons, chairman of directors of convict 
 prisons, and in 1877 was appointed chair- 
 man of the prison commissioners. He wrote 
 an introduction to Guy's liemlts of Censuses 
 of the Population of Convict Prisons, and 
 An Account of the Manner in tvhich Sen- 
 tences of Penal Servitude are carried out in 
 England, 
 
 Duchinski, Henri Francois [b. 1816), 
 Polish author, travelled through most of 
 the countries of Europe collectiag facts in 
 aid of his theory that the Russians were 
 descended from the Slavs, and had no con- 
 nection with the Muscovites. His published 
 books were The Oriental Question, Panslavism 
 and The Principles of the History of Poland 
 and other Slav Races, besides several 
 pamphlets. His wife, Severine, is also a 
 writer of no mean rank. 
 
 Duels, Jean Francois (b. 1733, d. 1816), 
 French dramatist and poet, after success- 
 fully adaptmg many of Shakespeare's plays 
 for the Parisian stage, produced in 1778 
 ^dipe Chez Admete, imitated partly from 
 Sophocles and partly from Euripides, which 
 secured for him the chair in the Academy, 
 then vacant by the death of Voltaire. In 
 1796 he produced Abufar, his first 
 (OTgmal play, which was followed by 
 Phedor et TFaldemar, Le Banquet de 
 I Amitte, a poem in four cantos, and several 
 other smaller works. 
 
 ,c?i^°^°^^' ^"^ -^"^^ Thomas (b. 1748, d. 
 181/), admiral, enteiing the navy at eleven 
 years of age, advanced from one di<Tnitv 
 to another until in 1799 he was appomted 
 rear-admiral. In 1802 he was made chief 
 commander of Jamaica, and three years 
 I?^^,A^® ^■^^'^ ^^^ second command in 
 the Mediterranean. In 1806 he defeated 
 the French fleet at St. Domingo, for which 
 he received from Parliament an annuity of 
 £1,000, and was presented with a sword by 
 the Corporation of London. Later he 
 effected the passage of the Dardanelles, was 
 made governor of Newfoundland, received 
 the title of baronet, and in 1815 was ap- 
 P°"i^P,'5 , cJiief commander of Plymouth, 
 after holding which office for two years he 
 died. 
 
 I'Jiclerc, Charies Theodore Eugene (6. 
 1812, d. 1888), French politician, financier 
 
 and writer, in the earlier part of his life 
 was a regular contributor to Ze Bon Sens, 
 the Pevtie du Progres, and Le National, and 
 also one of the editors of the Pictionnaire 
 Politique. In 1848 he was appointed deputy- 
 mayor of Paris, and afterwards assistant- 
 secretary to the minister of finance. In 
 18(1 he was elected to represent Basses- 
 Pyrenees in the National Assembly, and 
 in 1882 formed a cabinet. One year 
 later, however, the ministry was defeated, 
 owmg to a manifesto issued by Prince 
 Napoleon, and Duclerc was forced to 
 resign. 
 
 Dudevant, Amantine Lucile Aurore 
 Dupm (Z.. 1804, d. 1876), French authoress, 
 better known as " George Sand," was edu- 
 cated m a convent, and in 1822 married 
 M.^ Dudevant, from whom she separated ia 
 ISol, and settled in Paris to earn her living 
 by Hterature. In 1832 she published iZ 
 diana, a romance which at once secured her 
 reputation, and which was rapidly followed 
 by many others, among them Valentine, 
 ^udre, and Simon. Besides her work in 
 fiction she contributed to the periodical 
 literature many essays and articles on 
 philosophical and political subjects, her 
 sympathies being of the most advanced type. 
 Among these was the remarkable Sept Cordes 
 de la Lyre. Her assured position in literature 
 now enabled her to get a divorce from her 
 husband, and she passed her time at Berri 
 or Paris, educating her children. Having 
 quarrelled with the editors of the Revue des 
 I)eux Mondes, she started on her own accoimt 
 the Revue Independente , to which she con- 
 tributed several romances, including Con- 
 suelo. After the revolution she took an 
 active part in politics for a short time, and 
 then turned to dramatic composition. She 
 also wrote Histoire de ma Vie. 
 
 Dudley, Sir Andrew, brother of the Duke 
 of Northumberland. In 1553 he was sent 
 on a mission to the Emperor Charles V., to 
 mediate between the Spanish and French, 
 and he was also commissioned by Northum- 
 berland to invite the French king to send an 
 army in support of Lady Jane Grey. For 
 this he was condemned to death, but re- 
 prieved. 
 
 Dudley, Sir Edmund {d. 1510), English 
 lawyer, remembered for the extortions prac- 
 tised under his advice by Henry VII. In 
 1492 he accompanied the king to France, 
 and on his return associated himself with 
 Empson in the work of raising revenue for 
 the crown. In 1504 he was appointed 
 Speaker of the House of Commons and later 
 a Baron of the Exchequer. On the succes- 
 sion of Henry VIII. Dudley and Empson 
 were tried for high treason and executed 
 to satisfy the popular indignation against 
 them.
 
 Dad 
 
 (262) 
 
 Duf 
 
 Dudley, Sir Heury, cousin of the Duke of 
 Northuiuberland. In 1556 he formed a con- 
 spiracy to overthrow the CathoUc supremacy 
 in England, and to set the Princess Elizabeth 
 on the throne. The plot was discovered, and 
 Dudley escaped from the country. 
 
 Dudley, John (J>. 1502, d. 1553), son of 
 Sir Edmund, patronised by Wolsey and 
 Cromwell, was created Viscount Lisle in 
 1542. and as admiral of the fleet inflicted a 
 severe defeat on the French. As Earl 
 Warwick, he succeeded Somerset in power, 
 and acquired the title and estates of the 
 Duke of Northumberland. On the death of 
 Edward VI. he had his daughter-in-law, 
 Lady Jane Grey, proclaimed queen, but the 
 cause of Mary triumphing he was executed. 
 
 Dudley, Lord Guilford {d. 1554), son of 
 the preceding, and the husband of Lady 
 Jane Grey, was condemned, together with 
 his father and wife, for the attempt to place 
 Lady Jane Grey on the throne, but his 
 execution did not take place till 1554, after 
 the abortive rising of Sir Thomas Wyatt. 
 
 Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas {b. 1798, 
 d. 1881), French orator and statesman, held 
 a high position in M. Guizot's ministry, but, 
 joining the opposition, became chief of the 
 Third party. After the revolution of 1848 
 was elected member for the Gharente- 
 Inferieure, and was the leader of the 
 Moderate IDemocrats. Being again elected 
 by his old constituents in 1871 he became 
 minister of justice under M. Thiers, and 
 held the same ofiice again under M. Buffet's 
 administration. After filling other important 
 positions he retired from the political 
 arena on the fall of Marshal MacMahon in 
 1879. 
 
 Duff, the Eev. Alexander (b. 1806, d. 
 1878) , one of the first missionaries to India, 
 sailed for Calcutta in 1830, and worked with 
 remarkable success for twenty years, when 
 he returned to Scotland, and in 1851 was 
 elected moderator of the General Assembly. 
 At the time when the great disruption from 
 the Scottish Church took place he sup- 
 ported Dr. Chalmers. On leaving India, 
 because of ill-health, he was appointed 
 professor of theology in the Free Church, 
 Edinburgh. Among his published works 
 are Female Education in India, India and 
 its Evangelisation, and Indian Rebellion : 
 its Causes and Results. 
 
 Duff.The Eight Hon. Mountstuart Elphin- 
 stone Grant {b. 1829), governor of Madras, 
 was called to the bar in 1854. In 1857 
 became Liberal member for the district of 
 Elgin Burghs, and in 1868 was appointed to 
 the oflice of Under-Secretary of State for 
 India, under Mr. Gladstone's administration, 
 and later Under-Secretary of State for 
 the Colonies. Mr. Grant Duff was elected 
 
 Lord Rector of Aberdeen University in 1367, 
 and again in 1870, and in 1881 was appointed 
 governor of Madras. Among his pubUshed 
 works are Studies in European Politics and 
 The Political Survey of Europe. 
 
 Dufferin and Ava, The Right Hon. 
 Frederick Temple Blackwood, Marquis of, 
 and fourth Earl of Dufferin (6. 1826), at 
 the opening of his political career visited 
 Ireland, during the potato famine, and 
 wrote most interesting accounts of his 
 experiences there. In 1855 he joined Lord 
 John Russell's mission to Vienna, and 
 in 1859 visited Iceland, and published his 
 Letters from High Latitudes. In 1860 he 
 was appointed British Commissioner iu 
 Syria, and for the abihtj' with which he in- 
 vestigated the question of the massacre of 
 the Christians was rewarded with a K.C.B. 
 In 1872 he was appointed Governor-General 
 of Canada, which position he held till 1878, 
 when he was succeeded by the Marquis of 
 Lome. In 1879 Lord Dufferin was appoiuted 
 Ambassador to St. Petersburg, and three 
 years later was sent to Constantinople to 
 arrange with the Porte for the joint occupa- 
 tion of Egypt, in which he displayed great 
 ability. In 1882 he went to Cairo to settle 
 the affairs of the country after Arabi 
 Pasha's rebellion, and in 1884 he succeeded 
 Lord Ripon as Governor- General of India. 
 During his administration Burmah was an- 
 nexed to England, and vigorous measures 
 were taken to strengthen the frontier against 
 Russian advance. In 1890 Lord Dufferin 
 returned to England, and was created 
 Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, and was 
 appointed ambassador in Rome, and in 1891 
 ambassador iu Paiis. 
 
 Duffy, Sir Charles Gavan (6. 1816), states- 
 man, began his public career as sub-editor 
 of the Dublin Morning Register, and was 
 subsequently a journalist in Belfast, and 
 later, in conjunction with Mr. John Dillon, 
 was the originator of The Nation. In 1844, 
 with O'Connell and five others, he was con- 
 victed of sedition, but on appeal to the 
 House of Lords the conviction was set aside. 
 In 1852 he was elected member for New 
 Cross, but the disruption of the Independent 
 Irish party induced him to resign his seut in 
 1856, when he proceeded to Melbourne, 
 where for some time he practised at the bar. 
 After some time he again took to pohtics, re- 
 entered parliament in Victoria, and ulti- 
 mately was made prime minister (1871). 
 Two years later he was knighted, and in 
 1877 was elected speaker of the Legislative 
 Assembly. His published works are Young 
 Ireland and Four Years of Irish History. 
 
 Dufrenoy, Adelaide Gillette (b. 1765, d. 
 1825), Freuch poetess and actress. Her first 
 poem, entitled Boutade a un Ami, appeared 
 in 1787, and in 1815 her Derniers Moments d»
 
 Dug 
 
 (263) 
 
 Dum 
 
 Bayard, to which production the Academy 
 prize was awarded. 
 
 Dugdale, Sir WiUiam {h. 1605, d. 1686), 
 antiquary, settling in Warwickshire, de- 
 voted himself to antiquarian research, the 
 result of which was his Monasticon Anglica- 
 num. In 1641 he made copies of all the 
 principal monuments in the churches and 
 cathedrals of the country. He accompanied 
 the king througliout the Civil war, and after 
 the Restoration was appointed Garter king- 
 at-arms. He also wrote Antiquities of 
 JFaru-ickshire, History of St. Find's Cathe- 
 dral, Origines Judiciales, the Baronage of 
 England, and A Short View of the Late 
 Troubles in England. 
 
 Dugommier, Jean Fran9ois Coquille (6. 
 1736, d. 1794), French general, a native 
 of Gruadaloupe, commanded the national 
 guards of Martinique at the outbreak of the 
 revolution. In 1792 he went to Paris as 
 deputy for Martinique, and in 1793 served as 
 general of brigade in the army in Italy. He 
 drove the Eughsh out of Toulon, and as 
 chief of the army of Eastern Pyrenees in 
 1794, he was killed at the battle of Sierra 
 Negra. 
 
 Duguay-Trouin, Eene (b. 1673, d. 1736), 
 French admiral, abandoning the clerical 
 profession, joined a corsair in 1689, and 
 so distinguished himself that he was ap- 
 pointed captain of a French frigate in 1697. 
 In 1707 he defeated an English tleet, and in 
 1711 captured Rio Janeiro from the Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 Duni6ril, Andre Marie Constant {b. 1774, 
 d. 1860), French physician and naturalist. 
 In 1805 he was sent "by Napoleon to Spain 
 to watch the progress of the yellow fever, 
 and in 1825 succeeded Lacepfede as pro- 
 fessor of ichthyology. Among other scien- 
 tific works he left a History of Reptiles. 
 
 Dumas, Alexandre {b. 1802, d. 1871), 
 French novelist and dramatist ; son of 
 General Dumas, came to Paris in 1823 and 
 produced the tragedy Christine a Fontaine- 
 ileau, which was refused by the Theatre 
 Franqais. In 1829 his drama Henri IFF. 
 secured a remarkable success, and was fol- 
 lowed by a series of other plays dealing 
 with the life of the 16th century, chief 
 among which is La Reine Margot. Having 
 travelled in Spain and Africa, he endea- 
 voured to enter political life, but was un- 
 successful, and in 1853 he retired to Bel- 
 gium, owing to the pecuniary embarrass- 
 ments caused by his habits of living. Hia 
 literary industry was imtiriug, and, besides 
 sixty plays, he produced numerous ro- 
 mances, chief among which are The Three 
 Musketeers and its continuations, and 
 Monte Christo. Altogether his works 
 number some three thousand, au amount of 
 
 writing which he was only able to produce 
 by the employment of literary " ghosts." 
 In 18G0 he went to Italy to follow Garibaldi. 
 He died in comparative poverty. 
 
 Dumas, Alexandre {b. 1824), son of the 
 preceding, and, like him, a novelist and 
 dramatist, accompanied his father in a 
 voyage to the Mediterranean in 1846, and 
 in 1848 produced the work which made his 
 rei3utation — La Dame aux Gamelias, a novel 
 which drew the encomium of his own father. 
 Since then his work has been chiefly dra- 
 matic, and includes such plays as the Demi' 
 Monde (1855), La Frincesse Georges (1872), 
 Motisieur Alphonse (1873), audBenise (1885). 
 In 1874 he was admitted as a member to 
 the French Academy. 
 
 Dumas, Jean Baptiste Andr^ (5. 1800, 
 d. 1884), eminent French chemist, was 
 employed as an apothecary in Geneva, 
 where he attracted attention by a discovery 
 in connection with the treatment of goitre. 
 He was encouraged by Prevost and Hum- 
 boldt to prosecute his scientific researches, 
 and went to Paris, in 1826 marrying the 
 daughter of Brongniart. His house became 
 the centre of the scientific coteries. He was 
 largely instrumental in founding L'£cole 
 Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, and he 
 became professor of chemistry jn 1832 at 
 the Sorbonne, in 1835 at the Ecole Poly- 
 technique, and in 1839 at the Ecole de 
 Medecine. After the 1848 revolution he 
 entered the Legislative Assembly, and 
 shortly afterwards became minister of 
 agriculture and commerce. After the 
 Second Empire had been declared, he be- 
 came vice-president of the council of edu- 
 cation, and president of the municipal 
 Council of Paris, and from 1868 to 1870 he 
 was master of the mint. In 1868 also he 
 was appointed secretary of the Academy of 
 Sciences, and in 1875 he succeeded to 
 Guizot's place in the French Academy. 
 He left many scientific memoirs, recording 
 the results of the investigations which occu- 
 pied so large a part of his life, and which 
 were so important for chemical science. 
 
 Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella 
 Busson {b. 1834), artist and draughtsman, 
 bom in Paris, but educated in London, 
 Belgium, and the Netherlands. For many 
 years a valuable contributor to Funch, at 
 the same time illustrating many other books 
 and magazines. His mode of satirising the 
 extravagances of the so-called ".Esthetic" 
 school and other society foibles, have pro- 
 cured for him a high reputation. In 1891 
 he published a aovel, Feter Ibbetson. 
 
 Dumichen, Johannes {b. 1833), Egypt- 
 ologist ; after studying under the famous 
 Lepsius, he tvrice visited Egypt, exploring 
 the Nile valley. Subsequently he acted aa
 
 Dniu 
 
 (264) 
 
 Dun 
 
 guide to the Crown Prince of Prussia 
 during his tour in Egypt at the time of the 
 opening of the Suez Canal. He was after- 
 wards made professor of Egyptology at 
 Strasburg. His chief works are The Fleet 
 of an Eijyptian Queen, several books on 
 Egyptian inscriptions, and his History of 
 Effifpt. 
 
 Diunont, Pierre fitienne Louis (b. 1759, 
 d. 1829), Swiss author, at the age of twenty- 
 two was ordaiued minister of a Protestant 
 church at Geneva, but, owing to the defeat 
 of the Liberal party in the Swiss state, he 
 went into voluntary exile at St. Petersburg, 
 where he gained a great reputation as a 
 preacher. Accepting an offer to become 
 tutor to the sons of the Marquis of Lans- 
 dowue he came to London, and there formed 
 a strong friendship with Jeremy Bentham 
 and Sir Samuel Romilly, and in 1788 visited 
 Paris, where he was patronised by Mirabean. 
 His Souvenirs snr J!/2r«Jeff?< appeared in 1832, 
 edited by J. L. Duval. Dumont also 
 edited Bentham's Traites de Legislation 
 Q802^, Theorie des Peines et des Recompenses 
 (1811), Tactiqne des Assemblees Legislatives 
 (1815), and Preuves Judiciaires (1823). In 
 1814, when Geneva was restored to inde- 
 pendence, Dumont returned there, and 
 became leader of the supreme council. 
 
 Dumont- d'Urville, Jules Sebastien Cesar 
 (b. 1790, d. 1842), French navigator and 
 botanist, being raised by his ability to the 
 position of captain, he commanded the 
 corvette Astrolabe which was sent in 1826 
 to obtain tidings of La Perouse, and found 
 evidence for the belief that he had been 
 wrecked on Jenikoro, one of the Solomon 
 Islands. This expedition lasted three years, 
 and an account of it was afterwards 
 published under the title of Voyage de 
 Licouvertes autour du Monde. In 1837 
 he went on a voyage of Antarctic dis- 
 covery, and on his way home discovered 
 Adelie Land. Later he was appointed rear- 
 admiral, and received the gold medal of the 
 Societe de Geographie. From 1841 to 1854 
 he was engaged in the publication of his 
 Voyage au Pole Sud et dans P Oceane. 
 
 Dumouriez, Charles Franqois (b. 1739, d. 
 1823), French general, entering the army 
 at the age of eighteen, he attained the rank 
 of captain in 1763. Later he became in- 
 volved in political troubles, and, at the 
 instance of the Due de Choiseul was 
 obliged to fly from France, but on a recon- 
 ciliation being effected he returned, and was 
 appointed quarter -master general of the 
 troops. He was afterwards engaged in 
 several diplomatic missions, and at the 
 failure of the Stockholm intrigue was 
 arrested and imprisoned for six months in 
 the Bastille. On the first symptoms of the 
 great revolution he was made minister 
 
 for foreign affairs, then minister of war, 
 and later was appointed to the com- 
 mand of the army in the north as lieutenant- 
 general. He gained the victory of Valmy 
 in 1792, but was defeated at Neerwinden in 
 1793, after which he became an exile, and 
 finally took up residence in England. 
 
 Dunbar, William {b. circa 1460, d. circa 
 1520), Scottish poet, vrrote The Thissil and 
 the Rois, a number of allegories and other 
 
 pieces. 
 
 Duncan, Adam, Viscount {b. 1731, d. 
 1804), English admiral, served in the Belle- 
 isle and Havannah expeditions, and under 
 Rodney in 17'S0. In 1797, while command- 
 ing the North Sea fleet, he inflicted a heavy 
 defeat on the Dutch off Camperdown, for 
 which service he was raised to the peer- 
 age. 
 
 Duncan, Jonathan, East Indian adminis- 
 trator. As residentof Benares he endeavoured, 
 with much success, to abolish the practice of 
 female infanticide among the Rajpoots, and 
 in 1800 was appointed governor of Bombay. 
 
 Duncker, Maximilian Wolfgang {b. 1811, 
 d. 1886), German historian and statesman, 
 in 1839 became professor of history at 
 Halle, and soon after 1848 entered the 
 National Assembly of Frankfurt, and be- 
 came a minister. In 1859 he was appointed 
 professor of history at Tubingen, and in 
 1875 he retired. Among his works are 
 Origines Germanica, Papers concerning the 
 Natiotial Assembly of Germany, and a His- 
 tory of Antiquity. 
 
 Dundas, Sir David (Jb. 1735, d. 1820), 
 soldier, served in Germany and the West 
 Indies, and afterwards became adjutant- 
 general in Ireland. In 1713 he distin- 
 guished himself at the defence of Toulon, 
 and he served imder the Duke of York in 
 Holland, and afterwards fought in the 
 Dutch campaign of 1799. In 1809 he became 
 commander-in-chief of the army. 
 
 Diindas, Sir James Whitley Deans {b. 
 1785, d. 1862), British admiral. Entering 
 the navy in 1799, he accompanied Aber- 
 cromby's Egyptian expedition, and from 
 then to 1815 served in many engagements 
 with the French with great distinction. 
 From 1852 to 1854 he commanded the Medi- 
 terranean and Black Sea fleet. He was the 
 first representative of Greenwich after the 
 passing of the 1832 Reform Act. 
 
 Dundonald, Thomas Barnes Cochrane, 
 tenth Earl of (b. 1775, d. 1860), sailor, as 
 commander of the Speedy rendered brilliant 
 service against the French in 1801, until he 
 was taken prisoner. In 1805 he again dis- 
 tinguished himself with the Pallas. Enter- 
 ing Parliament for Westminster, he attacked
 
 Dun 
 
 (265) 
 
 Dup 
 
 the naval administration so bitterly as to ex- 
 cite the enmity of the authorities, and when 
 (1S(I9) his attempt to destroy the Fi-ench 
 fleet off Brest failed, he was deprived of his 
 command. For exposing the abuses of tlie 
 prize system at Malta he was imprisoned, 
 but escaped, and in 1814 he was cashiered 
 and again imprisoned on a charge of having 
 fraudulently circulated the news of the fall 
 of Napoleon in order to make money on the 
 Stock Exchange. Re-elected by his con- 
 stituents, he again broke loose from gaol, 
 but was recommitted. On his release he 
 went to South America, and rendered bril- 
 liant services to the Chilians against Spain, 
 and to the Brazilians against Portugal. 
 Returning to England for a short time, he 
 next took command of the Greek fleet ; but 
 after the accession of William IV. he was 
 restored to his honours and position in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Dunkin, Edward {b. 1821), EngUsh as- 
 tronomer. In 1838 he was appointed com- 
 puter to the Royal Observatory; in 1847 
 superintendent of the Altazinuth Observa- 
 tions; and in 1870 superintendent of the 
 Astronomical Observations. From 1871 to 
 1877 he was secretary to the Royal Astro- 
 nomical Society, and from 1884 to 1886 he 
 ■was president. 
 
 Dunning, John, Baron Ashburton [b. 
 1731, d. 1783), lawyer. Called to the bar in 
 1756, he attracted attention in 1762 with his 
 defence of the East India Company against 
 the complaints of the Dutch. He defended 
 Wilkes, and in 1767 became Sohcitor- 
 general. In 1768 he entered ParHament, 
 and in 1781 was raised to the peerage. 
 
 Dunois, Jean, Count of Orleans and 
 Longueville (b. 1402, d. 1468), the natural son 
 of Louis, Duke of Orleans, and known as the 
 " Bastard of Orleans." In the wars with the 
 English, which ended in their expulsion from 
 France, he took a distinguished part, winning 
 several battles. He was appointed Heutenant- 
 general to the king, and grand chamberlain. 
 For a time he was out of favour with Louis 
 XI., but afterwards he presided over the 
 council appointed for the reform of the state. 
 
 Duns Scotus {b. 1265, d. 1308), divme and 
 writer. Residing in Paris, he occupied there 
 the post of head of the theological schools, 
 and was known as the "Subtle Doctor." 
 He was the first to promulgate the doctrine 
 of the Immaculate Conception. At one time 
 a follower of Thomas Aquinas, he later 
 founded a school of his own in antagonism 
 to the system of Aquinas. 
 
 Dunstan, St. (b. circa 925, d. 988). When 
 still young he was appointed Abbot of 
 Glastonbury bj- King Edmund, and in 946, 
 on the succession of Edred, he became chief 
 adviser to the king. His administration 
 
 resulted in the cohesion of Wessex and the 
 conquest of Northurabria from the Danes. 
 When Edwy came to the throne, however. 
 Dunstan's poHcy was reversed, and he was 
 banished. He lived in a Benedictine monas- 
 tery ki Flanders till recalled by King Edgar, 
 who had been proclaimed by the revolted 
 Northumbrians and Mercians, and by whom 
 he was appointed Bishop of London. When 
 Edgar succeeded on Edwy's death to the 
 thi-one of Wessex, Dunstan became Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, and under his influ- 
 ence the monastic system developed very 
 rapidly, while the stability of the state was 
 ensured. His power continued until Ethel- 
 red the Unready came to the throne, when 
 Dunstan retired to Glastonbm-y, occupying 
 himself until his death with literature, 
 music, and the finer handicrafts. His 
 greatness is made evident by the mass of 
 fable and myth which has been woven 
 into the story of his life. 
 
 Dupanloup, FeUx Antoine PhiUbert (b. 
 1802, d. Ib7b), French prelate, after having 
 been instructor to the Orleanist princes, he 
 became in 1835 curate of St. Roche, where 
 his preaching attracted attention, and in 
 1837 became vicar-general to Mgr. de 
 Quelen. In 1849 he was appointed Bishop 
 of Orleans, and in 1854 he was elected to 
 the Academy. Along with his friend 
 Montalembert he headed the Liberal Catholic 
 party, but his views not proving acceptable 
 at Rome he submitted. In 1871 he was 
 retui-ned to the Assembly, acting consistently 
 with the monarchical party. 
 
 Dupin, Andre Marie Jacques (S. 1783, 
 d. 1865), French advocate, called generally 
 "Dupin the Elder." In 1815 he was 
 charged with the codification of the laws 
 of the empire, and in the same year entered 
 the Chamber of Deputies. He was one of 
 the counsel for Marshal Ney; he was the 
 rapporteur of the famous address of the 
 121 deputies in 1830, and he helped to bring 
 on the 1830 revolution. He was a member 
 of Louis Philippe's first cabinet, and fi-om 
 1832 to 1848 was president of the Chamber 
 eight times. In the latter year he presented 
 to the deputies the infant Comte de Paris, 
 and from 1830 to 1851 he was procureur- 
 g^neral of the Coiu't of Cassation, a post 
 which he resumed in 1857. He left several 
 legal and political works. 
 
 Dupin, Franqois Pierre Charles, Baron 
 {b. 1784, d. 1873), French geometer and 
 statistician, and brother of the preceding. In 
 1803 he entered the navy as an engineer, 
 and in 1813 he founded the Maritune Museum 
 at Toulon. After Napoleon's abdication he 
 published Les Lois Fondamoi talcs de la 
 France, followed by another political piece. 
 In 1816 he visited the naval establishments 
 of Great Britain, and in 1818 he was elected
 
 Dup 
 
 (266) 
 
 Dvo 
 
 S member of the Institute. In 1823 be 
 entered the Chamber of Deputies ; in 1834 
 he was minister of marine for three days, and 
 in 1837 he was created a peer of France. 
 After the coup d'itat he was made a senator. 
 
 Dupleix, Joseph, Marquis {b. 1697, d. 
 n6o). in 1720 went to India as member of 
 the Pondi cherry council ; in 1731 became 
 administrator of Chandernagar, which he 
 raised to a position of great importance, and 
 in 1742 he was appointed governor-general 
 of the French possessions in India. In this 
 position he disagreed with Labourdonnais, 
 who was sent to operate against the English. 
 An army of 10,000 men, sent by the viceroy 
 of the Carnatic to demand reparation for 
 attacks on the British, was defeated by 
 Dupleix with a small French force, and 
 he then entered into an alliance with 
 the nawab against the British. His defence 
 of Poudicherry in 1748 was stubborn and 
 successful. He next opened campaigns to 
 set Chimda Sahib, and afterwards has son, 
 on the throne in the Camatic, but the French 
 forces were ultimately defeated. Having 
 been created Marquis, he was recalled in 
 1753. 
 
 Dupoat, Pierre (b. 1821, d. 1871), French 
 poet, going to Paris he obtained the 
 publication of some verse in 1839, and in 
 1844 produced a volume of poetry. The Two 
 Angels. He obtained, and abandoned from 
 distaste, a post in the Institute, and in 1847 
 made his reputation secure with a song which 
 caught the popular taste. In 1851 he was 
 condemned to exile for seven years on account 
 of the Socialistic character of his verse, but 
 the sentence was afterwards cancelled. 
 
 Dupoat de I'Etang, Pierre, Count (5. 1765, 
 d. ISoS), French general, served in Holland 
 and at Marengo, and was afterwards made 
 governor of Piedmont. He rendered brilliant 
 services as general in Italy, Prussia, and 
 Spain, but in 1808 he was disgraced by 
 Napoleon for his share in the capitulation of 
 Baylen. Louis XVIII. made him minister 
 of war and a peer of France. 
 
 Duquesne, Abraham {b. 1610, d. 1688), 
 French admiral, after commanding with 
 great success against the Spaniards, joined 
 the Swedish navy, of which he was appointed 
 vice-admiral for a victory over the Danes. 
 He returned to the French service, and was 
 again so successful against Spain that he 
 was made lieutenant-general of the naval 
 forces. In 1676 he won a great victory over 
 the Dutch under De Euyter. 
 
 Durand, Sir Henry (b. 1812, d. 1871), 
 IndiaTi governor, entering the Indian army 
 in ls2S, served in the Afghan war with 
 distinction, and rendered exceptional ser- 
 vices in the Punjab campaign of 1848-9. 
 He also fought in the Mutiny, and later acted 
 
 as agent to the Governor-General in Central 
 India. In 1870 he was appointed Lieutenant- 
 Governor of the Punjab, where he was very 
 popular. 
 
 Diirer, Albrecht (J). 1471, d. 1628), German 
 painter. His father was a Nuremberg gold- 
 smith, and he was brought up to his father's 
 craft. He early evinced a great talent for 
 art, and at tif teen executed a piece of work in 
 chased silver representing the " seven falls" 
 of Christ. In 1486 he was apprenticed to 
 Wohlgemuth, the artist, and from 1490 to 
 1494 he travelled in Germany and Italy. On 
 his return he married a woman, whose dis- 
 position afterwards made his life miserable, 
 and having by his drawing of Orpheus be- 
 come a master painter, he returned to Venice. 
 From thence he went to Bologna, where he 
 made the acquaintance of Kaphael, and his 
 reputation rose so rapidly that he became 
 court painter to the Emperor Maximilian 
 and after to Charles V. In 1520 he visited 
 the Netherlands with his wife, where they 
 were received with the greatest honour and 
 distinction. It was here that the tirst 
 symptoms appeared of the consimiption which 
 foially carried him off. He was a most 
 industrious as well as rapid worker, and his 
 own list of works contains 1,254 pieces. He 
 also wrote works on perspective and 
 measurement, on fortification, and on 
 human proportion. 
 
 Durham, John George Lambton, first Earl 
 of {b. 1792, d. 1840), in 1813 was returned to 
 Parliament for Durham county as an ad- 
 vanced reformer. He was created Baron 
 Durham in 1827, and became privy seal in 
 Lord Grey's ministry, in which post he 
 helped to draft the Eeform Bill. In 1832 he 
 failed in a special mission to Russia, and in 
 1833 he resigned. Created Earl of Durham, 
 he was ambassador at St. Petersburg in 1837, 
 and in 1838 he was appointed Governor- 
 General of Canada, the French revolt haying 
 j ust been put down. He acted in a very high- 
 handed manner, and the Government at 
 home, having been forced to accept a reso- 
 lution condemning his conduct, he abandoned 
 his post without waiting to be recalled. 
 
 Duroc, Michel Gerard Christophe, Duke 
 of Firuli {b. 1772, d. 1813), served in Na- 
 poleon's early campaigns, and in 1805 was 
 made grand marshal of the palace. 
 
 Duruy, Victor {b. 1811), French historian, 
 author of a History of France (1852), His- 
 tory of Greece (1862), etc. 
 
 Dvorak, Antonin {b. circa 1840), com- 
 poser, a native of Prague, son of an inn- 
 keeper, studied music in Prague, and 
 maintained himself for some time by teach- 
 ing, his numerous compositions attracting 
 little attention. He has composed an opera 
 and a number of songs and dances, with
 
 Dwi 
 
 (267) 
 
 Eas 
 
 atrong Bohemian chaxacteriatics, some sym- 
 phonies, a cantata, a Stabat Mater, Lud- 
 tnilla, etc His cantata, The Spectre's Bride, 
 was composed for the Birmingham festival 
 of 1885. 
 
 Dwight, Timothy (b. rtb2, d. 1817), 
 American divine, served as army chaplain 
 in the Confederate army, and, after working 
 on a farm, was ordained a minister. In 
 1795 he became president of Yale College. 
 He wrote The Conquest of Canaan, an epic 
 poem. Theology Explained and Defended, etc. 
 
 Dyce, William (h. 1806, d. 1864), painter, 
 educated at Aberdeen, studied art at the 
 Boyal Academy and at Rome. From 1830-38 
 he hved in Edinbiirgh, devoting himself to 
 portrait-painting. In 1835 he exhibited his 
 Xtescentof Venus at the Eoyal Academy, and 
 in 1837 he published a pamphlet on the 
 management of schools of design, just es- 
 tablished by Government. This procured for 
 biTr» the office of secretary to that branch of 
 
 the Board of Trade which had charge of the 
 new schools. For the Government he also 
 made a report on the Continental systems of 
 art instruction, and in 1842 he became in- 
 spector of provincial schools. His picture, 
 Joash Shooting the jlrrow of Deliverance, 
 procured for him, in 1844, election as 
 A.R.A. ; R.A 1848. 
 
 Dyck, Sir Anthony Van {h. 1599, d. 1641), 
 painter, was bom in Antwerp. In 1615 he 
 became a pupil of Rubens, and in 1821 he 
 went to Italy for five years. In 1626 he 
 returned to Antwerp, and in 1630 came 
 to England, but, receiving no encourage- 
 ment, returned to his native country. In 
 1632, however, he was invited to England by 
 Charles I., and received a knighthood and a 
 pension. His work was in great demand, 
 and he lived in the best style, having 
 married Marie Ruthven, the granddaughter 
 of Lord Gowrie. Although he died within 
 twenty years of leaving Rubens' studio, he 
 left behind him nearly a thousand works. 
 
 Eadmer (i. eirea 1124), a monk of Canter- 
 bury, friend and spiritual director of Ansehn, 
 whose life he wrote, as well as those of 
 Dunstan, Oswald, and others. His chief work 
 is Historia Novorum, a chronicle of events 
 from 1066 to 1122. 
 
 Eads, James Buchanan (5. 1820, d. 1887), 
 American engineer, constructed the steel 
 bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis 
 (completed 1874) ; partly carried out a plan of 
 deepening the Mississippi by means of jetties, 
 and was engaged at his death in planning a 
 ship-canal over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 
 
 Eakin, Samuel (J. circa YIM, d. 1784), 
 American Presbyterian minister, who zeal- 
 ously upheld American independence. 
 
 Eakins, Thomas (b. 1844), American artist, 
 bom at Philadelphia, studied in Paris, and, 
 on his return to Philadelphia, became 
 demonstrator of anatomy and afterwards 
 professor of painting and director of the 
 Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. 
 
 Eames, Jane Anthony (S. 1816), American 
 author : travelled in Europe and the East, 
 and wrote A Budget of Letters (1847), 
 etc. 
 
 Earle, Rev. John {h. 1824), elected pro- 
 fessor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford for a term 
 of five years in 1849, and permanently in 
 
 1876; has written The Philosophy of th« 
 
 English Tongue (1871), A Book for the 
 Beginner in Anglo-Saxon (1877), English 
 Prose : its Elements, History, and Usage 
 (1890), and other works. 
 
 Earle, Pliny {b. 1809), bom at Leicester, 
 Massachusetts, as physician at various asy- 
 liims has introduced a more reasonable 
 method of treating the insane. He has 
 written The Curability of Insanity, etc. 
 
 Earle, WilUam {b. 1833, «?. 1885), major- 
 general, served in the Crimea; in the 
 Egyptian war of 1882 commanded the base 
 and line of communication, and was present 
 at Tel-el-Kebh- ; afterwards commanded the 
 garrison of Alexandria, and accompanied the 
 expedition to relieve Gordon, but was slain 
 in an attack on the enemy near Dulka 
 island. 
 
 Early, Jubal A. {b. 1816), American- 
 general and lawyer, served in the Mexican 
 war, and on the Confederate side in the 
 American civil war, holding Fredericksburg 
 in 1863, and commanding a division at Get- 
 tysburg. He haspublished Memoirs of the 
 L'Vit fear of the War (1867). 
 
 Eastlake, Sir Charles Locke (5. 1793, 
 d. I860), painter and art critic, born at Ply- 
 mouth ; studied at the Royal Academy, and 
 afterwards in Paris and Rome ; exhibited ia
 
 Eas 
 
 (268) 
 
 Ech 
 
 the Academy, of ■whicli he became a member 
 in 1S29 and president in 1850. Christ Bless- 
 ing Little Children (1839) and Christ Weeping 
 OverJerusalem (1841) are considered his best 
 pictxrres. He has written Materials for the 
 History of Oil Painting (1847), and Contri- 
 butions to the Literature of the Fine Arts. 
 
 Eastman, John Robie {b. 1836), American 
 astronomer, has accompanied various astro- 
 nomical expeditions, and in 1883 was ap- 
 pointed secretary of the American Associa- 
 tion for the Advancement of Science. 
 
 Eastwick, Edward Backhouse (Jb. 1814, d. 
 1883) , Orientalist ; entered the Indian army ; 
 held political posts in Scinde ; was professor 
 of Hindustani at Haileybury ; went to Persia 
 in 1860 as secretary of legn*ion ; became 
 private secretary to Lord Salisbury, and was 
 member of Parliament for Penrhyn and 
 Falmouth (1868-74). He has translated 
 Sadi's Gulistan (1852) and much Persian 
 literature, and written The Journal of a 
 Diphmate in Persia (1864), etc. 
 
 Eaton, Amos (b. 1776, d. 1842), American 
 scientist, first principal of the Rensselaer 
 Institute at Troy, Xew York (1828), wrote 
 many scientific works. 
 
 Ebba, St., or.ffibbe {d. circa &1^), daughter 
 of iEthelfrith, Kingof Northumbria, founded 
 the monastery of Ebchester, in Durham, and 
 became Abbess of Coldingham, in Berwick- 
 shire, which was destroyed by fire shortly 
 after her death. 
 
 Ebbo, a successful missionary to the Danes 
 in the 9th century ; was Archbishop of 
 Rheims, and librarian to Louis le Debon- 
 naire. 
 
 Ebed- Jesus Bar-Bricha (<^. 1 3 1 8) , Nestorian 
 Bishop of Arabia, and afterwards Metro- 
 politan of Soba. Wrote in Syriac a Col- 
 lection of the Canons of the Chief Councils, 
 and other works in prose and poetry. 
 
 Eberliard, August Gottlob {b. 1779, d. 
 1845), German scholar and writer of fiction, 
 author of Hannchen und die Kuchlein and 
 I)er erste Mensch und die Erde. 
 
 Eberhard, Conrad {b. 1768, d. 1859), 
 German painter and sculptor, worked with 
 his brother Franz {d. 1836). They were pat- 
 ronised by the Elector Clement of Treves. 
 
 Eberliard, Johann August {b. 1739, d. 1809), 
 German philosopher and theologian, pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at HaUe, wrote an 
 Ap)olijgij for Socrates in opposition to the 
 Calvinists, a General Sistory of Philosophy, 
 etc. 
 
 Ebers, Georg {b. 1837), Egj'ptologist and 
 anvelist, bom at Berlin, apiDciiited professor 
 4t Leipzig in 1870 ; while visiting Egypt 
 
 discovered the hieratic medical papyrus 
 known as Papyrus Ebers, which he published 
 in 1875 ; wi'ote Egypt and the Books of Moses, 
 and other works on Egypt. His later books 
 are historical novels, those representing 
 Egj'ptian antiquity being the most valuable. 
 Among them are Farda (1877), and Serapis 
 (1885). 
 
 Eberus {b. 1511, d. 1569), aleamed German 
 reformer, friend of Melanchthon, whose 
 views he supported against the Lutherans. 
 
 Ebion, the supposed founder of the sect of 
 the Ebiouites in the latter part of the 1st 
 century. It is probable that no such per- 
 son existed, and that the name was derived 
 from a Hebrew word meaning "poor." 
 
 Ebl^, Jean Baptiste, Count {b. 1758, d. 
 1812), French general, served ia the army of 
 the North, distinguishing himself at Hond- 
 schoote and Dunkirk; commanded the ar- 
 tillery of the army in Flanders, and of the 
 army of the Rhine and Moselle; also served in 
 Portugal, and in the Russian campaign, the 
 hardships of which caused his death. 
 
 Ebrard, Johann Heinrich August {b. 
 1818), professor of theology at Zurich (1844), 
 and afterwards at Erlangen (1847), wrote 
 Christian Dogmatics, etc. 
 
 Ebroin or Eberwein {d. 681), mayor of the 
 palace under Clotaire III. of Neustria ; sup- 
 ported the authority of the crown against 
 the nobles. On the death of Clotaire (670) 
 a period of anarchy ensued, tiQ Ebroin in 674 
 established Theodoric III. on the throne of 
 Neustria and Burgundy, under whom he 
 ruled with great tyranny till he was assassi- 
 nated. 
 
 Ebulo, Pietro d', author of a chronicle in 
 verse of the events in Sicily under Tancred 
 and the Emperor Henry VI. ; lived towards 
 the close of the 12th century. 
 
 Echard, Jacques {b. 1644, d. 1724), a 
 Dominican, born at Rouen, wrote the lives of 
 the authors who were members of that order. 
 
 Echard, Laurence {b. circa 1670, d. 1730), 
 an English clergj'man and historian, wrote 
 a History of England (1707-20), a,n Eccle- 
 siastical History to the tune of Constantine, 
 etc. 
 
 Ecbion, Greek artist of the 4th century 
 B.C. : painted the Bride of Seniiramis, of 
 which the Noces Aldobrandlnes on the walls 
 of the Vatican is supposed to be a copy. 
 
 EcMus, Eck, or Eckius, Johann, of Ingol- 
 stadt (I). 1486, d. 1543), German theologian; 
 professor in the university of Ingolstadt ; 
 argued against the reformed doctrines in dis- 
 putes with Luther (1518), and Carolstadt 
 (1519), and at the Diets of Augsburg (1530)
 
 Eck 
 
 (269 ) 
 
 Edi 
 
 and Ratisbon (1541). He wrote a Manual 
 of Controversies. 
 
 Eckermann, Johann Peter (5. 1 792, i. 1 854) , 
 a German writer, secretary to Goethe, pub- 
 lished a coUection of Conversations with 
 Goethe (1836-48). 
 
 Eckersberg, Christoph Wilhelm, Danish 
 artist ; visited France and Italy in 1805, and 
 painted Moses Crossing the Red Sea and the 
 Death of Basdur. 
 
 Eckhard, a German mystic of the 14th 
 century, entered the Dominican order, and 
 became Vicar-general of Bohemia, and after- 
 wards provincial prior of Germany, but was 
 deprived owing to his Pantheistic views, and 
 in 1327 condemned by an inquisition, held at 
 the instance of the Archbishop of Cologne. 
 He appealed to the Pope, who issued a bull 
 of condemnation against him (1329). Eck- 
 hard died before its publication. 
 
 Eckhart, Johann Georg von {b. 1674, <f. 
 1730), German historian, succeeded Leibnitz 
 as librarian to the court of Hanover, and 
 wrote on German antiquities and mediaeval 
 history. 
 
 Eckhel, Joseph Hilarius (5. 1737, d. 1798), 
 German numismatist, bom in Upper Austria, 
 was professor of antiquities at Vienna : wrote 
 a treatise in French on the engraved gems 
 in the imperial cabinet. 
 
 Eckstein, Ferdinand, Baron von (fi. 1790, 
 d. 1S61), French writer, bom at Altona, 
 descended from Danish Jews ; was appointed 
 inspector-general to the ministry of poUce by 
 Louis XVIII, and afterwards historiographer 
 to the department of foreign affairs. He 
 was connected with several papers, and wrote 
 Des Jesuites, De V Europe, etc. 
 
 Eddy, Hiram Clarence {b. 1851), a dis- 
 tinguished musician and composer, who in 
 1871 visited Berlin, and after a tour through 
 Austria, Switzerland, and England, returned 
 to America and settled at Chicago. 
 
 Edebali, a Mahometan of the 14th century, 
 the father-in-law of Othman, the founder of 
 the Turkish empire. 
 
 Edeliack, Gerard (*. 1640, d. 1707), en- 
 graver, bom at Antwerp, pupil of Comeille 
 Galle ; was patronised by Louis XIV. His 
 best works are Alexander and the Family of 
 Darius, and the portraits of Descartes, La- 
 fontaine, and Dryden. 
 
 Edelmann, Johann Friederich (5. 1749, d. 
 1794), French pianist and composer, took 
 part in the Revolution, and died by the 
 guillotine. 
 
 Edgar or Eadgar, King of England {b. 
 944, d. 975), son of Edmund I., became ruler 
 of England north of the Thames after the 
 
 insurrection of 957, and sole sovereign on the 
 death of his brother, Edwy, in 959. He 
 adopted a conciliatory policy towards hia 
 Danish subjects, and ruled firmly and peace- 
 fully, imder the guidance of Archbishop 
 Dunstan. 
 
 Edgar Atheling or Eadgar the ^theling 
 
 {b. circa 1055, d. after 112(J), son of Edward 
 the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside ; was, 
 after the battle of Hastings, proclaimed 
 king by the archbishops and citizens 
 of London, but, through the desertion of 
 Earls Edwin and Morkere, forced to yield to 
 WilUam at Berkhampstead. Though well 
 treated by him, he fled to Scotland in 1068, 
 and in 1069 joined in two imsuccessful ex- 
 peditions against WOliam, the latter in con- 
 junction with the Danes. Henceforward he 
 led an adventurous life — defeating Donald- 
 bane of Scotland in 1097, and securing the 
 throne for his nephew Edgar, and joining in 
 the Crusade of 1099. He supported Robert 
 of Normandy against Henry I., and was 
 captured at Tenchebrai, but released. 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria {b. 1767, d. 1849), 
 novelist, bom in Berkshire, daughter of 
 Richard Lovell Edgeworth, with whom 
 she went to Ireland in 1782. Besides 
 several stories for children, with a moral 
 purpose, she wrote Castle Eackrent (1800), 
 Belinda (1801), and other novels, illustrating 
 Irish life and character. 
 
 Edgeworth, Richard Lovell (b. 1744, d. 
 1817), mechanical inventor, in some degree 
 anticipated McAdam in has Essay on the 
 Construction of Roads and Bridges. In 
 conjunction with his daughter he wrote an 
 Essay on Practical Education. 
 
 Edinburgh, H.R.H. Prince Alfred Ernest 
 Albert, Duke of (6. 1844), second son of Queen 
 Victoria, was educated for the navy, and in 
 1885-6 commanded the Mediterranean squad- 
 ron. He declined the throne of Greece in 
 1862. In 1874 he married the Grand Duchess 
 Marie, only daughter of the Czar Alexander 
 II. ^ 
 
 Edison, Thomas Alva {b. 1847), American 
 inventor, bom at MUan, in Ohio, from the age 
 of twelve, when he was engaged as a newsboy, 
 showed an aptitude for iavention, which was 
 early directed towards telegraphy. His 
 principal inventions are the quadruplex 
 telegraph, the automatic telegraph (which 
 can transmit a thousand words a minute) , 
 the motograph relay, the carbon telephone, 
 the " Edison system " of electric lighting by 
 incandescence, and the phonograph and 
 photometer. 
 
 Edith, or Eadgyth {d. 1075), daughter of 
 Earl Godwin, and queen of Edward the 
 Confessor, to whom she was married in 1045. 
 When her father was banished she was
 
 Edi 
 
 (270) 
 
 Edw 
 
 removed to a monastery, but brought back 
 to coxirt iu lO'rl. She is described by con- 
 temporary writers as pious, beautiful, and 
 learned. 
 
 Editb, St., sister of King Edgar, and 
 Abbess of Polesworth in Warwickshire. 
 
 Edith, St. (b. circa 962, d. 984), daughter 
 of King Edgar, entered the convent of 
 Wilton, in Wiltshire, of which she is said to 
 have become abbess. Her festival was kept 
 with great solemnity in every part of 
 England. 
 
 Edmtmd, or Eadmund, St., King of East 
 Anglia {b. 841, d. 870), began to reign in 
 855. In 866 East Anglia was invaded by 
 the Danes under Hiugwar, who sent a mes- 
 senger to Edmund, bidding him renounce 
 Christianity and become his vassal. On his 
 refusal he was tied to a tree, and his body 
 pierced with arrows. His remains were 
 afterwards interred in the church of Bury, 
 hence called St. Edmund's Bury, or Bury 
 St. Edmimds. 
 
 Edmund I., the Elder (b. circa 922, d. 946), 
 King of England, succeeded his brother, 
 Athelstan, in 940. The men of the north 
 ha\'ing chosen other kings, Olaf and Ragnar, 
 Edmund concluded a treaty with them in 
 943, but expelled them in 944. He also re- 
 duced Mercia, including the Five Boroughs, 
 and in 945 formed an alliance with Malcolm 
 of Scotland. He was assassinated by an 
 outlaw, named Liofa. 
 
 Edmund II., Ironside {b. 989, d. 1017), 
 son and successor of Ethelred the Un- 
 ready, fought against the Danes during 
 his father's lifetime, and on his accession 
 shared the kingdom with Canute, who had 
 defeated him owing to the treachery of 
 Edric Streona. He was assassinated, pro- 
 bably thi-ough Edric's instigation. 
 
 Edmund Rich (d. 1240), a native of 
 Abingdon, was elected Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury (12o2) on the nomination of Gregory 
 IX. ; resisted the poise's exactions and inter- 
 ference with the liberties of the church, but 
 failed in his efforts. He withdrew to Soissy, 
 where he died. 
 
 Edred (d. 955), King of England, youngest 
 son of Edward the Elder, succeeded his 
 brother, Edmund, in 946. 
 
 Edric, called Streona, "the Gainer," (d. 
 1017), of obscure birth, gained the favour 
 of Ethelred the Unready, and became ealdor- 
 man of Mercia in 1007. In 1015 he took part 
 in a treacherous assassination of the Danes 
 at Oxford; on the death of Ethelred (1016) 
 joined Canute in opposition to Edmund 
 Ironside ; afterwards allied himself with 
 Edmund, and by his flight at Assandun, 
 probably pre-arranged, occasioned his defeat 
 
 by Canute in that battle. The kingdom was 
 then divided at his suggestion. He is believed 
 to have had a hand in the death of Edmund. 
 
 Edrisi, Abu Abdallah Ben Ediis (b. 
 1099, d. 1104), Arabian geographer, bom 
 at Ceuta, a descendant of Ali, son-in- 
 law of Mahomet, settled at the court 
 of Eager, King of Sicily, and wrote La 
 Arabic a geographical treatise explaining the 
 large silver globe he made for the king. 
 
 Edward "the Elder," King of the Anglo- 
 Saxons {b. 870, d. 924), son and successor 
 (901) of Alfred the Great, was opposed by 
 his cousin, Ethelwald, who was aided by the 
 Danes, but slain in battle (906). With the 
 assistance of his sister, Ethelfleda, lady of 
 the Mercians, widow of Earl Ethelred, he 
 defeated the Danes of Northumbria, and 
 secm-ed his borders by a group of strong fort- 
 resses; afterwards extended his sway over 
 Northumbria, Wales, and Strathclyde, being 
 the first to assume the title of ICing of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Edward "the Martyr" (J. circa 963, d. 979), 
 succeeded his father, Edgar, in 975. He 
 was supported by Dunstau, but opposed by 
 his stepmother, Elfrida, who had him 
 assassinated at Corfe Castle. 
 
 Edward " the Confessor " (6. circa 1004, 
 d. 1066), son of Etheked the Unready and 
 Emma, daughter of Eichard the Fearless^ 
 Duke of Normandy, was brought up at the 
 Norman court, and after his accession, on the 
 death of Harthacnut, in 1042, showed a pre- 
 ference for Norman customs and ideas. Out- 
 rages were committed vsith impunity by his 
 Norman favourites, while the English earls, 
 Leofric of Mercia, and Godwine of Wessex, 
 were engaged in private quarrels. At last, 
 in 1052, Godwine, who had been outlawed, 
 rose in rebellion, installed Stigand Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, in place of Eobert of 
 Jumieges, who had fled with the other 
 Normans, and during the rest of the reign 
 all real power was in the hands of the House 
 of Godwine. Edward codified the customary 
 law of the Anglo-Saxons, which thus became 
 knowm as the '' laws of King Edward." 
 
 Edward I., King of England (6. 1239, d. 
 1307), succeeded his father, Henry III., in 
 1272. Imbued with high notions of feudal 
 sovereignty, he sought to establish his 
 supremacy throughout the island of Britain. 
 His expeditions against Llewellyn - ap - 
 Gruffydd, Prince of Wales (1282), and his 
 brother, David (1283), resulted in the reduc- 
 tion of the principality, the government of 
 which he settled by the statute of Wales 
 (1284). The struggle between John Baliol 
 and Eobert Bruce for the throne of Scotland 
 gave him a pretext for interfering in that 
 country (1290). After vainly endeavouring 
 to maintain Baliol as his vassal, he set to
 
 Edw 
 
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 Edw 
 
 work to conquer Scotland for himself, send- 
 ing the Earl of Warrenne thither as viceroy, 
 but was forced to contend with a succession 
 of claimants, and died near Carlisle, 
 whilst marching against WiUiam Wallace. 
 A man of strictly legal, but somewhat 
 narrow mind, he seciu-ed order and good 
 government by the Statutes of Winchester 
 and "Westminster and other enactments, and 
 carried on Simon de Montfort's work of 
 moulding the English Parliament (129-5), 
 though, at the same time, somewhat incUned 
 to strain the royal prerogative. His personal 
 chai'acter was extremely high. 
 
 Edward II., Elug of England (b. 1284, d. 
 1327), born at Carnarvon, succeeded his 
 father, Edward I., in 1307. He was of a lux- 
 urious and pleasure-seeking disposition, and 
 by his misgovern ment and fondness for his 
 favourite, the Gascon Piers Gavestou, 
 provoked a rising of the bai'onage, under his 
 cousin, Thomas, Earl of Lancaster. In the 
 Parliament of 1310 the royal power was placed 
 in the hands of twenty-one "lords ordainers," 
 who banished Gaveston (1311). Returning 
 in 1312, he was captured and executed by 
 the Earl of Warwick on Blacklow Hill. 
 Edward afterwards chose the Despensers, 
 father and son, as favourites, and the quarrel 
 with the barons continued till the latter were 
 defeated at Boroughbridge (1322), and Lan- 
 caster beheaded. In 1325 Queen Isabella 
 went to France to settle a dispute with 
 Charles IV., and returned the following year 
 with the exiled Roger Mortimer, Earl of 
 March, now head of the baronial party. 
 They were soon joined by a large force. 
 Edward was captured in Wales, deposed by 
 Parliament, and imprisoned in Berkeley 
 Castle, where he was murdered. The 
 internal dissensions of the reign enabled the 
 Scots to maintain their independence. 
 Edward's lords would not follow him to 
 battle, and he was defeated by Bruce at 
 Bannockbum (1314). 
 
 Edward III. (6. 1312, d. 1377) became 
 king on the deposition of his father, Edward 
 II., in 1327. The government was carried 
 on by Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer. 
 After seizing them at Nottingham Castle 
 (1330), and executing Mortimer, Edward 
 prosecuted the Scottish war with vigour, 
 winning the victory of HaUdon Hill, and re- 
 instating Baliol, who was soon afterwards 
 again expelled. In 1327 the Hundred Years' 
 war began, Edward claiming the French 
 throne through his mother, daughter of 
 Philip the Fair, in opposition to the reigning 
 monarch, Philip VI. , of ValoLs. After fruitless 
 campaigns from the side of Flanders in 1339 
 and 1340, Edward, in 1346, landed in Nor- 
 mandy, and marched along the Seine towards 
 Paris, but, finding it covered by Philip's 
 army, tamed northwards, defeated Philip at 
 
 Crecy (August 26th) , and, after a year's siege,- 
 reduced Calais. Meanwhile David Bruce 
 had been taken prisoner in the battle of 
 Neville's Cross (1346). The French war 
 continued iatermittently till 1360, when by 
 the treaty of Bretigny' Edward renounced 
 his claim to the thi-one, but received 
 Aquitaine in full sovereignty. In 1369 war 
 recommenced, and Charles V. soon won 
 back most of his lost provinces. Edward 
 encom-aged the wool trade, and in the latter 
 part of his reign there was some constitu- 
 tional progress, the Commons claiming new 
 functions and powers of control. 
 
 Edward rv. {b. 1442, d. 1483), son of 
 Richard Plautagenet, Duke of York, after 
 winning the victory of Mortimer's Cross, 
 marched to London, and was crowned king 
 (1461). He then followed the Lancastrian 
 army northwards, and defeated them at 
 Towton. The last efforts of Hem-y's sup- 
 porters were crushed in 1464, and Edward 
 ruled peacefully for six years. His marriage 
 with Elizabeth Wydeville offended the 
 Nevilles, who joined the Lancastrian party, 
 and Edward was forced to fly to Holland. 
 Within six months he returned, landed in 
 Yorkshire, marched soiithwards, gathering 
 forces on his way, and defeated Warwick at 
 Barnet (1471). Three weeks afterwards 
 Queen Margaret was defeated at Tewkes- 
 bury. Edward was secm-e from fiu-ther 
 attacks, and, as most of the barons had been 
 killed in the Civil war, while the Church had 
 lost its iniiuence, and the power of the 
 Commons had been checked in mid-growth, 
 he ruled as an absolute monarch. He 
 promoted commerce and jiatronised learning, 
 and his reign was one of material prosperity. 
 
 Edward V. (b. 1470, d. 1483) became king 
 on the death of his father, but reigned only 
 a few weeks, being smothered in the Tower 
 by order of his uncle, Richard, Duke of 
 Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. 
 
 Edward VI. (*. 1537, d. 1553), son of 
 Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, succeeded 
 his father in 1547. He was a learned youth ; 
 but weak in bodj', and probably in character. 
 The government was at first in the hands 
 of his uncle, Edward Seymour, Duke of 
 Somerset, who incurred the dislike of the 
 nobles, and was in 1549 supplanted by John 
 Dudley, Earl of Warwick, afterwards Duke 
 of Northumberland. During his reign a 
 somewhat Calvinistic form of Protestantism 
 was rigorously estabUshed throughout the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Edward {b. 1330, d. 1376), Prince of 
 Wales, called the "Black Prince," son of 
 Edward III., fought under his father at 
 Crecy; led a marauding expedition into 
 France in 1355, and another in 1356, when 
 he won the battle of Poitiers, taking King
 
 Edw 
 
 (272) 
 
 Ege 
 
 Johu prisoner. lu 136G he undertook to 
 reinstate Pedro the Cruel, of Castile, on his 
 throne, and accomplished this object by the 
 victory of Navarrete. 
 
 Edward, Thomas (b. 1814, d. 18S6), Scottish 
 natuialist, of humble parentage, throughout 
 life a struggling shoemaker ; spent much time 
 in collecting specimens ; discovered several 
 new species, and \vrote Selections from the 
 Fauna of Ba>iifshire, appended to his 
 biography by Smiles (1876). In 1876 he 
 received a pension from the Queen. 
 
 Edwardes, Sir Herbert Benjamin (b. 1819, 
 d. 1868), obtained a cadetship in the East 
 India Company (1840) ; served in the Sikh 
 war (1845) ; became assistant to Sir Heury 
 Lawrence at Lahore (1847) ; defeated the 
 SLkhs at Kineyree, and took part in 
 the siege of Mooltan (1849) ; as com- 
 missioner of the Peshawar frontier during 
 the Mutiny secured the neutrality of the 
 Ameer of Afghanistan, and sent a force to 
 assist in capturing Delhi. He was com- 
 missioner of Umbala from 1862 to 1865. 
 
 Edwards, Amelia Blandford (6. 1831, 
 d. 1892), novelist ; besides contributing to 
 magazines and writing for the daily and 
 weekly papers, has written My Bruther^s 
 Wife (1855), Barbara's History (1864), Lord 
 Brackenbury (1880), and other novels; also 
 some books of travel — Untrodden Paths and 
 Unfrequented Valleys (1873), A Thousanc 
 Miles up the Nile (1877), etc. 
 
 Edwards, Bryan (b. 1743, d. 1800), spent 
 some years in Jamaica, and, returning to 
 England, wrote a History of the British 
 Colonies in the West Indies. 
 
 Edwards, George (fi. 1694, d. 1773), 
 naturalist ; wrote a History of Birds, Glean- 
 ings of Natural History, etc. 
 
 Edwards, G-uillaume Frederic (6. 1777, d. 
 1842), physiologist and ethnologist, bom in 
 Jamaica, was educated at Bruges ; spent 
 most of his life in Paris ; wrote Physio- 
 logical Characters of Human Races (1839), etc. 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan (6. 1703, d. 1758), 
 American theologian, bom at East Windsor, 
 Connecticut, educated at Yale College, 
 was Presbyterian minister at Northampton, 
 Connecticut, from 1727 to 1750, but ex- 
 pelled by his congregation for attempting 
 to exercise severe church discipline. He 
 then became a missionary among the 
 Indians of Massachusetts, where he wrote 
 his Calvinistic treatise ou the Freedom of the 
 Will and other works. He died soon after 
 accepting the post of principal of New 
 Jersey College. 
 
 Edwards, Richard (b. circa 1523, d. 1566), 
 an early English dramatist; author of Damon 
 and Pythias. Some of his poems are 
 
 contained in the Paradise of Dainty Devices 
 
 (1576). 
 
 Edwin, King of Northumbria (b. 586, d. 
 633), son of ^Ua, King of Deira, by the 
 conquest of Bernicia founded the kingdom 
 of Northumbria, and in 623 became bret- 
 walda, Kent alone not recognising his title. 
 He was converted to Christianity (627) , and 
 slain in battle with Penda of Mercia. 
 
 Edwy the Fair {b. circa 939, d. 959) , King of 
 the Anglo-Saxons, son of Edmund, succeeded 
 his imcle, Edred, in 955. In 957 the 
 Mercians and Northumbrians revolted from 
 him, and declared his younger brother, 
 Edgar, king. 
 
 Eeckhout, Antoni van den (b. 1650, d. 
 1695), artist, bom at Bruges, studied in Italy 
 with his brother-in-law, Deyster, and 
 worked in conjunction with him, painting 
 flowers and fruits. He was assassinated. 
 
 Eeckhout, Gerbrandt van den (b. 1621, fij. 
 1674), Flemish artist ; pupil of Rembrandt ; 
 excelled in portraits. Among his best works 
 is Christ among the Doctors, at Munich. 
 
 EfFen, Just van {b. 1684, d. 1735), Dutch 
 journalist, published at the Hague Le 
 Misanthrope (1711) in imitation of the 
 
 Spectator. 
 
 Egbert, or Ecgberht {d. 766), brother 
 of Eadberht, King of Northumberland, be- 
 came Archbishop of York in 732, and founded 
 a library in that town. 
 
 Egbert (d. 839), King of the Anglo- 
 Saxons, belonged to the House of Cerdic, 
 and, after Hviug in exile at the court of 
 Charlemagne, became, in 802, King of Wes- 
 sex, to which he annexed Mercia (825) and 
 Northumbria (827). In 828 he overran 
 Wales, and in 835 defeated the Danes in 
 Devonshire. 
 
 Egede, Hans (b. 1686, d. 1758), Danish 
 missionary among the pagan Greenlanders ; 
 established a commercial colony, and was 
 very successful till thwarted by Christian 
 VI. ; handed on his work to his son, Paul, 
 by whose descendants it was continued till 
 the present century. 
 
 Egerton, Francis, first Earl of EUesmere 
 {h. 1800, d. 1857), was Chief Secretary for Ire- 
 land (1828-30) and Secretary for War (1830). 
 He translated Faust, wrote poems, and con- 
 tributed to the Quarterly Meview. 
 
 Egerton, Thomas, Baron of Ellesmere, 
 Viscount Brackley {b. 1540, d. 1617), bom at 
 Doddlestone Hall, in Cheshire, was called 
 within the bar by Queen Elizabeth, became 
 Solicitor- General (1581), Attorney- General 
 (1592), Master of the RoUs (1594), and 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal (1596), and was
 
 Egg 
 
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 Eic 
 
 Lord Chancellor under James I. Among 
 his chief reforms was the introduction of a 
 more merciful spirit into the penal code. 
 
 Egg, Augustus Leopold, R.A. (b. 1816, d. 
 1863), artist, born in London ; excelled in 
 depicting historical incidents, and also illus- 
 trated scenes from Shakespeare. Among his 
 best works are Sir Piercie Shafton, The Life 
 and Death of Buckingham, and the Dinner 
 Seme from the Taming of the Shrew (1860). 
 
 Eggeatein, Henri, a printer of the 15th 
 century, said to have been the associate of 
 John Mentel at Strasburg. His first work 
 there is dated 1471. 
 
 Egglesfleld, Robert de {d. 1349), member 
 of an old Cumberland family and confessor 
 to Philippa, queen of Edward LEI. ; founded 
 Queen's College, Oxford, for the benefit of 
 natives of Cumberland and Westmoreland. 
 
 Eg^idius {date uncertain), the Latin name 
 for St. Giles, one of the black-letter saints 
 of the English calendar, an Athenian by 
 birth. He fled to France, and became 
 abbot of a monastery founded by Wamba 
 or Childeric. Being lame, he was the 
 patron of cripples ; he is also the patron 
 saint of Edinburgh. 
 
 Egilsson, Svenbjorn {b. 1791, d. 1852), 
 Icelandic linguist and antiquarian ; origin- 
 ated the Northern Antiquarian Society in 
 1825, and wrote Lexicon Poeticum Linguce 
 Septentrionalis, and Scripta Historica Is- 
 landonim. 
 
 Eginliard {b. circa 771, d. 844), German 
 historian, born in Franconia, was a pupil of 
 Alcuin, and introduced by him to Charle- 
 magne, who made him lus secretary. On 
 his death he entered the service of Louis le 
 D^onnaire, and educated his son, Lothaire. 
 He was afterwards Abbot of SeUgenstadt. 
 Besides Vita et Gesta Caroli Magni, he wrote 
 Annates Regum Francomm (741-829), and 
 other works. 
 
 Eginton, Francis {b. 1737, d. 1805), an 
 English painter on glass, executed a Resur- 
 rection, for Lichfield cathedral, and other 
 works. 
 
 Egizio, Matteo {b. 1674, d. 1745), a learned 
 antiquarian, bom at Naples, left several 
 works on archaeological and literary subjects. 
 
 Egloffstein, Carl August von (fi. 1771, d. 
 1834), German general, joined the contingent 
 furnished to the French army on the Rhine 
 by Charles Augustus of Saxe -Weimar; 
 distinguished himself at Jena, and after- 
 wards in Spain under Augereau, and in 
 Napoleon's Russian campaign. 
 
 Egmont, Lamoral, Count, Prince de 
 Gavre (6. 1522, d. 1568), Flemish noble; 
 
 accompanied Charles V. on his expedition 
 to Africa (1544), and distinguished himself 
 against the French in the battles of St. 
 Queutin and GraveUnes. During the re- 
 gency of the Duchess of Parma he sought 
 to mediate between her and the people of 
 the Netherlands. Becoming obnoxious to 
 Philip II. owing to his connection with the 
 Pilnce of Orange, he was seized and executed 
 at Brussels by the Duke of Alva. 
 
 Eg^nazio, the name assimied by Giovanni 
 Battista Cipelli (b. 1478, d. 1553), a 
 pupil of PoHtian, who taught classics in 
 Venice, and, as a professor, contributed to 
 the revival of learning in his day. 
 
 Ehingen, Georg von (b. circa 1435), Ger- 
 man traveller and adventurer, after journey- 
 ing thi'ough Palestine, A'isited the courts of 
 France, Sicily, Navarre, Portugal, England 
 and Scotland, and distinguished himself 
 against the Saracens, England, and Scot- 
 land. He left an accomit of his travels. 
 
 Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried {b. 1795, 
 d. 1876), a Geiman naturalist, bom at 
 Delitzsch, famous for his investigations 
 concerning fungi and their laws of re- 
 production. In 1820 - 25 he made a 
 scientific expedition in Egypt, Syria, and 
 Abyssinia, returning with large collec- 
 tions; and in 1829 accompanied Alexander 
 von Humboldt in his explorations in Central 
 Asia. His chief works are Infusoria as Per- 
 fect Organisms (1838), and Micro-geology, or 
 the Life that Creates Earth and Rocks 
 (1854). 
 
 Elrrenmalm, Arvid, in 1741 explored the 
 province of Absele-Lappmark in Nordland, 
 and left an account of his travels. 
 
 Ehret, Georg Dionysius {b. 1710, d. 1770), 
 a Gennan botanist and painter of plants, 
 visited England, and was patronised by Sir 
 Hans Sloane. 
 
 Eichendorflf, Joseph von (6. 1788, d. 1857), 
 German poet, a member of the later ro- 
 mantic school. His lyrics are popular ; he 
 also wrote A Good-for-Nothing's Life (1826), 
 and other tales and dramas. 
 
 Eichhom, Johann Gottfried (b. 1752, d. 
 1827), Gennan OrientaUst and theologian, 
 professor of Oriental languages at Jena 
 (1775) and Gottingen (1778) ; wrote Intro- 
 ductions to the Old and i\cw Testaments, 
 to the Apocrypha and The Hebrew Pro- 
 phets ; conducted a Repertoriutn for Bibli- 
 cal and Oriental Literature, and edited 
 Abul-f eda's Arabic Geography of Africa. 
 
 Eichtlial, Gustave {b. 1804), French econo- 
 mist, bom at Nancy, educated at the school 
 of St. Simon, became a St. Simonian and 
 follower of Enf antin. Migrating to Greece, 
 he was appointed a member of the bureau
 
 Eis 
 
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 Elg 
 
 of political ecouomv, aud helped to estab- 
 lish the Societ(5 d'Ethiiologie. In 1848 he 
 joined in starting Le Credit. His exegetical 
 work, Lcs Ecangiks, was pubHshed in 1863. 
 
 Eisenlohr, August {b. 1832), German 
 Egyptologist, in 1869 led an expedition to 
 Greece, Egypt, and Syria, and studied the 
 Harris papyrus at Alexandria, a translation 
 of which he published in 1872-3; has written 
 papers on Egyptian archaeology, and in 1872 
 was appointed professor extraordinary in the 
 university of Heidelberg. 
 
 Elcho, Lord. {See Wemyss.] 
 
 Elci, Angelo Maria, Count of (*. 1754, d. 
 1824), a native of Florence, formed a valu- 
 able collection of rare books, now in the 
 Biblioteca Laurenziana in that town. 
 
 Eldon, John Scott, Earl of {b. 1751, d. 
 1838), son of a Newcastle coalfitter ; 
 after a successful career at Oxford, entered 
 the Middle Temple (1773), and was called 
 to the bar (1776) ; entered Parliament as a 
 supporter of Pitt (1783) ; became Solicitor- 
 General (1787), and as Attorney- General 
 (1793) piosecuted Thelwall, Home Tooke, 
 and other revolutionary agitators. He be- 
 came Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in 
 1799, and was Lord Chancellor from 1801 to 
 1806 and 1807 to 1827. In politics he was 
 an unbending Tory, opposing all improve- 
 ments in the law or constitution. 
 
 Eleanora d'Anjou, Queen of SicUy {d. 
 1343), daughter of Charles II. of Anjou; 
 in 1302 married Frederick II. of Aragon, 
 King of Sicily, after whose death she with- 
 drew to a convent. 
 
 Eleanora d'Arborea {d. 1404), daughter 
 of Mariano IV., Lord of Arborea in Sar- 
 dinia, inherited a great part of the island 
 from her father, and ruled prudently, re- 
 sisting the Aragonese, and issuing a code of 
 laws. 
 
 EleanoreTellez, Queen of Portugal (3.1350, 
 d. 1405), was married to Joao Lourencjo da 
 Cunha,whom she left to become the wife of 
 Ferdinand I. of Portugal. She was left regent 
 by her husband at his death in 1383, but dis- 
 gusted the people by her liaison with Andeiro, 
 a Castilian lord. An insurrection breaking 
 out, Andeiro was assassinated, and Ferdi- 
 nand's natural brother, Joao, declared king. 
 Eleanore was afterwards placed in a monas- 
 tery at Tordesillas. 
 
 Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, 
 daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon, in 1428 
 married Edward, afterwards king of Por- 
 tugal, and, after his death in 1458, was 
 regent for her son, Alphonso V. 
 
 Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Navarre 
 (rf. 1479), second daughter of Juan U. of 
 
 Aragon and Blanche of Navarre; in 1436 
 married Gaston IV., Count of Foix, and be- 
 came queen in 1479. 
 
 Eleanore of Austria (b. 1498, d. 1558), 
 sister of Charles V. ; was married first to 
 Manoel, King of Portugal (1519-21), and 
 afterwards to Francis I. (1530-47). 
 
 Eleanore of Castile, Queen of England, 
 daughter of Ferdinand III. of Castile ; mar- 
 ried Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. , 
 in 1254. She accompanied her husband on 
 the Crusade. 
 
 Eleanor of CastUe, Queen of Navarre {d. 
 1416), daughter of Heni-y II. of Castile; 
 in 1375 married Charles III. of Navarre. 
 She abandoned her husband, but was 
 forced to return to him by her nephew, 
 Henry III. of Castile. 
 
 Eleanore of Guienne {b. 1122, d. 1204), 
 daughter of William IX., Duke of Guienne; 
 in 1137 married Louis VII. of France, by 
 whom she was divorced in 1152. She then 
 became the wife of Henry Plantagenet, 
 Count of Anjou and Duke of Nonnandy, 
 afterwards Henry II. of England; aided 
 her sons in their rebellion against their 
 father, and was imprisoned from 1173 to 
 1184. She was regent for Richard I. during 
 his absence in the Holy Land. 
 
 Eleanore of Provence, Queen of England 
 {d. 1291), daughter of Raimond Berenger 
 IV.; in 1236 married Henry III. of England, 
 and on his death, in 1272, took the veil. 
 
 Eleazar, son of Onias, high priest in the 
 3rd century B.C., said by Josephus to have 
 sent to Alexandria the seventy-two Jews 
 who compiled the Septuagint. 
 
 Eleazar {d. 167 e.g.), a scribe, mentioned 
 in the Book of Maccabees as having suifered 
 death by torture rather than eat polluted 
 meat when commanded by Antiochus Epi- 
 phanes. 
 
 Eleazar (d. 163 b.c), one of the Macca- 
 beau brothers, sons of Matathias, led the 
 Jews in their wars with the kings of SjTia. 
 He was crushed by an elephant whilst fight- 
 ing against Antiochus Eupator. 
 
 Eleazar, son of Ananias, leader of one of 
 the factions which divided Jerusalem during 
 its siege by the Romans a.d. 70. 
 
 Eleazar of Massada, a Jewish fanatic, de- 
 scended from Judas the Gahlean, at the 
 head of the Sicaiii defended the fortress of 
 Massada, on the Dead Sea, against the 
 Romans. When resistance proved vain, 
 he and his followers killed themselves. 
 
 Eleutherius (<^. 1 92) , a native of Nicopolia ; 
 was Bishop of Rome. 
 
 Elgin, Thomas Bruce, seventh Earl of (i.
 
 Elg 
 
 (275) 
 
 EH 
 
 1766, d. 1841), and eleventh Earl of Kin- 
 cardine ; entered the army, bat was mainly 
 engaged in diplomacy. Whilst ambassador 
 in Constantinople (1799-1802) he planned 
 the removal of the "Elgin Marbles " from 
 Athens to England. In 1816 they were 
 bought by the nation for £35,000, and placed 
 in the British Museum. 
 
 Elgin, James Bruce, eighth Earl of, and 
 twelfth Earl of Kincardiae {b. 1811, d. 1863), 
 son of the preceding ; was governor of 
 Jamaica (1842-46), and of Canada (1846-54); 
 sent as special envoy to China in 1857 ; nego- 
 tiated the treaty of Tiensia (1858), and that 
 of Yeddo with the Japanese. In 1860 he 
 again went to China, and the treaty of Tien- 
 sin was ratified, with additional stipulations. 
 In 1862 he went to India as viceroy. 
 
 Eli, a Hebrew judge and high priest. 
 
 Ellas, Levita {b. 1472, d. 1549), Jewish 
 rabbi, and writer in modem Hebrew, 
 professor at Padua in 1504. He fled to Venice 
 at the sack of Padua in 1509, and thence to 
 Rome, where he lived tiU 1527, when he re- 
 turned to Venice. 
 
 Ellas, Matthiius {b. 1658, d. 1741), German 
 artist of humble birth ; studied under Cor- 
 been, and worked at Paris and Dunkirk; 
 left the Martyrdom of St. Barbe, at Dunkirk, 
 and other works. 
 
 Elie de Beaumont, Jean Baptiste Armand 
 Louis L6once (b. 1798, d. 1874), French 
 geologist ; was sent on a metallurgical ex- 
 pedition by the Government in 1821 ; became 
 professor at the School of Mines in 1829, and 
 chief engineer in 1833. In 1823, with MM. 
 Brochant de Vilhers, and Dufrenoy, he exe- 
 cuted a geological map of France. He has 
 written Becherches sur Qtielques-unes des 
 Jiivolutions ds la Surface du Globe (1829), etc. 
 
 Eligius Noviomensls (St. Eloy), (6. 588, d. 
 659), French saint ; was a skilied goldsmith, 
 and became minister of Dagobert I., and 
 afterwards Bishop of Noyon. 
 
 Elijah, Hebrew prophet, who denounced 
 idolatry during the reigns of Ahab and his 
 son (B.C. 910-896). 
 
 Elio, Francisco Xavier (*. 1767, d. 1822), 
 Spanish general ; appointed governor of Val- 
 encia and Murcia ; by his severity provoked 
 a conspiracy, which was suppressed. In 1820 
 he was arrested, and after two years' im- 
 prisonment, tried, and executed. 
 
 Eliot, George, pseudonym of Mary Ann 
 Evans, novelist (b. 1819, d. 1880). Her 
 parents were of humble origin. Educated in 
 a boarding-school at Nuneaton, she removed 
 with her father to Foleshill, near Coventry, 
 in 1841. She now exchanged Evangelicalism 
 for Scepticism, and in 1846 published her 
 translation of Strauss' Leben Jesu. After the 
 S2 
 
 death of her father (1849) she travelled on 
 the Continent, and on her return became 
 joint-editor of the Westminster Meview. In 
 1851 she began her lifelong connection with 
 George Henry Lewes, and iu 1857 published 
 Scenes of Clerical Life, followed by Adam 
 Bede (1859), The Mill o?i the Floss (1860), 
 Silas Marner (1861), Rmnola (1863), Felix 
 Holt (1866), Middlemarch (1871-2), Daniel 
 Deronda (1876), and Theophrastm Such 
 (1879). She travelled with George Lewes in 
 France and Spain, and pubUshed two volumes 
 of poetry. The Spanish Gipsy (1867) and The 
 LegendofJubal (1874). Lewes died in 1878, 
 and shortly before her death she married Mr. 
 J. W. Cross. 
 
 Eliot, Sir John (*. 1592, d. 1632), EngKsh 
 statesman and patriot ; entered Parliament in 
 1623; opposed the arbitrary government of 
 Charles I., and in consequence of his freedom 
 of speech in the Parliament of 1629 was im- 
 prisoned in the Tower, where he died. 
 
 Eliot, John {b. 1604, d. 1690), EngUsh 
 missionary : worked among the Indians of 
 North America, establishing settlements vsdth 
 a regular form of government, founding 
 schools, and translating the Bible and re- 
 ligious works into Indian. 
 
 Elisaeus, Eghische {d. 480), a learned 
 Armenian ; became bishop in the province of 
 Ararat, and held various offices under Prince 
 Vartan. He wi-ote a History of the War of 
 Vartan and of the ^rOTe«ia«s, extending from 
 439 to 463. 
 
 Elisha, Hebrew prophet, the successor 
 and pupil of Elijah ; died about 839. 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen of England (6. 1533, d. 
 1602), daughter of Henry VIII. and Anno 
 Boleyn, was brought up as a Protestant. Her 
 education was entrusted to the most learned 
 men of the age, and she became an accom- 
 plished scholar. During the reign of her 
 sister Mary she was imprisoned for a time in 
 the Tower. On her accession (1558), Mary's 
 enactments in favour of Romanism were 
 abrogated; by the Act of Supremacy the 
 sovereign again became head of the Church, 
 and a form of worship was established 
 which, it was hoped, would conciliate mode- 
 rate men of all parties. At first the spirit 
 of discontent dared not show itself amidst 
 the general satisfaction. But after the 
 escape of Mary Stuart into England (1568), 
 her presence in the country was a constant 
 source of disquiet. She was the heir to the 
 throne, and as Elizabeth persistently re- 
 fused to marry, it seemed probable that she 
 would be her successor. The disaffected 
 Papists were further encouraged by the 
 sentence of excommunication pronounced 
 against Elizabeth by the Pope, and by the 
 triumph of their cause abroad ; Jesuits from 
 Douay traversed the country in disguise,
 
 EU 
 
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 EU 
 
 several plots were formed, and it became 
 necessary to put the penal enactments against 
 Recusants more stringently in force. The 
 Protestantism of the coimtry was acutely 
 aroused, and a strong party in the council 
 urged the queen to pat herself forward as 
 the champion of the Reformed faith on the 
 Continent. But Elizabeth chose rather to 
 encourage a feeUng of independence and 
 energy at home than to involve England in 
 foreign complications ; the prudence and 
 patriotism of her policy were f uUy proved by 
 the after history of her reign. The growing 
 feeling of nationality proved stronger than the 
 lingering attachment to the old faith, especi- 
 ally after the hopes of the Roman Catholics 
 had been dashed by the execution of Mary 
 (1587), and when Philip of Spain sent his 
 long-projected expedition against England 
 (1588) Papists as well as Protestants came 1 
 zealously forward in defence of the realm, i 
 During the latter part of the reign, the dis- 
 turbances created by the Puritans fore- 
 shadowed the troubles of the opening cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Elizabetli Alexieona, Emuress of Russia 
 (h. 1779, d. 1826), daughter of Charles 
 Frederick, Margrave of Baden, in 1793 mar- 
 ried the Grand Duke Alexander, afterwards 
 emperor, becoming a member of the Greek 
 Church, and changing her name from that of 
 Louisa Marie Augusta. 
 
 Elizabeth Christina, Queen of Prussia (*. 
 1715, d. 1797), daughter of Duke Ferdinand 
 Albert of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel ; married 
 Frederick II. in 1732, but lived apart from 
 him after 1740. 
 
 Elizabeth Famese (*. 1692, d. 1766), 
 daughter of Odoardo II., Duke of Parma ; in 
 1714 married Philip V. of Spain, and ex- 
 ercised much influence over him, obtaining 
 the throne of Naples for her son, the infant 
 Charles. After the death of Philip (1746) 
 Bhe withdrew from the court. 
 
 Elizabeth Petrowna, Empress of Russia 
 (*. 1709, d. 1761), daughter of Peter the 
 Great; seized the throne in 1741, and ruled 
 with ability, carrying on war with Sweden 
 and Prussia. 
 
 Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia {b. 
 1596, d. 1662), daughter of James I. of Eng- 
 land; in 1613 married Frederick V., Elector- 
 Palatine, and shared his fortunes. In 1660 
 she came to England with her nephew, 
 Charles II. 
 
 Elizabeth Wydevllle, Queen of England 
 {b. circa 1437, d. 1492), daughter of Richard 
 Wydeville, afterwards Earl Rivers, and 
 Jacqueline of Luxembourg ; after the death 
 of her first husband. Sir John Grey, a Lan- 
 castrian knight, was, in May, 1464, privately 
 married to Edward TV. Their union was 
 acknowledged in the autumn. 
 
 Elizabeth, or Izabel, of Aragon, St. {b. 
 
 1271, d. 1336), daughter of Pedro lU. of 
 Aragon; in 1282 married Denis, King of 
 Portugal. 
 
 Elizabeth, or Isabella, of Austria (*. 1554, 
 d. 1592), daughter of Maximilian II. of 
 Austria ; married Charles IX. of France in 
 1570; was excluded from all part in the 
 government by her mother-in-law, Catherine 
 de' Medici, and after the death of the king, 
 in 1574, withdrew to a monastery in Vienna. 
 
 Elizabeth of Bohemia, Princess-Palatine 
 (*. 1618, d. 1680), daughter of Frederick V., 
 Elector-Palatine, and Elizabeth Stuart ; was 
 devoted to study, and a patron and pupil of 
 Descartes. 
 
 Elizabeth of France, Queen of Spain {b. 
 1602, d. 1644), daughter of Henri IV. of 
 France and Marie de' Medici; in 1615 mar- 
 ried Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 Elizabeth, St., of Hungary {b. 1207, d. 
 1231), daughter of Andreas II. of Hungary ; 
 m 1221 married Louis, Landgrave of Thur- 
 iugia. She was celebrated for her piety and 
 charity, and was canonised by Gregory 
 Ia.. 
 
 Elizabeth of Valois, Queen of Spain {b. 
 1545, d. 1568), daughter of Henxi 11. of 
 France and Catherine de' Medici, was mar- 
 ried (1560) to Philip II. of Spain ; her death 
 has been attributed to poison. 
 
 Elizabeth of York, Queen of England (b. 
 1465, d. 1503), daughter of Edward IV.; was 
 married in 1486 to Henry VII., thereby 
 reconciling the rival claims of the houses 
 of York and Lancaster. 
 
 Elizabeth Isabelle of Bavaria, Queen of 
 
 France (Zi. 1371, «^. 1435), daughter of Stephen 
 II. of Bavaria ; was married in 1385 to 
 Charles VI. of France, and when that king 
 lost his reason, shared the control of him 
 with the Duke of Burgundy. Her liaisons 
 with the Duke of Orleans and Bois Bourdon 
 led to her banishment in 1417, but she re- 
 turned, and made a treaty with Philip of 
 Burgundy and the English in 1420. She died 
 in neglect. 
 
 Elizabeth Philippine Marie Hel^ne de 
 France, Madame {h. 1764, d. 1794), youngest 
 sister of Louis XVI. ; celebrated for her 
 devotion to him and his family. She died on 
 the scaffold. 
 
 Ellenborough, Edward Law, Baron (b. 
 1750, d. 1818), lawyer, son of Edmimd Law, 
 Bishop of Carlisle: was called to the bar 
 in 1780; defended Warren Hastings(1787-94), 
 became Attorney-General in 1801, and in 
 1802 was made Chief Justice of the King's 
 Bench, and raised to the peerage. In. 1806 
 he obtained a seat in the Cabinet.
 
 EU 
 
 (277) 
 
 Elm 
 
 EUenborough, Edward Law, Earl of 
 {b. 1790, d. 1871), eldest son of the 
 precediiig was President of the Board of 
 Ck)ntrol in 1828, 1834, 1841, and 1858 : was 
 appointed Governor -General of India by 
 Sir Robert Peel (1842) ; pacified Afghanistan, 
 conquered and annexed Scinde, and success- 
 fully terminated the first Chinese war, but 
 was recalled by the Court of Directors in 
 1844. He was afterwards First Lord of the 
 Admiralty (1846-7). His despatch to Lord 
 Canning concerning his policy in Oude gave 
 rise to much discussion. 
 
 EUery, WilUam (*. 1727, d. 1820), 
 American politician (Federalist) ; signed the 
 Declaration of Independence (1776); retired 
 from Congress in 1785, owing to the loss of 
 his property ; in 1790 was appointed collector 
 of customs. 
 
 Ellicott, Right Rev. Charles John {b. 1819), 
 Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol ; conse- 
 crated in 1863, has written Commentaries 
 on the Epistle to the Galatians (1854-8), and 
 other theological works. 
 
 Elliger, Ottomar, a celebrated painter of 
 the Flemish school, patronised by Frederick 
 the Great. 
 
 Elliot, George Augustus, Lord Heath- 
 field {b. 1718, d. 1790), distinguished him- 
 self as a cavalry officer on the Continent 
 and in the West Indies, and became com- 
 mander of the troops in Ireland in 1775. 
 His brilliant defence of Gibraltar (1780-82) 
 gained him the title of Lord Heathfield, 
 Baron Gibraltar. 
 
 Elliot, Murray Kynnynmond Gilbert, first 
 Earl of Minto (h. 1751, d. 1814), statesman; 
 was called to the bar ; entered Parliament in 
 1774 ; attached himself to Fox, and supported 
 the coalition ministry. He became viceroy 
 of Corsica in 1 794 ; was envoy at Vienna from 
 1799 to 1801; and while Governor-General of 
 India (1807-14) conquered the Isle of France 
 and Java. 
 
 Elliotson, John, M.D., F.R.S. {b. 1791, d. 
 1868), physician ; educated at Cambridge and 
 Edinburgh ; while physician at St. Thomas's 
 Hospital became distinguished in thera- 
 peutics, and introduced clinical teaching 
 into the Metropolitan hospitals. In 1831 he 
 was appointed professor of medicine at 
 University College, but his belief in mes- 
 merism, dating from 1837, led to his pro- 
 fessional fall. 
 
 Elliott, Ebenezer (b. 1781, d. 1849), 
 the "Corn-Law Rhymer," a self-educated 
 ironfounder, of Sheffield; first attracted 
 notice by the Corn Law Rhymes (1827) : 
 also wrote the Village Patriarcn and 
 other poems. In 1838 he helped to organise 
 the Chartist movement, but abandoned the 
 
 cause in 1840, owing to its opposition to the 
 Anti-Com-Law League. 
 
 Elliott, Henry George, Sir (i. 1817), 
 second son of the second Earl of Minto ; 
 entered the Foreign Office (1840), was 
 appointed ambassador to the Porte (1867), 
 with Lord Salisbury represented Eng- 
 land at the Conference of Constantinople 
 (1876-7), and was ambassador at Vienna 
 (1878-84). 
 
 Ellis, George (b. 1745, d. 1815), miscel- 
 laneous writer ; contributed to the Rolliad 
 and Probationary Odes, and afterwards to 
 the Anti-Jacobin, and published Specimens 
 of our Early Poetry (1790), and Specimens of 
 Early English Metrical Romances (1802). 
 
 Ellis, Henry {b. 1721, d. 1806), English 
 navigator; made an unsuccessful attempt 
 (1746) to discover the North- West passage, 
 and was afterwards governor of Georgia. 
 
 Ellis, Sir Henry (*. 1777, d. 1869), 
 librarian and antiquary ; principal librarian 
 of the British Museum from 1827 to 1856 ; 
 wrote an I/itrodttction to Domesday Rook 
 (1833) ; annotated Original Letters Illus- 
 trative of English History ; also published 
 Elgin Marbles of the Classic Ages and The 
 Townley Gallery of Sculpture (1847). 
 
 Ellis, William {b. 1794, d. 1872), a mission- 
 ary in the islands of Polynesia ; wrote Poly^ 
 nesian Researches, a History of Madagas' 
 car, etc. 
 
 Elliston, Robert WUliam {b. 1774. d. 
 1831), a popular English comedian. 
 
 EUwood, Thomas (b. 1639, d. 1713), a 
 Quaker friend of Milton, to whom he is said 
 to have suggested the idea of writing 
 Paradise Regained. 
 
 Ellys, Anthony {b. 1690, d. 1761), Bishop 
 of St. David's ; wrote A Pka for the Sacra- 
 mental Test, and answered Hume's Essay 
 Concerning Miracles. His Tracts on the 
 Liberty, Spiritual and Temporal, of Protes- 
 tants in England, upholding the Church of 
 England, were published after his death. 
 
 Elmacinus, George {b. 1223, d. 1273), an 
 Egyptian ; war secretaiy imder the sultans 
 of Egypt, wrote a History of the Saracens 
 from the time of Mohammed to 1118. He is 
 supposed by some to have been a Christian. 
 
 Elmore, Alfred {b. 1815, d. 1881), painter; 
 bom at Clonakilty, County Cork; studied 
 at the Royal Academy and on the Con- 
 tinent. Among his works are The Inven- 
 tion of the Combing Machine, and The 
 Tuileries, June Wth, 1792. 
 
 Elmsley, Peter, [b. 1773, d. 1826), 
 Greek critic and philologist; educated at 
 Westminster and Oxford : after taking
 
 Elp 
 
 (278) 
 
 Eml 
 
 orders, lived for some time in Ediubui-gh, 
 where he f onned a friendship with Jeffrey, 
 and contributed articles on Greek Hteratnre 
 to the Eduiburgh Review. In 1823 he 
 became principal of St. Alban Hall, 
 Oxford, and Camden professor of history. 
 He is best known by his editions of the 
 Greek dramatists. 
 
 ElpMnstone, John, thirteenth Baron (J. 
 1807, d. 1860), was governor of Madras 
 from 1837 to 1842 ; returned to India as 
 governor of Bombay in 1853, and rendered 
 great service duimg the Mutiny. 
 
 Elphinstone, the Hon. Mountstuart {b. 
 1779, d. 1859), a younger son of the eleventh 
 Earl ; entered the service of the East India 
 Company; distinguished himself in the 
 Mahratta war; was British Resident at 
 Nagpore (1806-8) ; in 1811 was appointed 
 British Resident at Poonah, where he ably 
 resisted the Peshwah, and successfully 
 organised the province when annexed ; 
 wmle lieutenant-governor of Bombay (1820- 
 1827) he promulgated the Elphiastone 
 Code. He wrote An Account of the King- 
 dom of Cabul (1815), a History of India 
 during the Hindoo and Mahometan periods 
 (1841), and other works. 
 
 Elphinstone, WUliam {b. 1431, d. 1514), 
 Bishop of Ross, and afterwards of Aberdeen ; 
 after filUng the chairs of civU and canon 
 law at Paris and Orleans, became Lord High 
 Chancellor under James III. It was mainly 
 through bis efforts that the University of 
 Aberdeen was founded. 
 
 Ellington, Charles Richard {b. 1787, 
 d. 185Uj, professor of divinity at Trinity 
 College, Dublin ; wrote a Life of Archbishop 
 Usher, and other works. 
 
 Elsheimer, Adam {b. 1574, d. 1620), 
 German artist; went to Rome, where he 
 painted landscape and night pieces. 
 
 Elssler, Theresa (4. 1808, d. 1878), and 
 Fanny [b. 1811, d. 1884), dancers, were 
 sisters, natives of Vienna. Fanny was the 
 more celebrated. In 1851 Theresa con- 
 tracted a morganatic marriage with Prince 
 Adalbert of Prussia, and was subsequently 
 ennobled. 
 
 Elton, Charles Isaac {b. 1839), one of the 
 first English jurists of the historical school. 
 Besides Tenures of Kent (1867), treatises on 
 Commons and Waste Lands (1868), and 
 Copyholds and Customary Tenures of Land 
 (1874), and Custom and Tenant Right (1882), 
 he has vmtten Origins of English History 
 (1882), laying stress on the Celtic element in 
 the early population. He was returned to 
 Parliament in 1886. 
 
 Elvey, George Job, Sir (b. 1816), musical 
 composer, bom at Canterbtiry ; organist of 
 
 St. George's Chapel, Windsor, from 1835 to 
 1882, has composed a number of anthems 
 and other church music. 
 
 Elwaxt, Antoine Aimable Elie (5. 1808, 
 d. 1877), musician, composer, and author, 
 of PoUsh origin ; prof ossor of harmony 
 at the Couservatou'e at Paris, composed 
 Noe and La Naisance d''Eve (oratorios), 
 Les Catalans (an opera), and many other 
 pieces of various kinds. He wrote a Life 
 of Dupres (1838), and a poem called L'Har- 
 monie Musicale (1853), etc. 
 
 Elzevir, the name of a famous family of 
 printers, the first of whom. Loots (b. 1540, 
 d. 1617), established his press at Ley den. 
 The press at Amsterdam was founded by hia 
 great grandson. Loots {b. 1604), and here the 
 well-known series of classics was issued in 
 1665. A -RT?. ATT A AT (d. 1712) was the last of the 
 family. 
 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo {b. 1803, d. 1882), 
 American author ; boru at Boston, United 
 States, son of a Protestant minister; edu- 
 cated at Harvard ; was a Unitarian minister 
 from 1826 to 1832. Coming to Europe 
 in 1833, he visited France, Italy, and 
 England, where he met Coleridge, Words- 
 worth, and Carlyle. From 1835 to his 
 death he remained quietly at his New 
 England home, engaged in writing and 
 country pursuits, except for another visit to 
 England and France in 1847-8. In 1836 he 
 founded the Transcendental Club, and after 
 1840 contributed to the Dial, the organ of 
 the Transcendentalists. Besides his numerous 
 essays he wrote Xature (183G), English Traits 
 (1856), and the Conduct of Life (1860), etc. 
 He was at one time a prominent abolitionist. 
 
 Emery, Charles Edward {b. 1838), 
 American engineer ; has made several inven- 
 tions in connection with steam-engines, and 
 written some technical papers. 
 
 Emlli, Paolo {b. 1460, d. 1529), Italian 
 historian ; went to Paris in 1499, and was 
 historiographer to the French court imder 
 Loxiis XII.; wrote i>« Oestis Francorum : a 
 history of France from the origin of the 
 monarchy to the time of Charles VIII. 
 
 Emilia,Ti1, Gtrohno (fi. 1481, d. 1537); 
 originally a Venetian student ; founded 
 the Somaschi, a religious order devoted 
 to the relief of the sick and the education 
 of the young, so named from Somasco, the 
 village where the first convent was built. 
 
 Emin Pasha {b. 1840), German Mrican ex- 
 plorer, in 1878 was made ruler of the Ec^ua- 
 torial province, and held his ground agamst 
 the Mahdi. In 1886 Stanley went to his relief. 
 
 Emlyn, Thomas {b. 1663, d. 1741), bom at 
 Stamford, in Lincolnshire, became a Non- 
 conformist minister at Dublin, and wafi
 
 Emm 
 
 (279) 
 
 Enf 
 
 prosecuted and imprisoned in consequence 
 of his Arian views. 
 
 Emma, called iElf gif u. Queen of England 
 {d. 1052), daughter of Richard the Fearless, 
 Duke of Normandy ; in 1002 married Ethel- 
 red the Unready (by whom she had two 
 sons, Edward " the Confessor " and Alfred), 
 and in 1017 Cnut or Canute, by whom she 
 was mother of Harthacnut. Banished by 
 her stepson, Harold, she returned with 
 Harthacnut in 1040, and exercised much 
 influence during his reign. 
 
 Emmanuele, FiUberto, Duke of Savoy 
 (I. 1528, d. 1580), son of Charles III., 
 was commander-in-chief of the imperial 
 troops in Italy against the French, who, 
 on his father's death, seized most of his 
 inheritance ; appointed governor of the 
 Netherlands by Philip II. in 1556, he 
 attacked France, winning the battle of bt. 
 Quentin, and by the Treaty of Chateau- 
 Cambresis (1559) recovered his ancestral 
 iomains, and married Marguerite, sister of 
 \^e king of France. He appUed himself to 
 the administrative and military organisation 
 of his country, and is considered the founder 
 of the Sardinian monarchy. 
 
 Emmanuele da Come, Fra (J). 1625, d. 
 1700), Italian painter ; executed the frescoes 
 in the library of the Irish convent on the 
 Pincian Hill at Rome. > 
 
 Emmett, Robert {b. 1778, d. 1803), Irish 
 revolutionist : son of a Dublin doctor ; ex- 
 pelled from Dublin University in 1798 owing 
 to his anti-English sympathies ; in 1803 led 
 an unsuccessful attack on Dublin Castle; 
 escaped into Wicklow, but was captured and 
 executed. His fate is the subject of some 
 verses by Moore. 
 
 Emmett, Thomas Addis {b. 1764, d. 1827), 
 brother of the preceding ; called to the Irish 
 bar in 1790 ; was a member of the Revolu- 
 tionary Directory in 1797. After being 
 examined by secret ParHamentary Com- 
 mittees, he was imprisoned from 1798 to 
 1802, and then exiled. He went to America, 
 and won a reputation at the New York bar. 
 
 Emmius, Ubbo (b. 1547, d. 1626), Dutch 
 historian of Calvimstic views. On refusing 
 to sign the Confession of Augsburg he was 
 driven from his rectorate at Norden by the 
 Lutherans, but obtained a professorship at 
 the college of Liers. 
 
 Emo, Angelo (*. 1731, d. 1792), Venetian 
 statesman and naval officer, born at Malta ; 
 freed the Mediterranean from the Barbary 
 pirates between 1762 and 1 767, and in 1784 was 
 appointed commander-general in the war 
 with Tunis His death was hastened by the 
 ingratitude of his countrymen. 
 
 Empedocles {b. circa 460 B.C., d. 384 B.C.), 
 
 areek philosopher and poet, bom at Agn- 
 gentum; belonged to the popular party, 
 and took part in the conspiracy to expel 
 Thrasideus, tyrant of Agrigentum. He 
 refused the sovereignty, and devoted 
 his wealth to the relief of the poor and 
 to medical and philosophical studies. He 
 committed suicide by plunging into Mount 
 Etna. He was a disciple of Pythagoras, and 
 wrote tragedies, political tracts, and poems 
 on Medicine, Nature, and Furijications, frag- 
 ments of which remain. 
 
 Empis, Adolphe Dominique Florent Joseph 
 Simonis (J). 1795, d. 1868), French di-amatic 
 writer. 
 
 Empoli, Jacopo Chimenti [b. 1554, d. 
 1640), Italian painter; imitated Andrea del 
 Sarto. One of his best works is the St. Ivo 
 in the Uflizi gallery at Florence. 
 
 Enambuc, Pierre Vaudrosque Diel d' (d. 
 1636), French navigator; sailed with du 
 Rossey to the Antilles in 1626, and gained 
 the island of St. Christopher, which, with 
 Richelieu's assistance, they afterwards 
 colonised, after defeating and expelUng the 
 English. Shortly before his death he colon- 
 ised Martinique. 
 
 Encalada, Manuel Blanco (J. 1790, d. 
 
 1876), a South American soldier, of 
 Spanish descent ; in 1813 left the Spanish 
 navy for the Chilian army, of which 
 he became commander-in-chief in 182o, 
 after contributing gi-eatly to the victory of 
 Ayacucho. He was president of the re- 
 public in 1826 ; in 1847 became governor ot 
 Valparaiso, and contributed greatly to the 
 progress of the city. 
 
 Encke, Johann Franz (i. 1791, d. 1865), 
 German astronomer; served m the war 
 against France from 1813 to 1815, when he 
 became assistant in the observatory ot 
 Seeberg, near Gotha, of which he was ap- 
 pointed director in 1825. He there dis- 
 covered the comet which bears his name. 
 In 1830 he became editor of the Berhner 
 Astronomische Jahrbuch. 
 
 Encontre, Daniel (b. 1762, d. 1818), a 
 Fi-ench mathematician; professor of doctane 
 and dean of the faculty of theology at Mon- 
 tauban. 
 
 Endlcott, John {d. 1665), bom at 
 Dorchester, became colonial governor of 
 Massachusetts. He was a rigid Pur-itau, 
 persecuted the Quakers, and treated the 
 Indians harshly. 
 
 Enfantin, Barth^lemy Prosper [b. 1796, d. 
 1864), Socialist reformer, in 1825 bewime a 
 disciple of St. Simon, who entrusted him 
 with the promulgation of his doctrmes. ile 
 wrote the Doctrine de St.-Simon (1830) and 
 Economic politique et Politique, and became
 
 zing 
 
 (280) 
 
 Epe 
 
 pire suprSine of the sect. The increasing 
 extravagance of their views led to their 
 suppression by the French Government in 
 1832. Enfautin henceforward turned his 
 energy in other directions, and became a 
 director of the Lyons Railway Company. In 
 1861 appeared La Vie Jiternelle, Fasee, Pre- 
 sente, et Future. 
 
 Engelberge, or Engelborde, Empress of 
 Germany {d. 890); in 856 married Louis II., 
 Emperor of Germany, on whose death (875) 
 she was seized by Charles the Bald, one of 
 the claimants for the throne, and impris- 
 oned. 
 
 Engelbrechtsen, Cornelius {b. 1468, d. 
 1533), Dutch painter, born at Leyden ; fol- 
 lowed Van Eyck, and was one of the first to 
 use oils. His oil-paintings, the Sacrifice of 
 Abraham and the Descent from the Cross, 
 are at Paris. 
 
 Engelbrekt, or Engelbrechtsen {d. 1436), 
 a Swedish patriot noble, who, as leader 
 of the people, forced the senate to sign a 
 bond securing them their ancient liberties. 
 In 1435 he was appointed regent by the Diet 
 at Arboga, but was soon after assassinated. 
 
 Engelmann, Godefroy [b. 1788, d. 1839), 
 one of the inventors of lithography; after 
 working at Munich, established lithographic 
 presses at Mulhouse, and afterwards at Paris, 
 and executed designs after Vernet and other 
 artists. He also greatly improved the art of 
 chromo-lithography. 
 
 Engerth, Eduard {b. 1818), historical 
 painter, a native of Pless, in Silesia; 
 after studying at Vienna and Rome, 
 travelled in England and the East. He 
 spent six yeai's in adorning the Alt- 
 lerchenfeld church at Vienna with fres- 
 coes. His masterpiece is Prince Eugene 
 after the Battle of Zeuta (1865). 
 
 Englefleld, Sir Henry Charles, Bart. {b. 
 1752, d. 1822), antiquary; wrote Tables of 
 the Apparent Places of the Comet in 1661, 
 A Walk Through Southampton, etc. 
 
 Ennemoser, Joseph (b. 1787, d. 1854), 
 physician and writer, born in the Tyro- 
 lese; at first a goatherd; educated at 
 luuspruck and Vienna; served against 
 Napoleon ; became a doctor in 1816, 
 and was made professor at Bonn in 1819. 
 Hi3 works include a Historu of Mag- 
 netism, Historico-Psychological Inquiries into 
 the Nature and Origin of the Human Soul, 
 etc. 
 
 Ennius, Quintus (A. 239 B.C., <?. 169 B.C.), an 
 early Latin poet ; born at Rudiae, in Calabria, 
 served in Sardinia, and against the .Slto- 
 lians, and became a favourite of the Scipios, 
 whose exploits he celebrated in his poems. 
 
 His epic poem. The Annals, embodies the 
 traditions and history of Rome to his own 
 day. He was one of the first to introduce 
 the study of Greek literature. His woi-ks 
 are now only known through Cicero's quo- 
 tations. 
 
 Ennodius, Magnus Felix (*. 473, d. 621), 
 Bishop of Pavia ; wrote a panegyric on 
 Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, and other 
 works. 
 
 Enriquez, Gomez Antonio, a Spanish 
 writer of the 1 7th century ; a Portuguese Jew 
 by birth. 
 
 Entinopus of Candia, an Italian architect 
 of the first half of the 5th century ; connected 
 with the foundation of Venice, whither he 
 fled on the invasion of the Goths in 405. 
 
 Entrecasteaux, Joseph Antoine Bruni d* 
 (b. 1739, d. 1793), French admiral and navi- 
 gator, bom at Aix ; headed the search for La 
 Perouse in 1788, visiting New Holland and 
 Van Diemen's Land. The expedition was vin- 
 successful, but led to important discoveries 
 in navigation and geography. 
 
 Enzina, or Encina, Juan de {b. 1468, 
 or 1469, d. 1534), Spanish dramatist and 
 musician ; patronised by the Duke of Alva ; 
 went to Rome and became master of 
 Leo X.'s Chapel. He was the first Spanish 
 wi'iter of the secular drama. 
 
 Enzo, or Entius (b. 1224, d. 1272), natural 
 son of the Emperor Frederick II. ; aided 
 his father against the Pope, conti'ibuting 
 to the victory of the Meloria (1240). In 
 1249 he was captured by the Guelphs of 
 Bologna, and remained a prisoner till his 
 death. He wrote sonnets and canzoni. 
 
 Eotvos, Joseph de Vasaros Nameny, 
 Baron {b. 1813, d. 1871), Hungarian states- 
 man, political wi'iter and poet : after travel- 
 ling in Europe in 1836 and 1837, led the 
 Opposition in the upper house of the Diet ; 
 took part in the Diet of Presburg after 
 the revolution of 1848 ; was minister of 
 public instruction in the first Hungarian 
 administration, and again from 1866 to his 
 death. His works, The ViUnge Notary, a 
 romance (1845), Hungary in 1514 (1847), and 
 the The Influence of the Ruling Ideas of the 
 Nineteenth Century on the State, led to ad- 
 ministrative and political reforms. 
 
 Epaminondas {d. 362 B.C.), Theban gen- 
 eral ; after the expulsion of the Spartans 
 (379 B.C.), became the leading man in Thebes, 
 and by his wise policy and military skill 
 raised his country to the first place in 
 Greece. He defeated the Spartans at Leuc- 
 tra (371), but fell at the battle of Mantinea 
 in the moment of victory. 
 
 Epee, Charies Michel, Abb^ de 1' (*. 1712,
 
 Eph 
 
 (281) 
 
 Era 
 
 d. 1789), French philanthropist; devoted his 
 fortune to the education of the deaf and 
 dumb, and invented the manual alphabet. 
 
 Ephorus {b. circa 380 B.C., d. circa 330), 
 Greek historian, bom at Cimiae ; was the 
 pupil of Isocrates at Chios, and wrote a 
 universal history in thirty books, from the 
 return of the Heraclides to the siege of 
 Perinthus in 341, fragments of which 
 remain. 
 
 Epliraem, Syrus {d. 370), a native of 
 Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and a pupil of St. 
 James, biskop of that city ; lived as a hermit 
 in a cave near Edessa, where he wrote com- 
 meutaxies and other works in Syriac and 
 Greek. During a famine in Edessa he fitted 
 up a hospital, supported by subscriptions. 
 
 Epicaro, Antonio, bom at Corfu, lived in 
 the first half of the 16th century. He taught 
 Greek in Venice, and left a poem in Greek 
 on the fall of his country under the Tui'ks, 
 and a series of Epistolce Spectantes ad Con- 
 cordiam ReipubUcce Christiana." 
 
 Epicliaxmus (b. 540 b.c, d. 450 B.C.), a 
 Greek philosopher and poet, bom at Cos, a 
 disciple of Pythagoras ; is said to have prac- 
 tised as a physician in Megara, Sicily, 
 whence he removed to Syracuse, and there 
 composed the first Dorian comedies, properly 
 so-called, fi-agments of which remain. 
 
 Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher of the 1st 
 century a.d., born at Hierapolis in Phrygia ; 
 was bought as a slave by Epaplu-oditus, a 
 favourite of Nero. When emancipated he 
 lived at Rome, until banished by Domitian, 
 and then became a teacher at Nicopolis in 
 Epirus. His lectures were transcribed by 
 his pupil, Arrian. 
 
 Epicurus {b. circa 340 B.C., d. 270 B.C.), 
 Greek philosopher. It is doubtful whether 
 his birth occurred before or after his 
 parents' removal from Gargettus, in Attica, 
 to Samos. His youth was spent in that 
 island, whence he removed to Athens, 
 when about eighteen, and afterwards taught 
 at Colophon, Mitylene, and Lampsacus. He 
 returned to Athens about 304, and remained 
 there tiU his death. He was founder of the 
 Epicurean school, who hold that the sum- 
 mum bonum consists in pleasure — chiefly 
 mental pleasure. 
 
 Epimenides, a semi-fabulous Cretan poet 
 and soothsayer, who lived about 600 B.C. , and 
 is said to have delivered the Athenians from 
 a plague. 
 
 ^pinay, Louise Florence P^tronille, 
 Madame d' (A. 1725, d. 1783), daughter of 
 an oificernamed Tardieu d'Esclavelles ; mar- 
 ried her cousin, d'Epinay, in 1735. She was 
 strongly attached to Rousseau, for whom she 
 built the " Hermitage." She left Mhnoirs et 
 Correspondance de Madame d'']ipinay, etc. 
 
 Epiphanius {b. circa 310, d. 403), Arch- 
 bishop of Constantia or Salamis, in Cyprus ; 
 a Jew by bii-th ; a learned but credulous 
 man, and an active controversialist \ opposed 
 the doctrines of Origen, and wrote the 
 Panarium, a treatise against heresies. 
 
 Episcopius, Simon {b. 1583, d. 1643), 
 Dutch divine ; friend and disciple of 
 Arminius ; was an able disputant, and 
 took part in the Remonstrant Conference 
 at the Hague and in the synod of Dort, 
 where he was the spokesman of the Remon- 
 strants. 
 
 Eponina, or Epponina {d. 78), the de- 
 voted wife of Julius Sabinus, a chief of the 
 Ligones, who opposed the Romans in Gaul, 
 was defeated, and nine yeai-s afterwards 
 captured and condemned to death. After 
 vainly imploring Vespasian to pardon him, 
 Eponina shared his punishment. 
 
 Epr^m^nsil, or Espremesnil, Jean Jacques 
 Duval {b. 1746, d. 17y4) : born at Pondi- 
 cherry, came to France in 1750, and 
 became councillor to the parliament of 
 Paris, whose rights he defended against 
 the minister Brienne. He advocated the 
 convocation of the states-general, and 
 was a representative of the noblesse of Paris 
 in the National Assembly. His subsequent 
 support of the royal privileges made him an 
 object of suspicion, and from his counti-y 
 estate, whither he had retired after the 10th 
 of August, he was brought before the revo- 
 lutionary tribunal, and condemned to the 
 guillotine. 
 
 Erard, S^bastien (J. 1752, d. 1831), born at 
 Strasbm-g, in 1780 established himself in 
 Paris as a maker of pianos. He improved 
 the construction of harps and pianos, and 
 built the grand organ for the chapel of the 
 Tuileries. 
 
 Erasistratus {d. circa 257b. o.) , a celebrated 
 physician ; a native of Ceos ; the first to dissect 
 human bodies. Was patronised by Seleucus 
 Nicator, King of Syria, and afterwards prac- 
 tised at Alexandria. 
 
 Erasmus, Desiderius (A. 1467, rf.l536), one of 
 the greatest scholars of the Renaissance, bom 
 at Rotterdam ; on his parents' death entered 
 a monastery, which he left to becomeateacher 
 at Paris, and, at the invitation of his pupil, 
 Lord Mountjoy, came to England. He settled 
 at Oxford, where he became the friend of 
 More, and studied divinity uuder Colet, and 
 Greek uuder Grocyn and Linacre. In 1506 
 he visited Italy, staying at Bologna and 
 Rome, where he was warmly received, but 
 returned to England, and was made Mar- 
 garet professor of divinity and professor 
 of Greek at Cambridge. He retm-ned to 
 the Continent, and, alter a journey to the 
 Low Countries, settled at Basle, where he
 
 Era 
 
 ( 282 
 
 Eri 
 
 published his edition of the Xew Testameut. 
 Erasmus was in favour of moderate reform 
 iu the Church, as is shown by his Enchiridion 
 Militis Christiani and Encomium Morice, 
 but he gave little support to Luther, 
 although he refused to wi'ite against him. 
 
 Erastus, Thomas {b. 1524, d. 1583), 
 German physician and theological writer ; 
 studied at Basle, and became physician and 
 counsellor to Frederic III., Elector-Palatine. 
 The views called Erastian were expressed iu a 
 work on ecclesiastical excommunication, pub- 
 lished after his death, and answered by Beza. 
 
 Eratosthenes (jb. 276 B.C., d. circa 196 e.g.), 
 mathematician, born at Gyrene, was sum- 
 moned from Athens by Ptolemy Euergetes to 
 take charge of the library at Alexandria, 
 where he remained tUl his death. He 
 measured the obliquity of the ecliptic, and 
 detenniued the size of the earth, according 
 to the modem system. 
 
 Erckmann-Cliatrain, the name adopted by 
 ^MiLE Eeckmann (Jb. 1822), and At.kxandbe 
 Chateain {b. 1826, d. 1890), French novelists, 
 authors of L'Ami Fritz (1864), L'Mistoire 
 d'un Comcrit de 1813 (1864), etc. 
 
 Ercilla y Zufiiga, Don Alonzo de {b. 
 1533, d. 1595), Spanish poet; became 
 chamberlain to the Emperor Eodolph 11. 
 After travelling in Europe, served against 
 the rebel Araucanians in South America, and 
 wrote his epic, La Araucana. 
 
 Ericsson, John (b. 1803, d. 1889), Swedish 
 engineer, inventor of the atmospheric engine, 
 early showed an aptitude for mechanics, but 
 was at first an officer in the army. Came to 
 England in 1826, and in 1833 exhibited the 
 caloric engine, perfected in the Ericsson, 
 built in 1851. Proceeding to New York in 
 1839, he constructed the Princeton, in which 
 the screw was for the first time applied to 
 steam navigation, and invented ships with 
 revolving turrets for guns. In 1873 he pub- 
 lished a work on Moveable Torpedoes. 
 
 Erigena. [^See Scotus.] 
 
 Erik I., " the Good," King of Denmark 
 (d. 1103), natural son of King Svend, suc- 
 ceeded his brother, Olaiis, in 1095. 
 
 Erik n., "the Fierce" {d. 1137), fought 
 against Magnus Sigurdsen, king of Norway, 
 and the Vandal pirates. 
 
 Erik III., '< the Lamb " {d. 1147), favoured 
 the clergy, and finally retired to a monastery. 
 
 Erik IV. {d. 1250), began to reign in 1241 ; 
 quarrelled with hi.s brothers, one of whom, 
 Abel, murdered him. 
 
 ErikV. {b. 1249, d. 1286), succeeded his 
 father, Christopher I:, in 1259 ; was assassin- 
 ated by Duke Waldemar of Sonderjylland. 
 
 Erik VL {d. 1319), son of the preceding, 
 began to reign in 1286 ; fought against Nor- 
 way, and was taken prisoner in 1294. 
 
 Erik VII., of Denmark. [See Eric Xin. of 
 Sweden.] 
 
 Erik VIIL, "the Victorious," King of 
 Sweden and Denmark ; reigned conjointly 
 with liis brother Olaf from 993, and on his 
 death became sole king. He added Den- 
 mark to his dominions. 
 
 Erik IX., " the Saint " {d. 1160), King of 
 Sweden and Denmark ; attacked the Finns, 
 whom he converted to Christianity. He was 
 slain by Magnus of Denmark. 
 
 Erik X., King of Sweden {d. 1216), son of 
 Cnut, and grandson of the preceding; married 
 the sister of Waldemar II. of Denmark, and 
 reigned six years. 
 
 Erik XL, "the Limping " {d. 1252), King 
 of Sweden ; a minor at his accession in 1222 ; 
 was engaged in a struggle with the usurper, 
 Coimt Johansson, and afterwards with his 
 son, Hobngeir, till the death of the latter in 
 1248. 
 
 Erik XII. (d. 1359), son of Magnus, King 
 of Sweden and Norway; was in 1350 set up 
 as joint king with his father, against whom 
 he fought till his death. 
 
 Erik XIII.," the Pomeranian " (*. 1382, d. 
 1449), elected King of Sweden in 1396 ; was 
 iu 1397 proclaimed ruler over Norway and 
 Denmark. A rebellion having arisen through 
 his exactions, he fled to Gothland in 1439, 
 and died in obscurity. 
 
 Erik XIV. (b. 1535, d. 1577), King of 
 Sweden, son of Gustavus Vasa, whom he 
 succeeded in 1 560 ; fought against Poland 
 and Denmark ; under the influence of his 
 minister, Goran Pehrsson, became cruel and 
 unjust, and was deposed by his brothers, 
 John and Charles, in 1569 ; was imprisoned, 
 and died of poison. 
 
 Erinna, Greek poetess, lived about 612 B.C.; 
 
 wrote The Distaff, etc. 
 
 Erizzo, Francesco {b. 1570, d. 1646), ac- 
 quired military renown in the war of Mantua; 
 became Doge of Venice in 1631, and displayed 
 great energy and patriotism, especially in 
 1645, when the Sultan Ibraham attacked the 
 island of Candia, and the resistance of the 
 Venetians saved Europe from the progress 
 of the Turks. 
 
 Erizzo, Paolo {d. 1470), a Venetian ; 
 governor of Negropont, which he defended 
 with a much smaller force against Mahomet 
 11. On the captuBe of the town, Erizzo 
 and his daughter, Anne, retired into the 
 castle, were made prisoners, and put to 
 death.
 
 Eri 
 
 (283 ) 
 
 Ers 
 
 Erizzo, Sebastiano (5. 1525, d. 1585), scholar 
 and philosopher, born at Venice ; studied at 
 Padua, and distiuguished himseK as an orator 
 and statesman iji rhe Venetian senate. Among 
 his works are one on politics, entitled I)ei 
 Governi Civili, a treatise on the inventive 
 power of the ancients, an Essay on Ancient 
 Medals, and Le Sette Giornate, a book of 
 novels. 
 
 Erlach, Johann Ludwig von (J). 1595, 
 d. 1650), a native of Berne; after serving 
 under the princes of Anhalt and Nassau, 
 became an officer in the army of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, whom he left to take command 
 of the troops raised in defence of the 
 town of Berne. In 1632 he was made 
 councillor, by Duke Bernard of Saxe- 
 Weimar, and given the command of the 
 Swiss frontier. On his death, he entered the 
 French service, and distinguished himself 
 under Conde, especially at the battle of Sens 
 (1648). His Memoirs throw light on events 
 in the Thirty Years' war. 
 
 Erlach, Rudolf von {d. 1360), liegeman 
 to the Count of Nydau ; was appointed leader 
 of the inhabitants of Berne against the 
 Emperor Louis of Bavaria ; won the battle 
 of Laupen, 1339 ; was assassinated at 
 Eeichenbach by his son-in-law. - 
 
 Erie, William, Sir {b. 1793, d. 1880), caUed 
 to the bar 1819 : was successively Judge of 
 the Common Pleas (1844-46), and of the 
 Queen's Bench (1846-59). He was made 
 Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in 1859, 
 but resigned in 1866. He wrote a treatise 
 on The Law Edating to Trades Unions. 
 
 Ermaa, Georg Adolf {b. 1806, d. 1877), 
 German man of science ; wrote a record of 
 his Voyage Round the World by Northern 
 Asia and the Two Oceans. 
 
 Ermengarde, Queen of Provence (b. 855), 
 only daughter of Louis II. of France ; in 877 
 married Boson, governor of Lombardy, and 
 afterwards of Provence, who became involved 
 in war with Louis III. In 882 she was im- 
 prisoned, but released on the. death oi her 
 husband (888) . She afterwards withdrew to 
 a convent. 
 
 Ernest I., of Zell, fifth Duke of Brunswick- 
 Luneberg [b. 1497, d. 1546), bom at Ultzen, 
 second son of Duke Henry I. and Margaret of 
 Saxony, was a disciple of Luther ; signed the 
 Confession of Augsburg, and joined the 
 League of Smalkalden. 
 
 Ernest Augnstus, sixteenth Duke of Bruns- 
 wick-Luneberg, and first Elector of Hanover 
 {b. 1629, d. 1698), was made Bishop of Osna- 
 briick in 1662. Fought at Consarbruck, took 
 Maestricht and Chaneroy, and brought about 
 the treaty of Pinneberg. Succeeding to the 
 dukedom, he Joined the Leu^jue of Augsburg 
 
 against Louis XIV., and was appointed 
 Elector in 1692. 
 
 Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover and 
 Duke of Cumberland {b. 1771, d. 1851), fifth 
 son of George III. ; entered the English 
 anny, and rose to the rank of field-marshal ; 
 in 1815 married the Princess Fredeiica of 
 Meckleuburg-StreHtz ; succeeded to the 
 crown of Hanover in 1837. 
 
 Emesti, Johann August {b. 1707, d. 1781), 
 German phUologer, professor at St. Thomas's 
 School, Leipzig; brought out editions of 
 several classical authors, and published a 
 critical commentary on the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews. 
 
 Emouf, Jean Augustin, Bai-on(3. 1753, d. 
 1827), French general, born at Alen9on ; 
 joined the anny of the North in 1793, and 
 distiuguished himself by his defence of 
 Cassel ; in 1798 commanded the army of the 
 Danube tiU the arrival of Massena ; was 
 appointed captain -general of Guadaloupe, 
 and after the restoration was made baron. 
 
 Emoul, Edmond (i. 1829), French lawyer 
 and politician, bom in London ; member of 
 the National Assembly (1871) ; a zealous 
 supporter of the Comte de Chambord; 
 proposed the motion which led to M. Thiers' 
 resignation in 1873. He was minister of 
 justice from 1873 to 1876. 
 
 Erpen, Thomas von {b. 1584, d. 1624), 
 Dutch Orientalist ; studied at Leyden, where 
 he was appointed professor of Oriental 
 languages 1613, and of Hebrew 1619. He 
 wrote liudimenta Linguae Arabicee, Gram- 
 matica Ebrwa Generalis, etc, 
 
 Errard, Charles Q>. 1606, d. 1689), French 
 painter and architect, bom at Nantes, was 
 employed by Louis XIV. to decorate the 
 Palais Royal. He suggested and founded 
 the Academy at Rome (1666), and was one 
 of the founders of the French Academy of 
 Painting (1648). Died at Rome. 
 
 Ersch, Johann Samuel {b. 1766, d. 1828), 
 a German bibliographer, bom at Glogau, 
 Silesia, studied at the University of Halle ; 
 edited the Neue Ramburijher Zeitimg from 
 1795 ; wrote La France LiUiraire, Handbuch 
 der Beutsche Literatur, etc. 
 
 Ersldne, David, Lord Dun {b. 1670, 
 d. 1758), Scotch lawyer, was called to the bar 
 in 169S; member of the last Scottish j)ar- 
 liament, and strongly opj.osed the Union. 
 He was made a judge in 1711, and a Com- 
 missioner of the Coiurt of Justiciary in 1713. 
 
 Ersldne, Ebenezer (*. 1680, d. 1754), 
 Scottish minister ; founder of the Secession 
 Church; in 1703 became minister of the 
 Established Church at Portmoak in Kinross, 
 where he was very popular ; in 1731 removed
 
 Ers 
 
 (284) 
 
 Esc 
 
 to West Church, Stirling: in 1740 finally 
 Bepaxated from the Scottish Church, and was 
 deposed. His adherents built him a new 
 place of worship. 
 
 Erskine, Henry, third Lord Cardross {b. 
 
 circa 1650, d. 1693), vigorously opposed the 
 Lauderdale administration ; was fined and 
 imprisoned for four years in Ediuburgh 
 Castle; joined a Scottish colony in South 
 Carolina, but returned to Europe and settled 
 at the Hague. He came to England with 
 William ILL., who made him a privy coim- 
 ciUor. 
 
 Erskine, Hon. Henry {b. 1746, d. 1817), 
 son of the tenth Earl of Buchan; an accom- 
 plished scholar, wit and lawyer ; attained to 
 the highest eminence in his profession, and 
 was Lord Advocate of Scotland in 1783 and 
 from 1806 to 1807. He was a consistent 
 Whig. 
 
 Erskine, John, Baron of Dun (b. 1609, d. 
 1591), scholar; studied Greek, and became a 
 Protestant. Knox found a home at his 
 castle. As one of the five ecclesiastical su- 
 perintendents nominated in accordance with 
 The First Book of Discipline, he actively 
 promoted the Reformation. 
 
 Erskiae, John (b. 1695, d. 1768), of Carnock, 
 lawyer; held the chair of Scottish law in the 
 University of Edinburgh from 1737 to 1765 ; 
 wrote Principles of the Law of Scotland, and 
 The Institutes of the Law of Scotland . 
 
 Erskine, John, D.D. {b. 1721, d. 1803), 
 minister of the Scottish Church; published 
 Sermons and Theological Dissertations. 
 
 Erskine, John. \_See Mar, Earl of.] 
 
 Erskine, Thomas, Lord (b. 1750, d. 1823), 
 son of the tenth Earl of Buchan ; after serv- 
 ing in the army and navy, was called to the 
 bar in 1778, and soon won renown as an 
 advocate by his defence of Lord Keppel and 
 of Lord George Gordon. A strong Whig, 
 he acted for the defence in the political 
 trials of the time, giving his aid to Home 
 Tooke, Thelwall, and Tom Paine ; his de- 
 fence of the latter cost him the post of at- 
 tomey-genera.l to the Prince of Wales. He 
 was now regarded as the defender of popular 
 liberties and constitutional rights. From 
 1790 he sat in Parliament as a supporter of 
 Fox ; in 1806 became Chancellor under him, 
 and was raised to the peerage. Hencefor- 
 ward he took little part in politics, but vigor- 
 ously supported Queen Caroline in 1821. 
 
 Erskine, Sir Thomas (*. 1788, d. 1864), 
 son of the preceding ; was called to the bar 
 from Lincoln's Inn (1813) ; made King's 
 Coimsel (1827) ; was Chief Judge of the New 
 Court of Bankruptcy from 1831 to 1842, and 
 a Judge of the Common Pleas from 1839 to 
 1844, when he retired, owing to ill-health. 
 
 Erskine, William (J). 1773, d. 1853), went 
 to India as secretary to Sir James Mackin- 
 tosh ; became a magistrate of Bombay, and 
 wrote a translation from the Turkish oif the 
 Autobiography of the Emperor Baber, His- 
 tory of India under the Emperors Baber and 
 Mumayun, etc. 
 
 Erslev, Thomas Hansen {b. 1803, d. 1870), 
 a Danish bibliographical writer; vyrote a 
 Universal Dictionary of Danish Writers. 
 
 Erwin von Steinbach {d. 1318), archi- 
 tect, bom at Steiubach, near Blihl ; de- 
 signed the new towers and the interior 
 ornamentation of Strasburg cathedral. 
 
 Erxleben, Joliann Christian Polycarp (i. 
 1744, <^. 1777), German naturalist; appointed 
 professor of natural philosophy at Gottiugen 
 m 1775; wrote Systems Regni Animalis. 
 
 Escalante, Juan Antonio (b. 1639, d. 
 1670), Spanish painter, born at Cordova, 
 imitated the Venetian masters. One of his 
 best pictures is the Life of St. Gerard, painted 
 for the cloisters of Clericos Minores at 
 Madrid. 
 
 Eschenbach, Wolfram von, a minne- 
 singer, who was alive at the beginning of the 
 13th century; bom near Nuremberg; took 
 part in the Civil wars of Germany, and spent 
 much time at the court of Hermann, land- 
 grave of Thuringia, at Eisenach. Among 
 the poems he is known to have written are 
 Titurel, Parcival, and eight Minnelieder. 
 
 Eschenburg, Johann Joachim (b. 1743, d. 
 1820), German writer; professor of belles 
 lettres at Brunswick; translated Shakes- 
 peare, and wrote Monuments of Ancient 
 German Poetry, etc. 
 
 Eschenmayer, Karl Adolf (b. Neuenberg, 
 Wurtemberg, 1768, d. 1854), a German mys- 
 tic philosopher ; professor of medicine, and 
 afterwards of philosophy, at Tiibingen. 
 
 Escher von der Linth, Hans Konrad {b. 
 
 Zurich, 1767, d. 1823), statesman and en- 
 gineer ; lived throughout his life at Zurich ; 
 in 1798 founded the Swiss Republican, and 
 became a member of the Helvetian Direc- 
 tory. Resigning in 1803, he was engaged tni 
 1810 in the construction of the Linth Canal, 
 by which he saved the valley from the devas- 
 tation of periodical floods. After 1814 his 
 Ufe was devoted to the study of Svriss geo- 
 logy. 
 
 Eschricht, Daniel Frederik (5. 1798, d. 
 1863), Danish naturalist; professor and 
 afterwards (1844) rector of the University of 
 Copenhagen ; wrote a Description of the 
 Human Eye, etc. 
 
 Eschscholtz, Johann Friedrich (fi. 1793, d, 
 1831), German traveller and naturalist;
 
 Esc 
 
 ( 285) 
 
 Ess 
 
 joined the expedition of Kotzebue (1815-18) 
 as physician, and, ia conjunction with Cha- 
 misso, made important observations and col- 
 lections. In 1823 he accompanied Kotzebue 
 on another voyage, of which he published 
 an account iu 1830. 
 
 Escobedo, Mariano (b. 1828), Mexican 
 soldier, of humble birth ; at the outbreak of 
 war with United States was leader of a band 
 of muleteers, whom he organised and led 
 against the enemy ; afterwards supported 
 Juarez ; in 1866 became general of the army 
 of the North, and captui-ed the emperor ; 
 after the revolution of 1876, fled to New 
 York ; returning to Mexico, was seized, and 
 tried by court martial, but acquitted. 
 
 Escoiquiz, Don Juan (*. 1762, d. 1820), 
 Spanish statesman ; after holding a pre- 
 bend ia the cathedral of Saragossa, 
 became tutor to the Prince of Asturias, 
 afterwards Ferdinand VII. He resisted 
 Godoy, and, on the abdication of Charles 
 rV. became coimcillor of state, and all- 
 powerful with Ferdinand VII. Although 
 faithful to Ferdinand in his misfortunes, he 
 was twice disgraced by him, and finally ban- 
 ished to Andalusia (1820). He wrote an 
 epic poem. The Conquest of Mexico, and 
 translated Paradise Lost. 
 
 Escosura, Patricio de la (b. 1807), Spanish 
 poHtician and writer ; after being three times 
 exiled as a Carlist (1824, 1834, and 1840), 
 became secretary of state ia 1843; was 
 minister of the interior (1854-6), and am- 
 bassador to the German empire (1872-4). 
 Besides his romances, £1 Cotide de Candespina 
 and Ni Bey ni Eoque, he has written poems, 
 dramas, and a constitutional history of 
 England. 
 
 Espaxtero, Joaquin Baldomero, Duke of 
 Vittoria {b. 1792, d. 1879), Spanish soldier 
 of humble birth ; distinguished himself 
 in South America against Bolivia ; served 
 against the Carhsts during the Civil 
 war, becoming commander-in-chief of the 
 army of the North; in 1836 saved Madrid; 
 drove the enemy across the Ebro in 1837 ; 
 and brought the war to an end in 
 1840. On the resignation of Queen Chris- 
 tina (1841) he was appointed regent, but 
 driven from the country during an insur- 
 rection in 1843. After four years' residence 
 in England he returned, and, in conjunction 
 with O'Dounell, formed a coalition ministry 
 in 1854, which lasted two years. 
 
 Espejo, Antonio, Spanish traveller of the 
 16th centiu-y ; settled in Mexico, and, setting 
 out in 1582, traversed much of the unknown 
 coimtry towards the north. 
 
 Espinosa, Don Diego d' {b. 1502, d. 1572), 
 Spanish statesman ; became president of the 
 council of Castile, inquisitor -general of 
 
 Spain, Bishop of Siguenza, and, in 1568, 
 cardinal. He excited the hatred of all by 
 his arrogance ; was at last dismissed by 
 Philip n., and died in disgrace. By his in- 
 fluence over the king he contributed to the 
 death of Don Carlos. 
 
 Espinosa, Hyacinth Jerome d' (b. 1600, d. 
 1680), Spanish artist. Several of his works 
 are in the museum of Valencia, and others 
 at Madrid. 
 
 Espinosa, Nicholas (b.circa 1520), Spanish 
 poet, wrote, in continuation of Aiiosto's 
 Orlando Fiirioso, a poem in thii'ty-five 
 cantos, treating of the legends of Spain and 
 the battle of Roncesvalles. 
 
 Espr^mesnil, J. J. [See ;6pr^mensil.] 
 
 Espronceda, Jose de {b. 1810, d. 1842), 
 Spanish poet and politician ; as member of a 
 secret society, was imprisoned in the convent 
 of Guadalajara, and there commenced his 
 epic poem, El I'elayo ; took part in the revo- 
 lution at Paris in 1830 ; returned after the 
 amnesty of 1833, but was banished to 
 Cuellar, where he wrote his romance, Bon 
 Sancho Suldatia ; took an active part in the 
 insurrection of Madrid, and in 1841 was 
 appointed secretary of legation at the Hague. 
 
 Espy, James Pollard (*. 1785, d. 1860), 
 American meteorologist ; advanced a theory 
 of the proximate cause of great atmospheric 
 disturbances. Published the Philosophy of 
 Storms, 1841. 
 
 Esquirol, Jean Etienne Dominique {b. 1772, 
 d. 1840), physician, bom at Toulouse, was 
 the first to introduce a gentle treatment of 
 madness and idiocy. Succeeded Pinel ia 
 the hospital of Salpetri^re (1811), and in 
 1826 became chief physician of the asylum 
 at Charenton. He wrote Bes Maladies 
 Mentales, etc. 
 
 Esquiros, Henri Alphonse (6. }814, 
 d. 1876), French author and politician ; 
 was elected to the Legislative Assembly 
 in 1850, and banished after the coup d''etat in 
 1851 ; became a member of the National 
 Assembly (1871), and voted with the Extreme 
 Left. Among his works are Les Hirondelles, 
 a volume of poems (1834), Charlotte Corday, 
 a romance (1840), and Les Vierges Martyrs, 
 les Vierges Folks, les Vierges Sages. 
 
 Essen, Hans Henrik, Count of {b. Hob, 
 d. 1824), Swedish general; was appointed 
 governor of Stockholm in 1 796 ; commanded 
 the army in Pomerania in 1807, and de- 
 fended Stralsund against the French ; be- 
 came councillor of state in 1809 ; conducted 
 a successful campaign against Norway 
 (1813) ; was afterwards appointed field- 
 marshal and governor of Norway. 
 
 Essex, Walter Devereux, first Earl of (4.
 
 Ess 
 
 (286 ) 
 
 Eth 
 
 oirea 1540, d. 1576), son of Sir Richard 
 Devereux ; succeeded to the titles of Viscount 
 Hereford and Lord Ferrers of Chartley ; won 
 the favour of Elizabeth, and, after sharing 
 in the suppression of the Northern rebellion, 
 was made Earl of Essex ; went to Ireland 
 in 1573 to crush a rebellion in Ulster ; came 
 back in 1575, but in 1576 returned to Ii'eland 
 as field-marshal ; was continually thwarted 
 by Leicester, and died of anxiety and dis- 
 appointment. 
 
 Essex, Robert Devereux, second Earl of 
 (b. 1567, d. IGOl), son of the preceding; ac- 
 companied Leicester to the Low Countries 
 in 1585, and distinguished himself at Zutphen ; 
 on the death of Leicester became the Queen's 
 favourite, but offended her by joining in the 
 expedition to re-instate Don Antonio of 
 Portugal, and by marrying Sir Philip Sidney's 
 widow ; led an unsuccessful expedition to 
 Spain (1597) ; appointed Lord-lieutenant of 
 Ireland ; met with ill-success, returned vrith- 
 out leave, and, when denied access to the 
 queen, attempted to create an insurrection, 
 but was taken and executed. 
 
 Essex, Robert Devereux, third Earl of 
 {b. 1591, d. 1646), son of the preceding; 
 was restored to his titles and dignities in 
 1604 ; distinguished himself in Holland under 
 the Prince of Orange ; became vice-admiral 
 in the English navy ; in the Civil war was 
 appointed general of the Parliamentary 
 forces ; was victorious at Edgehill and else- 
 where. He resigned the post in 1645. 
 
 Estaco, Achilles {b. 1524, d. 1581), Portu- 
 guese scholar and poet ; was librarian to the 
 Cardinal Sforza, and secretary to the Council 
 of Trent. Wrote Sylvce Calimachi and other 
 works in Latin. 
 
 Estaing, Charles Hector, Count d' {b. 1729, 
 d. 1794), French admiral ; after serving in the 
 army in India, under the Marquis de Bussy, 
 and being made prisoner at the siege of 
 Madras, entered the navy, and led an ex- 
 pedition to Sumatra, capturing several Eng- 
 lish forts. Placed in command of a squad- 
 ron sent to aid the United States against 
 England, he captured the isle of Grenada, 
 but ultimately met with reverses, and re- 
 turned to France in disgrace. He was 
 guillotined during the Revolution. 
 
 Estcourt, Richard {b. 1668, d. 1712), an 
 EngUsh actor and mimic ; appeared at Drury 
 Lane as Dominic in the Spanish Friar, and 
 wrote the Fair Example and Prunella. 
 
 Este, House of, a princely family of Italy, 
 whose origin is traced back to the Longobard 
 period, though the name of Este was not 
 assumed till the 10th century. 
 
 Esterhazy, a noble and illustrious Hun- 
 garian family, which traces its descent from 
 
 Paul d'Esteras, who was baptised in the 10th 
 century, and was a descendant of AttUa. 
 Its most important members were : — 
 
 Paul {b. 1635, d. 1713), a general who 
 helped to defeat the Turks at St. Gothard in 
 1664, defended Vienna against them in 
 1683 and Buda in 1686, and was made vice- 
 gerent of Hungary. 
 
 Nicholas (6. 1765, d. 1833), a generous pat- 
 ron of the arts, who in 1807 refused the crown 
 of Hungary. 
 
 Paul Anthony (*. 1786, d. 1866), dip- 
 lomatist, ambassador at Dresden, Rome, and 
 London; minister of foreign affairs, 1848, 
 etc. 
 
 Estrees, Gabrielle d' {b. 1571, d. 1599), 
 a favourite of Henri IV. of France ; 
 was made by him Marquise de Monceaux and 
 Duchesse de Beaufort, and hoped to become 
 queen. She is believed to have been poisoned 
 by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. 
 
 ]6tampes, Anne de Pisseleu, Duchesse d' 
 {b. 1508, d. 1576), a favourite of Francis I. 
 of France, originally maid of honour to the 
 Duchesse d' Angoxdeme. She was married, 
 by the king's desire, to Jean de Brosse, after- 
 wards made Due d'Etampes. The latter 
 years of the king were troubled by jealousies 
 between Anne and Diana of Poictiers, the 
 mistress of the dauphin. 
 
 Etex, Antoine (J). 1808, d. 1888), French 
 sculptor, painter, and architect ; executed 
 the colossal group of Cain and his Family in 
 1833. His most important monument is that 
 of the painter Ingres (1868). 
 
 Ethelbald,King of Mercia {d. 757), reigned 
 from 716, and ruled with vigour and justice, 
 but was defeated by Cuthred, King of 
 Wessex. 
 
 Ethelbald, King of England {d. 860), son 
 of Ethelwulf, began to reign over Wessex in 
 855. He was a man of vicious Hfe, and his 
 marriage with his stepmother, Judith, ex- 
 cited general disapprobation. 
 
 Ethelbert, King of Kent (b. circa 552, d. 
 616), son of Eormenric, whom he siicceeded in 
 560, was defeated by Ceawlin, King of Wes- 
 sex; became bretwalda in 693; and, after the 
 landing of Augustine, was baptised in 597. 
 
 Ethelbert, King of Wessex {d. 866), third 
 son of Ethelwulf; succeeded his brother 
 Ethelbald in 860. His reign was troubled 
 by Danish invasions. 
 
 Ethelfrid,or,ffithelfrith,KingofNorthum- 
 
 bria {d. 617), succeeded his father, Ethelric, 
 King of Bemicia in 593, and conquered 
 Deira, thus forming the kingdom of Nor- 
 thumbria. He successfully invaded North 
 Wales, but was defeated by Raedwald, King 
 of East Anglia.
 
 Eth 
 
 (287) 
 
 Eud 
 
 Ethelred L, King of England (d. 871), 
 fourth son of Etnelwulf; succeeded his 
 brother Ethelbert, in 866 ; was constantly at 
 war with the Danes, whom, in conjunction 
 with his brother, Alfred, he several times 
 defeated. 
 
 Ethelred IL, King of England {b. 968, 
 d. 1016), son of Edgar and Elfrida; suc- 
 ceeded to the throne in 978. He was weak, 
 cruel, and licentious, and the kingdom suf- 
 fered much from the Danes and from conse- 
 quent anarchy. In 1013 he was driven from 
 England by Swend, but returned the follow- 
 ing year. 
 
 Ethelreda, St. (St. Audry), Queen of 
 Egfrid, King of Northimibria ; took refuge 
 from her husband in the Isle of Ely, 
 and there founded the conventual church, 
 afterwards the cathedral of Ely, which 
 is dedicated to St. Ethelreda and St. 
 Peter. 
 
 Ethelwulf, King of Wessex {d. 858), suc- 
 ceeded his father, Egbert, in 839 ; fought 
 successfully against the Danes and Welsh ; 
 made a pUgrimage to Rome ; on his re- 
 turn was forced to cede the greater part of 
 his kingdom to his son Ethelbald. 
 
 Etherege, Sir George {b. circa 1634, 
 d. 1688), dramatist; wrote The Comical 
 Revenge; or, Love in a Tub (1664), She 
 Would if She Could (1667), and the Man of 
 Mode, or Sir FopUng i hitter (1676). He 
 was knighted by James II., and appointed 
 envoy to Ratisbon. 
 
 ^tienne, Henri {b. circa 1460, d. 1520), 
 founder of a family of printers; set up his 
 press near the University of Paris, whose 
 arms and motto he adopted. 
 
 Etienne, Robert (b. 1503, d. 1559), son of 
 the above, was patronised by Francis I., on 
 whose death he retired to Switzerland, and 
 became a convert to Calvinism. His chief 
 editions are a folio Bible, Greek Testament, 
 Hebrew Bible in eight volumes, and a Latin 
 and Gallic dictionary, the most ancient of its 
 kind. 
 
 Etienne, Henri {b. 1528, d. 1598), son of 
 Robert ; spent a large fortune in amassing 
 Greek manuscripts, and was ruined by the 
 issue of his Greek dictionary. He also wrote 
 a Thesaurus of the Greek Language, an edi- 
 tion of Anacreon ; a Treatise on the Life of 
 Queen Catherine de Medici, and several 
 translations. 
 
 Ett, Kaspar {b. 1788, d. 1847), organist and 
 composer ; born at Eresing, in Bavaria, edu- 
 cated at Munich, where he was organist of St. 
 Michael's from 1816 till his death; revived 
 and imitated the Church music of the 16th, 
 17th, and 18th centuries ; was also an excel- 
 lent linguist, and set to music the responses 
 
 of the Greek Church, and several Hebrew 
 psalms for the \ise of the Jewish syna- 
 gogue. 
 
 Ettinghausen, Constantin, Baron von 
 {b. 1826), professor of botany in the 
 University of Gratz. Besides memoirs on 
 botanical and palseontological subjects, he 
 has written Physiotypia Plantarum Austria- 
 carum, etc. 
 
 EttmitUer, Ernst Moritz Ludwig (*. 
 1802, d. 1877), German philologist, pro- 
 fessor of German at Zurich iu 1833. 
 
 Ettricus, sumamed "The Estriot," a 
 Christian philosopher, poet, and geographer 
 of the 4th century, bom at Estria. His 
 chief works are Cosmographia, and Sopho- 
 grammios, both written in Latin. 
 
 Etty, William, R.A. {b. 1787, d. 1849), 
 artist, born at York, son of a baker 
 and miller; was for seven years ap- 
 prenticed to a letterpress printer at 
 Hull ; coming to London was patronised 
 bj' Fuseli, and became the pupil of Sir 
 Thomas Lawrence ; first exhibited in the 
 Academy in 1811; during a visit to Italy 
 in 1822 acquired the vivid sense of colour 
 and harmony which distinguished his later 
 works. He especially excelled in flesh tints. 
 Among his best pictures are Judith, The 
 Judgment of Paris, and Venus Attired by the 
 Graces. 
 
 Eubulides, a philosopher and dramatist of 
 Miletus. Demosthenes was his pupil. 
 
 Euclid of Alexandria, a celebrated geo- 
 metrician. Little is known of his life. Ac- 
 cording to Proclus he lived from 328 to 283 
 B.C., and was one of the Platonic school. 
 He is said to have written other works 
 besides the Elements of Geometry. 
 
 Euclid of Megara, {d. probably circa 374 
 B.C.), a Greek philosopher; disciple and 
 friend of Socrates, after whose death he esta- 
 blished his school at Megara. 
 
 Eudocia, Augusta {b. 394, d. 461), the 
 learned and beautiful daughter of Leontius, 
 an Athenian sophist, married the Emperor 
 Theodosius II., after which she became a 
 Christian. She was subsequently disgraced, 
 and died in retirement at Jerusali^m. 
 
 Eudoxia, Empress of the East ib. 376, d. 
 404), daughter of Bauto, a Frank, married 
 the Emperor Arcadius in 395. 
 
 Eudoxia, Empress of the West (b. 422), 
 married Maximilian III., about 436, and, on 
 his assassination by Petrouius Maximus in 
 455, was forced to accept the hand of his 
 murderer. She appealed to Genseric the 
 Vandal, who captured Rome and delivered 
 her.
 
 End 
 
 (288 ) 
 
 £us 
 
 Eudoxlus, au ecclesiastic of the 4th ceutury, 
 born at Ai-abissus, in Armenia Minor ; was 
 successively Bishoi> of Germanicia, on the 
 Euphrates, and of Autioch, and patriarch of 
 Constantinople. After belonging to various 
 Arian sects, he finally became a follower of 
 Aetius of Antioch. 
 
 Eugene, Fran9ois, Prince of Savoy (b. 
 1663, d. 1736), son of Eugene Maurice, 
 Count of Soissons ; joined the Austri;xu 
 service ; distinguished himself against the 
 Tui'ks in 1683, and was present at the 
 siege of Belgrade in 1688. After serving 
 against the French, and defeating Catinat 
 in Italy, he overthrew the Turks at Zenta. 
 Again opposed to the French in the War of 
 Succession, he captured Villeroi at Cremona, 
 and joined Marlborough in 1704, taking part 
 in the battle of Blenheim. He then went 
 to Italy, and was defeated at Cassano 
 (170o), but soon afterwards gained a vic- 
 tory, and relieved Turin. In 1708 he joined 
 Marlborough iu Flanders, and was present 
 at Oudenarde and Malplaquet. He again 
 distinguished liimself against the Turks at 
 the battles of Peterwaradin and Belgrade. 
 
 Eugenie-Marie de Guzman, ex-Empress of 
 the French and Countess de Teba {b. 1826), 
 daughter of the Count of Montijos, an 
 officer in the Spanish army; married Napo- 
 leon III. in 1853. 
 
 Eugenius, Archbishop of Toledo in the 
 7th ceutury ; wrote a Treatise on the Trinity, 
 and other works. 
 
 Eugenius {d. oOo), Bishop of Carthage; 
 was banished on account of his orthodoxy 
 by Huueric, the Vandal King of Africa. 
 After some time he returned, and was again 
 banish»d to Vienne, where he died. 
 
 Eugeiiius I., Pope («f. 658), a pious Roman 
 priest ; elected in 654, while his predecessor, 
 Martin I., was in exile, through the persecu- 
 tion of the Emperor Constans. 
 
 Eugenius II. , Tone (ci. 827) ; his election 
 (824) was opposed by Zizimus, the candidate 
 of the Roman aristocracy, but he was sup- 
 ported by Louis le Debonnaire, and his son, 
 Lotharius. 
 
 Eugenius III., Pope (Pietro Bernardo da 
 Pisa) {d. 1153), a disciple of St. Bernard; 
 elected in 1 145. Under his reign the Romans 
 rose against the temporal power of the Pope. 
 He fled to France, where he remained till 
 1152, when Frederic Barbarossa promised 
 him his aid. He died at Tivoli on his way 
 to Rome. 
 
 Eugenius IV., Pope {d. 1447) ; elected in 
 1431 ; vainly attempted to dissolve the Coun- 
 cil of Basle in 1437, and by his opposition to 
 it caused the great schism of the loth cen- 
 tuiy w ithin the pale of the Roman Church. 
 
 Euler, Leonhard {b. 1707, d. 1783), 
 mathematician, born at Basle ; was in- 
 vited by Catherine II. to Russia in 1727, and 
 taught mathematics at St. Petersburg, la 
 1741 he went to Berlin, but returned to St. 
 Petersburg in 1766. His writings are nu- 
 merous and valuable. 
 
 Eulogius, Cordubensis, Saint and Martyr 
 (d. 859), joined other Spanish Christians in 
 reviling the Mahometans, under whom they 
 were living peaceably, and was consequently 
 beheaded by them. 
 
 Eumenes {b. 361, d. 316 B.C.), born at 
 Cardia, in the Thracian Chersonesus, 
 was secretary to Alexander of Macedon, 
 after whose death he was made satrap 
 of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. He de- 
 feated Craterus and Neoptolemus, but was 
 betrayed by his troops, and put to death by 
 Antigonus. 
 
 Eumenes I., King of Pergamos (rf. 241 
 B.C.) ; began to reign in 2o.i, and fought 
 against Ajatiochus Soter. 
 
 Eumenes II. , King of Pergamos {d. circa 
 159 B.C.), succeeded his father, Attalus I., 
 in 197, and through his alliance with the 
 Romans, became very powerful. 
 
 Eunapiua (b. 347, d. circa 420), Greek 
 historian, wrote Lives of the Philosophers 
 and Sophists, and a continuation of 
 Dexippiis' history extending from 270 to 
 404. 
 
 Eunomius {d. 394), a disciple of the Arian 
 Aetius ; became Bishop of Cyzicus, but died 
 in banishment. 
 
 Euphranor, painter and sculptor, a native 
 of Corinth, called "the Isthinian," lived 
 about 364 B.C. All his works have per- 
 ished. 
 
 Eupompus of Sicyon, Greek painter; 
 lived about 364 B.C., and founded the Sicy- 
 onic school. 
 
 Euric, or Evaric, Eng of the Visigoths {b. 
 circa 420, d. 484) ; in 466 assassinated 
 his brother, Theodoric, and seized the throne. 
 After gaining possession of the whole of 
 Gaul, he sent his troops into Spain, which he 
 added to his empire. 
 
 Euripides {Jj. 480 b.c. d. 406 B.C.), 
 Greek tragedian, born at Salamis ; rival and 
 contemporary of Sojihocles, and friend of 
 Socrates; studied under Anaxagoras, and 
 produced his first tragedy in 455. He sought 
 in Macedonia a refuge from the satire of 
 Aristophanes. Among his works are the 
 Alccstis, Hecuba, and Medea. 
 
 Eusebius {b. 315, d. 370), Bishop of Ver- 
 celU, owing to his warm defence of Athana- 
 sius, was banished by Constantius first to
 
 Ens 
 
 ( 289 ) 
 
 Eve 
 
 jyria, and afterwards to Egypt. He re- 
 turned in the reign of Julian. 
 
 Eusebius, Pamphilus (i. circa 267, d. circa 
 338), Bishop of Caesarea, in Palestine; at- 
 tended the Council of Nice (325), and drew 
 up the first draft of the creed. His most 
 important work is the Historia Lcclesias- 
 tica, which reaches to the year 324. 
 
 EustacM, or EustacMo, Bartolommeo 
 {d. 1574), Italian anatomist ; professor of 
 m^edicine at Rome in 1562; made many dis- 
 coveries in anatomy, and left a valuable 
 series of plates, drawn under his direction by 
 Titian, and discovered at Urbino in 1712. 
 He was little appreciated during his life- 
 time. His writings have been published 
 under the title of Opuscula Anatomica. 
 
 Eustatliius, an ecclesiastic of the 4th 
 century, sat in the Council of Nice as Bishop 
 of Beroea, and afterwards became Patriarch 
 of Antioch. At the Council of Nice he 
 opposed the Arians, who afterwards induced 
 Constantiue the Great to banish him. 
 
 Eutropius, Flavins, Latin historian of the 
 4th century ; was secretary to Constantino 
 the Great, and afterwards accompanied Julian 
 the Apostate in his Persian expedition. His 
 history extends from the foundation of Rome 
 to the reign of Valens. 
 
 Eutyches [h. circa 378), head of a monas- 
 tery near Constantinople ; in opposing the 
 Nestorians gave expression to another heresy, 
 maintaining that the human body of Christ 
 was only apparent. A council at Ephesus in 
 449 acquitted him of all error, but he was con- 
 demned in the fourth (Ecumenical Council 
 held at Chalcedon in 451. 
 
 Evagoras {fl. 374 b.c), tjTant of Salamis, 
 in Cyprus, gave asylum to Conon, after the 
 Athenian defeat at ^gospotami. He was 
 tributary to the Persians. 
 
 Evald, Johann {b. 1743, d. 1781), Danish 
 poet ; ran away from the university of 
 Copenhagen to join the Prussian army, 
 which he deserted for the Austrian, He 
 afterwards returned to the university. On 
 leaving it he betook himself to literature. 
 Most of his life was spent in sickness, poverty, 
 and obscurity. His chief poems are Adam 
 and Ere, The Fisherman, and Balder''s 
 Death. 
 
 Evans, Frederick John Owen, Sir {b. 1815, 
 d. 18M5), hydrographer ; in 1833 was em- 
 ployed in surveying the Bahama coast ; after- 
 wards explored the Coral Sea and Torres 
 Strait under Captain Blackwood ; survej'ed 
 the shores of New Zealand from 1847 to 1851; 
 took part in the Baltic campaign, and in 
 1874 was appointed hydrographer. He was 
 one of the British delegates at the Inter- 
 national Conference held at Washington 
 
 T 
 
 (1885) to fix a prime meridian and universal 
 day. 
 
 Evans, George de Lacy, Sir, G.C.B. {b. 
 1787, d. 1870), general, bom at Moig, in 
 Ireland ; served under Wellington in the 
 Peninsula, and in the North American wai 
 of 1814 ; joined the English army in Flan- 
 ders, and was present at Quatre Bras and 
 Waterloo ; was Liberal member for West- 
 minster from 1833 to 1841, and 1846 to 1865 ; 
 headed the " British Legion " sent to Spain 
 (1835) to aid the queen - regent ; com- 
 manded the second division of the Easteru 
 army in the Crimean war, and distin- 
 guished himself at the Alma, Sebastopol, 
 and Inkerman ; received the thanks of 
 Parliament. 
 
 Evans, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (b. 1823), 
 antiquary ; formerly a paper manufacturer ; 
 devoted his leisure to antiquarian pursuits ; 
 became president of the Numismatic Society, 
 and editor oi the Numismatic Chronicle. He 
 has been president of the Geological Society, 
 and of the Society of Antiquaries. Among 
 his "works are Coins of the Ancient Britons 
 (1864), and The Ancient Stone Implements of 
 Great Britain (1872), 
 
 Evans, Oliver {b. 1755, d. 1819), American 
 mechanist, bom at Pliiladelpliia, invented 
 the high-pressure steam engine. 
 
 Evelyn, John {b. 1620, d. 1706), author, 
 born at Wotton, in Surrey; passed from 
 Balliol College, Oxford, to the Middle 
 Temple in 1640 : visited Holland in 1641 ; 
 resided in France and Italy 1643-7 ; 
 in 1652 settled at Sayes Court, near 
 Deptford, and, notwithstanding his Royalist 
 opinions, hved unmolested. In 1700 he re- 
 moved to Wotton. His chief works are 
 Sylva, and his Diary and Correspondence. 
 
 Evemerus, or Euhemerus, Greek philo- 
 sopher and writer ; hved about 300 B.C. ; was 
 sent to the Indian Ocean by Cassander, King 
 of Macedon, and reached the island of 
 Panchasa, where he discovered monumental 
 inscriptions, on which he based his Sacred 
 History, giving a rational explanation of 
 Greek myths. 
 
 Everardi, Nicolaus (b. circa 1462, d. 
 1532), Dutch jurist, president, in 1509, of the 
 Great Council of Holland and Zeeland. 
 Wrote Topica and Consilia sive Responsa 
 Juris. Died at Mechlin. 
 
 Everdingen, Alder van (b. 1621, d. 1675), 
 Dutch artist, known as the Salvator Rosa of 
 the North. Two of his works are in the 
 Louvre. He was also a designer and engraver. 
 
 Everest, Sir George (b. 1790, d. 186G), en- 
 gineer and surveyor ; educated at Woolwich ; 
 entered the Bengal Artillery, and was en- 
 gaged in a eiirveying expedition to Java
 
 Eve 
 
 (290) 
 
 Ezz 
 
 (1814-16) ; in 1818 became chief -assistant to 
 Colonel Lambton (founder of the Great 
 Trigouonu'trical Sui'vey of India), whom he 
 Bucceeded in 1823. His chief work is the 
 northern part oi the great Meridional Arc of 
 India, Hi degrees in length. His name is 
 perpevtuated iii Mount Everest. 
 
 Everett, Alexander Hill {b. 1792, <;. 1847), 
 American politician and man of letters ; born 
 at Boston, Massachusetts ; held several diplo- 
 matic posts, the last being at Canton, where 
 he died; wrote treatises on Europe and 
 Amencti, and was editor of the North 
 A.merican Review from 1830 to 1835. 
 
 Everett, Edward {b. 1794, d. 18C5), Ameri- 
 can author and statesman, brother of the 
 preceding ; became professor ol Greek at 
 Harvard in 1815 ; travelled in Europe from 
 1815 to 1818 ; became editor of the North 
 American Review, and was a member of Con- 
 gress from 1824 to 1834, governor of Massa- 
 chusetts from 1835 to 1839, and from 1840 
 to 1845 minister-plenipotentiary to England, 
 in which capacity he succeeded iu adjusting 
 several delicate matters. He became secre- 
 tary of state in 1852, and was elected to the 
 Senate in 1853. He wrote The Dirge of 
 Alaric the Visigoth (a poem). Lives of 
 Washington and General Stark, and other 
 works, but was best known as an orator. 
 
 Eversley, Charles Shaw Lefevre, Viscount 
 (*. 1794, d. 1888), called to the bar, 1819; 
 entered Parliament in 1830 ; was elected 
 Speaker in 1839, and held the office till 1857, 
 when he was raised to the peerage. 
 
 Ewald, Georg Heinrich August von {b. 
 1803, d. 1875), German Orientalist and 
 theologian, bom at Gottingen ; a pupil 
 of Eichhom ; was professor of philosopliy 
 and afterwards (1835) of Oriental languages 
 at Gottingen. His opposition to the over- 
 throw of the Hanoverian constitution led to 
 his dismissal in 1837. After residing at the 
 University of Tubingen, where he encoun- 
 tered much opposition, he returned in 1848, 
 but again lost his prof essorship in 1867 owing 
 to his refusal to take the oath of allegiance 
 to the king of Prussia. He was afterwards 
 a member of the Reichstag. Among his 
 works are the Ansfuhrliche Grammatik, still 
 the standard grammar of the Hebrew lan- 
 guage, a History of the People of Israel, 
 1843-68, and Commentaries on the Psalms. 
 
 Ewald, Johann. [See Evald.] 
 
 Ewart, WilUam {b. 1798, d. 1869), a 
 Liberal politician ; advocated the abolition of 
 capital punishment ; passed an act (1850) 
 establishing free public libraries and schools 
 of design in large towns, and in 1864 one 
 legalising the use of the metric system. 
 
 Ewing, Juliana Horatia {b. 1842, d. 1885), 
 
 daughter of the Rev. A. S. Gatty; married 
 Major A. Ewiug iu 1SG7. She contributed 
 to Aunt Jiulfs Magazine, and wrote A Hat 
 Iron for a Farthing (1873), A Great Emer- 
 gency (1877), Jackanapes (1884), and other 
 tales for children. 
 
 Exmouth, Edward Pellew, Viscount {b. 
 1757, d. 1833), served in the wars with 
 America and France ; was afterwards ap- 
 pointed to the command of the East Indian 
 station. In 1814 he bombarded Algiers. 
 
 Eybler, Joseph von (b. 1765, d. 1846), 
 musician ; pupil of Albrechtsberger ; friend 
 of Haydn and Mozart. Held a post as 
 kapellmeister at Vienna from 1825 to 1833. 
 
 Eyek, Hubert van {b. 1366, d. 1426), 
 painter of the early Flemish school, born 
 at Eyck, or Maaseyck. He painted the 
 greater part of an altar-piece, the Adoration 
 of the Lamb, for the cathedral of St. Bavou 
 at Ghent, and shares with his brother Jan 
 the reputation of the discovery of oil-paint- 
 ing. With him he founded the Flemish 
 school of painting. He died at Ghent. 
 
 Eyck, Jan van {b. circa 1390, d. 1441), 
 brother of the preceding, whom he assisted 
 in his altar-piece, the Adoration of the 
 Lamb, in the cathedral of St. Bavon, at 
 Ghent. 
 
 Eyre, Edward John {b. 1815), admini- 
 strator, son of a Yorksliire clergyman ; in 
 1833 went to Australia, where he was suc- 
 cessful in sheep-farming, and led an ex- 
 ploring expedition ; was lieutenant-governor 
 of New Zealand in 1845, and of St. Vincent 
 from 1854 to 1860 ; appointed governor of 
 Jamaica, he crushed the negro rebellion with 
 much severity. He was suspended, and his 
 conduct examined by a committee of in- 
 quiry, which acquitted him. 
 
 Eyre, Sir James {b. 1734, d. 1799), lawyer ; 
 called to the bar in 1755; was appointed 
 recorder of London in 1763, Baron of the 
 Exchequer in 1772, and Chief Justice of the 
 Common Pleas in 1793. He presided at the 
 trials of Hardy, Tooke, and Thelwall. 
 
 Eyre, Sir Vincent (fi. 1811, d. 1881), 
 soldier ; entered the Bengal artillery 1828 ; in 
 the defence of Cabul, during the Afghan 
 insurrection of 1841, offered himself, hia 
 wife, and child, as hostages to Akhbar 
 Khan. He reheved Arrah, and also dis- 
 tinguished himself in the relief of Lucknow 
 and the capture of Alumbagh. 
 
 Ezz-ed-din ("Honour of Religion"), the 
 title of an Arabian poet (b. 1181, d. 1261), an 
 imaun, or preacher, at Damascus, and then at 
 Cairo. He wrote an allegorical poem on 
 birds and flowers.
 
 Fab 
 
 (291) 
 
 Tab 
 
 Fatoer, Frederick William (*. 1814, d. 
 1863), divine and poet, nephew of George 
 Stanley Faber, was educated at Hanow 
 and at University College, Oxford, where 
 he obtained a fellowship. In 1843 he 
 became incumbent of Elton, Hunts ; in 
 1845 he seceded to the Church of Rome. 
 In 1849 he founded the Oratory of the 
 Brotherhood of St. Philip Neri at Bromp- 
 ton, and here he remained xmtil his 
 death. His theological works attracted 
 great attention, aud some of them have 
 been translated into French, German, aud 
 Dutch. His poems, which include some 
 popular hymns, have also gone through 
 many editions. 
 
 Faber, George Stanley (b. 1773, d. 1854), 
 Anglican theologian, became prebendary of 
 Salisbury cathedral in 1831, and master of 
 Sherburn Hospital in 1832. His works, 
 which have to do mostly with the interpre- 
 tation of prophecy, include HorcB Mosakce, 
 the Bampton Lectures for 1801, etc. 
 
 Fabert, Abraham de (b. 1599, d. 1662), 
 French general, was in 1654 created mar- 
 shal of France and governor of Sedan for 
 his services in capturing Porto Longone 
 and Piombino. 
 
 Fabian. [See Fabyan, Eobert.] 
 
 Fabianus, Bishop of Rome 238, suffered 
 death in the Decian persecution, 250. From 
 him dates the first germ of the cardinalate. 
 
 Fabius. [See Fabyan, Robert.] 
 
 Fabius, Maximus Gurges Q. [See Pon- 
 tius, Caius.] 
 
 Fabius, Maximus Rullianus Quintns (d. 
 circa 287 B.C.), Roman general, was aedile 
 in 331, master of the horse in 325, consul 
 in 322. aud in 315 was appointed dictator. 
 He attained this dignity twice, and that of 
 consul five times, and triumphed over the 
 Samnites, the Gauls, the Etruscans, and 
 the Umbri. 
 
 Fabius, Maximus Quintus (b. about 275 
 B.C., (/. 203 B.C.), Romau general, was great- 
 grandson of the preceding, and was sur- 
 named " Cunctator " because, having ui 217 
 been appointed dictator for the second time 
 and entrusted with the defeuce of Italy 
 against the victorious Hannibal, he pursued 
 a course of cautious and patient generalship, 
 never risking a general engagement with 
 his opponent, but cutting off his supplies, 
 and gradually wearying him out, and meet- 
 ing with signal success. Before his ap- 
 pointment to the dictatorship he was five 
 times consul. 
 T 2 
 
 Fabius, Quintus Pictor, the earliest Roman 
 
 historian, flourished about 220 B.C., and 
 wrote Annales, of which we possess frag- 
 ments extending from the origin of Rome 
 to his own days. 
 
 Fabre d'Eglantine, Philippe Franqois de 
 Nazaire (b. 1755, d. 1794), French politician 
 and dramatist, was a member of the Con- 
 vention, aud also of the Committee of 
 Public Safety. For a time he kept well 
 abreast of the most extreme of the revo- 
 lutionary leaders, but at last, lag<jing behind, 
 was convicted of complicity with "foreign 
 conspirators," and sentenced to death at 
 the same time as Danton. 
 
 Fabretti, Rafifaele (b. 1618, d. 1700), 
 antiquary and archaeologist, became papal 
 treasurer under Pope Alexander VII., 
 aud afterwards keeper of the papal 
 archives of the Castle of St. Angelo. His 
 works deal with the aqueducts of Rome, 
 ancient monuments (especially Trajan's 
 Column), and inscriptions. His collection 
 of antiquities is preserved in the ducal 
 palace of Urbino. 
 
 Fabriauo, Gentile da {b. circa 1348, d. 
 circa _U-2S), painter, so delighted the 
 Venetian senate with a picture of the en- 
 gagement between the fleet of Venice and 
 that of the Emperor Barbarossa, that they 
 made him a patrician and gave him a pen- 
 sion. Among the best of his extant works 
 is his Adoration of the Kings, done for the 
 church of the Holy Trinity in Florence. 
 
 Fabricius, Caius Luscinus, Roman general, 
 was consul in 282 B.C., and compelled the 
 Lucanians to raise the siege of Thurii. He 
 was again consul in 278. 
 
 Fabricius, Girolamo. [See Fabrizio.] 
 
 Fabricius, Johann Albrecht (b. 1668, d. 
 1736), critic and bibliographer, was pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at Hamburg, where he 
 died. His chief work is the Bibliotheea 
 Grceca, in 14 vols. 
 
 Fabricius, Johann Christian {b. 1745, d. 
 1808), a distinguished Danish entomologist, 
 having worked under Linneeus at Upsala, 
 was in 1775 appointed to the chair of natural 
 history at Kiel. He is the originator of the 
 system of insect classification which is 
 determined by the structure of the mouth. 
 An account of his life appears in the 
 Transactions of the Entomological Society. 
 vol. iv. (London, 1845). 
 
 Fabrizio d'Acquapendente, Girolamo 
 
 ib. 1537, d. 1019), anatomist and surgeon, 
 torn at Acquapendente, near Orvieto,
 
 Fab 
 
 (292) 
 
 Fai 
 
 was professor of surgery in the University 
 of Padua for about forty years. To his 
 observations on the valves and the veins, 
 Harvey, his pupil, admittedly owed the 
 process of thought which led him to discover 
 the circulation of the blood. 
 
 Fabroni, Augelo (b. 1732, d. 1803), bio- 
 graphical writer, born at Marradi, Tuscany, 
 IS the author of T'itce Italorum Loctrimi 
 Excellent ittm (twenty volumes, 1778-1805), 
 and also of lives of Cosimo and others of the 
 Medici family. 
 
 Fabrot, Charles Annibal [h. 1581, d. 1569), 
 jurist, was professor of jurisprudence in 
 Aix (Provence), his native town. His chief 
 work is a translation of the laws of the 
 Eastern Empire, entitled BasUicon. 
 
 Fabvier, Charles Nicolas, Baron (*. 1782, 
 d. 1855), French general, a native of Pont-a- 
 Mousson, distinguished himself at Moscow in 
 1812, and was made baron and colonel in 
 1820. He was imprisoned for being impli- 
 cated in the political troubles of August. 
 Arrested again in 1822, he left France, 
 travelled in England, Spain, and Portugal, 
 and took an active part in the Greek War 
 of Independence. Returning to France in 
 1830, he participated in the revolution. He 
 was made lieutenant-general in 1839, and 
 peer of France in 1815. Later he became 
 commander-in-chief of the Danish army in 
 Schleswig-Holstein. 
 
 Fabyan, Eobert [b. circa 1450, d. circa 
 1512), English chronicler, came of an old 
 Essi^x family, was a member of the Drapers' 
 Company, and in 1493 was appointed an 
 alderman and sheriff of London. His annals 
 extend fi'om the fabulous times of Brutus to 
 the year 1533. 
 
 Facciolati, Jacopo (b. 1682, d. 1769), 
 lexicographer, bom at Torreglia, near 
 Padua, was professor of theology and logic 
 at Padua, and also rector of the Univer- 
 sity. He brought out a new edition of 
 Calepinus's Lexicon of the Seven Lan- 
 guages, and largely contributed to For- 
 cellini's great Latin Lexicon. 
 
 Faed, John, R.S.A. (*. 1820), painter, is 
 elder brother of Thomas Faed (q.v.), and, 
 like him, was born at Burley Mill, Kirkcud- 
 bright-hire. In 1841 he settled in Edin- 
 burgh, where he exhibited in 1850 some 
 pictures of humble life. He came to 
 London in 1864, and has since then pro- 
 duced a considerable number of popular 
 works. 
 
 Faed, Thomas, R.A. (b. 1826), painter, son 
 of a Scottish millwright, studied in Edin- 
 burgh under his brother John, and became 
 an A ssociate of the Royal Scottish Academy 
 in 1849. In 1852 he came to London, and 
 three years later made a deep impression 
 
 with his Mitherkss Bairn, which has been 
 followed by many other pathetic scenes from 
 lowly life. In 1859 he was elected A.R.A., 
 and in 1864 R.A. 
 
 Fagel, Gaspar (b. 1629, d. 1688), Dutch 
 statesman, was Grand Pensioner of Holland, 
 and showed great activity in supporting 
 William Prince of Orange, both in his 
 operations against Louis XIV. and in his 
 English expedition. 
 
 Fagginola, Delia Uguecione (b. about 
 1250, d. 1319), Italian general and states- 
 man, having distinguished himself against 
 the Guelphs of Romagna, was entrusted 
 with the commaiad of the Pisan troops 
 against the Guelphs of Tuscany, upon 
 whom he inflicted a crushing defeat at 
 Montecatiui. Fearing that he was intending 
 to establish a dictatorship, the Pi^cuis drove 
 him out, and he ended his days in Lom- 
 bardy, at the court of Can Grande della 
 Scala. 
 
 Fahlcrantz, Christian Erik (b. 1790, d. 
 6th August, 18G6), poet and theologian, was 
 appointed professor of theology at Upsala 
 in 1827, and in 1849 Bishop of Westeras, 
 where he died. 
 
 Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel (b. 1686, d. 
 1736), Prussian experimental philosopher, 
 after travelling in England, Germany, and 
 France, settled in Holland. About 1714 it 
 occurred to him to use quicksilver instead of 
 spirits of wine in the construction of ther- 
 mometers. By this substitution the accu- 
 racy of the instrument was greatly 
 enhanced. In 1724 he was elected a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of London, 
 and in the Philosophical Transactions of 
 that year there appeared several papers 
 from his pen. 
 
 Faidherbe, Louis Leon Cesar (b. 1818), 
 French general and archaeologist, was ap- 
 pointed governor of Senegal in 1854. From 
 1867 to 1870 he governed a district of the 
 province of Algiers. Being a Republican, 
 he was not offered a command on the out- 
 break of the Franco- German war, but 
 when Gambetta had come into ascendency 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of 
 the army of the north. He fought several 
 bloody but indecisive battles, and at last 
 retired to Lille, and remained there until 
 tlie conclusion of the armistice. In 1872 
 he went to Egypt on an official arcliasological 
 mission. 
 
 Fairbairn, Andrew M., D.D. (*. 1839), 
 theologian, was born in Edinburgh, and 
 educated at its univoioity. In 1878 he was 
 elected principal of Airedale Congregational 
 College, Bradford, since removed to Oxford 
 as Mansfield College. Among his works is 
 titndies in the Philosophy of Religion and 
 Hisforj/ (1876).
 
 Fai 
 
 ( 293) 
 
 Fal 
 
 Fairbaim, Sir William, Bart. {b. 1789, j 
 d. 1«74), engineer, was the son of a farm 
 bailiff of Kelso, Roxburghshire, and worked [ 
 first as a mason, then as a carter, after- 
 wards applying himself to practical me- ] 
 chauics. His investigations into canal 
 navigation in 1830 led incidentally to the 
 great development of the use of iron in ship- 
 building ; later he invented the rectangular 
 self-supporting tubular bridge. He died at 
 Moor Park, Surrey. 
 
 Fairfax, Edward {b. circa 1580, d. 1635), I 
 poetical and miscellaneous writer, was a 
 son (it is said a natural son) of Sir Thomas I 
 Fairfax, of Denton, Yorkshire. He is 
 known chiefly by his translation of Tasso's 
 Jerusalem Delivered (1600), in the metre of 
 the original, which has been highly praised j 
 by such good judges as Drydeu, Collins, : 
 and Waller, but he also verote a Bicturse \ 
 of Witchcraft (1621), which has been pub- , 
 lishedia the Miscellanies of the Philobiblon 
 Society (1858-9). He died at Fewston, near 
 Otley. I 
 
 Fairfax, Thomas, Lord (*. 1612, «?. 1671), | 
 Parliamentary general, a native of Denton, 
 Yorkshire, saw service in Holland in 1629 
 under his uncle, Lord Vere, as a volunteer, 
 and married his leader's fourth daughter, : 
 Anne, in 1637, soon after his return to 
 England. In the Civil war which broke out 
 in 1642 he sided with Parliament, and in 
 1645, having won renown at Marsrton Moor 
 and Naseby, was appointed to succeed the 
 Earl of Essex as general of the Parlia- 
 mentary forces. He held this office until 
 superseded by Cromwell in June, 1650, in 
 consequence of his refusal to march against 
 the Scots when they proclaimed Charles II. 
 He then settled down on his Yorkshire 
 estates. After Cromwell's death he took 
 part in the Restoration movement, gathering 
 troops to assist Monk, holding York in the 
 King's name, and crossing over to the 
 Hague in 1660 as head of the commission to 
 arrange for Charles II.'s return. After the 
 Restoration Fairfax a^ain returned into 
 private life. Among his prose works are 
 two memoirs on the Civil war. 
 
 Fairliolt, Frederick William (*. 1814, d. 
 186C), draughtsman and antiquary, a native 
 of London, illustrated many of the publi- 
 cations of Charles Knight, and was from 
 1845 to 1852 draughtsman to the British 
 Archaeological Association. His books were 
 bequeathed to the Society of Antiquaries, 
 of which he was a fellow, to the British 
 Museum, and to the town of Stratford-on- 
 Avon. 
 
 Faithfull, Emily (b. 1835), lecturer and 
 authoress, bom at Headlcy Rectory, Surrey, 
 founded, in 1860, a printing establishment 
 in London where only female compositors 
 
 were employed. She continues to take a 
 leading part in movements affecting the 
 interests of women. Her first novel, 
 Change upon Change, appeared in 1868. In 
 1889 she received a Civil List pension of 
 £50. 
 
 Faithome, William (b. circa 1616, rf. 1691), 
 English engraver and painter, served for 
 some time in the Civil war on the side of 
 the king, and was taken prisoner at Basing 
 House. His works were catalogued by 
 Fagan in 1888. 
 
 Falcone, Aniello (b. 1600, d. 1665), 
 Italian battle-painter, bom at Naples, was 
 a pupil of Spagnoletto and teacher of 
 Salvator Rosa. Obliged to leave Naples 
 in consequence of his share in Masani- 
 ello's insurrection, he settled in France, 
 but afterwards returned to his native 
 city. 
 
 Falconer, Hugh (b. 1808, d. 1865), 
 Scottish botanist and palaeontologist, a 
 native of Forres, N.B., made investigations 
 during a lengthened residence in India 
 which added greatly to our knowledge of 
 the flora of the East. It was on his re- 
 commendation that the tea-plant was intro- 
 duced into that country. 
 
 Falconer, The Hon. Ion Keith (J. \?>bQ^ 
 d. 1887), Scottish Orientalist and missionary, 
 bom in Edinburgh, was a third son of the 
 Earl of Kintore. In 1885 he published a 
 translation of the Fables of liidpai, with 
 an introduction. He also distinguished 
 himself in athletics, in 1878 defeating the 
 then fastest cyclist in the world, and rode 
 from Land's End to John o' Groat's. He 
 died near Aden. 
 
 Falconer, WiUiam (*. 1732, d. 1770), poet, 
 was son of an Edinburgh barber. He 
 went early to sea, and after being ship- 
 wrecked off Cape Colonna, in Greece, 
 entered the royal navy, and in 1769 was 
 appointed piu-ser on the Aurora frigate, 
 which sailed from Capetown on the 27th of 
 December of that year, and a few days 
 afterwards foundered in the Mozambique 
 Channel. For his principal poem. The Ship- 
 wreck (1762), he was able to draw from his 
 own experience off Cape Colonna. He also 
 wrote the Demagogue, a satire on Wilkes 
 and Churchill. 
 
 Falconet, fitienne Maurice (4. 1716, 
 d. 1791), French sculptor and art writer, 
 is remembered chiefly for his figure of 
 Milo of Crotona, his statue of Peter the 
 Great, executed during a twelve years' resi- 
 dence in Russia, and his writings on the fine 
 arts. 
 
 Faliero, Marino {b. circa 1274, d. 
 1355), Venetian general and doge, took
 
 Fal 
 
 (294) 
 
 Pal 
 
 Zara in 13J6, defeating an army of 80,000 
 Hungarians, and afterwards captured Capo 
 d'Istria. He was elected doge of Venice 
 in 13')4. In the following year, indignant 
 at the inadequate puuishnient meted out 
 to Michele Steuo by the patrician tribunal 
 for an indignity offered to his youug wife, 
 he joined a conspiracy of the plebeians 
 against the ruling oligarchy. The leading 
 patricians were to be put to death, and the 
 democratic government to be restored under 
 his presidency. The plot, however, was 
 revealed, and Faliero was arrested and 
 beheaded. His tragic end has formed the 
 subject of dramas by Byron, Swinburne, 
 and others. 
 
 Falk, or Falck, John Peter {d. 1774), 
 Swedish naturalist aud traveller, was a 
 pupil of Linnaeus, and was for some years 
 engaged in exploring some of the more 
 remote parts of the Russian empire. After 
 his death his travels were published in 
 three vols. He died by his own hand. 
 
 Falk, or Falck, Paul Ludwig Adalbert {b. 
 1827), Prussian statesman, became minister of 
 justice in 1871, and representative of Prussia 
 in the Federal Council. In 1872 he was 
 transferred to the ministry of public wor- 
 ship and education, and in that capacity 
 became the agent of Bismark's anti- Vatican 
 educational policy. His celebrated ' ' May 
 Laws," enacting that all theological colleges 
 should be liable to state inspection, that all 
 Roman priests should have spent a certain 
 time at a state " gymnasium " and a state 
 university, and that all Roman bishops 
 should take the oath of allegiance, were 
 jDassed in 1873 ; and at the same time several 
 religious orders were suppressed. These 
 and various other anti-clerical measures met 
 with bitter and protracted opposition, which 
 ended in 1879 in a change of policy and 
 Talk's retirement. 
 
 Falkenstein, Edouard Vogel von {b. 
 1797, d. 1885), Prussian general, com- 
 manded the army that held Hanover 
 in check at the outbreak of the Austro- 
 Prussian war, and defeated the Bavarians. 
 
 Falkland, Henry Gary, Viscount (d. 
 1633), statesman and author, father of 
 Lucius Cary Falkland (q.v.), and son of Sir 
 Edward Cary, was appointed controller of 
 the king's (James I.) household, and raised 
 to the Scottish peerage of Falkland in 1620. 
 In 1622 he became lord-deputy of Ireland, 
 but resigned in 1629, in consequence of the 
 opposition of the Catholic party. Among 
 his works was a History of that TJnfortunate 
 Frince, Edward II. 
 
 Falkland, Lucius Caiy, Viscount {b. 1610, 
 d. 1(343), statesman and general, bom at 
 Burford, Oxfordshire, was educated at 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin, and in his 20tb 
 year succeeded to his maternal grand- 
 father's property. Soon afterwards he 
 married Letice, daughter of Sir Richard 
 Morrison. After serving in Holland as a 
 volunteer on the side of the republic, he 
 returned to England aud to his studies. 
 In 1639 he accompanied Essex's expedition 
 against the Scots as a volunteer. In the 
 following year he was returned to Parlia- 
 ment for Newport, Isle of Wight, and 
 represented the same constituency in the 
 Long Parliament. He early distinguished 
 himself by his eloquent protests against the 
 absolutism of Laud and Strafford, and both 
 spoke and voted in favour of the attainder 
 of the latter. He also took the popular 
 side on the question of ship-money, and 
 spoke in favour of excluding the bishops 
 from the House of Lords ; but took alarm 
 at the tone and spiiit of Presbyterianism, 
 and opposed the second Bishops Exclusion 
 Bill. Early in 1642 he was jsre vailed upon 
 to accept the secretaryship of State, and 
 greatly exerted himself to heal the breach 
 between the king and the Parliament. 
 When at last war broke out, he declared 
 himself on the Royal side. He fought 
 valiantly at Edgehill, and at the siege of 
 Gloucester, but was killed at the battle of 
 Newbury. Falkland was a man of very 
 considerable learniug. The friend of Chil- 
 lingworth and Clarendon, and most of the 
 scholars of his day, he was even more re- 
 markable for his large charity, and his 
 high sense of honour. Than his there is 
 no more chivalrous figure in English history. 
 
 Fallmerayer, Jakob Philipp {b. 1790, d. 
 1861), traveller and historian, a native of 
 the Bavarian Tyrol, is memorable chiefly 
 from the vast researches by which he sought 
 to prove the extinction of the ancient Greek 
 stock, and the Slav origin of the modem 
 Hellenes. 
 
 FaUopio (Latin Fallopius), GabrieUo (*. 
 1523, d. 1562), Italian anatomist, was pro- 
 fessor of his science at Pisa, and at Padua 
 in 1551. He gave special attention to the 
 anatomy of bones and to the organs of 
 generation, and the Fallopian tube is 
 named after him. He has also made a 
 reputation as a botanist, and was super- 
 intendent of the botanical garden at 
 Padua. 
 
 Falloux, Fr^de'ric Alfred, Comte de {b. 
 1811, d. 1886), French politician and man 
 of letters, was for a short time minister 
 of public instruction under Louis Napo- 
 leon (1848-9), and was characterised by 
 Thiers as "the only statesman on the 
 Right." 
 
 Fallows, Fearon (b. 1789, d. 1831), ma- 
 thematician and astronomer, a native of
 
 Fal 
 
 ( 295 ) 
 
 Far 
 
 Cockermouth, Cumberland, was in 1821 
 appointed astronomer-royal at the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and drew up a catalogue of the 
 stars of the southern hemisphere. 
 
 Falqm^re, Jean Alexandre Joseph (b. 
 1831), French painter and sculptor, was a 
 pupil of Jouli'roy, and gained the Prix de 
 liome. At the Paiis Exposition of 1868 
 he was awarded a medal of the fii'st 
 class. He is a chevalier of the Legion of 
 Honour. 
 
 Faneuil, Peter {b. 1700, d. 1743), Ameri- 
 can merchant, bom at New Eochelle, and 
 descended from a Huguenot family, is re- 
 membered chiefly from his association with 
 Faneuil Hall in Boston, which he presented 
 to that city in 1742. In 1761 it was de- 
 stroyed by fire and rebuilt. 
 
 Fanshawe, Anne {b. 1625, d. 1680), is 
 known principally for her devotion to her 
 husband. Sir Eichard Fanshawe (q.v.), 
 whom she married in 1644, and of whom 
 she wrote a memoir, first published in 
 1829. 
 
 Fanshawe, Sir Richard {b. 1608, d. 
 1666), diplomatist and poet, husband of 
 the preceding, fought on the side of the 
 king in the Civil war. In 1648 he was 
 appointed treasurer to the navy under 
 Prince Eupert ; and at the battle of Wor- 
 cester, in 1651, he was taken prisoner. 
 After the Eestoration he became ambassa- 
 dor to the courts of Portugal and Spain, 
 but in 1666 was superseded by Lord Sand- 
 wich. His works consist chiefly of poetical 
 translations from the Italian and Portuguese. 
 He died at Madrid. 
 
 Faraday, Michael {b. 1791, d. 1867), 
 chemist and natural philosopher, bom at 
 Newington Butts, was apprenticed to a 
 bookbinder ; but having sent to Sir Hum- 
 phry Davy notes he had taken of the latter's 
 lectures at the Royal Institution, he was 
 at the age of twenty-one engaged as Sir 
 Humphry's assistant and amanuensis. Their 
 relations, however, were never cordial, for 
 which the blame must be allotted to the 
 elder man. In 1825 Faraday became di- 
 rector of the Royal Institution Labora- 
 tory, and in 1827 succeeded Davy as 
 Fullerian professor of chemistry. In 1835 
 he received a Civil List pension, and in 
 1858 a residence at Hamjjton Court. Ex- 
 tensive as were his original researches 
 in chemistry, in physics, and especially 
 in electricity, he was quite as famous, 
 thanks to a peculiarly lucid style, as a 
 populariser of science. Among his most 
 interesting practical achievements was 
 the application of the electric light to 
 lighthouses. He was a member of the 
 rehgious sect known as Sandemaniaus, and 
 used to take a leading part in their public 
 
 worship. His character was not less admir- 
 able than his talents. 
 
 Fare, Anne Louis Henri de la {jb. 1752, 
 d. 1829), French ecclesiastic, became bishop 
 of Nancy in 1788. In 1789 he was elected 
 a deputy to the States-General. When the 
 revolutionary storm burst he fled, and was 
 agent to the Bourbon princes till the Eesto- 
 ration. Afterwards he was preferred to the 
 archbishopric of Sens, and in 1823 was ele- 
 vated to the cardinalate. 
 
 Farel, Guillaunae (Jb. 1489, d. 13th Sept., 
 1565), reformer, a native of the Dauphin^, 
 studied at the University of Paris ; and 
 being zealous on the side of the Eoman 
 Church, was made professor at the college 
 of Cardinal Lemoiue ; but having adopted 
 the new doctrines, he soon became known 
 throughout France and Switzerland, and 
 also in Germany, as a vehement reformer. 
 He was often expelled from the towns 
 which he visited on his proselytising 
 missions, and in 1561 was for a time im- 
 prisoned. When nearly seventy years of 
 age he married a yoimg wife. 
 
 Farey, John {b. 1766, d. 1826), geologist 
 and surveyor. 
 
 Faria Manoel, Severim de (b. 1583, d. 
 1655), Portuguese biographical historian, is 
 the author, among other works, of Noticias 
 de Portugal. 
 
 Faria y Sousa, Manuel de [b. 1590, d. 
 1649), Portuguese historian and poet, is the 
 author of more than sixty volumes, com- 
 prising a large nimiber of sonnets, some 
 eclogues, works on Portuguese history, com- 
 mentaries on Camoens, and some treatises on 
 the theory of poetry. 
 
 Farinato, Paolo {b. 1522, d. 1606), Italian 
 painter at Verona, is remembered chiefly for 
 his Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes, 
 painted for the church of St. George at 
 Verona. 
 
 Farinelli, professional name of Carlo 
 Brocchi {b. 1705, d. 1782), vocalist, who waa 
 a pupil of Porpora, and gained the highest 
 distinction in the chief continental cities, as 
 well as in London. 
 
 Farini, Carlo Luigi (b. 1822, d. let Aug., 
 1866), Italian statesman, orator, and his- 
 torian, a native of Russi, became minister 
 of the interior in Piedmont in 1850, after 
 several periods of exile, and suggested many 
 of the energetic measures successfully 
 carried out by Cavour. In 1859, when the 
 Duke of Modeua had been forced to seek 
 refuge in the Austrian ranks, he was 
 appointed dictator of Modena, which, 
 together with Parma, waa by his influence 
 annexed to Sardinia. In 1860 he wafl
 
 Far 
 
 (-OG; 
 
 Tar 
 
 minister of commerce in Cavour's last 
 cabinet, and prime minister from December, 
 1S&2 to March, 1873, resigning on account of 
 ill-health. His // Statu Romano has been 
 translated by Mr. Gladstone. 
 
 Farmer, Hugh (/>. 17U, (/. 1787), dissent- 
 ing divine, born near Shrewsbury, was a 
 pupil of Dr. Doddridge, and wrote an Essay 
 on ine Demoniacs of the New Testament, 
 
 Farmer, Eichard (b. 1735, d. 1797), 
 scholar, a native of Leicester, was elected 
 to the mastership of Emmanuel College, 
 Cambridge, in 177-5, and in 1778 to the 
 chief librarianship of the university. After 
 holding prebendal stalls at Lichfield and 
 Canterbury, he in 1788 became a resident 
 prebendary at St. Paul's. Being iuveter- 
 ately indolent, he left but one work. Essay 
 on the Learniny of Shakespeare (1767), in 
 which he proved that the dramatist derived 
 his knowledge of the ancients from trans- 
 lations. 
 
 Farnese, Alessandi-o {h. 1468, d. 1549), 
 was founder of the prosperity of the 
 princely family to which he belonged. 
 In 1534 he became Pope as Paul III. He 
 was founder of the duchy of Panna and 
 Piacenza. 
 
 Farnese, Alessandro, Duke of Parma 
 {b. 1546, d. 1592), the most eminent member 
 of the Farnese family, was son of the 
 second duke. He first distinguished himself 
 at Lepanto in 1571. In 1585, as governor of 
 the Spanish Netherlands, he captured Ant- 
 werp for Philip II., and five years later 
 compelled Henry IV. of France to raise the 
 siege of Paris. He died of a wound, and 
 was succeeded in the duchy by a series of 
 worthless princes. 
 
 Farnese, Elizabeth {h. 1692, d. 1766), 
 daughter of Odoardo Farnese, married 
 PhiUp V. of Spain in 1714, and was thus 
 the occasion of the claim made by the 
 Spanish dynasty to Parma and Piacenza. 
 
 Farquhar, George (J. 1678, d. 1707), dra- 
 matist, a native of Londonderry, was for 
 two years an actor, but having accidentally 
 inflicted a wound on a brother actor who 
 was performing in Dryden's/wrfeV«i Emperor, 
 was so shocked that he at once abandoned 
 the stage. He then took up dramatic com- 
 position, and in 1698 his first comedy, Love 
 and a Bottle, was produced at Drury Lane, 
 and proved an emphatic success. It was 
 followed in 1700 by the Constant Couple, 
 and this by a number of others, the last and 
 best being The Beaux' Stratagem, written 
 during his last illness. 
 
 Farr, William {h. 1807, d. 1883), statis- 
 tician, a native of Kenley, Salop, was for 
 many years superintendent of the statistical 
 
 department of the registrar-general's ofiice 
 in London. Among his works is Vital 
 Statistics, pubUshed as a memorial volume 
 after his death. 
 
 Farragut, David Glasgow (b. 1801, d.' 
 1870), American admiral, of Spanish origin,' 
 born at Knoxville, Tennessee, commanded 
 the Western Gulf squadron for the Federal 
 government in 1861, and after bombarding 
 Fort Jackson for six days, ran past it 
 in the night to New Orleans, and com- 
 pelled the evacuation of that city. In 1864 
 he was sent to Mobile Bay, the harbour of 
 the enemy's blockade-runners, ran past the 
 forts as before, silenced the Tennessee, and 
 closed the bay to the Confederate ships. In 
 1863 the government had created for him 
 the rank of vice-admiral ; in 1866 he 
 became admiral, and in 1867 commanded the 
 European squadron, afterwards retiring into 
 private life. He died at Portsmouth, New 
 Hampshire. 
 
 Farrant, Richard (*. circa 1530, d. 
 1580), English composer, was organist of 
 St. George's Chajjel, Windsor in 1564, and 
 in 1569 was reapjioiuted a gentleman of 
 the Chapel Royal. His church music 
 merits all the praise which its solem- 
 nity and pathos have received ; but the 
 beautiful anthem. Lord, for Thy Tender 
 Mercies' Sake, though generally assigned to 
 him, is attributed by earlier writers to John 
 Hilton. 
 
 Farrar, Frederic William {b. 7th August, 
 1831), divine and scholar, bom at Bombay, 
 studied at King William's College, Isle of 
 Man, King's College, London, the Uni- 
 versity of London, and also at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, where he gained 
 the Chancellor's medal for English verse, 
 graduated as fourth classic in 1854, and 
 was elected to a fellowship. On leaving 
 Cambridge he became assistant-master at 
 Marlborough, and afterwards at Harrow, 
 returning to Marlborough in 1871 as head- 
 master, and holding that office till in 1876 he 
 was appointed canon of Westminster and 
 rector of St. Margaret's. In 1880 he became 
 archdeacon of Westminster, and in 1890 chap- 
 lain to the House of Commons. His popular 
 schoolboy story, Eric, appeared in. 1858 ; 
 the Origin of Language, the first of a series 
 of philological works, in 1860 ; the Life of 
 Christ, the most popular theological work of 
 its generation, in 1874; the Life of St. Paul 
 ia 1879 ; and the Early Days of Christianity 
 in 1 882. Among his remaining works is one 
 cliallpnging the doctrine of everlasting 
 punishment, entitled Eternal Hope. At 
 the Church Congress in 1890 he advocated a 
 scheme of ceUbate brotherhood, which 
 excited a good deal of controversy. 
 
 Farrar, Nicholas. [See Ferrar.]
 
 Far 
 
 (297) 
 
 Pav 
 
 Farre, Arthur. F.R.S. {b. 1811), phy- 
 sician and scientific author, is physician- 
 extraordinary to (ojueen Victoria, and physi- 
 cian-accoucheur to most of the princesses of 
 the royal family. He was Harveian orator in 
 1872, president of the Microscopical Society 
 in 1851-2, and is now hon. president of the 
 Obstetrical Society. 
 
 Farren, Eliza, Countess of Derby {b. 1759, 
 d. 182y), actress, was the daughter of a pro- 
 vincial actor, and made her debut at Liver- 
 pool, at the age of fourteen. In 1777 she 
 came to London, and on Mrs. Abington's 
 retiiement was acknowledged to be the first 
 actress of the day. She married Lord Derby 
 in 1797. 
 
 Fastolf, Sir John {b. circa 1378, d. 1459), 
 English soldier, a native of Norfolk, won 
 renown in the French wars, especially at 
 Agiucourt (1415), and in the " Battle of the 
 Herrings " (1429), but was unable to van- 
 quish Joan of Arc, though there is no 
 ground for tlie story that he was stripped of 
 his garter for cowardice at Patay in 1441, 
 for soon after his return to Norfolk he re- 
 ceived a pension of £20 ' ' for notable and 
 praiseworthy service and good counsel." It 
 was, no doubt, in consequence of this story 
 that Shakespeare altered the name of his fat 
 knight from Sir John Oldcastle to Sir John 
 Falstaff. 
 
 Faucher, Ldon (*. 1803, d. 1854), French 
 publicist and statesman, after editing the 
 Temps and the Courrier Fratiqais, in 1843 
 contributed to the Revue des Ikux Mondes 
 an able series of articles on the industrial 
 condition of England, which in, 1845 were 
 published in two volumes as £tudes stir 
 PAngleterre. After the revolution of 1848 
 he represented the Marine Department in 
 the constituent and legislative assemblies. 
 He was Louis Napoleon's first minister of 
 public works, and afterwards minister of 
 the interior, but resigned and retired from 
 political life when Napoleon was contem- 
 plating his plebiscite. 
 
 Fauci t, Helen (Lady Theodore Martin), 
 {b. 1816), actress and authoress, is the 
 daughter of the late Mrs. Faucit, also an 
 actress, and received her early stage educa- 
 tion from Mr. Percival Farren, of the Hay- 
 mai'ket theatre. Her first appearance was 
 at Richmond in 1833 as Juliet ; in 1836 she 
 made her debut in London at Covent Garden 
 as Julia in The Hunchback. In 1837 she 
 joined the company formed by Macready 
 for Shakspeareau revivals. Since her marriage 
 to Mr. (uow Sir Theodore) Martin in 1851, 
 she has only appeared on the stage at rare 
 intervals. Some of Shakspeare's Female 
 Characters appeared in 1865. 
 
 Faugfere, Armand Prosper (b. 1810), 
 
 French author, bom at Bergerac, was for 
 some time director of the Record Ofiice and 
 Chancery. In 1853 he was appointed officer 
 of the Legion of Honour, and in 1861 
 commander. 
 
 Faure, Jean Baptiste (b. 15th January, 
 1830), French baritone singer, made his de- 
 but at the Opera Comique in Paris in 1861. 
 For many years he was the acknowledged 
 head of the French lyric stage. In 1881 he 
 was nominated a chevalier of the Legion of 
 Houour. 
 
 Fauriel, Charles Claude (b. 1772, d. 1844), 
 
 French philologist, was one of the early 
 advocates of electicism, and a precursor of 
 the philosophy formulated by Cousin. 
 
 Faust, Johann. \_See Fust, Johann.] 
 
 Faust, Johann, dealer in the black art, 
 appears to have been born either at Knitt- 
 lingen in Wiirtemberg, or at Roda, near 
 Weimar, early in the 16th century, and to 
 have studied medicine and magic at Cracow. 
 He may have died as early as 1539, but he 
 was certamly dead by 1544. He is the hero 
 of much legendary, dramatic, and poetical 
 literature, including the tragedies of Mar- 
 lowe and Goethe, and the famous opera by 
 Gounod, etc. 
 
 Faustina, Anna Galeria, generally known 
 as Faustina, senior, was wife of the 
 Emperor Antoninus Pius, and died 141 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Faustina, junior, daughter of the preced- 
 ing, married the Emperor Marcus Aurelius 
 Antoninus, and died in 175 a.d. near Mount 
 Taurus. Like her mother, she led a shame^ 
 lessly profligate life, though neither mother 
 nor daughter could exhaust the patience of 
 their husbands. 
 
 Favart, Charies Simon (b. 1710, d. 1792), 
 French dramatist, wrote, among other 
 operas, Le Coq du Village, Basticn et 
 Jiastienne, Ninette a la Cour, Les Trois Sul- 
 tanes, and L^ Anglais a Bordeaux. In 1745 
 he married Marie Justine Benoite, nee 
 Durouceray, whose stage name was Mile. 
 Chantilly, who was bom at Avignon in 
 1727 and died tu 1772, and who assisted her 
 husband in the work of composition. She is 
 the subject of a well-known operetta by 
 Offenbach. 
 
 Favre, G. C. Jules {b. 1809, d. 1880), 
 French statesman, a native of Lyons, 
 entered political life about 1830 as a re- 
 publican. He took a prominent part in 
 the revolution of 1848, and was presently 
 secretary to Ledi'u-Rollin, on whose flight 
 he became leader of the Mountaiu. After 
 Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat he confined 
 himself to his work as an advocate for
 
 Faw 
 
 (298) 
 
 Pec 
 
 six years, but his defence of Orsiui secured 
 his return for Paris, and he became, with 
 Tiiiers, the leader of an increasingly 
 powerful Opposition. His speeches in con- 
 demnation of the Mexican Expedition pro- 
 duced a profound iiupression, and he was 
 one of the few French statesmen who 
 opposed the a Berlin policy. After the 
 overthrow of the Second Empire he became 
 vice-president of the provisional govern- 
 ment of national defence, and as minister 
 of foreign affairs it fell to his lot to conduct 
 the negotiations with Bismarck which pre- 
 ceded the peace. "We will not give up an 
 inch of our land, nor a stone of our 
 fortresses," he had declared at the outset; 
 but as a diplomatist he was no match for 
 his opponent, and the surrender of Alsace- 
 Lorraine was but one of the humiliating 
 conditions to which he signed. After the 
 February elections he became Thiers's 
 Foreign secretary, but in November was 
 forced to retue. His subsequent appear- 
 ances in the tribune were not frequent, but 
 were always attended with excitement. In 
 1S76 the department of the Rhone returned 
 him to the Senate. Great in opposition, he 
 was a failure in office. 
 
 Fawcett, Henry {h. 1833, d. 1884), econo- 
 mist and statesman, a native of Salisbury, 
 studied at King's College School, London, 
 and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he 
 graduated B.A. as seventh vsraugler in 
 1856, and was subsequently chosen' a fellow. 
 In 1858, while partridge-shooting with his 
 father, he met with an accident which 
 inflicted .on him total blindness, in spite 
 of which he resolved to pursue the economic 
 and political career he had not long before 
 determined upon. The publication of his 
 Manual of Political Economy in 1863 was 
 immediately followed by his election to 
 the chair of Political Economy at Cam- 
 bridge. In 1865 he was elected M.P. for 
 Brighton, which he continued to repre- 
 sent until 1874, when he was returned for 
 Hackney, and again in 1880. In this year 
 he became Mr. Gladstone's postmaster- 
 general, and held the office four years and a 
 half, his tenure of it being marked by a 
 long series of reforms and new institutions. 
 He was lord rector of Glasgow University 
 in 1883. 
 
 Fawcett, John {b. 1769, d. 1837), actor 
 and theatrical manager, was the son of 
 an actor. He first appeared in London 
 in 1791, at Covent Garden, as Caleb in He 
 would be a Soldier. He was several times 
 connected with the Haymarket, and later 
 was manager of Covent Garden theatre, an 
 office which he held until his retirement 
 from the profession in 1836. 
 
 Fawcett, MilUcent (b. 1847), a native of 
 Aldborough, wife of Professor Henry 
 
 Fawcett (q.v.), and sister of Mrs. Garrett 
 Anderson, shared her husband's pursuits, 
 and in 1^69 published Political Economy for 
 Beginners. She is a leading advocate of 
 female franchise. 
 
 Fawcett, Sii- WilUam {b. 1728, d. 1804), 
 military officer, served under General Elliot 
 in the Seven Years' war, and was aide- 
 de-camp to the Marquis of Granby. Ulti- 
 mately he became Knight of the Bath 
 and governor of Chelsea Hospital. In his 
 leisure he translated the Reveries of Marshal 
 Saxe. 
 
 Fawkes, Guido (h. 1570, d. 1606), conspi- 
 rator, was the son of Edward Fawkes, a 
 notary of York. He had a Protestant 
 training, but became a Roman Catholic 
 while yet a youth. Having squandered his 
 patrimony, he served with the Spaniards 
 in Flanders from 1596 until 1604, and was 
 present at the taking of Calais in 1598. 
 Retui-ning to England, he was selected by 
 Catesby, Winter, and others as chief agent 
 in the Gunpowder Plot. He was arrested 
 on the 5th November, 1605, and put to the 
 torture, and tliuugh boldly avowing the in- 
 tention of the conspiracy, he steadfastly 
 refused to name his accompUces in the 
 plot. 
 
 Fay, Andras [b. 1786, d. 1864), Hungarian 
 author and politician, wrote plays, ro- 
 mances, and tales, and also a number of 
 highly successful fables, and was one of 
 the founders of the Hungarian National 
 Theatre. From 1825 to 1840 he was one of 
 the most prominent leaders of the Liberal 
 Opposition. 
 
 Faye, Herve Augusta Etienne Albans 
 {b. 1814), French astronomer, discovered the 
 comet which bears his name in 1843, was 
 appointed director of the Paris Observatory 
 in 1878, and in 1884 became an officer of the 
 Legion of Honour. 
 
 Fayette. \See Lafayette.] 
 
 Fayrer, Sir Joseph {b. 1824), surgeon and 
 author, born at Plymouth, served as a 
 doctor in the navy, and then in the army, 
 was professor of surgery in the Medical 
 College of Bengal, 1859-1874, and was for 
 some time president of the Asiatic Society 
 of Bengal. He accompanied the Prince of 
 Wales on the latter's Indian tour as phy- 
 sician, in 1875-1876, and in the latter year 
 was knighted. 
 
 Fazy, Jean Jacques {b. 1796, d. 1878), 
 Swiss economist and statesman, was the 
 founder of the Revue de Geneve, and was for 
 many years the most influential publicist in 
 the city of his birth. 
 
 Fechner, Gustav Theodor (b. 1801, i. 
 1887), German philosopher, became professor
 
 Fee 
 
 ( 299 ) 
 
 Pel 
 
 of physics at Leipzig in 1834, but five years 
 afterwards, in consequence of an affection 
 of the eyes, devoted himself to psycho - 
 physics. 
 
 Fechter, Charles Albert (b. 1S23, d. 1879), 
 tragedian, was of French parentage, though 
 bom in London. He made his first appear- 
 ance in the metropolis at St. James's Theatre 
 in 1848. He again visited England in 1860, 
 and in spite of his pronounced French ac- 
 cent, astonished the critics by his masterly 
 impersonation of Hamlet and other cha- 
 racters. 
 
 Feckenliain, John de {d. 1585), last 
 Abbot of Westminster, bom at Fecken- 
 ham, Worcestershiie, was sent to the Tower 
 on the accession of Edward VI. for his 
 opposition to the Reformation. Released 
 by Mary, he became her chaplain, and as 
 such endeavoured to convert Lady Jane 
 Grey while she was under sentence of 
 death. Later he became Dean of St. Paul's, 
 and in 1556 Abbot of Westminster, but on 
 Mary's death he again found himself fallen 
 on evil times, and died in imprisonment. 
 
 Feith, Rhynvis (b. 1753, d.^ 1824), Dutch 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, born at 
 Zwolle, wrote several tragedies, a large 
 number ot lyrics, etc. A complete edition 
 of his works, in eleven volumes, appeared 
 in 1824. 
 
 Felix, Antonius or Claudius, Roman 
 governor, was a freedman of the Emperor 
 Claudius I., and brother of his favourite 
 Pallas. He is known to history chiefly as 
 procurator of Judaea in the time of St. Paul, 
 and as the husband of Drusilla, a Jewess 
 who had left her iirst husband in order to 
 marry him. When recalled to Rome in 
 62 A.D. to answer the charges brought 
 against him by the Jews, he narrowly 
 escaped condemnation to death. 
 
 Felix, St., was beheaded at Zurich, on the 
 site of the great cathedral, as a Christian 
 martyr, early in the 3rd century, and is 
 conunemorated on the 11th of September. 
 He and his sister, Regula, are the patron 
 saints of Zurich and its cathedrals. 
 
 Felix L, Pope {d. 275), succeeded Diony- 
 sius in 269, condemned the opinions of 
 Sabellius, and is said to have suffered death 
 in the Aurelian persecution. But for this 
 there is no respectable evidence. 
 
 Felix II., Pope, was consecrated in 356, 
 when Liberius was banished for refusing 
 to condemn Athanasius, but on the resto- 
 ration of Liberius in the following year 
 retired from the city. He was long 
 regarded as the first of the anti-popes, but 
 in the end was ranked among the sainta 
 and martyrs. 
 
 Felix III. (d. 492), succeeded Pope Simpli- 
 cius in 483. By excommimicating Acacius, 
 patriarch of Constantinople, he brought 
 about the first disruption between the 
 Eastern and Western churches. 
 
 Felix IV. {d. 530) was appointed by 
 Theodoric as successor of Pope John I. in 
 526, but was always unpopular with both 
 clergy and people. 
 
 FeU, John (b. 1625, d. 1686), divine, bom 
 at Longworth, Berks., was for some time 
 ill arms for Charles I., and was one of four 
 clergymen who mauitained Anglican services 
 during the Commonwealth. At the Res- 
 toration he was rewarded by being made 
 prebendary of Chichester, canon of Christ 
 Church, Oxford, and afterwards dean and 
 royal chaplain. From 1666 to 1669 he was 
 vice-chancellor of Oxford, and became 
 bishop of the diocese in 1676. It is to him 
 that Tom Brown's lines, " I do not like thee. 
 Doctor Fell, the reason why I cannot tell," 
 are addressed. 
 
 Fell, Samuel {b. 1594, d. 1649), Anglican 
 divine, studied at Christ Chui-ch, Oxford, 
 of which he became dean. He was after- 
 wards vice-chancellor of the university, 
 but was expelled in 1647 on account of 
 his devotion to the Royal cause. He is 
 said to have died of grief at the execution 
 of the king. 
 
 Fellenberg, Emanuel de {b. 1771, d. 
 1844), Swiss educational reformer, bom at 
 Berne, acquired the estate of Hofwyl, near 
 Berne, in 1799, and there carried out a 
 number of instructive experiments in 
 education. 
 
 FeUowes, Sir Charles {b. 1799, d. 1860), 
 antiquary, a native of Nottingham, dis- 
 covered the sites of fifteen cities in Asia 
 Minor. The marbles which he recovered 
 are kept in the Lycian saloon of the British 
 Museum. 
 
 FeUowes, Robert (*. 1770, d. 1847), 
 political and religious writer, was a clergy- 
 man of the AngUcan Church until change 
 of views led to his retirement. He 
 was on terms of friendship with Queen 
 Caroline, and at her death, in recognition of 
 his championship of her cause, she left him 
 nearly £200,000. He took a leading part in 
 the scheme for founding a university in 
 London ; and in gratitude to Dr. EUiotson, 
 to whom he attributed his recovery from a 
 dangerous illness, he founded the FeUowes 
 gold medals for proficiency in clinical 
 science. 
 
 Felton, Cornelius Conway {b. 1807, d. 
 1862), American scholar, bom at West 
 Newbxiry, Mass., studied at Harvard,
 
 Fel 
 
 ( 300) 
 
 Per 
 
 where in 1834 he became professor of 
 Greek, and in 1860 president. He edited 
 several editions of the Greek classics, and 
 also delivered a valuable series of lectures on 
 Greece, Ancient and Modern, published in 
 1867. 
 Felton, John. \_See Buckingham, Duke of . ] 
 
 F^nelon, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe 
 (J). 16'")I, d. 1715), French divine and author, 
 born at Perigord, received holy orders at 
 the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris, in 
 1675. In 1685, after the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, he was sent as a 
 missionary among the Protestant popu- 
 lation of Saintonge and Poitou. In 1689 
 he was appointed by Louis XIV. pre- 
 ceptor of the king's grandson, the young 
 Duke of Burgundy, and in 1694 was 
 rewarded with the abbey of St. Valery, 
 succeeding in 1695 to the archbishopric of 
 Cambrai. His favour with the king came 
 to an end in 1698 with the appearance of 
 his book, Les Apcntures de Telemaque, the 
 publication of which was due to the fraud 
 of a servant to whom he had entrusted the 
 manuscript. He always maintained that it 
 was only written for the amusement and 
 instruction of the Duke of Burgimdy, but 
 the king regarded it as a satire upon his own 
 court, the book was condemned, and 
 Fenelon was restrained within his own 
 diocese. He now gave himself up entirely 
 to the work of preaching and administration, 
 and acquired so wide a fame for benevolence 
 and liberality, that in the campaign of 1709 
 the Allies gave instructions that his stores 
 should be spared. His works deal, not 
 merely with theology, but vrith philosophy, 
 history, and literature, and are marked by 
 great beauty of style. He took an active 
 part in the Quietistic controversy, and was 
 unfortunate enough to come into collision 
 with his friend Bossuet. The Papal 
 decision was, on the whole, against him, and 
 as soon as it was published, he un- 
 hesitatingly accepted it, and read the 
 brief of condemnation from his own pulpit. 
 
 Fenn, Sir John {b. 1739, d. 1794), anti- 
 quary, born at Norwich, selected and edited 
 tlie I'aMon Letters, and established their 
 authenticity when it was impugned by 
 Hermann Merivale. 
 
 Fenton, Elijah (b. 1683, d. 1730), poetical 
 and miscellaneous writer, assisted Pope in 
 translating the Odyssey, wrote a tragedy 
 entitled Marianne, and lives of Milton and 
 Waller. 
 
 Fenwick, Sir John (b. circa 1645, d. 1697), 
 politician, entered Parliament in 1688 as 
 Tory member for Northumberland. Being 
 committed to the Tower for his share in the 
 assassination plot in 1096, he made a con- 
 fession implicating some of the Whig leaders 
 
 in the Jacobite movement, and the only 
 witness against him having been induced to 
 leave tlie country, he was made the subject 
 of a bill of attainder. 
 
 Ferdinand I., Emperor of Austria (i. 1793, 
 d. 1875), was the eldest son of Francis I. 
 by his second wife Maria Theresa of Naples. 
 In 1831 he manied Maria, daughter of 
 King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. He 
 succeeded his father in March, 1835, having 
 been crowned king of Hungary in 1830. 
 He proved too mild a sovereign for the 
 revolutionary times in which his lot was 
 cast ; and after twice fleeing from his capi- 
 tal, resigned in favour of his nephew 
 Francis Joseph, the present emperor, on 
 Dec. 2nd, 1848. 
 
 Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany (i. 
 
 1503, d. 1564), bom at Alcala, Spain, was 
 son of PhiUp I. In 1531 he was elected 
 king of the Itomans, and in 1556 succeeded 
 his brother Charles V. as Emperor of Ger- 
 many. He was engaged in a long war with 
 John Zapolya, who was supported by the 
 Turks, for the possession of Hungary, till in 
 1538 the country was shared between the 
 two claimants. The war, however, broke 
 out again in 1540, when Ferdinand bought 
 off the Turks by a yearly tribute. 
 
 Ferdinand II., Emperor of Germany (h, 
 
 1578, d. 1637), was son of the Archduke 
 Charles of Carinthia and Styria, and grand- 
 son of Ferdinand I. He succeeded to the 
 throne of Bohemia in 1617, and to that of 
 Hungary in 1618, and was elected emperor 
 of Germany in 1618. A bigoted Catholic, 
 he made vigorous attempts to suppress Pro- 
 testantism. His reign was chiefly occupied 
 by the events of the Thirty Years' war. 
 When his succession was stayed by the 
 opposition of Richelieu and the appearance 
 of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, he not 
 only consented to the dismissal of Wallen- 
 stein, one of his two generals, but con- 
 nived at his murder. His reign is one of 
 the most calamitous with which the empire 
 was ever cursed. 
 
 Ferdinand III., Emperor of Germany 
 
 {b. 1608, d. 1657), bom at Griitz, son 
 of the preceding, whom he succeeded 
 in 1637, having become king of Bo- 
 hemia in 1625, and of Himgary in 1627. 
 Though inclined to peace, he was obliged 
 to continue the hostilities begun_ by his 
 father, and which were not ended till 1648, 
 when the peace of Westphalia was 
 arranged. 
 
 Ferdinand or Ferrante I., King of Naples 
 {b. 1423, d. 1494), was son of Alphonso I. 
 The chief events of his long reign were his 
 quan-els with the Roman court, and the 
 insurrections of his barons in 1485.
 
 Fer 
 
 (301) 
 
 Per 
 
 Ferdinand IL {d. 1496), King of Naples, 
 grandson of the preceding, succeeded his 
 father Alphonso II. ia 1495, when the 
 kingdom fell into the hands of Charles VIII. 
 and the French. He reconquered it, how- 
 ever, in the following year, with help from 
 the Spaniards ; but uied soon afterwards in 
 the prime of youth. 
 
 Ferdinand III., King of Naples. [See 
 Ferdinand V., " the Catholic."] 
 
 Ferdinand IV., King of Naples and 
 Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies {b. 
 1751, d. 1825), was second son of 
 Don Carlos (son of PhiHp V.), and 
 succeeded him in 1759, when Don Carlos 
 passed from the throne of Naples to that of 
 Spaiu. In 1768 he married Maria CaroUne 
 of Austria, daughter of the Empress Maria 
 Theresa, a princess both clever and ambi- 
 tious, who, tiU her death, ruled under her 
 husband's name. After his victory at 
 AusterUtz Napoleon declared that the 
 dynasty of the Bourbons had ceased to 
 reign at Naples, and sent thither an army 
 of occupation. Ferdinand and his family 
 fled to Sicily, and there remained under 
 British protection imtil Napoleon's fall. 
 The king returned in 1815, and thence- 
 forward ruled by the scourge and the 
 ecaffold. 
 
 Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies. 
 [See Ferdinand IV., King of Naples.] 
 
 Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies 
 
 ib. 1810, (/. 18-59), was eldest son of Francis 
 ,. He began his reign with some liberal 
 measures ; but after his marriage to his 
 second wife, the Archduchess Maria Theresa, 
 niece of the Emperor of Austria, he fell 
 under Austrian influence, and his tyi-annical 
 rule was little more than a series of risings 
 suppressed by bloodshed. He was nick- 
 named "Bomba" for having ordered the 
 bombardment of Palermo and Messina. 
 
 Ferdinand I, "the Great," King of 
 Castile, of Leon and Galicia {d. 1065), 
 was the second son of Sancho III., King of 
 Navarre and Castile, and succeeded to the 
 latter kingdom in 1035. He was one of the 
 most powerful monarchs of his age, and dis- 
 puted with Henry III. of Germany for the 
 imperial crown. 
 
 Ferdinand IL, King of Galicia and Leon 
 {d. 11S8), was the second son of Alphonso 
 VIII., whom he succeeded in 1157. 
 
 Ferdinand III, St., King of Castile and 
 Leon {d. 1252), was son of Alphonso IX. of 
 Leon. He became King of Castile in 1217, 
 and of Leon in 1230. Among his achieve- 
 ments against the Moors was the capture of 
 Cordova in 1236, and of Seville in 1248. 
 
 Ferdinand IV., King of Castile {b. 1285, 
 
 d. 1312), son of Sancho IV., took several 
 important positions from the Moors, includ- 
 ing Gibraltar. 
 
 Ferdinand V., King of Castile ("the 
 Cathohc"), the second of Aragon and Sicily, 
 and third of Naples (J>. 1452, d. 1516), 
 was son of John II. of Navarre and 
 Aragon, was bom at Sos. By his mamage 
 in 1469 with Isabella of Castile he united 
 the two kingdoms, and in 1479 became 
 king of all Spaiu, except Navarre and 
 Granada. He took part in the League of 
 Cambrai formed against Venice iu 1508, 
 conquered Gran in Africa in 1509, and in 
 1512 became ruler of Spain from Gib- 
 raltar to the Pyrenees. His reign is 
 memorable not only for the expulsion of 
 the Moors, but also for the establishment 
 of the Inquisition, and the discoveries of 
 Columbus. 
 
 Ferdinand VL, King of Spain (b. 1713, d. 
 1759), was the son of Philip V. and Louisa 
 Maria of Savoy, and succeeded his father 
 in 1746. 
 
 Ferdinand VII., King of Spain (6. 1784, 
 d. 1833), was the son of Charles IV. of 
 Spain and Maria Louisa of Parma. It was 
 under the pretence of furthering his interests 
 that Napoleon in December, 1807, invaded 
 Spain ; whereupon, in March, 1808, the 
 populace arose and crowned Ferdinand king. 
 Napoleon enticed him to Bayonne, but only 
 to force him to abdicate, and to keep him 
 prisoner at ValeiiQuy during the war of 
 Spanish Independence. After the battle of 
 Vittoria, however, he restored him to the 
 throne. During the king's reign the 
 American colonies revolted, and his home 
 policy, under clerical influence, was so 
 odious that he was only delivered from the 
 power of his subjects by French armies. In 
 1829 he dished the Clericals, who had fixed 
 upon Don Carlos as his successor, by 
 privately marrying J\I:iria Christina of 
 Naples, and in the following year revoking 
 the Salic law in favour of his daughter 
 Isabella, the present ex-queen. 
 
 Ferdinand, King of Portugal (b. 1345, 
 d. 1383), was son of Pedro the Cruel, whom 
 he succeeded in 1367. The war he waged 
 against Henry of Castile ended in disaster, 
 notwithstanding his alliance with the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 Ferdinand II., King of Aragon. [See 
 Ferdinand V., King of Castile.] 
 
 Ferdinand III., Grand-Duke of Tuscany 
 (b. 1769, d. 1824), succeeded his father 
 Leopold in 1791, when the latter was 
 raised to the imperial throne of Ger- 
 many. He refused to join the first coa- 
 lition against the French republic, but in 
 1793 was frightened into doing so by the 
 threats of Russia and England. In 1795,
 
 Fer 
 
 (302) 
 
 Per 
 
 however, he resumed friendly relations with 
 France, but by the uniutennitteut intrigues 
 of the French was forced into an alUance 
 with Austria in 1799. He was driven out 
 by French troops, and in ISOl compelled to 
 formally renounce his kingdom. On the 
 Restoration of 1814, however, he returned, 
 and continued the liberal rule of earlier 
 days. 
 
 Ferdinand, Charles Joseph D'Este {b. 
 1781, d. 1850), Archduke of Austria, Prince 
 Royal of Hungary and Bohemia, and Prince 
 of Modena, was son of Ferdinand Charles 
 Antoine Joseph, and nephew of the emperors 
 Joseph and Leopold. He commanded the 
 third division of the Austrian army in 1805, 
 afterwai-ds conducted the war in Bohemia 
 and Poland, and in 1830 became governor 
 of GaUcia. 
 
 Ferdusi. [See Firdausi.] 
 
 Ferguson, Adam {b. 1723, d. 1816), Scotch 
 philosopher, a native of Perthshire, was as 
 a young man chaplain to the Black Watch, 
 and took an active part in the battle of 
 Fontenoy. In 1757 he became keeper of 
 the Advocates' library in Edinburgh, in 
 succession to David Hume, in 1759 professor 
 of natural philosophy at Edinburgh, after- 
 wards (1704) of moral philosophy, and later 
 of mathematics. His History of the Pro- 
 gress and Te^'tmnation of the Roman Republic 
 appeared in 1782 ; his Principles of Moral 
 and Political Science in 1792. 
 
 Ferguson, James (b. 1710, d. 1776), 
 Scottish astronomer, bom at Rothiemay, 
 was entirely self-taught. He displayed 
 an early genius for mechanics, discovered 
 for himself the principle of the lever, and 
 amused himself by majjping out the stars, 
 forming a terrestrial globe, and construct- 
 ing little models of machinery. In 1748 
 he made his appearance as a lecturer on 
 astronomy and mechanics, and quickly 
 acquired great popularity. In 1761 a 
 pension of £50 was conferred upon him by 
 George III., and in 1763 he was elected 
 F.R.S. 
 
 Ferguson, Patrick {b. 1744, d. 1780), a 
 native of Aberdeenshire, was the inventor 
 of the breech-loading rifle, which was 
 patented in 1776. He headed a corps of 
 loyalists in the American War of Indepen- 
 dence, and was slain while defending King's 
 Moimtain, South Carolina, with 800 men 
 against 1,300 Americans. 
 
 Ferguson, Robert (b. circa 1637, d. 1714), 
 politician, a native of Aberdeenshire, is 
 known as "the Plotter." For ten years 
 he took a prominent part in almost every 
 conspiracy against Charles II. and James II., 
 and after the revolution pursued the same 
 
 trade, though on the opposite side. He 
 died in lamentable poverty. 
 
 Ferguson, Sir Samuel (b. 1810, d. 1886), 
 antiquary and poet, born at Belfast, edu- 
 cated at Trinity College, Dublin, was ap- 
 pointed first deputy keeper of the records 
 in Ireland in 1867, and for his eminent 
 services to Celtic archaeology was knighted 
 in 1878. His poem. The Forging of the 
 Anchor, appeared in 1883. 
 
 Fergusson, James [b. 1808, d. 1886), 
 writer on architecture, spent the first years 
 of his manhood in business, and then de- 
 voted himself to the study of architecture, 
 Eastern as well as Western. His most con- 
 siderable work is his History of Ancient and 
 Modern Architecture (1865). In 1871 he 
 received the gold medal of the Royal In- 
 stitute of British Architects. 
 
 Fergusson, Sir James, Bart. (i. 1832), 
 statesman, was under-secretary tor India 
 1866-1867, under-secretary at the Home 
 Office 1867-1868, governor of South Aus- 
 tralia 1868-1872, of New Zealand 1872-1874, 
 of Bombay 1880-1885. In 1885 he again 
 entered Parliament for North-East Man- 
 chester, in the following year became 
 Foreign under-secretary, and in 1891 Post- 
 master - General. 
 
 Fergusson, Robert {b. 1750, d. 1774), 
 Scottish poet, was educated at Dundee 
 Grammar School and St. Andrew's Univer- 
 sity. Having ruined his constitution by 
 intemperance, he become affected with reli- 
 gious melancholia, culminating in complete 
 insanity. Fifteen years after his death, 
 Bums erected a memorial stone with a 
 poetical inscription over his grave. Among 
 his poems are Tlie Farmer^ single, upon which 
 T}ie Cottar'' s Saturday Night is modelled. 
 
 Fergusson, Sir William, Bart. (b. 1808, 
 d. 1877), surgeon and surgical wiiter, after 
 a distinguished career in Edinburgh, was in 
 1840 appointed professor of surgery in King's 
 College, London, and surgeon of King's Col- 
 lege Hospital. In 1855 he became surgeon- 
 extraordinary, and in 1867 serjeant-surgeon, 
 to the Queen, while in 1861 he was elected 
 president of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
 His chief contributions to surgery are the 
 closing of the cleft palate, excision of the 
 head of the femur in incurable disease of 
 the hip- joint, excision of the scapula in 
 disease of the bone, and excision of _th« 
 joint in incurable disease of the hip-joint, 
 in place of amputation. 
 
 Ferishta, Mohammed Kasim (b. 1570, d. 
 circa 1611), a native of Astrabad, on the 
 shores of the Caspian, is the author of a 
 history of the rise of the Mohammedan 
 power, which has been twice translated into 
 English.
 
 Per 
 
 ( 303) 
 
 Ter 
 
 Fennat, Rerre de {b. 1608, d. 1664), 
 Freuch mathematician and poet, wrote 
 poems in several languages, and prose works 
 which were published collectively as Opera 
 Varia Mathematica. 
 
 Fermor, "William, Count (b. 1704, d. 
 1771), Russian general, succeeded General 
 Apraxin as commander-in-chief of the 
 Russian army in the Seven Years' war, and 
 captured Thorn and Elbing, and besieged 
 Ciistrin, from which, after the battle of 
 Zomdorf, he was obliged to retire. In 
 October, 1760, he invaded Prussia, and 
 occupied Berlin, but only for a few days. 
 
 Fernandez, Juan (d. 1576), Spanish navi- 
 gator, discovered the island which bears his 
 name in 1563, and colonised it in 1572. 
 
 Fernandez, Ximenes de Navarete Juan 
 (6. 1526, d. 1579), Spanish painter, was 
 a pupil of Titian, and became painter to 
 PhUip II. Being deaf and diunb, he was 
 sumamed El Mudo. 
 
 Ferracino, Bartolomeo {b. 1695, d. 1764), 
 Italian mechanician, invented a number of 
 ingenious contrivances, and built the bridge 
 over the Brenta at Padua. 
 
 Ferrar, Nicholas [b. 1592, d. 1637), 
 Anglican divine and mystic, was elected 
 fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge, in 1610, 
 and in 1624 entered Parliament, but in the 
 following year abandoned public life and 
 founded the "Nunnery " at Little Gidding, 
 Huntingdonshire, described in John Ingle- 
 sant. The community was broken up by 
 the Puritans in 1647. 
 
 Ferrar, Robert (b. 1555), prelate and 
 martyr, was prior of St. Oswald untU the 
 monastery was dissolved, when he threw 
 in his lot with the reformers and was made 
 Bishop of St. David's. Early in the Marian 
 persecution he was sent to the stake at 
 Caemiarthen by Bishop Gardiner as a 
 heretic. 
 
 Ferrara, Andrea, was a broad-sword 
 maker at Belluno, North Italy, towards the 
 end of the 16th century. Nothing is known 
 of him beyond this fact. One tradition re- 
 
 E resents him to have been by birth a 
 pauiard, but he is more generally believed 
 to have been bom in the city after which he 
 is named. 
 
 Ferrari, Gaudenzio (b. 1484, d. 1549), 
 Italian painter, bom at Valduggia, Pied- 
 mont, belongs to the Lombard school. The 
 frescoes in the Cappella della Pieta at 
 Varallo are considered to be his best works. 
 
 Ferrari, Paolo (*. 1822, d. 1889), Italian 
 dramatist, became professor of history at 
 Modena, his native city, in 1860, and at 
 
 Milan subsequently, where a collection of 
 his dramatic works in fourteen volumes ap- 
 peared in 1877-80. 
 
 Ferrars, George {b. 1512, d. 1579), lawyer 
 and poet, bom near St. Albans, is cele- 
 brated less for his achievements iu either of 
 these capacities than because, when arrested 
 under the orders of the City magistrates for 
 debt while in discharge oi his duties as a 
 member of the Commons, the House, sup- 
 ported by the House of Lords, demanded his 
 release, and imprisoned the sheriffs and 
 others who had taken part in the proceed- 
 ings against him. 
 
 Ferreira, Antonio (b. 1528, d. 1560), a 
 Portuguese poet, bom at Lisbon, is the 
 author of Ines de Castro, one of the two or 
 three earliest of extant tragedies in modem 
 Uterature. 
 
 Ferrers, Lawrence Shirley, Earl {b. 1720, d, 
 1761), is notorious as the last nobleman who 
 died a felon's death. He was hanged at 
 Tyburn, after sentence by his peers for 
 having in the preceding January slain his 
 steward in a fit of passion. 
 
 Ferrey, Benjamin {b. 1810, d. 1880), archi- 
 tect, studied under Pugin, and from 1841 to 
 his death was honorary dioceean architect 
 of Bath and Wells. In that capacity he 
 restored the nave, transepts, and lady 
 chapel of Wells cathedral, and also the 
 bishop's palace. His last work was the 
 mansion for the Duke of Counaught at 
 Bagshot Park. 
 
 Ferrier, David {b. 1843) , physiologist, bom 
 at Aberdeen, became demonstrator of physi- 
 ology at King's College, London, in 1871, 
 professor of forensic medicine there in 1872, 
 physician to King's College Hospital and to 
 the National Hospital for the Paralysed 
 and Epileptic in 1880, F.R.C.P. in 1877, and 
 F.R.S. in 1876. He was one of the foun- 
 ders and is one of the editors of Brain. 
 His great work on the Functions of tht 
 Brain appeared in 1876. 
 
 Ferrier, James Frederick (/;. 1808, d. 1864), 
 metaphysician, was appointed professor of 
 civn history at Edinburgh, his native city, 
 in 1842, and professor of moral philosophy 
 at St. Andrew's in 1845. His Institutes 
 of Metaphysics was published in 1854. He 
 married a daughter of "Christopher North," 
 and was a nephew of Susan Edmonston 
 Ferrier (see below) . 
 
 Ferrier, Susan Edmonston (Jb. 1782, d. 
 1854), Scottish novelist, a native of Edin- 
 burgh, is authoress of The Inheritance (1824) 
 and Destiny (1831), which were attributed 
 to her friend Sir Walter Scott.
 
 Fer 
 
 (304) 
 
 Fic 
 
 Ferry, Jules Francois Camille {h. 1832), 
 Freuch statesman, a native of St. Di^, Vosges, 
 entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1869 as 
 one of the members for Paris, ami at once 
 distinguished himself by liis brilliant at- 
 tacks upon the OUivier ministry. During 
 the siege of Paris he was a member of the 
 Government of the National Defence, and 
 from 1872 until the fall of Thiers was 
 minister resident at Athens. As leader of 
 the Republican Left, he did much to bring 
 to nought the insidious projects of the 
 Broglie and Rochebouet cabiuets. In 1879 
 he entered M. Waddingtou's cabinet as 
 minister of public instruction, and made 
 an unsuccessful attack upon the Jesuits in 
 connection with schools. In 1880, having 
 formed a cabinet of his own, he proceeded 
 to execute the March decrees against the 
 Jesuits with great severity. By his acqui- 
 sition of Tunis he raised a storm of unpopu- 
 larity, and in November of the same year 
 had to resign. In 1883 he was recalled to 
 power, and at once reverted to his previous 
 colonial policy, making claims upon Tonquiu 
 and Madagascar which involved the Re- 
 public in two wars, neither of them success- 
 ful. The reverses suffered by the French 
 arms in Tonquin in 1885 led to his fall in 
 April of that year. On the retii-ement of 
 M. Grevy he was a candidate for the pre- 
 sidency, but found himself so unpopular 
 that he retired. In 1888 he was challenged 
 by General Boulanger, but no duel fol- 
 lowed. 
 
 Fesch, Giuseppe {b. 1763, d. 1839), 
 French cardinal and statesman, was half- 
 brother of Napoleon Bonaparte's mother. 
 From his nephew he received a series of 
 ecclesiastical dignities, culminating in 1802 
 in the archbishopric of Lyons. In the fol- 
 lowing year he was raised to the cardinalate. 
 At a conference of clergy in 1810 he op- 
 posed some of Napoleon's schemes, and so 
 incuiTed the emperor's hostility. The rest 
 of his life was spent in semi-banishment at 
 Lyons. 
 
 Festing, Francis Worgan, Sir {b. 1833, d. 
 1886), general, was in command of the Bri- 
 tish forces at Cape Coast Castle on the 
 outbreak of the Ashantee war in 1873, and 
 destroyed the town of Elmina. After Sir 
 Garnet Wolseley's arrival to take command, 
 he was severely wounded while defending 
 the fortified camp of Dunquah. From 1876 
 to 1883 he was assistant adjutant- general 
 to the marines. 
 
 Festus, Porcius, succeeded Felix as Pro- 
 curator of Judaea in the year 60 A.D. , and in 
 62 presided at the tribunal before which St. 
 Paul defended himself. His death occuz'red 
 a few years later. 
 
 Festus, Sextus Pompeius, probably of 
 
 the second century, Latin grammarian, is 
 known chietiy by his epitome of the Be 
 I'l-rhorum ISigniJicatione of Verrius Flaccus, 
 to the surviving half of which we are 
 greatly indebted for our knowledge of Latin 
 grammar and antiquities. 
 
 Fetis, Fran9ois Joseph {b. 1784, d. 1871), 
 Belgian composer and musical critic and 
 historian, was appointed professor of coun- 
 terpoint and fugue at Paris 1821, and director 
 of the Brussels Conservatory and musical 
 director to the king in 1833. Among his 
 literary works the best known is a General 
 Hifitori/ of Music (1869-76). 
 
 Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas {b. 1804, d. 
 1872), philosopher, a native of Landshut, 
 was the fourth son of the following. Having 
 abandoned theology for philosophy, he in 
 1832 published his Thoughta on Death and Ini- 
 mortalitij, in which he limited immortality 
 to personal influence on the human race. In 
 1841 appeared The Essence of Christianity, 
 which was translated into English by George 
 Eliot, and this was followed, among other 
 works, by The Essence of Religion. The 
 tendency of his speculation is to identify 
 God with natui-e, and to deny the possi- 
 bility of purely spiritual existence. 
 
 Feuerbacb, Paul Johann Anselm von 
 (4. 1775, d. 1833), German jurist, born at 
 Hainichen, was in 1804 appointed to di-aw 
 up a criminal code for Bavaria, which 
 was the basis of penal codes afterwards 
 adopted by other German states. He was 
 father of Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (see 
 above). 
 
 Feuillet, Octave Q). 1822), French novelist 
 and dramatist, born at St. L6, was elected 
 to the French Academy in 1862, and 
 from 1865 to 1870 was librarian of the im- 
 perial academies. His masterpiece, the 
 Roman d^un jeune Homme pamre, ap- 
 peared in 1858. His style is finished, hia 
 humour refined, and his pathos usually sin- 
 cere. 
 
 F6val, Paul Henri Corentin {b. 1817, d. 
 1887), French novelist, published his best 
 known work, Les Mysteres de Londres, under 
 the pseudonym of Francis Trollope. It 
 was an immediate success, was exten- 
 sively translated, and quickly went through 
 twenty editions. About 1876 its author 
 was converted to Roman Catholicism of 
 the strictest tj'pe, and his new convic- 
 tions have materially affected his subsequent 
 writings. 
 
 Feydeau, Ernest {b. 1821, d. 1872), French 
 novelist, is the author of several romances, 
 including Sylvie. 
 
 Fichte, Immanuel Hermann von (fi.
 
 Fie 
 
 ( 305 ) 
 
 Pie 
 
 1797, d. 1879), philosopher, sou of the 
 following, was bom at Jeua, held professor- 
 ships at Bonn and Tubingen, and was en- 
 nobled ia' 1867. His works deal with 
 theology, ethics, anthropology, psychology, 
 and the immortality of the soul. 
 
 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (h. 1762, d. 
 1814), German philosopher and patriot, a 
 native of Rammenau, was intended for 
 the ministry, but his poverty stood in 
 the way, and he was not gi-eatly drawn 
 to the profession. In 1790 the reading 
 of Kant's Critique of Fare lieason re- 
 vealed to him his vocation. In 1792 he 
 published his Critique of all Revelation, in 
 which he expounds on Kantian Hnes the 
 relation of religion to moraUty. In 1793 he 
 was appointed extraordinary professor of 
 philosophy at Jena, and here his principal 
 works, in which he develops Kantianism in 
 an idealistic direction, appeared. In 1799, 
 in consequence of a charge of atheism, he 
 removed to Berlin, and in 1810 became a 
 professor of the newly-founded University 
 of BerUn, of which in 1811 he became 
 rector. After the humiliation of Prussia 
 by Napoleon in 1806, Fichte contributed 
 powerfully to the moral regeneration of his 
 country by his impassioned Address to the 
 German Nation. The exclusively moral 
 attitude of his first works gave place in his 
 later ones to a more religious view of ex- 
 perience, as the process of the divine Ufe en- 
 compassing our hves, and working itself out 
 to its own issues. 
 
 Pick, August {b. 1833), German pliilo- 
 logist, was in 1876 appointed to an extra- 
 ordinary professorship of comparative phi- 
 lology at Gottingen. He has written several 
 works. 
 
 Field, CjTus West {b. 1819, d. 1892), 
 American merchant, bom at Stockbridge, 
 Mass., brother of David Dudley Field and 
 Stephen Johnson Field, was instrumental 
 in laying the telegraph cable between 
 England and America. 
 
 Field, Da\'id Dudley [b. 1805), American 
 jurist, and brother of Cjrus Field and 
 "Stephen Field, was in 18o7 appointed to 
 draw up a poUtical, civil, and penal 
 code, of which parts have been adopted 
 by several of the States. To him is due 
 the formation of an association for the 
 reform of the law of nations, and for the 
 adoption of arbitration in place of war. In 
 1889 the University of Edinburgh conferred 
 upon him the degree of LL.D. 
 
 Field, James Thomas {b. 1817, d. 1881), 
 American publisher and author, a native 
 of Portsmouth, New Hampshii'e, was 
 for many years a partner of the firm of 
 Ticknor, Reed, and Field, Boston, and from 
 1862 to 1870 edited the Atlantic Monthly. 
 
 Field, John {b. 1782, d. 1837), Irish com- 
 poser, born in Dublin, is known as 
 "Russian" Field. During his long resi- 
 dence in Moscow he wrote several sonatas, 
 but is better known to the present gene- 
 ration by his "noctiu-nes." 
 
 Field, Richard [b. 1561, d. 1616), theo- 
 logian, was made chaplain-in-ordinary to 
 Uueen EUzabeth in 1598, and became Dean 
 of Gloucester under her successor, who at 
 one time intended to send him to Germany 
 to reconcile the Lutherans and Cah'inists 
 to each other. 
 
 Field, Stephen Johnson (b. 1816), Ameri- 
 can lawyer, and brother of Cyrus Field and 
 David Dudley Field, was elevated to the 
 supreme bench of the United States in 1863. 
 In 1880 he received sixty-five votes as a 
 candidate for the presidency. 
 
 Field, Hon. Sir William Ventiis {b. 1813), 
 lawyer, bom at Fielden, Beds., was ap- 
 pointed Q.C. in 1864, became leader of the 
 midland circuit, and in 1875 was nominated 
 a justice of the Queen's Bench. 
 
 Fielding, Anthony Vandyke Copley, 
 always known as Copley Fielding [b. 
 1787, d. 1855), one of the leaders of 
 the English water-colour school, born 
 near Halifax, studied under John Var- 
 ley, whose sister-in-law he mairied in 
 1806. At the time of his death he had for 
 fourteen years been in-esident of the Water 
 Colour Society, to which he had for forty- 
 five years been a constant contributor. N'o 
 one has more faithfully portrayed certain 
 elements of English scenery, but much of 
 his work is marred by mannerism, crudeness 
 of colour, and confusion of detail. 
 
 Fielding, Hemy {b. 1707, d. 1754), 
 novelist, dramatist, and political writer, 
 was born at Sharpham Park, Glaston- 
 bury, the son of Lieuteiiaut- General Ed- 
 mund Fielding, and great-grandson of 
 William, 3rd earl of Denbigh, He was 
 educated fii'st at Eton, then at Leyden, 
 where he went to study civil law. Re- 
 turning to London, he produced in quick 
 succession a number of comedies and bur- 
 lesques. They were marked by a good deal 
 of wit and humour, but his heart was not 
 in them, and it was clear that they were 
 only written to gain a livelihood. In 1785 
 he married Miss Charlotte Cradock, of 
 Salisbury, who brought him a fortune of 
 £1,500, and when to this was added £200 a 
 year bequeathed to him by his mother, he 
 found himself in comfortable circumstances. 
 He now left town and lived the life of a 
 country gentleman at East Stour in Dorset- 
 shire, but in a few months dissipated the 
 greater part of his means and returned to 
 London, and to the drama. But in 1742 
 appeared his great novel, The Adventures of
 
 Fie 
 
 ( 306) 
 
 Pil 
 
 Joseph Andrews. This was followed by 
 A Journey from This World to the Next, and 
 The History of Jonathan Wild. In 1749 he 
 again astonished the literary world with his 
 Tom. Jones, and this was succeeded in 1751 
 
 % Amelia. Between the appearance of 
 seph Andrews and T'om Jones he had 
 written some political pamphlets in the 
 interests of the government, but the only 
 reward he received was a Middlesex justice- 
 ship of the peace. Being obliged by failing 
 health to seek a warmer climate, he in 
 1754 sailed to Lisbon, but only survived 
 his arrival there two mouths. He ranks 
 among the very greatest of English novelists, 
 and has beeu termed by Byron " the prose 
 Homer of human nature." 
 
 Fielding, Sarah {b. 1714, d. 1768), sis- 
 ter of Henry Fielding (q.v.), wrote Bavid 
 Simple, and other novels, and translated 
 Xenophon's Memorabilia. 
 
 Fiennes, Nathaniel {b. 1608, d. 1669^ 
 politician, was son of William Fiennes (q.v.). 
 In 1640 he represented Banbury in Parlia- 
 ment, acting with the Presbyterians. He 
 held a commission as colonel under Essex, 
 and was appointed governor of Bristol, but 
 surrendered the city to Prince Rupert, and 
 was sentenced to death for cowardice. His 
 life being spared, he joined the Indepen- 
 dents, aud sat in nearly all Cromwell's 
 parliaments. He was appointed a commis- 
 sioner of the Great Seal, became one of 
 Cromwell's lords, and ultimately Speaker of 
 the Upper House. On the abdication of 
 Richard CromweU, whom he had assisted ia 
 proclaiming, he retired from pubhc Hfe. 
 
 Fiennes, William ib. 1582, d. 1662), Lord 
 Say and Sele, Puritan statesman, was raised 
 to the peerage by Charles I., but joined the 
 Parhamentarians. For his share in bringing 
 about the Restoration he was made Lord 
 Privy Seal and Chamberlain of the House- 
 hold. 
 
 FiescM, Giovanni Luigi de. Count (b. circa 
 1523, d. 1547), Genoese noble, was organiser 
 of a plot against Andrea Doria, who had 
 driven out Francis I. and re-established the 
 republican government. The attempt was 
 a success, the port being captured and Doria 
 put to flight ; but it all came to nothing in 
 consequence of Fieschi's disappearance. It 
 afterwards appeared that in stepping from 
 one galley to another in the darkness he had 
 fallen overboard and been drowned. 
 
 FiescM, Joseph Marie {b. 1790, d. 1836), 
 revolutionist, bom in Corsica, attempted on 
 the 28th July, 1835, to assassinate King 
 Louis Phihppe. For this he and three 
 accomplices were executed. 
 
 Fiesole, Fra Giovanni da [Fra Angelico] 
 {b. 1387, d. 1455), painter, born near 
 
 Florence, went to Rome to decorate the 
 chapel of the Vatican. Noted as a painter 
 of saints and angels. 
 
 Figueras, Stanislas {b. 1819, d. 1882), 
 Spanish repubUcan politician, bom at 
 Barcelona, was exiled for several months 
 for his part in the revolution of 1866, 
 but after the revolution of 1868, which 
 drove Isabella from Spain ; he returned 
 and joined Castelar in opposing the res- 
 toration of monarchical government. On 
 the abdication of Amadeus of Savoy in 
 1873 he became one of the provisional 
 government, but was unable to m.aintain 
 order, and in April fled the country. On 
 the accession of Alfonso he retired altogether 
 from pubhc Ufe. 
 
 Figuier, Guillaume Louis {b. 1819), popu- 
 lar French scientific writer, was appointed 
 to a professorship in Paris in 1852. The 
 World before the Deluge, and others of his 
 works, have been translated into Enghsh. 
 
 Figuier, Julliette, nee Bouscareau {b. 
 1829, d. 1879), wife of the preceding, was 
 the author of a number of novels and 
 plays. 
 
 FUangieri, Gaetano (b. 1752, d. 1788), 
 Itahan political economist and jurist, is re- 
 membered mainly for his Science of Legis- 
 lation, which, though never completed, 
 shows its author to have been both a pro- 
 found scholar and a vigorous thinker. 
 
 Fildes, Luke [b. 1844), figure painter, 
 a native of Lancashire, studied in the South 
 Kensington school and at the Royal 
 Academy, where he first exhibited in 1868. 
 He became A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A. in 
 1887. 
 
 Filicaia, Vincenzo (b. 1642, d. 1707), 
 lyiic poet, born at Florence, was the 
 author of a number of patriotic son- 
 nets, and also of odes celebrating the 
 deliverance of Vienna in 1683 from the 
 besieging Turks. His works were pub- 
 lished in a complete edition at Florence 
 in 1864. 
 
 Fillan, St. {d. Til), was son of Fere- 
 dach, a prince of Mimster, and of St. 
 Kentigema. He became abbot of the 
 monastery on the Holy Loch, in succession 
 to St. Mund, but afterwards retired to 
 Strathfillan and died there. His bronze bell 
 aud the head of his pastoral staif are pre- 
 served in the Antiquarian Muse>*m of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Fillans, James (*. 1808, d. 1852), Scotch 
 sculptor, bom at Wilsontown, Lanark- 
 shire, is still remembered for his Boy and 
 Faiim, his Blind Teaching the Blind, and his 
 busts of Allan Cunningham, Professor 
 Wilson, etc.
 
 Fil 
 
 (307) 
 
 Fis 
 
 FiUmore, Millard (*. 1800, d. 1874), 
 American statesmaB, bom at Sununer- 
 MU, New York, was apprenticed to 
 a wool carder, but became a clerk in 
 a judge's office, and then found entrance 
 to the bar. He entered Congi-ess iu 1832, 
 was appointed chairman of the committee 
 of ways and means in 1840, and was 
 author of the taiiii of 1842. He became 
 controller of the state of New York ui 1S44, 
 was elected vice-president of the United 
 States iu 1848, and succeeded to the presi- 
 dency on the death of General Taylor iu 
 18.50. By signing the act for the sun-euder 
 of fugitive slaves he brought about the 
 utter defeat of the Whig party iu 1853. In 
 1856 he was nominated for the presidency, 
 but received only scanty support. 
 
 Filmer, Sir Robert {d. circa 1653), political 
 writer, a native of East Sutton, Kent, was the 
 author of a niimber of treatises ui favour of 
 arbitrary power iu kings. One of these, 
 Fatriarchu, or the Natural Power of the 
 Kings of England Asserted, was refuted by 
 Locke in his Civil Government. 
 
 nnch, Daniel, second Earl of Nottingham 
 (i. 1647, d. 1730), statesman and theological 
 writer, was eldest son of the first Earl (q.v.). 
 In 1680 he was appointed Eii'st Lord of the 
 Admiralty, and afterwards became Secretary 
 of State, holding that office imder "William 
 and Mary, and also under Queen Anne, 
 after whose death he was one of the lords 
 justices for the administration of affairs, 
 and later president of the council. Dis- 
 missed from this post in 171 6 for speaking in 
 favour of the Scottish lords condemned for 
 their share in the affair of 1715, he gave 
 himself up to literature, and wrote a 
 refutation of Whiston's views on the 
 Trinity. 
 
 Fincb, Heneage, first Earl of Nottingham 
 (b. 1621, d. 1682), lawyer and politician, 
 was son of Sir Heneage Finch, recorder of 
 London, was educated at Westminster 
 school and Christ Church, Oxford, and was 
 called to the bar in 1645. He sat as a 
 Royalist for Canterbury in 1660, was 
 appointed Solicitor- General with a baronet's 
 degree on the Restoration, and had the prin- 
 cipal conduct of the proceedings against the 
 regicides. In 1670 he was made Attorney- 
 General, in 1673 Lord Keeper of the Seal, 
 with the title of Baron Finch of Daventry, 
 and in 1675 Lord Chancellor and Earl of 
 Nottingham. Blackstone describes him as 
 "a person of the greatest abilities, and most 
 imcorrupted integrity, a thorough master 
 and zealous defender of the laws and con- 
 stitution of his coimtry." 
 
 Flndlater, Andrew (b. 1810, d. 1885), 
 
 miscellaiieous writer, a native of Aber- 
 
 deensliire, was editor of the first edition 
 TJ2 
 
 of Chambers^ Encyclopedia, and con- 
 tributed to it many of its most im- 
 portant articles. He also wrote manuals 
 on astronomy, language, physical geo- 
 graphy, and physiographer. In 1864 he 
 received the degree of LL.D. from the 
 Aberdeen University. 
 
 FineUi, Carlo (J. 1780, d. 1854), ItaJian 
 sculptor, produced the Triumph of Ccesar, 
 Raphael., and other examples of the mas- 
 sively impressive but imfinished style of 
 sculpture. 
 
 Finiguerra, Tommaso {d. 1475), Floren- 
 tine goldsmith and sculptor, is credited with 
 the invention of copper-plate printing, and 
 was specially famous for his niello work. 
 
 Ftolay, George {b. 1799, d. 1875), his- 
 torian, bom at Faversham, accompanied 
 Byron to Greece in 1823, and thence- 
 forward lived at Athens, corresponding 
 for The Times, and studying the history of 
 Greece under foreign rule. This he dealt 
 with in several works, which were re- 
 published in 1880 under the title of History 
 of Greece, from its Conqtiest by the Romans to 
 1864. 
 
 FiDlay, Robert Bannatyne {b. 1842), 
 lawyer and poHtician, was made a Q.C. in 
 1882. He entered the House of Commons iu 
 1885 as Liberal member for the Inverness 
 Burghs, "V and later, declaring himself a 
 Liberal Jnionist, took a prominent part 
 in the debates on Mr. Gladstone's Irish 
 Bills. 
 
 Firdausi, Abii'l Kasim Mansur {h. 941, 
 d. 1020), Persian epic poet, is known to 
 fame cmefly as author of the Shah Nameh, 
 or Book of Kings. 
 
 Firenzuola, Agnolo {b. 1493, d. circa 
 1545), Florentine dramatist and romance 
 writer, entered the Church and became 
 abbot of Prato. He had written a 
 number of works distinguished by their 
 elegance of style and impurity of senti- 
 ment. 
 
 Fischart, Johann {b. circa 1545, d. 
 1614), German satirist, was the author of 
 a number of works directed chiefly against 
 the Roman Church, including one based on 
 Rabelais' Gargantiia, thought by Richter to 
 be superior to the original. 
 
 Fischer, Johann Bemhard {b. 1650, d. 
 1724), German architect, was chief architect 
 to Joseph I., who made him Baron von 
 Erlach. Among his works are the palace of 
 Schonbruim, and the Chiu:ch of St. Charles 
 Borromeo at Vienna. 
 
 FlBcHer, Karl von {b. 1782, d. 1820), 
 German architect, was professor of ar- 
 chitecture at Munich from 1809 till his
 
 Pis 
 
 ( 308) 
 
 Pit 
 
 death. His chief work is the Eof 
 T'i'''iU^r at Munich, which, when burnt 
 down alter his death, was rebuilt according 
 to the original design. 
 
 Fischer, Kuno {b. 1824), philosophic 
 critic, born at Sandewalde. Silesia, was 
 appointed to lecture on philosophy at 
 Heidelberg in 1850, but in 1853 was for- 
 bidden by the government to continue his 
 course. He was restored to his chair in 
 1872, and still occupies it. He is a promi- 
 nent member of the New Hegelian school, 
 and one of the most lucid interpreters of 
 Kant. 
 
 Fish, Hamilton, LL.D. {b. 1808), Ameri- 
 can statesman, was lieutenant-governor of 
 New York 1847-49, and governor 1849-51. 
 In 1851 he was elected United States sena- 
 tor, and in 1869 was called by President 
 Grant to the position of Secretary of State, 
 which he held until the end of the Presi- 
 dent's second term. 
 
 Fisher, John (b. circa 1459, d. 1535), 
 divine, bom at Beverley, entered Michael 
 College, Cambridge, in 1483; became a 
 fellow in 1491, and master in 1497. In 
 1502 he was chosen by Margaret, Countess 
 of Eichmond (Henry VII. 's mother) as her 
 chaplain and confessor; the next year he 
 was appointed the first Lady Margaret pro- 
 fessor of divinity, the office having been 
 created by his patroness. In 1504 he was 
 elected chancellor of the university, and 
 was also raised to the bench as bishop of 
 Rochester. He was an ardent advocate of 
 the new learning, and of reformation ; but 
 contended that the refoi-m should come 
 from within, and was a strong opponent of 
 Luther. He bravely opposed the divorce 
 which Henry VIII. was seeking from 
 Catherine of Aragon, and so fell under the 
 royal displeasure, which was intensified by 
 his opposition to the king's ecclesiastical 
 supremacy in March, 1534. Having shown 
 some encouragement to the Holy Maid of 
 Kent, he was attainted of misprision of 
 treason, and in April of the same year was 
 committed to the Tower for refusing the 
 oath of succession. When in May of the 
 following year he was made a cardinal, the 
 king grimly remarked to Cromwell, " Let 
 the p""ipe send him a hat, but I will so pro- 
 vide that he shall wear it on his shoulders, 
 fur a head he shall have none to set it on." 
 The brave old man was tried on the 17th of 
 the following June for denial of the king's 
 ecclesiastical supremacy, and was executed 
 on Tower Hill. His remains now lie in the 
 chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula in the 
 Tower. 
 
 Fitch, John {b. 1743, d. 1798), inventor, 
 bom at South Windsor, Connecticut, is 
 the creator of the steamboat. In 1787 
 
 he built a steamer which made its 
 trial trip on the Delaware at Phil- 
 adelphia. He endeavoured to get the 
 French to take up his invention, but 
 his design was checkmated by the 
 Revolution ; and he is believed, in his 
 poverty and disappointment, to have ulti- 
 mately put an end to his life. The principle 
 which he established was developed by 
 Robert Fulton iq.v.), who is alleged to have 
 had access tc lus plans and specifications 
 while they were in the custody of the 
 American Cousu at Lorient. 
 
 Fitzgerald Edward (* 1809, d. 1883), 
 translator, a native of Bradfield, Suf- 
 folk, published six dramas of Calderon 
 in 1853, and then in consequence of au 
 unfavourable review withdrew the book. 
 His subsequent translations were issued 
 anon3'mously, including his famous versions 
 of "Omar Khayyam," the Persian poet, 
 now a recognised English classic. 
 
 Fitzgerald, Lord Edward (b. 1763, d. 
 1798), Irish politician, was a younger son of 
 the Duke of Leinster Entering the army, 
 he served with distinction in America. On 
 the conclusion of the War of Independence 
 in 1783, he became a n\ember of the Irish 
 Parliament; but in 1788 again joined the 
 ai-my, and saw service in "Nova Scotia. In 
 1790 he once more entered the Irish House 
 of Commons. During a stay in Taris, 
 under the influence of revolutionary ideas, 
 he renounced his title, and about the same 
 time married Pamela {d. 1831), daughter 
 of Egalite Orleans and Madame de Genlis. 
 In 1796 he joined the. society of United 
 Irishmen, and returned to France to make 
 arrangements for the projected French in- 
 vasion. When the conspiracy was f dis- 
 covered, soon after his return, he went into 
 hiding in Dublin, but was tracked out and 
 arrested after resistance, in which « he 
 received wounds that proved fatal a few 
 days afterwards His life has been vrritten 
 by Moore (1831) 
 
 Fitzgerald, John David, Lord (J. 1816), 
 Irish lawyer, was Lord Palmerston's So- 
 licitor-General for Ireland in 1865, and in 
 the following year became Irish Attorney- 
 General. In 1860 he was appointed a 
 judge of the Queen's Bench in Ireland, 
 and in 1882 was made a lord of appeal 
 in ordinary, with the dignity of baron for 
 life. 
 
 Fitzgerald, Percy Hethrington {b. 1834), 
 Irish miscellaneous writer, is the author 
 of many works of fiction, etc., and joint 
 author, with W. G. Wills, of Vander- 
 decken, produced by Mr. Irving at the 
 Lyceum. 
 
 Fitzgerald, Lord Thomas, ninth Earl 
 of Kildare {d. 1536), was vice-deputy of
 
 Fit 
 
 (309) 
 
 Fla 
 
 Ireland in 1534, when, hearing that his 
 father, who had been sent to the Tower, had 
 been put to death, and that the same fate 
 awaited t^im and his uncles, he raised the 
 standard of rebellion, seized Dublin, and 
 laid siege to the castle. After the rising 
 had been suppressed, he unconditionally 
 gave himself up, and, with his five uncles, 
 was hanged. 
 
 Fitzgibbon, John, first Earl of Clare 
 {b. 174y, d. lGU2), Irish statesman, became 
 lord chancellor of Ireland in ITbU as Baron 
 Fitzgibbon, and in 1795 was elevated to the 
 peerage under the title of Earl of Clare. 
 
 Fitzherbert, Sir Anthony (d. 1538), law- 
 yer and author, a native of Derbyshire, 
 became a judge in the Court of Common 
 Pleas m 1523. Among his works, which are 
 all on legal subjects, are The Grand 
 Abndyement, The Office and Authority of 
 Justu-es of the Peace, and Tlie Office of 
 Sheriffs. 
 
 Fitzherbert, Maria Anne, nee Smythe 
 (J. 1756. d. 1837), "the lass of Rich- 
 mond HiU," was married in 1775 to 
 Edward Weld, of Lulworth Castle, who 
 died without offspring, as did her second 
 husband, Thomas Fitzherbert. Four years 
 after the latter' s decease, namely in 
 1785. she was privately married to the 
 Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. 
 Through Fox, her royal husband denied 
 the marriage, which, however, has been 
 placed beyond question. His attach- 
 ment to Lady Jersey led to a sepa- 
 ration ; and a marriage contracted by one 
 of the royal family without the king's 
 consent or twelve months' notice to the 
 Privy Council being invalid, George was 
 free to enter upon his marriage with Caro- 
 line of Brimswick. The connection with 
 Mrs. Fitzherbert was afterwards resumed, 
 with the consent of the Pope, she being a 
 Roman Catholic, but it was again broken off 
 in 1806, owing to the king's infatuation with 
 Lady Jersey. Mrs. Fitzherbert always be- 
 haved with admirable discretion, and was 
 treated by the royal family with great con- 
 sideration. 
 
 Fitzjames, James. [5(?«Bervnck, Dukeof .] 
 
 Fitzmaurice, Lord Edmund George Petty 
 (J. 1S4G). politician, is second son of the 
 fourth Marquis of Lansdowne. In 1868 
 he entered the House of Commons as mem- 
 ber for Calne, and in 1882 succeeded Sir 
 Charles Dilke as under-secretary for Foreign 
 Affairs. In 1885 he was compelled by ill- 
 health to temporarily retire from public life, 
 but has since taken part in the Irish contro- 
 versy as a moderate Home Ruler. 
 
 Fitzroy, Robert {h. 1805, d. 1865), ad- 
 miral and meteorologist, bom at Ampton 
 
 Hall, near Bury St. Edmunds ; he com- 
 manded the Beagle in the Darwin ex- 
 pedition to South America in 1831, and 
 in 1843 was appointed governor of New 
 Zealand, but his sympathy with the natives 
 made him impopular in the colony, and he 
 was recalled in 1845. In 1854, having 
 become vice-admiral, he was apjioiuted 
 meteorological statist to the Board of Trade, 
 and established the system of storm -signals 
 which, though at first held up to ridicide, 
 has proved of the greatest practical value. 
 Shortly after publishing his Weather Book 
 his nerves gave way from overwork, and he 
 committed suicide. 
 
 Fitzwilliam, William Wentworth, fourth 
 Earl (b. 1748, d. 1833), statesman, in- 
 herited, besides his father's estates, the 
 fortune and lands of the Marquis of 
 Rockingham. On the outbreak of the 
 French revolution, he, vdth many other 
 Whigs, transferred his support to Pitt, and 
 in 1794 was rewarded with the post of Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland A wann supporter 
 of Catholic emancipation, he was received 
 m Ireland with enthusiasm ; his sudden 
 recall the next year made the rebellion 
 inevitable. On Pitt's death, in 1806, he 
 became Lord President of the Council, but 
 retired with the Grenville ministry the next 
 year, and never afterwards took active part 
 in public life. 
 
 FlaccUB, Cains Valerius, Roman poet of 
 the time of Vespasian, is known chiefly as 
 author of the Arijonautica, an epic poem 
 which was translated into English by 
 Nicholas Whyte in 1565. 
 
 Flacius, Matthias {b. 1520, d. 1575), 
 Lutheran divine, a native of Albona, 
 Illyria, was a puj^il of Luther and 
 Melauchthon ; the latter he opposed on 
 the subject of the Leipzig Interim. For 
 this action he was deprived of his professor- 
 ship of Hebrew Scriptures at Wittenberg. 
 In 1557 he became professor of theology at 
 Jena, but was ejected from his chair in 
 1561, because of his doctrine that original 
 sin belongs to the essence of man's nature, 
 and spent the remaining years of his Hfe 
 wandering about between Antweqi, Frank- 
 fort, and Strasburg. 
 
 Flahault de la Billarderie, Auguste 
 Charles, Comte de ('/. 1785. d. 1870), 
 French soldier and diplomatist, was an 
 aide-de-camp of Napoleon the Great, 
 and, having gained honour in the Penin- 
 sular war and the Russian campai^, 
 was in 1813 ennobled with the title 
 of count, and raised to the rank of 
 general of division. Becoming an exile 
 after Napoleon's fall, he came to Eng- 
 land, and here married the Baroness 
 Keith and Nairne. The revolution of 1830
 
 ria 
 
 (310) 
 
 Pie 
 
 restored him to French soil aud service, and 
 from 1S12 to 184S he was ambassador at 
 Yieuua. He held tlie same post in London 
 from 1360 to 1862. and became grand chan- 
 cellor of the Legion of Honour. 
 
 Flambard, Ralph or Rannulf (d. 1123), 
 of Xorman birth, justiciar of Eng- 
 land under William 11., was elevated to 
 the bishopric of Durham in 1099. Though 
 an able, he was not a scrupulous man, nor 
 was he regardful of the interests of the 
 Church, for it was at his instance that the 
 king extended feudalistic customs to eccle- 
 siastical property. 
 
 Flaminius, Caius(^. cirm217B.c.), Roman 
 general, was iirst tribune of the people, then 
 praetor in Sicily, and in 223 consul. During 
 his consulship he, in disobedience to the 
 senate, fought against the Insubres aud 
 conquered them. Again elected consul in 
 217, he went out to oppose Hannibal, and 
 was defeated and slain in the battle of 
 Thrasymenus. While censor, between his 
 two terms of office as consul, he constructed 
 the Via Flaminia. 
 
 Flaminius, T. Quiutius {d. circa 175 B.C.), 
 Roman general, was made consul in 193, 
 and in the following year brought the Mace- 
 donian war to an end by defeating Pliilip 
 at Cynoscephalse. In 196 he issued a pro- 
 clamation restoring Greece to independence. 
 After waging a successful war with Nabis, 
 tyrant of Sparta, he returned to Rome and 
 had a three days' triumph. In 183 he was 
 sent as ambassador to Bithynia to demand 
 the surrender of Hannibal. 
 
 Flanimarion, Camilla (b. 1842), French 
 astronomer, entered the Paris observatory 
 in 1858. His most successful work, The 
 Plurality of Inhabited Worlds, has been 
 through more than thirty editions. His 
 Travels in the Air, describing his ballooning 
 experiences, has, like others of his books, 
 been translated into English. 
 
 Flamsteed, John [b. 1646, d. 1719), as- 
 tronomer, bom near Denby, was ap- 
 pointed astronomical observator to the 
 king in 1675, aud for his use the Royal 
 Observatory was built in the following year. 
 It was he who compiled the first reliable 
 catalogue of the fixed stars. His most 
 \ax^oxta.ntvroT\,HistoriaC<£lestisBritannica, 
 appeared in three volumes in 1723. Being 
 in holy orders, he in 1684 was presented to 
 the living of Burstow, Surrey, where he 
 continued to pursue his astronomic£d 
 investigations. 
 
 Flandrin, Jean Hippolyte {b. 1809, 
 d. 1864), French historian and por- 
 trait-painter, bom at Lyons, studied 
 at the School of Fine Arts in Paris, and 
 also under Ingres. In 1832 he won the 
 
 Prix de Rome by his Recognition of Theseus, 
 and during his live years' residence in Italy 
 painted his St. Clair Healing the Blind, now 
 in the cathedral of Nantes. Some of his 
 best work is to be found in the church of 
 St. Germain-des-Pres, Paris. 
 
 Flaubert, Gustave {b. 1821, d. 1880), 
 French novelist, born at Rouen, at 
 first followed in the footsteps of Victor 
 Hugo, but afterwards became a convert to 
 realism. Plis masterpiece, Madame Bovary, 
 was prosecuted in 1856 by the government 
 as an immoral aud auti-religious work, but 
 without success. Salambo appeared in 
 1862, and La Tentation de St. Antoine in 
 1874. 
 
 Flavel, John (b. circa 1630, d. 1691), 
 Nonconformist divine, born at Broms- 
 grove, was educated at University College, 
 Oxford, took Presbyterian orders in 1650, 
 and was ejected by the Act of Uniformity 
 in 1662. After the Declaration of Indul- 
 gence he laboured at Dartmouth as a Non- 
 conformist minister vmtil his death. His 
 works, which are mostly devotional, were 
 collected into a complete edition in 1820 (six 
 volumes) . 
 
 Flavianus, {d. 449), Archbishop of Con- 
 stautiuople, was appointed such in 447. In 
 the following year he convened a synod, at 
 which Eutyches aud his monophysite doc- 
 trines were condemned. But a General 
 Council was convoked at Ephesus in 449 at 
 the instigation of the friends of Eutyches, 
 and by this " robber-synod," as it has been 
 called, Flaviauus was deposed and sentenced 
 to exile. Before the sentence could be 
 executed he died from the violence of which 
 he was the victim. 
 
 Flaxman, John (*. 1755, d. 1826), 
 classical sculptor, bom at York, was 
 in his early years employed by the Wedg- 
 woods, and made many of their most 
 famous designs. On the completion of his 
 monument to Lord Mansfield in Westminster, 
 in 1797, he became A.R.A., in 1800 R.A., 
 and professor of sculpture to the Academy in 
 1810. Among the works from his chisel are 
 the monuments in St. Paul's to Captain 
 Montague, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Earl 
 Howe, and Lord Nelson. The Flaxman 
 Gallery in University College, London, with 
 the famous group of Michael Vanquishing 
 Hntan, was founded by his wife's sister and 
 Miss Deuman, his adopted daughter. No 
 other English sculptor has been so deeply 
 imbued with the spirit of the antique 
 world. 
 
 necMer, Esprit (b. 1632, c?. 1710), French 
 prelate, preacher, and writer, a native of 
 Avignon, was received at the French 
 Academy in 1673, after having gained great 
 renown as a pulpit orator. In 1685 he became
 
 Fie 
 
 (311) 
 
 Fie 
 
 bishop of Lavour, and afterwards of Nimes. 
 His works include lives of Theodosius the 
 Great and Cardinal Ximenes. 
 
 Flecknoe, Eichard {d. circa 1678), prose 
 and dramatic writer, was a well-known 
 man of letters in London from about 1650 
 to the time of his death ; but is now remem- 
 bered only from his connection with 
 Drj'den's satire MacFlecknoe, directed 
 against Shadwell. 
 
 Fleetwood, Charles {b. circa 1620, d. 
 1692), Parliamentary general and states- 
 man, was son of Sir William Fleet- 
 wood, who held office in Charles I.'s 
 household. By 1644 he had become com- 
 mander of a regiment of cavalry ; at 
 the battle of Worcester he fought as 
 lieutenant-general. Having man-ied Crom- 
 well's daughter, Bridget, after the death 
 of her first husband, Ireton, he was 
 sent to Ireland as lord-deputy in 1654, 
 and remained there till 1657. Though 
 he was one of those who prevailed upon 
 Kichard Cromwell to abdicate, and favoured 
 Rthe estoration, he was excepted from the 
 Act of pardon and indemnity. 
 
 Fleischer, Heinrich Lebrecht (6. 1801), 
 first of Uviug Arabic grammarians, a native 
 of Schandau, Saxony, has been since 1835 
 Oriental professor at Leipzig. 
 
 neming, George, LL.D., F.R.G.S. {b. 
 1833), veterinarian and traveller, bom at 
 Glasgow, entered the army in 1855, and saw 
 active service in the Crimea, in North China, 
 and elsewhere. In 1883 he was appointed to 
 his present post of priucipal veterniary sur- 
 geon to the forces. He has also been for seve- 
 ral consecutive years president of the Royal 
 College of Veterinary Surgeons, was first 
 president of the British National Veterinary 
 Medical Association, and has received many 
 honours from learned institutions in various 
 countries in recognition of his services to 
 veterinary science. He has also been pre- 
 sented with testimonials by the veteriuary 
 profession of the United Kingdom, the 
 colonies, and the United States. 
 
 Fleming, John (6. 1785, d. 1857), 
 naturalist and divine, a native of Bath- 
 gate, Liuhthgowshire, was professor of 
 natural history at Aberdeen, 1832-43, and 
 of natural science in New College, Edin- 
 burgh, 1845-57. His works deal mainly 
 with zoology and geology. 
 
 Fleming, Paul {h. 1609, d. 1640), German 
 lyrical poet, is the author of many popular 
 patriotic and love songs. 
 
 Fleming or Flemmyng, Richard (6. 
 circa 1370, d. 1431), prelate, and foun- 
 der of Lincoln College, Oxford ; he be- 
 came a prebendary of York in 1420, and 
 
 afterwards bishop of Lincohi. For the part 
 he took iu the Council of Constance, which 
 commissioned him to bum the bones of 
 WycHffe, whose adherent he had once been, 
 he would have been rewarded by the Pope 
 with the northern archbishopric but for the 
 opposition of the Royal Council. 
 
 Fleming, Sandford (b. 1S27), a native of 
 Kirkcaldy, civil engiueer, settled in Canada 
 in 1845, and surveyed and superintended the 
 construction of the Intercolonial Railway. 
 He also surveyed the line of route for the 
 Pacific Railway. In 1881 he advocated the 
 adoption of a prime meridian to be common 
 to aU nations, which has since been 
 approved by the International Congi-ess of 
 Scientists. 
 
 Fletcher, Andrew (Fletcher of Saltoun) 
 {b. 1655, d. 1716), Scottish pubhcist, 
 a direct descendant on his mother's 
 side of Robert Bruce. Entering the Scot- 
 tish ParUament in 1681, he opposed the 
 crown so formidably that he was out- 
 lawed, and his property confiscated. He 
 returned to London in 1683, but again fled 
 to Holland on the discovery of the Rye 
 House plot. In 1685 he came over with 
 Monmouth ; but having shot the Mayor of 
 Lyme in a personal quarrel, was obliged to 
 abandon the expedition. He then travelled 
 in Spain and in Hungary, where he fought 
 as a volunteer against the Turks, and again 
 settled in Scotland after the revolution of 
 1688. He was a strong opponent of the 
 union between the northern and southern 
 kiagdoms, and when it had become an ac- 
 complished fact, withdrew from pubhc life 
 and gave himself up to agriculture. The 
 remark by which he is now best known : "I 
 knew a very wise man that believed that if 
 a man were permitted to make all the ballads, 
 he did not care who should make all the 
 laws, of a nation," occurs in his Account of a 
 Conversation concerning a Right Regulation 
 of Government for the Common Good of Man- 
 kind. 
 
 netcher, Giles {h. circa 1588, d. 1623), 
 poet and divine, the yoimger brother of 
 Phineas Fletcher (q.v.), was educated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, and for many 
 years held the living of Alderton in Suffolk. 
 His sacred poem. Christ's Victory and 
 Triumph, appeared iu 1610, and is remark- 
 able because of the influence which it can 
 be traced to have exercised upon Milton. 
 
 netcher, John {b. 1576, d. 1625), dra- 
 matist, was the son of Richard Fletcher 
 (■l.v.), and cousin of Giles and Phineas 
 Fletcher (q.v.). On leaving Cambridge 
 for London, he came into association 
 with Ben Jonson and Francis Beaumont ; 
 and witli the latter of these formed a literary 
 alliance which led to the production of the
 
 rie 
 
 (312) 
 
 Plo 
 
 numerous dramas that bear their names. 
 Before this ho had written The Woman 
 Hater, and Thierry arid Theodoret. After 
 the death of Beaumont, he wrote a nuni- 
 ber of dramas aloue, and others in con- 
 junction with Massinger and Eowley, and 
 last of all The Tiro yoble Kinsmen in col- 
 laboration with Shakesjieare. He died of 
 the plague. 
 
 netcher, Phiueas {b. 1582, d. 16.50), 
 poet and divine, was elder brother of Giles 
 Fletcher (q.v.). He was educated at Eton 
 and at King's College, Cambridge, and from 
 1621 till his death was rector of Hilgay, 
 Norfolk. In addition to The I'urple Ls/at/d, 
 or the Isle of Man, published iu 1633, he 
 wrote Sicelides, a drama. 
 
 Fletcher, Richard {b. circa 1525, d. 
 1596), English divine, father of John 
 Fletcher (q.v.), was bishop of Bristol in 
 1589. was translated to the see of Worcester 
 in 1592, and to that of London in 1594. He 
 was chosen by Elizabeth to attempt the 
 conversion of Mary Queen of Scots, and 
 was present at the unfortunate queen's 
 execution. 
 
 Fleury, Andre Hercules de. Cardinal 
 {b. 1653, d. 1743), French ecclesiastic 
 and statesman, bom at Lodeve, Lan- 
 guedoc, was at first almoner to Louis XIV. , 
 then in 1698 Bishop of Frejus, and in 1715 
 was appointed tutor to the dauphin, 
 who in that year, a child of five, succeeded 
 as Louis XV. He gained complete influence 
 over the young king's mind, and in 1726 
 succeeded the Duke of Bourbon as prime 
 minister and was made cardinal. Though a 
 liberal patron of learning, his administra- 
 tion must be held largely accountable for 
 the disasters of the Eevolution. 
 
 Fleury, Claude (*. 1640, d. 1723), 
 French historian, was at first abbot of 
 Loc-Dieu, and was afterwards prior of 
 Argenteuil. His chief work is his Histoire 
 Ecclesiastique, which was published in Paris 
 between 1691 and 1720, and was the first 
 attempt to write a systematic history of the 
 Church and its origin. At the time of his 
 death Fleury had got down to the year 
 1414. 
 
 Fliedner, Theodor (*. 1800, d. 1864), bom 
 at Epstein, was founder of the Protestant 
 order of deaconesses. 
 
 Flinders, Matthew (J. 1774, d. 1814), 
 navigator, a native of Donington, Lin- 
 colnshire, went to Australia in 1795, and, 
 exploring the coast south of Port Jackson, 
 discovered Bass Strait, between the con- 
 tinent and Tasmania. In 1801 he surveyed 
 ) the Australian coast from Cape Leeuwin to 
 Bass Strait, then northwards to the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, then across to Timor, then 
 
 back to Cape Leeuwin, and round to Port 
 Jackson. On his return voyage in 1803 he 
 was captured by the French and imprisoned 
 for six years in the Isle of France. His 
 Voyage to Terra Australis was published ia 
 1814. 
 
 Hint, Robert, D.D. (i. 1837), Scotch 
 theologian, was elected professor of moral 
 philosophy and political economy at St. 
 Andrew's in 1864, and La 1876 became pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Edinburgh. His Anti- 
 theistic Theories and Theism both appeared 
 in 1S77 ; they were preceded by his 
 Philosojjhy of History in France and 
 Germany. 
 
 nood,Heiiry (/;. 1732, <^. 1791), Irish patriot 
 and orator, was son of Warden Flood, chief 
 justice of the King's Bench in Ireland, and 
 was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, 
 and at Christ Church, Oxford. He entered 
 the Irish Parliament as member for Kilkenny 
 in 1759, and in 1761 was elected for Callan. 
 In 1775 he received from Lord Harcourt the 
 post of vice-treasurer for Ireland, which he 
 held until 1781, when his advanced Nation- 
 alist views led to retirement. Soon after- 
 wards he was pitted against his great rival 
 Grattan, upon the right — which Flood 
 denied — of the English Parliament to bind 
 that of Ireland. The contest was carried 
 on with eminent ability, but with great 
 acrimony, and nearly resulted in a duel. 
 Finding his political influence declining, 
 Flood sought entrance to the English House 
 of Commons, and was returned for Win- 
 chester in 1783, still, however, retaining his 
 seat in the Irish Parliament. Though a 
 brilliant orator, he found less recognition at 
 Westminster than at Dublin, but in 1787 
 his opposition to Pitt was such as to extort 
 the highest praise from even his opponents. 
 In his will he bequeathed £5,000 a year to 
 his Irish alma mater. It should be added 
 that he killed an electioneering opponent 
 in a duel, for which he was tried but 
 acquitted. 
 
 Floquet, Charles Thomas (i. 1828), French 
 statesman, first attained notoriety by shout- 
 ing "Vive la Pologne, Monsieur! " to the 
 Czar Alexander on the occasion of the 
 latter's visit to Napoleon III. In 1S71 he 
 was imprisoned for several months on a 
 charge of having played into the hands of 
 the Commune in the previous year as a 
 member of the Government of Paris. He 
 entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1876, 
 for the 11th arrondissement of Paris, and 
 at once set himself with marked ability to 
 oppose the reactionary designs then in 
 course of development. In 1885 he suc- 
 ceeded M. Brisson as president of the 
 Chamber. In April, 1888, he formed a 
 ministry, and in the following July, 
 challenged by General Boulanger, he fought
 
 Plo 
 
 (313) 
 
 Poi 
 
 a duel with that personage, and gave him a 
 serious wound in the neck. Being defeated 
 on the question of the revision of the 
 Senate, he resigned in February, 1889. In 
 November of the same year he again 
 became president of the Chamber. 
 
 Florence of Worcester {d. 1118), English 
 chronicler, was a monk in the city after 
 which he is nanjt d. He wrote a Chronicon 
 which comes oown to withia two years of 
 his (Jcath, and is of special authority be- 
 tween that time and the year 1030. It has 
 been edited for the English Historical 
 Society (two volumes, 1848), and has foimd 
 translators in Forester (1847) and Stevenson 
 (1853). 
 
 Flores, Antonio {b. 1833), South Ameri- 
 can statesman, is son of the following. 
 After representing the republic of Ecuador 
 at Washington, Paris, Loudon, and Brus- 
 sels, he was, in 1888, elected president. 
 
 Flores, Juan Jos^ {b. 1800, d. 1864), 
 first president of Ecuador, was elected to 
 that post iu 1830 after having participated 
 in the War of ludependeuce. He resigned 
 in 1835, and was re-elected iu 133y, and 
 again in 1843. 
 
 Florian, Jean Pierre Claris de (Jb. 1755, 
 d. 1794), French fabulist and romancist, 
 was a disciple and friend of Voltaire. 
 He wrote a number of comedies, prose 
 romances, etc., but is seen at his best m his 
 Fables. 
 
 norio, Franz (Jb. 1520, d. 1570), Flemish 
 painter, has been called the Raphael of 
 Flanders. His Nativity is in the cathedral 
 of Antwerp, his native city. 
 
 Florio, John (5. circa 1553, d. 1625), trans- 
 lator of Montaigne, was the son of an Italian 
 Protestant exile, and was born in London. In 
 1581 John Florio was admitted a member of 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, and set up as a 
 teacher of Italian and French. In 1598 he 
 published an Italian and English dictionaiy 
 imder the title of A World of Words. His 
 translation of Montaigne appeared in 1603. 
 The British Museum library contains two 
 copies of this work, one bearing Shakes- 
 peare's autograph, and the other that of 
 Ben Jonson, and it is clear from the Tempest 
 that the former had read the work. 
 
 FlotOW, Friedrich Adolphus von (J. 
 1812, d. 1883), operatic composer, bom 
 at Rentendorf, Mecklenburg - Schwerin, 
 leapt into fame with his Naufraye de 
 la Mlduse, produced in Paris in 1839. 
 Among the numerous operas that followed 
 it, the only one that became generally popu- 
 lar was Mnrtn. fii'st performed at Vienna 
 in 1847. Flotow's music has Uttle but melody 
 to recommend it. 
 
 Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre {b. 1704, d. 
 1867), French anatomist and physiologist, 
 was bom at MaureLlhan, Herault. After pub- 
 lishing some remarkable works dealing with 
 the nervous system in its relation to sen- 
 sation, he was appointed to a professorship 
 in the museum of the Jardin du Roi, and in 
 1855 at the College de France. In IS33 he 
 became perpetual secretary of the Academy 
 of Science, and iu 1840 was elected a mem- 
 ber of the Academy in succession to 
 Midland. He was a prolific writer, but 
 found time also for politics, being elected to 
 the Chamber of Deputies in 1838, and 
 becoming a peer of France in 1846. 
 
 Flower, William Henry, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 (6. 1831), zoologist, was bom at Stratford- 
 on-Avon. After holding several important 
 appointments, and gaining a royal medal 
 from the Royal Society, he succeeded Sir 
 Richard Owen in 1884 as superintendent 
 of the natm-al history collections in the 
 British Museum. His contributions to 
 scientific literature have been mainly 
 ethnological. 
 
 Fludd, Robert (J. 1574, d. 1637), physician 
 and mystic, bom at Milgate, Kent, was the 
 author of a system of theosophy which had 
 enough vogue to evoke criticisms from 
 Kepler and others. 
 
 Fliigel, Gustav Lebrecht (6. 1802, d. 
 1870). Arabic scholar, was for some years 
 professor at Meissen. His greatest work 
 IS his edition and Latin translation of 
 Hajjy Khalfa's Bibliographical Dictiotiari/, 
 which he executed for the Oriental Text 
 Committee of Loudon, 1835-58, in seven 
 vols, quarto. 
 
 Foggo, George. [See Foggo, James.] 
 
 Foggo, James {b. 1790, d. 1860), painter, 
 was, with his brother George {b. 1793, d. 
 1869), educated in the school of the French 
 Academy. Returning to England (he was 
 born in London), the brothers worked 
 together in the production of historical 
 pictures, but, though winning the ad- 
 miration of some of the greatest artists 
 of the day, their work was never popular. 
 
 Foix, Count de (d. 1064), was the founder 
 of the celebrated French family of this name, 
 which took its title from what is now the 
 department of Ariege, in the south of 
 France. 
 
 Foix, Gaston III. {b. 1331, d. 1391), sur- 
 named Phcebus from his personal beauty, 
 was the most distinguished member of his 
 family. In 1345 he was made governor of 
 Languedoc and Gascony as a reward lur his 
 services against the English, and when 
 superseded by the Due de Berri (1381) he 
 maintained his position by force, defeating
 
 Foi 
 
 (314) 
 
 Foo 
 
 the duke at Eevel. In the end the cardinal 
 of Ajuieus etYected a reconciliation, and 
 Gaston retii-ed to his own court. Before 
 this he had joined in a crusade against the 
 heathen Letts of Prussia, and had also 
 released certain members of the royal 
 familj'' when besieged by Jacquerie insur- 
 gents at Meaux. He is the author of a 
 work on hunting, Miroir de Fhebus. 
 
 Foix, Gaston IV. (d. 1472), co-operated 
 with Charles VII. in his wars against 
 England, and was invested with the seign- 
 iory of Carcassonne and the countships of 
 Roussillon and Cerdagne. 
 
 Fotx, Eoger Raymond {d. 1223), accom- 
 panied King Philip Augustus to Palestine, 
 and was present at the capture of Acre. 
 Later he became a follower of the Albi- 
 genses, for which his estates were confis- 
 cated by Simon de Montfort. 
 
 Folard, Jean Charles {b. 1669, d. 1752), 
 tactician, bom in Avignon, served with dis- 
 tinction in several of the wars of his age, wrote 
 works on military and other subjects, and 
 edited F'jhjbius. He was a fellow of the 
 Eoyal Society of London. 
 
 Foley, John Henry {b. 1818, d. 1874), 
 sculptor, bom in Dublin, entered the schools 
 of the Eoyal Academy in 1835. His Youth 
 at a Stream was exhibited in the national 
 competition at Westminster Hall, and his 
 statue of Hampden appeared at the same 
 place in 1847. In 1848 he became A.R.A., 
 and in 1858 R.A. The figure of Prince 
 Albert for the Albert Memorial in Kensing- 
 ton Gardens is fiom his chisel. 
 
 Foley, Sir Thomas (b. 1757, d. 1833), 
 British admiral, commanded the St. George 
 in 1793, and assisted in the recapture 
 of the St. Jago, of the ga Ira, and of the 
 Censcur. He distinguished himself at the 
 battles of Cape St. Vincent and the Nile, 
 and in the bombardment of Copenhagen. 
 In 1812 he became vice-admiral, and in 1830 
 commander-in-chief at Portsmouth, where 
 he died. 
 
 Folgore, Italian poet, of whom, although 
 a number of his sonnets have come down to 
 us, notliing is known except that he lived at 
 the end of the 13th century. 
 
 Folkes, Martin {b. 1690, d. 1754), English 
 antiquary, bom in London, was president 
 of the Eoyal Society in 1741, of the Society 
 of Antiquaries in 1750, and also of the 
 Paris Academy of Science, and compiled A 
 Table of English Gold Coins (1736), and A 
 Table of English Silver Coins (1745). 
 
 FoUett, Sir "William Webb (6. 1798, d. 
 1845), lawyer, bom at Topsham, Devon, 
 was called to the bar in 1823, and quickly 
 became leader of the western circuit. In 1835 
 
 he was elected member of Parliament for 
 Exeter, and in 1834 became Sir Eobert 
 Peel's Solicitor-General, an ofiice to wliich 
 he was reappointed on a later occasion, 
 becoming Attorney-General in 1844. Had 
 not his health broken down, he would no 
 doubt have risen to higher distinction. 
 
 Fonblanque, Albany William {b. 1793, d. 
 1872), journalist and statistician, born in 
 Loudon, was editor of the Examiner from 
 1830 until he received the office of statis- 
 tical secretary to the Board of Trade in 1847. 
 In 1854 he represented England at the Paris 
 International Statistical Congress. 
 
 Fontaine, Pierre Fran(jois Leonard [b. 
 1762, d. 1853), French architect, was 
 appointed architect of the Tuileries in 1801, 
 and, in conjunction with Percier and Ber- 
 nier, directed the pubUc works of France for 
 more than half a centuiy, being employed 
 in the extension and restoration of the 
 palaces of the 'Louvre, Saint Cloud, and 
 Fontainebleau. 
 
 Fontaines, Madame de {d. 1730), French 
 novelist, was a friend of Voltaire, and 
 wrote, among other works. La Comtesse de 
 
 Savoie. 
 
 Fontana, Domenico (6. 1543. <^. 1607), archi- 
 tect and engineer, bom at Mili, near 'Lake 
 Como, was for some years papal architect 
 at Eome, and built the Lateran palace and 
 the Vatican library. After the death of his 
 patron. Pope Sixtus V., he went to Naj^les, 
 where he was royal architect and engineer 
 until his death. 
 
 FonteneUe, Bernard le Bovier de {b. 
 1657, d. 1757), French poet, dramatist, 
 and miscellaneous writer, born at Eouen, 
 was a nephew of Comeille, his mother 
 being that poet's sister. He became a 
 member of the Academy in 1691, and 
 in 1697 was appointed secretary to the 
 Academy of Science. For some time be- 
 fore the close of his life he was the 
 oldest member of three academies, and 
 came to be known as " the Nestor of Litera- 
 ture." His tragedy of Aspar, produced 
 early in his career, fell flat, nor was his 
 poetry a success, but his Dialogues of the 
 Bead, his Ideas on the Plurality of Worlds, 
 and other works, which aimed at the popu- 
 lai-isation of scientific knowledge, brought 
 him much fame, 
 
 Fontanes, Louis, Marquis de (b. 1757, 
 d. 1821), French politician, poet, and writer, 
 translated Pope's Essay on Man in 1783. 
 In 1804 he was appointed president of the 
 Corps Legislatif, and gained a high repu- 
 tation as an orator. 
 
 Foote, Sir Edward James {b. circa 1767, 
 d. 1833), British admiral, was placed by
 
 Poo 
 
 (315) 
 
 For 
 
 Nelson in charge of the blockade of the Bay 
 of Naples in 1799, and signed a treaty with 
 the rebels which Nelson thought it necessary 
 to annul. He became rear-admii'al in 1812, 
 and vice-admiral in 1821. 
 
 Foote, Samuel {b. 1720, d. 1777), 
 comedian, dramatist, actor, and humorist, 
 born at Truro, studied at Worcester 
 College, Oxford, where, however, he 
 failed to take his degree. After spend- 
 ing his patrimony in the gaieties of 
 London Ufe, he took to the stage, but 
 was not successful iu either tragedy or 
 comedy. In 17i7, however, in a small 
 theatre in the Hajonarket, he began to 
 give variety entertainments, cousistiug of 
 imitations of the principal actors and other 
 celebrities of the day, and at once found 
 himself famous, so exquisite were his powers 
 of mimicry. He continued to give such 
 entertaiuments in Loudon, Edinburgh, and 
 Dublin, and his professional career was not 
 brought to an end even when, iu 1766, one 
 of his legs had to be amputated. Among 
 his comedies are The Mayor of Garratt and 
 The Liar. 
 
 Forbes, Alexander, fourth Lord Forbes of 
 Pitsligo {b. 1678, d. 1762), soldier and author, 
 took part in the risings of 1715 and 1745, 
 and after Culloden fled to France, 
 retmiiing to his native land, however, in 
 1749. He wrote Moral and Philosophical 
 Egsfrtjs, and has the still greater Uterary 
 interest of being the supposed prototype of 
 Sir Walter Scott's Baron of Bradwardine. 
 
 Forbes, Alexander Penrose [b. 1817, d. 
 1875) , Scotch prelate, born at Edinburgh, was 
 consecrated Bishop of Brechin in 1817, and 
 in 1860 was censured and admonished by 
 his brothers of the Scottish episcopacy 
 for a charge in which he advocated the 
 ideas associated with the name of Dr. 
 Pusey. 
 
 Forbes, Archibald (b. 1838), war cor- 
 respondent, the son of a Presbyterian 
 minister, was bom in Morayshire, and 
 was educated at Aberdeen University. 
 After an adventurous career, part of it 
 as a private in the Royal Dragoons, he 
 took to journalism. Duriug the siege of 
 Paris he corresponded for the Daily News, 
 and represented the same paper in the Car- 
 hst war, and later in the Russo-Turkish 
 war, sending home, at great personal risk, 
 his famous accounts of the crossing of the 
 Danube, of the battles around Plevna and 
 in the Shipka Pass. He was also present at 
 the first battles in the Afghan war, and, after 
 interviewing Thibaw, king of Bm-mah, 
 posted off to Zululand, and was present at 
 the victory of L^lundi, riding 110 miles in 
 fifteen hours, in order to be the first to 
 transmit the news of the battle to England. 
 
 He then went on to Pietei-maritzburg, where 
 Sir Garnet Wolseley was anxiously expect- 
 ing news from the front, the 280 miles 
 being covered in ninety-six hours. 
 
 Forbes, Duncan (*. 1685, d. 1747), 
 Scotch politician, studied at Edinburgh, 
 Leyden, Utrecht, and Paris, and began 
 to practise as an advocate in Edin- 
 burgh in 1709. In 1717 he became So- 
 licitor-General for Scotland, in 1722 was 
 elected member of Parliament for Inver- 
 npss-shire, in 1725 was appointed Lord 
 Advocate, and in 1737 became Lord 
 President of the Court of Sessions. He 
 took a leading part in the suppression 
 of both the rebellions of the century, 
 and to him the Government were in- 
 debted for the plan of raising Highland 
 regiments. His loyalty, however, was ill- 
 rewarded, and the refusal of the ministry to 
 reimbiu'se the losses he incurred in opposing 
 Charles Edward in 1745 is said to have 
 fretted him into the fever of which he 
 died. He is to be held in honour for the 
 many reforms he effected in the Scottish 
 courts. 
 
 Forbes, Edward (b. 1815, d. 1854), 
 naturalist, born at Douglas, Isle of Man, 
 published his History of the Starfishes, 
 his cliief work, embodying the result 
 of researches carried on for many years, 
 in 1841. In 1842 he became palaeon- 
 tologist to the Geographical Survey; in 
 1851 professor of natural historj- to the 
 Royal School of Mines, and in 1853 pro- 
 fessor of natural history at Edinburgh. 
 
 Forbes, James David (b. 1809, d. 1869), 
 physicist, was appointed professor of natural 
 philosophy at Edinburgh — his native city — 
 when only twenty- four. In 1859 became 
 principal of the United Colleges of St. An- 
 di'ews, and here he spent the remainder 
 of his days in scientific research, dealing 
 chiefly with the phenomena of light and 
 heat. He is well known as an early Alpine 
 traveller and investigator of the movement 
 of glaciers. 
 
 Forbes, Sir John (b. 1787, d. 1861), 
 physician, bom at Cuttlebrae, Banffshire, 
 was one of the editors of the Cyclo- 
 pcedia of Practical Medicine, and in 1836 
 founded the British and Foreign Jfedical 
 Review, which ultimately lost its iufluence 
 in consequence of its advocacy of homoe- 
 opathy and other doctrines obnoxious to the 
 profession. 
 
 Forbes, Sir William, of Pitsligo {b. 
 1739, d. 1806), banker and author, bom 
 at Edinburgh, was founder of the bank 
 which, in 1830, became the Union Bank 
 of Scotland. He ^\Tote a life of Beattie 
 the poet iu 1805, and also Memoirs of a 
 Banking JEouse (1803).
 
 For 
 
 (316) 
 
 Tor 
 
 Forbes-Mackenzie, William (h. 1801, d. 
 1862), Scotch politician, was author of the 
 Act passed in 18.53 regulatuig public-houses 
 in Scotland, and still known as the Forbes- 
 Mackenzie Act. 
 
 Forcellini. [See Facciolati.] 
 
 Ford, E. Onslow (b. 1852), English 
 sculptor, was born in London, and studied 
 at Antwerp and Munich. His statues in- 
 clude Sir Rowland Hill (1882), Mr. Glad- 
 stone (1883), and Mr. Irving as Hamlet 
 (1883). 
 
 Ford, John (b. 1586, d. circa 1639), 
 dramatist, bom at Ilsington, Devon, 
 was a maternal nephew of Chief Justice 
 Popham. After studying for a time at 
 Exeter College, Oxford, he, in 1602, en- 
 tered the Middle Temple, and was called 
 to the bar, but turned aside to literature. 
 His first productions were poems, and 
 it was not tiU 1629 that he ap^jeared be- 
 fore the public as a dramatist with the 
 comedy. The Lover'' s Melancholy. His finest 
 tragedy, ^Tis Pity She's a Whore, was pub- 
 lished in 1633, as were also The Broken 
 Heart and Love's Sacrifice. The Chronicle 
 History of Perkin Warhcck appeared in 1634, 
 The Fancies Chaste and Noble and The Lady's 
 Trial in 1638. He also wrote several other 
 plays, some of them in co-operation with 
 Dekker, William Rowley, and Webster. His 
 works were edited by William Oifford in 
 1827, and this edition was revised by Alex- 
 ander Dyce in 1869. In 1840 they found 
 another editor iu Hartley Coleridge. 
 
 Ford, Richard (b. 1796, d. 1858), traveller 
 and scholar, born in. London, spent mucH of 
 his time in. Spain, collecting" books and 
 works of art, etc. In 1845 he wrote the 
 Handbook on Spain for Mm-ray's series, and 
 in 1846 Gatherings from Spain. 
 
 Fordun, John de, Scotch chronicler, was 
 a secular priest and a cancm of the cathedral- 
 church of Aberdeen. Having, it is said, 
 travelled on foot through Great Britain and 
 Ireland for materials, he began to write his 
 Scotichronicon, extending from the eai'liest 
 times down to the death of King Da^'id I. 
 in 1153. His work was continued in 1441 
 by Walter Bower, who utilised the ma- 
 terials he had left, and brought down the 
 chronicle to the year 1437. The most recent 
 edition of Fordun's own work is that 
 edited by Mr. W. F. Skene, and published 
 1871-72. 
 
 Forey, Louis EKe Frederic [b. 1804. 
 d. 1872), French gelieral, born in Paris, 
 played a prominent part in the conp 
 d'etat of 1851, and during the Cri- 
 mean war held for x time command 
 of the besieging army before Sebastopol. 
 In the Itahan war of 1860 ae defeated 
 
 the Austrians at Montebello ; while in 
 1861, being in command of the Mexican 
 expedition, he stormed the stronghold of 
 Puebla, for which he was made marshal of 
 France. 
 
 Forkel, Johann Nicholas (b. 1749, d. 1818), 
 musical historian and composer, wrote, 
 among other works, a General History of 
 Music, in two vols, quarto. 
 
 Formes, Karl J. {b. 1810, d. 1884), 
 Gennan operatic singer, bom at Miihlheim, 
 made his dcbiit in opera at Cologne in 1842 
 as Sarastro in the ZauberJKte. He frequently 
 appeared at Covent Garden, and was, per- 
 haps, the most popular bass singer of his 
 time. 
 
 Formes, Theodor {b. 1826, d. 1874), Ger- 
 man tenor singer, brother of the preceding, 
 made his iust appearance at Of en in 1846 
 as Edgai'do in Lucia. 
 
 Forrest, Alexander (5. 1849), Australian 
 explorer, born at Bunbury, Western Aus- 
 tralia, is a younger brother of John 
 Forrest (q.v.). In conjunction with Hill, 
 he in 1879 discovered the pastoral region 
 now known as the Kimberley district, and 
 ascended the Fitzroy for a distance of some 
 250 miles. 
 
 Forrest, Edwin (J. 1806, d. 1872), 
 American tragedian, bom at Philadelphia, 
 made his debut in New York in No- 
 vember, 1820, and in 1834 visited Eng- 
 land. His favourite roles were those of 
 Othello, Macbeth, Richard III., and Spar- 
 tacus. 
 
 Forrest, John (b. 1847), explorer, and 
 brother of Alexander Forrest (q.v.), con- 
 ducted several expeditions in Western Aus- 
 tralia, which were described in his Explor- 
 ations in Australia, published in London in 
 1875. 
 
 Forrester, Alfred Henry [b. 1804, d. 
 1872), miscellaneous writer and etcher, 
 better known as Alfred Crowquill, was one 
 of the original contributors to Bei'tley's 
 Magazine and Punch. 
 
 Forster, Ernst {jb. 1800, d. 1885), art 
 writer and painter, and brother of Fried- 
 rich Christoph Forster (q.v.), was born at 
 Miinchengosserstadt, and was a voluminous 
 writer on art. Among his works is a His- 
 tory of German Art, published in five 
 volumes 1851-60. 
 
 Forster, Friedrich Christoph (J. 1791, 
 d. 1868). German poet and historian, 
 and brother of Ernst Forster (q.v.). was 
 born near Kamburg, Saxe - Meiningen, 
 and was. from 1829 until his death, cus- 
 todian of the Royal Art museum at Berlin. 
 His historical works are mainly concerned
 
 For 
 
 (317) 
 
 For 
 
 with the history of Prussia and the War of 
 Liberation. 
 
 Forster, Johann Georg Adam {b. 1754, 
 d. 1794), ti-aveller and zoologist, was bom 
 near Dantzic, and was the eldest son of 
 Johann Reinhold Forster (q.v.), whom he 
 accompanied on his voyage round the world 
 with Captain Cook. For some time he 
 was professor of natural liistory at Cassel 
 and at Wilna, and in 1788 was appoiated 
 librarian to the Elector of Mayence. His 
 works were collected into a complete edition 
 in 1843. 
 
 Forster, Johann Reinhold (b. 1729, d. 
 1798), bom at Dirschau, Prussia, ac- 
 companied Captain Cook as natm'alist on 
 his second expedition iu 1772. In 1780 
 he was appointed professor of natural 
 history at HaUe. His Observations made 
 during a Voyage Round the World ap- 
 peared in 1778. 
 
 Forster, John {b. 1812, d. 1876), 
 biographer and journalist, was the son 
 of a Newcastle butcher. He came to 
 London in 1828, and was soon appointed 
 literary critic of the Examiner. His 
 Statesmen of the Commonwealth of Eng- 
 land, collected in 1840, brought him in- 
 crease of literary reputation. He suc- 
 ceeded Dickens in 1846 as editor of the 
 Daily JVeivs, but, after a year, transferred 
 his services to the Examiner, which he 
 edited from 1847 to 1856. His Life of Sir 
 John Eliot appeared in 1864 ; his Goldsmith 
 in 1848 : and his Walter Savage Landor in 
 1869. The three volumes ol his Life of 
 Dickens were published between 1871 and 
 1874. His valuable collection of MSS. and 
 books was bequeathed to the South Ken- 
 sington Museum. 
 
 Forster, William Edward (h. 1818, d. 
 18S6), statesman, was bom at Bradpole, 
 Dorset, and was the son of a minister 
 of the Society of Friends, and a nephew 
 of Sir FoweU Buxton. He was educated 
 at the Friends' school, Tottenham, and 
 received an appointment in a woollen 
 maniifactory at Bradford. In 1850 he 
 marrieil Jane, eldest daughter of Dr. Arnold 
 of Rugby. Elected for Bradford in 1861, ho 
 was under- secretary for the Colonies from 
 November, 1865, to December, 1868. In 
 1863 he became vice-president of the Edu- 
 cation Committee, and a member of the 
 Cabinet in 1870. Of the great measures 
 then carried into law, he had charge of 
 the Education Bill and the Ballot Bill. 
 He displayed great ability and industry 
 in piloting them through the committee 
 stages, but his insistence upon the twenty- 
 fifth clause of the former measure gave 
 offence to the Xonconformist supporters of 
 the ministry. But for this he would prob- 
 ably have succeeded Mr. Gladstone in the 
 
 leadership of the Liberal party in 1875. In 
 November of that year he was elected Lord 
 Rector of Aberdeen University. When the 
 Liberals retm-ned to power in 1880, Mr. 
 Forster, who was held to be both a strong 
 aud a benevolent man, and who, during the 
 famine, had visited Ireland as distributor of 
 a relief fund raised by the Friends, accepted 
 the most difficult post in the Government — 
 that of Irish Secretary. His path proved to 
 be even thornier than he had anticipated. 
 The Compensation for Disturbance Bill was, 
 to his great indignation, rejected by the 
 House of Lords, and while Mr. Forster was 
 pressing forward the great Land Bill of 
 1881, the social state of Ireland went from 
 bad to worse. A drastic Coercion Bill was 
 carried, the Land League was suppressed, 
 and Mr. PameU and many others of the 
 Nationalist leaders were imprisoned. In 
 April, 1882, the Government decided upon a 
 more conciliatory policy, and released the 
 "suspects," and, as Mr. Forster was not 
 satisfied with the conditions exacted from 
 Mr. Pamell, he, together with the Lord- 
 lieutenant, Earl Cowper, resigned. As an 
 independent member, he criticised the 
 general policy of the Government with 
 great severity, and became very popidar 
 with the Opposition. He strongly con- 
 demned the Government for the condition 
 into which Bechuanaland had been allowed 
 to lapse, and also joined in the censure upon 
 their Egyjitian policy after the death of 
 General Gordon in January, 1885. At the 
 general election in that year he was once 
 more returned for Bradford by a large 
 majority, although too ill to address the 
 electors. He died in April of the following 
 year. Among the subjects in which he 
 specially interested himself after leaving 
 office was that of Imperial Federation. 
 
 Forsyth, Alexander John (i. 1769, d. 1843), 
 chemist, was a Presbj-terian minister at Bel- 
 helvie, near Aberdeen, and there made 
 chemical experiments, which resulted in the 
 discovery of the percussion principle. He 
 was rewarded by the Government with an 
 annuity of £200^ but this was only a year 
 before his death. 
 
 Forsyth, Sir Thomas Douglas [b. 1827, 
 d. 1886), Anglo-Indian statesman, bom 
 at Liverpool, was created C.B. for his 
 services in the suppression of the Indian 
 Mutiny. In 1870 he conducted a diffi- 
 cult mission to Yarkand, in Eastern 
 Turkesttin, and in 1873 negotiated a com- 
 mercial treaty with the ruler of that 
 country. In 1874 he was appointed a mem- 
 ber of the Legislative Council of India, and 
 in 1878 was sent as envoy to the King of 
 Burmah, and succeeded for the time in 
 averting war. 
 
 Forsyth, WilHam, Q.O., LL.D. (b. 1812),
 
 For 
 
 (318) 
 
 Fos 
 
 lawyer and miscellaneous writer, born at 
 Greenock, became a Queen's Counsel in 
 1857, and a bencher of the Inner 
 Temple. He was standing counsel to the 
 Secretary of State iu Council of India, 
 and is commissary of the University of 
 Cambridge. From 1874 to 1880 he repre- 
 sented the borough of Marylebone in the 
 House of Commons. 
 
 Fortegnerri, Niccolo. [See Fortiguerra, 
 
 Niccolo.] 
 
 Fortescue, Sir John {b. circa 1395, d. 
 circa 1485), judge and jurist, a native 
 of Somersetshire, became sergeant-at- 
 law in 1441, and Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench iu 1442. He was an ad- 
 herent of the House of Lancaster, and 
 during exile ia Holland in 1463 wrote De 
 Zand I bits Legum AnglicB for the behoof of 
 the young Prince Edward, his pupil. After 
 the battle of Tewkesbury, however, he sub- 
 mitted to Edward IV. 
 
 Fortiguerra, Niccolo {b. 1674, d. 1735), 
 Italian scholar and poet, lived chiefly at 
 Rome, where he wrote his satirical epic, 
 Ricciardetto, of which an edition appeared 
 at Milan in 1813. 
 
 Fortune, Eobert (*. 1813, d. 1880), 
 botanist, a native of Berwickshire, was 
 in 1842 appointed collector of plants in 
 northern China by the Botanical Society of 
 London. In 1848 he was sent to India to 
 make investigations respecting the tea plant. 
 Afterwards he resumed his researches in 
 China. 
 
 Fortimy y Carbo, Mariano (b. 1839, d. 
 1874), Spanish painter, studied at Bar- 
 celona and in Italy, and found many 
 subjects for his brush during the Spanish 
 expedition against the Sultan of Morocco. 
 The most famous of his works, perhaps, is 
 The Spanish Marriage. 
 
 Fosbrooke, Thomas Dudley {b. 1770, d. 
 1842), archaeologist, bom in London, 
 though for thirty-six years he had to 
 content himself with the curacies of Hors- 
 ley and Walford, and then with the 
 incumbency of the latter parish, was 
 an antiquary of great learning, who 
 wrote valuable works on the antiquities 
 of Gloucester county and city, as well as on 
 more general aspects of his favourite study. 
 
 Foscari, Francesco (b. circa 1370, d. 
 1457), Doge of Venice, was elected to 
 that office it 1423, and waged successful 
 war with the Turks and the Milanese. 
 The persecution of his son, Giacopo, who 
 was thrice tortured in his father's presence, 
 and then banished at the instance of 
 the Council of Ten, saddened his last 
 days, and led him in 1457 to resign his 
 
 oifice. The history of father and son, the 
 latter of whom died in exUe in Canea, has 
 been handled by Byron in The Two Foscari. 
 
 Foscaiini, Marco {b. 1698, d. 1763), 
 Venetian statesman and historian of Vene- 
 tian Hterature, was head of the university of 
 Padua for some time, and became doge of 
 Venice in 1762. His collection of MSS. is 
 preserved in the Imperial library of Vienna. 
 
 Foscolo, Ugo (b. 1778, d. 1827), Italian 
 wi'iter and patriot, born near Zante, an Ionian 
 island, translated Sterne's Sentimental Jour- 
 ney into Italian in 1805. After an adven- 
 turous career he came to England, and being 
 already known by his poetical works, as well 
 as his patriotic deeds, was received with 
 enthusiasm. Although he made a great 
 deal of money as a lecturer and writer, his 
 extravagance reduced him to abject poverty, 
 and when he died, at Tumham Green, he 
 did not leave siiihcient to pay for his funeral. 
 He was buried at Chiswick, but forty-four 
 years afterwards his remains were dis- 
 interred and conveyed to the church of 
 Santa Croce at Florence. 
 
 Foster, Bu-ket, E.I. (b. 1825), draughts- 
 man and water-colour painter, bom at 
 North Shields, has illustrated several chil- 
 dren's books, and also Longfellow's Evan- 
 geline, Beattie's Minstrel, Goldsmith's 
 poems, and other works. He is the most 
 widely known of English landscape artists 
 in water-coloiu-. 
 
 Foster, George Carey {b. 1835), physicist, 
 was appointed professor of physics at Uni- 
 versity College, London, in 1867. He was 
 president of the Physical Society 1876-8, and 
 in 1877 president of the Mathematical and 
 Physical section of the British Association. 
 
 Foster, James, D.D. (b. 1697, d. 1753), 
 Baptist divine, a native of Exeter, was 
 for many years minister of the Barbican 
 chapel, London. In 1746 he attended 
 Lord Kilmarnock on the scaffold. He 
 defended Revelation against the attacks 
 of Tindal and others, and is favourably 
 referred to in Pope's satires. 
 
 Foster, John {h. 1770, d. 1843), essayist, 
 born at Hebden Bridge, near Halifax, was 
 at first a Baptist minister ; in 1806 he pub- 
 lished a volume of essays, including the 
 celebrated one on Decision of Character. He 
 then became a frequent contributor to the 
 Eclectic Review. His essay on Popular 
 Ignorance appeared in 1820. 
 
 Foster, Michael, M.A. (hon.) {b. 1836), 
 physiologist, was in 1867 appointed lecturer 
 on practical physiology at University Col- 
 lege, London, and in 1869 professor. In 
 1870 he became prselector in physiology at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1882
 
 Fos 
 
 (319) 
 
 Fou 
 
 was made first professor of physiology at 
 the University, P.K.S. in 1872, and secre- 
 tary in 1881. He is the author of a Frimer 
 of Fhysiology, Elements of Embryology, and 
 joint author of the Handbook for the Fhy- 
 stological Laboratory. 
 
 Foster, Stephen Collings [b. 1826, d. 1864), 
 American song writer, bom at Pittsburg, 
 New York, was the author of The Old 
 Folks at Home, Old Log Tray, Willie, tie 
 have missed You, Come Where my Love lies 
 Breaming, among other popular songs, and 
 also composed the airs to which they were 
 simg. 
 
 Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon {b. 1819, 
 d. 1868), French physicist and mechanician, 
 a native of Paris, demonstrated the ro- 
 tation of the earth in 1851 by what 
 is known as "Foucault's pendulum." In 
 1857 he invented a polariser, and in 
 1859 made a reflector for the great 
 telescope at Paris. In 1864 he became 
 a foreign member of the Royal Society of 
 London. 
 
 FoucJi^, Joseph, Duke of Otranto (b. 
 1763, d. 1820), French revolutionist and 
 poUtician, after taking part in most of 
 the excesses of the revolution, became 
 minister of police in 1800, and was 
 one of Napoleon's agents fin the over- 
 throw of the Directory. Although dis- 
 missed in 1802, he had made himself and his 
 spy system indispensable, and he was restored 
 to office and made also minister of the 
 interior. In 1809 he was created Duke of 
 Otranto, but in the following year was 
 again dismissed, having been detected 
 intriguing on his own account with the 
 English court, and during the remainder of 
 the empire had to content himself with the 
 empty honour of governor of Rome and 
 then of Illyria. On the entry of the Allies 
 into Paris he at once made his peace with 
 the new government, and as promptly 
 deserted to Napoleon during the Hundred 
 Days. The morrow of Waterloo found him 
 once more minister of police, and he became 
 one of Louis XVIII. 's ministers, but had to 
 resign, and was then exiled as one of the 
 authors of the death of Louis XVI. He was 
 absolutely without moral feeling, and by 
 establishing his system of espionage exerted 
 an influence for evil which by no means 
 ceased with his death. 
 
 Fould, Achille (b. 1800, d. 1867), poli- 
 tician and financier, of Jewish parentage, 
 bom in Paris, was four times minister 
 of finance under Louis Napoleon be- 
 tween 1849 and 1852, and although 
 he then resigned, he was soon afterwards 
 brought back as minister of state and 
 of the imperial household. From 1861 to 
 1867 he was again minister of finance. 
 
 Foulis, Andrew [b. 1712, d. 1775), Scottish 
 printer, was the younger brother of Robert 
 Fouhs (q.v.). 
 
 Foulis, Robert (^>. 1707, d. 1776), Scot- 
 tish printer, was appointed printer to the 
 Glasgow University m 1743, and in 1753 
 founded an academy in that city for en- 
 graving, modeUing, etc. 
 
 Fouque, Friedrich Heinrich Karl, Baron 
 de la Motte {b. 1777, d. 1843), German- 
 author, a native of Brandenburg- on- 
 Havel, was one of the leading mem- 
 bers of the romantic school of poets. 
 In his later days he abandoned liimself to 
 the gloom of Evangelical pietism, from 
 which his art only fitfully emerged. But 
 this was not until he had produced in- 
 numerable stories, dances, lyrics, hymns, 
 and romances. His trilogy, the A'orthland's 
 Hero, appeared in 1808, Undine in 1811, and 
 the Magic Hing in 1813. 
 
 Fouquet, Jehan [b. circa 1415, d. after 
 1475), French paiater, was painter and 
 illumiuator to Louis XL, and is known 
 chiefly by his illustrations to the Li,vre 
 d''Heurs, executed for his patron, Estienne 
 Chevalier. 
 
 Fouquet, Nicolas, Viscoimt of Melun 
 and Vaux, and Marquis of Belle Isle 
 (b. 1615, d. 1680), French financier, bom 
 in Paris, was from 1653 till after the 
 death of Mazarin superintendent of fi- 
 nance. In 1661 the intrigues of his rival, 
 Colbert, led to his arrest and condem- 
 nation to imprisonment for hfe in the 
 fortress of Pignerol. He has been er- 
 roneously identified with the Man with 
 the Iron Mask. 
 
 Fouquier-Tiuville, Antoine Quentin (ft. 
 
 1747, d. 1705), revolutionist, born at He- 
 rouelles, Aisne, was appointed by Robes- 
 pierre and Danton public prosecutor to the 
 revolutionary tribunal in March, 1793, and 
 became conspicuous by his brutality and 
 cruelty, which were exceptional for even the 
 Reign of Terror. When that regime was over- 
 thrown, he in turn became a victim of the 
 guillotine. 
 
 Fourier, Francjois Charles Marie (ft. 
 1772, d. 1837), French socialist, a native 
 of Besan^on, was one of the first 
 writers to observe the benefits resulting 
 from co-operation, from wholesale over 
 retail deahng, and from machinery. The 
 system he advocated is known as phalau- 
 sterianism. His idea was to divide the 
 world into communities or phalanxes 
 of about 1,800 persons— a number suf- 
 ficient to include the whole range of 
 human activities, and yet not large 
 enough to be unwieldy. The phalanx 
 was to be divided into series, and
 
 Ton 
 
 ( 320) 
 
 Fox 
 
 subdivided into groups of seven or more 
 individuals. The dwelling of the phalanx 
 was to be the plialanstere, to stand in the 
 centre of a beautiful domain. There was to 
 be no rigid equality in the division of wealth ; 
 but Fourier calculated that, things being 
 thus arranged, a man could do enough work 
 bet\>"een eighteen and twenty-eight to enable 
 him to Uve in comfort for the rest of his 
 life. Unsuccessful attempts to realise this 
 scheme have been made in France and 
 America. 
 
 Fourier, Jean Baptists Joseph, Baron 
 de (b. 1768, d. 1830), mathematician, bom 
 at Auxei're, accompanied Bonaparte to 
 Egypt in 1798, in both a military 
 and scientific capacity. Whilst on ac- 
 tive service he was elected secretary 
 of the Institut d'Egypte, and after his 
 retui-n was made prefect of Grenoble, 
 member of the Legion of Honour, and 
 in 1S03 baron. In 1816 he was elected 
 a member of the French Academy, and 
 afterwards co-secretary. His observations 
 on the laws of heat are embodied in his 
 Theorie Analytiqne de la Chalexir. 
 
 Fourtou, Marie Francois Oscar Bardy de 
 {h. 18>;6), French statesman, a native 
 of Eiberac, entered the National As- 
 sembly as a Bonapartist in 1871, and 
 was successively minister of public works 
 and of public worshi}?. In 1874, and again 
 in 1877, he was minister of the interior, and 
 in both instances was suspected of being 
 one of the main agents in the reactionary 
 intrigues which were carried on under Mac- 
 Mahon's auspices. In 1878 he fought a 
 bloodless duel with Gambetta. In 1880 he 
 was elected a senator for the department of 
 Dordogne. 
 
 Fowke, Francis, R.E. (*. 1823, d. 
 1865). architect and engineer, designed the 
 Raglan barracks at Devonport, the Indus- 
 trial Museum of Scotland, the South Ken- 
 sington Museum, and the Dublin Inter- 
 national Gallery. 
 
 Fowler, Henry Hartley, M.P. {h. 1830), 
 statesman, born at Sunderland, was mayor 
 of Vv'olverhampton in 1863, and first 
 chairman of the Wolverhampton school 
 board. He took an active part in the 
 formation of the National Liberal Fede- 
 ration. In 1880 he was returned for 
 Wolverhampton. In December, 1884, he 
 was appointed under-secretary for the 
 Home Department. In Mr. Gladstone's 
 ministry of 1886 he was financial secretary 
 to the Treasury, and in June of that year 
 was created a Privy Councillor, and in 
 J 892 President of the Local Government 
 Board. 
 
 Fowler, Sir John {h. 1817), civil en- 
 gineer, bom at Sheffield, was, at the 
 
 early age of twenty - seven, appointed 
 engineer for the construction of the 
 Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire 
 line, and has since carried out many 
 other works of great magnitude, iucludiug 
 the Metropolitan and District Railways and 
 the Severn Valley Railway. He was 
 knighted in 1885. ' 
 
 Fowler, Rev. Thomas, LL.D. (i. 1832), 
 logician, a native of Liucolushire, is the 
 author of Elements of Beductive Logic, 
 Elements of Inductive Logic, and many 
 other works, and has edited Bacon's 
 JS'orum Urgamim, etc. In 1881 he was 
 elected president of Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford. 
 
 Fox, Sir Charles (jb. 1810, d. 1874), 
 civil engineer, born at Derby, carried 
 out many important works of construction, 
 iucluding the building in Hyde Park 
 for the groat exhibition of 1851, for 
 which he worked out most of the details, 
 although the idea itself was suggested 
 by Paxton. For this he was knighted. 
 He afterwards took down the building 
 and re-erected it at Sydenham. 
 
 Fox, Sir Charles Douglas {b. 1840), civil 
 engineer, son of the preceding, was one of 
 the engineers of the Mersey Tunnel. He 
 was knighted in 1886. 
 
 Fox, Charles James (b. 1749, d. 1806), 
 statesman, born at Westminster, was 
 the third son of Heiu-y Fox, Lord 
 Holland, who early inducted him into 
 gambling and the other fashionable vices, 
 which clung to him through life. Edu- 
 cated at Eton and at Hertford College, 
 Oxford, he entered Parliament at the 
 age of nineteen as member for Midhurst, 
 and, having immediately made his mark 
 as a debater, became a lord of the Ad- 
 miralty, and was in 1773 nominated Lord 
 of the Treasurj\ He soon, however, quar- 
 relled with Lord North. In 1782 Fox 
 became Secretary of State under Lord 
 Rockingham, but on the latter's death (in 
 the same year) refused to serve under Lord 
 Shelburne. On the collapse of the Shel- 
 burne administration in 1783, he entered 
 into a coalition with Lord North. The 
 ministry thus formed was defeated on Fox's 
 India Bill owing to the machinations of 
 George III. in the House of Lords, and it 
 was twenty-two years before Fox was again 
 called to office,' so deep-seated was the 
 king's dislike to him. In the interval he 
 threw himself into an enthusiastic advocacy 
 of the French revolution. At first he 
 found himself in company with most of ' 
 the Whig party, but, as the revolution 
 ran into wild excesses, there was a large 
 defection of Whigs to the Tory party, 
 and Fox was left with a scanty and
 
 Fox 
 
 (321) 
 
 Fox 
 
 dispirited band of followers. His name 
 was struck off the Ust of privy councillors, 
 and in 1797 he retired from parliamentary- 
 life to superintend the education of his 
 nephew, Lord Holland, and to write the 
 History of the Reign of James II. When 
 his great rival, Pitt, formed his last adminis- 
 tration, he wished Fox to join it, but the 
 king gave a steady refusal. On Pitt's 
 death, in 1806, he was at last obliged to 
 admit >iiTn to office, and Fox became Foreign 
 Secretary in Grenville's ministry of "All 
 the Talents." But the term of his life had 
 nearly run out, and he had no time to 
 realise the high expectations of his followers. 
 His last motion in Parliament was directed 
 against the slave trade, and he died (at 
 Chiswick) within a few months of the 
 measure founded upon it being passed into 
 law. He was admittedly the first orator 
 of his time ; he was also a man of wide 
 reading, and he showed himself equal to 
 sacrifices to principle such as few statesmen 
 have cared to make. 
 
 Fox, George (b. 1624, d. 1690), founder 
 of the Society of Friends, a native of 
 Drayton, Leicestershire, was the son of 
 a woollen weaver, and as a boy was 
 employed in tending sheep. At the age 
 of nineteen he believed himself to have a 
 divine call, and left home and friends 
 to live a life of privation, wandering about 
 and meditating upon the Scriptures. The 
 central idea of his doctrine was that of 
 the "Inner Light," which doctrine he re- 
 garded as specially revealed to him from 
 the Scriptures. He first pubUcly declared 
 his views at Manchester in 1648, and the 
 name "Quaker" was given to his fol- 
 lowers at Derby, from the fact of his bidding 
 the magisterial authorities there " to tremble 
 at the Word of God." Among his outward 
 peculiarities was a refusal to take oath, or to 
 remove his hat as a mark of deference to 
 those in authority. He was several times 
 arrested and imprisoned, but on one occasion, 
 when examined by Oliver Cromwell in per- 
 son, he was acquitted, the Protector being 
 satisfied both of liis sincerity and of the 
 harmlessness of his teaching. He travelled 
 extensively not only in the United King- 
 dom, but also in America, Barbadoes, 
 Jamaica, Holland, and Germany, accom- 
 panied by Penn and others. The incoherence 
 of his writings has been exposed by Lojrd 
 Macaulay, who, however, has done him 
 much less than justice, for he unquestionably 
 succeeded in penetrating to the essence of 
 religion, while in dealing with such matters 
 as the rehef and education of the poor he 
 showed himself to have a vigorous and com- 
 prehensive mind. His works were collected 
 into three volxmies and published 1694- 
 1706. 
 
 Fox, Henry, first Lord Holland {b. 1705, 
 V 
 
 d. 1774), statesman, and father of Charles 
 James Fox (q.v.), was war secretary in 
 1746, gave place to the elder Pitt in 1756, 
 became paymaster of the forces in 1757, 
 and in 1763 was raised to the peerage. 
 
 Fox, William Johnson {h. 1786, d. 1864), 
 orator and miscellaneous writer, a native of 
 Suffolk, was trained at Homerton College for 
 the Independent ministry, but afterwards be- 
 came a Unitarian of the advanced tjrpe, and 
 for many years officiated at South Place 
 Chapel, Finsbury. He was a leader in most 
 of the poUtical movements of his day, and, 
 after Mr. Cobden and Mr. Bright, was the 
 greatest personal force in the Anti-Corn Law 
 movement. In brilliance, indeed, his ora- 
 tions were superior to those of any other 
 leader in the agitation, and they have been 
 cited by M. Guizot as the most finished 
 specimens of oratory which the controversy 
 produced. In the same cause were written 
 his Letters of a Norwich Wearer Boy, which 
 had an immense effect. He was also one of the 
 first contributors to the JVestminster Review, 
 and was for many years editor of the Monthly 
 Repository. From 1847 till 1863 he repre- 
 sented Oldham in Parliament. A memorial 
 edition of his works, in twelve volumes, was 
 published 1865-68. 
 
 Foxe, John {b. 1517, d. 1587), martjTolo- 
 gist, a native of Boston, was educated 
 at Brasenose College, Oxford, and elected 
 fellow of Magdalen in 1543, a position 
 which he resigned in 1545 in conse- 
 quence of accusations of heresy. He then 
 became tutor in the family of William 
 Lucy, of Charlecote, Warwickshire, and 
 afterwards in that of the Earl of Surrey. In 
 the reign of Edward VI. he was restored to 
 his fellowship, but when Mary came to the 
 throne he thought it discreet to leave 
 England, and resided for some time at 
 Basle. In 1563, Elizabeth having succeeded 
 her sister, he was made prebendary of Salis- 
 bury, and afterwards vicar of St. Giles's, 
 Cripplegate, where he was buried. His 
 Hook of Martyrs, the proper title of which 
 is History of the Acts and Monuments of the 
 Chiirch , Vf&s pubUshed in England in 1563, 
 but the first part of it had already appeared 
 in Latin at Strasburg (in 1554), and had 
 been reprinted at Basle in 1559. It went 
 through four editions in its author's life- 
 time, and was not only formally approved 
 by the bishops, but was ordered by a canon 
 of the Anglican convocation in 1571 to be 
 placed in the hall of every episcopal palace 
 in England. No one now doubts that 
 Foxe was often betrayed into the acceptance 
 of untrustworthy statements by his strong 
 sympathy with the martyrs whose sufferings 
 he describes, but his work, none the less, 
 deserves the great popularity which it has 
 always retained as an admirable spedmen of 
 Elizabethan English.
 
 Foy 
 
 (322) 
 
 Fra 
 
 Foy, Maximilien Sebastien {b. 1775, 
 d. 18-5), French general and orator, bom 
 at Ham, served as an artillery officer in 
 the earlier revolutionary wars, and rose 
 to the rank of adjutant-general. In 
 the Italian campaign (1801) he commanded 
 a brigade, and in the Austrian campaign 
 (1805) a division of artillery. In 1807, 
 having been sent by Xapoleon to assist 
 Sultan SeUm against tlio British and Rus- 
 sians, he forced Admiral Duckworth to re- 
 tire from the Dardanelles. He also distin- 
 guished himself in the Peninsular war, of 
 which he wrote an account, published by his 
 wife after his death. From 1819 to 1825 he 
 represented the department of Aisne in the 
 Chamber of Deputies, and took high rank 
 among the orators of that assembly. 
 
 Fra Angelico. [See Fiesole.] 
 
 Fra Bartolommeo. [See Baccio.] 
 
 Fracastoro Girolamo {b. 1483, d. 1553), 
 physician, poet, and scholar, a native of 
 "Verona, was at first professor of logic at 
 Padua, then practised medicine, and finally 
 gave himself up to letters, writing among 
 other poems Syphilidis, sive de Morbo Gal- 
 ileo, Libri Tres, in which he proved himself 
 to have a rare mastery of the Latin tongue. 
 A collected edition of his prose works was 
 published at Venice in 1555, and of his 
 poetical works at Padua in 1728. 
 
 Fra Diavolo {b. 1760, d. 1806), a noto- 
 rious Italian brigand, whose real name 
 was Michele Pezza, was bom at Itri, in 
 the Terra di Laboro, and was at first a 
 soldier, and then, until expelled from his 
 order for misbehaviour, a monk. He next 
 became the leader of a band of brigands in 
 the mountains of Calabria, and for years 
 succeeded in avoiding capture. For his ser- 
 vices against the French in the defence of the 
 Neapolitan state, he and his followers were 
 pardoned and reinstated in their civil rights, 
 while he himself received a colonel's commis- 
 sion in the army. He was executed for en- 
 deavoiuing to excite Calabria against the 
 French. 
 
 Fraehn, Christian Martin {b. 1782, d. 
 1857), the first of Oriental numismatists, 
 a native of Rostock, Germany, became 
 professor at the university of Kasan, Russia, 
 in 1807. In 1815 he went to St. Petersburg 
 as director of the Asiatic museiun, chief 
 librarian and member of the Imperial 
 Academy, and there died after nearly half a 
 century of valuable work. He was the 
 founder of oriental studies in Russia. In its 
 oriental branches he may be called the 
 creator of numismatics. 
 
 Fragonard, Jean Honore {b. 1732, d. 1806), 
 French painter of genre pictures and land- 
 scapes, gained the prix de Rome in 1762. In 
 
 1765 he completed his CalUrrho'4, commis- 
 sioned by Louis XV. for reproduction in 
 tapestry. 
 
 Frances, Xavier. [See Xavier.] 
 
 Francesca, Piero della, or Piero Borghes© 
 {b. circa 1410, d. after 1493), Italian 
 painter, was bom at Borgo San Sepolcro, 
 and was for a time Domenico Veneziano's 
 assistant at Florence and Loreto. He is 
 represented in the National Gallery, London, 
 by a portrait and a Baptism of Christ. 
 
 Francesca da Eimini {d. 1285), daughter 
 of Guido da Polenta, Lord of Ravenna, was 
 bom after the middle of the thuteenth cen- 
 tury, and became the wife of GianciottoMala- 
 testa. Lord of Rimini. Her guilty love for 
 her brother-in-law, Paolo, for whom she had 
 formed an attachment before her marriage,^ 
 and her husband's revenge upon them both, 
 form the subject of a passage in the fifth 
 canto of Dante's Inferno. 
 
 Francesco di Paula, or St. Francis of 
 Faola {b. 1416, d. 1607), a native of Paola, 
 Calabria, was founder of the order of the 
 Minims, of which he established many 
 commimities on the Continent. He wa» 
 canonised in 1519. 
 
 Francia, Francesco. [See Raibolini.] 
 
 Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez {b. 1757^ 
 d. 1840), Paraguayan statesman, joined th© 
 revolutionists in 1811, was appointed con- 
 sul by the Junta in 1813, and dictator in 
 1814. When his first term of three yeara 
 had expired, the title was renewed for life, 
 with an income of 9,000 piastres, of which, 
 he refused to receive more than a third. He 
 lived in complete isolation, and ruled as a 
 despot, but his administration, though a 
 severe, was a just one, and was also marked 
 by great energy. 
 
 Francillon, Robert Edward {b. 1841), 
 novelist and song writer, a native of 
 Gloucester, was editor of the Lau- Maga- 
 zine in 1867, and in the following year 
 published his first work of fiction, Grace 
 Owen's Engagement. In addition to several 
 novels andf some popular songs, he is the 
 author of the libretti of Mr. Cowen's can- 
 tatas, The Rose Maiden and The Corsair. 
 
 Francis I., Emperor of Germany [b. 1708, 
 d. 1765), was son of Leopold, Duke of Lor- 
 raine, to whose dominions he succeeded in 
 1729. In 1736 he married Maria Theresa, 
 daughter of the Emperor Charles VI., and 
 on the latter's death, in 1740, contested the 
 empire with Charles VII., and was elected 
 in 1745. The reins of government, however, 
 were really held by Maria Theresa. 
 
 Francis II., Emperor of Germany. [Set 
 Francis I., Emperor of Austria.]
 
 Fra 
 
 (323) 
 
 Fra 
 
 Francis I., Emperor of Austria (b. 1786, 
 d. 1835), was the eldest son of Leopold II., 
 then Grand Duke of Tuscany, hut after- 
 wards Emperor of Germany. On his 
 father's death, in 1792, he was crowned 
 Mng of Hungary, and in the following 
 month was elected emperor under the title 
 of Francis II. Compelled by Napoleon to 
 conclude the peace of Campo Formio with 
 France in 1797, he renewed the war in con- 
 cert with England and Russia in 1799, but 
 was obliged, by the defeats of Marengo 
 and HohenHnden, to agree to the ti'eaty of 
 LuneviUe in 1801. On August 11th, 1804, 
 he proclaimed himself emperor of Austria 
 (Francis I.), and in August, 1806, after the 
 disastrous campaign of 1805, and the 
 establishment, under Napoleon's protection, 
 of the Confederation of the Rhine, he issued 
 a manifesto abandoning the title of Geiman 
 Emperor and the dignity of the head 
 of the Holy Roman Empire. A fresh 
 outbreak of hostilities with France in 1809 
 was followed by the humiliating peace of 
 Schonbrunn, and Francis reluctantly gave 
 Napoleon the hand of his daughter, Maria 
 Xouisa. In the German " war of liberation '' 
 (1812-14) Francis took a personal part, and, 
 after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, all 
 "his losses were made good to him. His sub- 
 sequent policy under the influence of Met- 
 ternich was one of rigid conservatism. He 
 was four times married. 
 
 Francis I., King of France (ft. 1494, d. 
 1547), was the son of Charles of Orleans, 
 Comte d'Angouleme, and Louisa of Savoy, 
 and succeeded his uncle and father-in-law, 
 Louis XII., on January 1st, 1515. He almost 
 immediately plunged into war, from which 
 during his reign the realm was scarcely 
 ever free. Crossing the Alps, with intent 
 to seize the duchy of Milan, he defeated 
 the Swiss at Marignano, and forced Pope 
 Leo X. to come to terms with him. On 
 the death of Maximilian, in 1319, he con- 
 tested with Charles V. the succession to the 
 imperial crown, and vainly endeavoured to 
 form an alliance with Henry VIII. After 
 meeting with varied fortune in the field, he 
 was defeated and captured at Pavia (24th 
 February, 1525). Having suffered imprison- 
 ment for more than a year, he was set free 
 on very humihating conditions, but at once 
 disregarded them, and renewed the war, 
 which, in spite of the peace of Cambrai 
 (July, 1529), was not definitively concluded 
 till the signing of the treaty of Crespy 
 (1 8th September, 1544), which left matters 
 pretty much in statu quo. Though not a 
 sagacious or honourable prince, Francis 
 showed some sense of chivalry, and was 
 a liberal patron of letters and art, 
 and founder of the College de France. 
 His private life, however, was utterly licen- 
 hous, and his cruel persecution of the 
 v2 
 
 Vaudois and others is a continual reproach 
 to his memory. 
 
 Francis I., Duke of Bretagne {b. 1414, d. 
 1450), was the eldest son of John VI. of Bre- 
 tagne and of Jeanne, daughter of Charles VI. 
 of France. He joined Charles VII. in driving 
 the English out of Normandy. 
 
 Francis XL, Duke of Bretagne {b. 1435, d. 
 1488), eldest son of Richard, Count of 
 Etampes, succeeded his uncle Arthur in 
 1458. In the war with Louis XI. of France 
 he was obliged to sue for peace. 
 
 Francis I., King of Naples {b. 1111, d. 
 1830), son of Ferdinand IV., in early life 
 sympathised with Liberal ideas, but later 
 became an absolutist. During his reign 
 every branch of the pubhc administration 
 fell into confusion and disorder. 
 
 Francis II., ex-King of Naples {b. 1836), 
 son of Ferdinand 11., succeeded his father 
 in 1859. _ When, in the following year. 
 Garibaldi arrived at the gates of his 
 capital, he fled to Gaeta, afterwards re- 
 I tiling to Rome, and then setting out on 
 a course of travel. On November 24th, 
 1859, he married Marie, daughter of the 
 king of Saxony. He is an arch-duke of 
 Austria, and a prince of Hungary and 
 Bohemia. 
 
 Francis IV., Duke of Modena {b. 1119, d. 
 1846), succeeded to the dukedom in 1815. In 
 1830, after giving indication of sympathy 
 with the national party, he fell back, 
 through fear, upon the pohcy of reaction, 
 and the leaders of the national move- 
 ment were either put to death or driven 
 into exile. 
 
 Francis V., last Duke of Modena {b. 
 1819, d. 1875), succeeded to the domain 
 in 1846, and was expelled in 1859. 
 
 Francis Joseph, Charles, Emperor of 
 Austria and Xing of Hungary (b. 1830), 
 is the son of the Emperor Francis I., 
 and nephew of the Emperor Ferdinand 
 I. The revolution of 1848 compelled Fer- 
 dinand to abdicate, and his brother re- 
 signing his claims to the throne in favour 
 of his own son, the latter was at the early 
 age of eighteen called to rule an empire 
 shaken by civil war. He took part in the 
 campaign against the Hungarians, and was 
 present at the capture of R;uib in June, 1849. 
 Restored to the mastery of his dominions, he 
 proceeded to undo the work of 1848. The 
 Hungarian constitution was suspended, tlie 
 absolute authority of the Hapsburg mon- 
 archy in the Austrian dominions proclaimed, 
 and the imperial ministers were declared re- 
 sponsible only to the emperor. The abso- 
 lutist rigime was maintained during the 
 first ten years of his reign, though his own
 
 Fra 
 
 (324) 
 
 Fra 
 
 seutiiiieuts iucliued to a more liberal rule. 
 It was not till Austria had sustained severe 
 reverses abroad that the system fell. 
 The demand of Napoleon III. that the 
 question of the Lombardo- Venetian states 
 should be referred to a European conference 
 being refused, was was declared. The 
 Austrians were defeated at the battle of 
 Solferino on June '24th, 1859, and the 
 emperor was compelled to sign the treaty of 
 Villafranca, by which all claims to Lom- 
 bardy were resigned. A partial return to 
 constitutionalism was then attempted, and 
 representative diets were restored in the 
 different states, but the Hungarians did not 
 cease to demand restoration of their old 
 national institutions in their iategrity. A 
 dispute between Austria and Prussia as to 
 Schleswig-Holstein led to war between the 
 two nations in 1866. Here again the 
 Austrians were completely defeated, and 
 were compelled to accept the North G-erman 
 Confederation under the leadership of 
 Prussia, and to give up Venice to Italy. 
 After these disasters the emperor restored 
 national self-government to Hungary, and in 
 June, 1877, was declared king of that coun- 
 try. In later years the emperor's influence 
 in foreign politics has been chiefly directed 
 to forming a closer alliance with Germany 
 and Italy. In 1878 the treaty of Berlin 
 allowed Austria to occupy Bosnia and the 
 Herzegovina. In 1887 the emperor took 
 part in a series of military councils held to 
 provide for the defence of Galicia against 
 Russia. By the suicide of the Crown Prince 
 Rudolph in February, 1889, he was deprived 
 of all hope of a direct successor, and the 
 crown wiU pass, on his death, to his nephew, 
 Francis Ferdinand, son of his brother, 
 Charles Louis. 
 
 Francis d'Assisi, St. {b. 1182, d. 1226), 
 founder of the order of Mendicant Friars, 
 was son of Pietro Bemardone, a rich mer- 
 chant of Assisi, who brought him up to 
 trade. At the age of twenty-four, after 
 an illness, he turned from the gay and 
 prodigal life of his youth, and devoted him- 
 self entirely to religion and charity, re- 
 nouncing self and ease, going about in rags, 
 performing the most menial oiRces, and 
 even waiting upon lepers in hospital. His 
 example found a few imitators, and in 1210 
 a brotherhood was formed, which received 
 the approval of Pope Innocent in., and was 
 afterwards formally sanctioned by Honorius 
 m. After a preaching tour the brethren 
 returned to Assisi in 1212, and definitely 
 arranged the constitution of the order, its 
 distinguishing note being the emphasis it 
 placed upon the vow of poverty. The Men- 
 dicants, as they came to be known, spread 
 rapidly throughout Christendom. Francis 
 himself, with twelve companions, went to 
 Syria and Egypt in 1219. On his return to 
 
 Italy lie imposed still stricter rules upon his 
 order, and gave himself up to a life of 
 solitude on Monte Alvemo, which be- 
 came tlie scene of the so-called miracle of 
 the stiymata — his belief being that, while in 
 prayer, he both felt and received on his 
 hands, feet, and side the wounds of the 
 Redeemer. He died two years later, leaving 
 behind him a great reputation for sanctity 
 and benevolence. He was canonised by 
 Pope Gregory IX. in 1228. His works, 
 published in 1739, consist of both prose and 
 poetry, and are, for the most part, of an ex- 
 tremely devotional chai-acter. 
 
 Francis de Sales (6. 1557, d. 1622), divine 
 and saint, a native of Sales, Savoy, studied 
 at the Jesuit College in Paris, and re- 
 ceived the degree of doctor in law from 
 Padua, but ui 1593 entered the priesthood, 
 and opposed the doctrines of Protestantism 
 with remarkable success. In 1602 he was 
 made bishop of Geneva, and steadfastly 
 refused to leave his diocese to accept a 
 French bishoi^ric. He also, in 1607, declined 
 the cardinalate offered him by Leo XI. He 
 was canonised by Alexander VII. in 1665. 
 His devotional works have had great popu- 
 larity ; the best known of them are The 
 Introduction to a Devout Life and a Treatise 
 on the Love of God. 
 
 Francis, John {b. 1811, d. 1882), pub- 
 lisher, was from 1831 until his death 
 publisher of the AthencBum. He took a 
 prominent part in all movements for 
 establishing the economic freedom of the 
 press. 
 
 Francis, Sir Philip (b. 1740, d. 1818), 
 administrator and political writer, a native 
 of Dublin, was in 1773 appointed a mem- 
 ber of the council of Bengal. His two 
 colleagues having died, he came into 
 violent conflict with Warren Hastiags, re- 
 sulting in a duel (17th August, 1780), 
 in which Francis was severely injured. 
 On his recovery he resigned, retiumng to 
 England in 1781. In 1784 he entered the 
 House of Commons as member for Yar- 
 mouth, Isle of Wight, and soon dis- 
 played his great abUity and extensive know- 
 ledge of Indian affairs, allying himself with 
 Fox and Burke. In 1787 he carried his 
 motion for the impeachment of Hastings, 
 but was not appointed on the Committee of 
 Management. He strongly opposed the war 
 with France, contended for the abolition of 
 the slave trade, and was an able advocate of 
 reform. On the death of Lord Comwallis it 
 was expected that he would be appointed 
 Governor-general of India ; instead of this 
 he was made a Knight of the Bath. Two 
 years before his death he was publicly 
 credited with the authorship of the Letters 
 ofJicnius, but he never sanctioned the identi- 
 fication, and the question is still in suspense.
 
 Fra 
 
 ( 32'5 ) 
 
 Fr-i 
 
 Franck, Sebastian {b. 1499, d. 1542), 
 German writer and moral reformer, was a 
 native of Donauworth. 
 
 Francke, August Hermann (6. 1663, d. 
 1727), divine and pMlanthropist, was ap- 
 pointed professor of oriental languages at 
 Halle in 1692, and of theology in 1(398. He 
 is also known as the founder of a number 
 of educational institutions. He was a native 
 of Liibeck, and died at Halle. 
 
 Frankland, Edward (6. 182.5), chemist, 
 bom at Churchtown, Lancashire, was 
 elected F.R.S. in 1853, has been presi- 
 dent of the Chemical Society, and of 
 the Institute of Chemistry, and in 1868 
 was appointed a member of the com- 
 mission for inquiring into the pollution of 
 rivers. He has also held several professor- 
 ships of chemistry, including that in the 
 School of Science at South Kensington. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin (6. 1706, <^. 1790), 
 statesman, philosopher, and publisher, was 
 the fifteenth of seventeen children of a 
 Boap-boiler of Boston, Mass. Quarrelling 
 with his brother, he went to Philadelphia 
 almost penniless. Here, in 1729, he pur- 
 chased the Pennsylvania Gazette, formed 
 a club called "The Jimto," and began to 
 acquire political influence. He was chosen 
 clerk of the provincial assembly in 1736, 
 and in 1753 became postmaster-general for 
 British North America. In 1754, when a 
 rupture with France was expected, he sat as 
 a delegate in the Congress at Albany, and 
 in 1756 for a third time held a military 
 command. In 1757 he was sent to England 
 as agent for Pennsylvania, and his reputation 
 as a practical philosopher having preceded 
 him, he was received with great respect, 
 Edinburgh, Oxford, and St. Andrews con- 
 ferring upon him the degree of doctor of laws. 
 In 1764 he revisited England as colonial 
 agent, and was mainly instrumental in secur- 
 ing the repeal of the Stamp Act. When the 
 rupture with England took place he was 
 elected a member of the American Con- 
 gress, signed the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, and subsequently aided in 
 framing the constitution of the United 
 States. In 1776 he was appointed am- 
 bassador to France, and held the post until 
 1785. He returned to America to assume 
 the office of president of Pennsylvania, to 
 which he was twice re-elected, retiring from 
 public life in 1788. Among his scientific 
 discoveries was the identity of lightning 
 with electricity, which he demonstrated by 
 his famous kite experiment. He also dis- 
 covered the course taken by storms over the 
 North American continent. 
 
 Franklin, Sir John (*. 1786, d. 1847), 
 celebrated Arctic navigator, was a native 
 of Spilsby, Lincolnshire. He entered the 
 
 navy in 1800 as a midshipman ; took 
 part in the battles of Copenhagen, Tra- 
 falgar, and New Orleans, and in 1819 pene- 
 trated as far north as 80". He was next 
 sent to the Arctic Ocean by way of Hudson's 
 Bay for the purpose of ascertaining as much 
 as possible about the coast between the 
 Coppermine river and eastward along Coro- 
 nation Gulf. The expedition occupied three 
 and a half years, returning in 1822. In 1825 
 Franklin set out on a second journey, with 
 the view of co-operating with the naval 
 expedition of Beechey, who was penetrating 
 from Behring Strait, and that of Parry, 
 from Lancaster Sound. After taking part 
 in the Greek war of independence, and 
 holding the governorship of Van Diemen's 
 Land (Tasmania), he was, in 1845, sent 
 with the Erebus and Terror to ascertain 
 whether a water-way really existed between 
 the Atlantic and the Pacific. The vessels 
 started in May, manned by 134 officers and 
 men. In July of the same year they were 
 observed at the entrance to Lancaster Sound, 
 but this was the last that was ever seen of 
 them. In 1848 the search for them was 
 begun, and was continued almost without 
 intermission for eleven years, upwards of a 
 milUon sterling being spent upon the work ; 
 but it was not untU 1859 that the party des- 
 patched by Lady Franklin in the yacht Fox 
 ascertained that the vessels had been aban- 
 I doned in the ice off King William Sound in 
 1847, and that aU the officers and crew died 
 of hunger and cold and toil in trjdng to reach 
 the Great Fish river. 
 
 ! Franklin, Jane, Lady {b. 1800, d. 1875), 
 I was second wife of the preceding, whom 
 ! she married in 1828. She never rested 
 from her endeavours to maintain public 
 interest in her husband's fate until the 
 return of the Fox put the question be- 
 yond doubt. She was present at the un- 
 veiling of the monument to the lost navi- 
 gators in Waterloo Place ; and on the 
 marble tablet in Westminster Abbey are 
 ' inscribed these words: — "Erected by his 
 1 widow, who, after long waiting and sending 
 j of many in search of him, lierself departed 
 to find him in the realms of life." 
 
 Franks, Augustus Wollaston, F.R.S. (b. 
 1826), antiquary, was appointed keeper of 
 mediaeval antiquities at the British Museum 
 when the present department was created. 
 In 1858 he became director of the Society of 
 Antiquaries, of which he has for many years 
 been vice-president. He has presented to 
 the nation his splendid collection of Chinese 
 and Japanese porcelain and pottery. A great 
 authority on many departments of art, he is 
 specially at home in the arts of the Re- 
 naissance. 
 
 Franz, Robert {b. 1815), German song 
 composer, a native of Halle, pubUshed
 
 Fra 
 
 (326) 
 
 Fre 
 
 hia first songs in 1843. Soon after- 
 wards he was appointed conductor of the 
 Sing-Academie at Halle, and lecturer on 
 music to the students of the university, 
 but was compelled in 1868 to give up his 
 appointm.ents. 
 
 Fraser, Alexander Campbell, D.C.L., 
 LL.D. (b. 1819), philosopher, a native 
 of Argyllshire, became professor of philo- 
 sophy at New College, Edinbuigh, in 
 1846, aud in 1856 succeeded Sir Wil- 
 liam Hamilton in the chair of logic at 
 Edinburgh. From 1850-57 he was editor of 
 the North British Review. Among other 
 works written or edited by him is a collected 
 edition of the writings of Bishop Berkeley. 
 
 Fraser, James {b. 1818, d. 1885), Eng- 
 lish diviue, a native of Prestbury, was 
 educated at Bridgenorth and afterwards 
 at Shrewsbury, and at Oxford gained 
 the Ireland scholarship and a first class 
 in classics. In 1840 he was elected 
 fellow of Oriel, and in 1847 entered holy 
 orders, and was appointed to a coUege 
 living near Salisbury. In 1860 he was 
 nominated by Mr. Gladstone to succeed 
 Dr. Prince Lee, the first bishop of Man- 
 chester. The appointment was chiefly due 
 to the energy he had shown in the cause of i 
 education, beginning with his appointment { 
 in 1858-60 as assistant commissioner in the j 
 Duke of Newcastle's conunission of inquiry [ 
 on popular education. At Manchester he 
 threw himself enthusiastically into all the 
 interests, secular as well as sacred, of his 
 fellow-citizens. Deserting his palace and i 
 park in the country, and making his home \ 
 in the city, he came to be known as the lay- 
 man's bishop, and, from his brotherly co- 
 operation with the Nonconformists, as the 
 " Bishop of aU Denominations." After his j 
 death a statue was decreed to him by the 
 town council. 
 
 Fraser, Simon. \_See Lovat, Lord.] 
 
 Fraser, Sir William, author of histories of 
 several Scottish houses, became assistant- 
 keeper of the general register of Sasines 
 for Scotland in 1852, and deputy keeper 
 of records in 1880. In 1885 he was made 
 C.B., and in 1887 a K.C.B. 
 
 Frauenstadt, Christian Martin Julius (Jb. 
 1813, d. 1879), German philosopher, is 
 known chiefly for his great edition of 
 the works of his friend Schopenhauer, 
 and for his numerous writings on the 
 subject. 
 
 Frauohofer, Joseph von (Jb. 1787, d. 
 1826), Bavarian optician, invented a num- 
 ber of optical instruments, ^eatly im- 
 proved the telescope, and discovered in 
 the spectrum the daxk lines which bear 
 hia name. 
 
 ill- 
 
 Frechette, Louis HonortS, LL.D 
 1839), French -Canadian poet and po 
 tician, entered the Dominion parliament 
 in 1874. In 1882 two volumes of his 
 poems were crowned by the French 
 Academy. 
 
 Fredegond (6. circa 545, d. 597), wife of 
 ChUperic I., was of obscure birth. Having 
 attracted the notice of Chilperic while in 
 attendance on the queen, she induced hira 
 to divorce his wife. By violence she got 
 rid of the unfortunate queen's successor, 
 Galswintha, and in 565 was married to the 
 king. Her career was full of intrigue and 
 crime, aud is remarkable chiefly for her feud 
 with Brunhilda, wife of Sigbert, king of 
 Austrasia, and sister of Chilperic of 
 Neustria. 
 
 Frederick I., of Hohenstaufen, "Bar- 
 barossa " (" Red-beard "), Emperor (Jb. 
 circa 1123, d. 1190), was grandson of 
 the Emperor Henry IV., and son of 
 Frederick, Duke of Saxony, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 1 147. The prince had been well 
 educated, and early took part in public 
 affairs. On the death of Conrad III., in 
 1152, he was crowned emperor at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. Having arranged his affairs in 
 Germany, he, in 1154, marched into Italy, 
 captured Milan and other cities, took Borne 
 by storm, and was crowned there by Adrian 
 IV. in 1155. On the death of Adrian the 
 Papal throne was contested by Victor TV., 
 the nominee of the empire, and Alex- 
 ander III., the choice of the people. In the 
 end, Frederick, after a great defeat at 
 Legnano (1176), made peace with the con- 
 federate cities. The Italian complications 
 came to an end in 1183 with the peace of 
 Constance. Towards the close of his reign 
 the emperor joined in a crusade, and led 
 across the Hellespont 150,000 men, but, after 
 gaining several victories over the Moslems, 
 was drowned while crossing the Calycadnus, 
 in Pisidia. 
 
 Frederick XL, of Hohenstaufen, Em- 
 peror (b. 1194, d. 1250), was grandson 
 of the preceding, and son of the Em- 
 peror Henry VI. and Constance of Sicily. 
 He was declared king of the Itomans 
 in 1196. His father died when he was 
 in his fourth year, but it was not until 
 1215 that he secured possession of the 
 empire, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 having had to contend for his dominions 
 with Otho of Brunswick and Philip of 
 Swabia. In 1228, in fulfilment of a promise 
 made to the Pope, he set forth on a cru- 
 sading expedition, and obtained possession 
 of Jerusalem, of which he crowned himself 
 king on the 18th of March, 1229. He returned 
 to find Italy in rebellion, due, in part, to the 
 hostility of Pope Gregory IX. Temporary 
 reconciliation took place in 1230, but during
 
 Pre 
 
 ^327) 
 
 Fre 
 
 the rest of his reign he was frequently 
 harassed by the opijosition of Gregory and 
 of his successor, Innocent IV., and was 
 twice excommunicated. The revolt spread 
 from Sicily to Lombardy, and parts of Ger- 
 many, and was comphcated by the desertion 
 of his own son, Henrj', and of his chancellor, 
 Peter de Vinis. The emperor died suddenly 
 in the midst of his troubles. 
 
 Frederick in., of Hapsburg, "the 
 Pacific," Emperor (b. 1415, d. 1493), 
 was son of Ernest, Duke of Austria, of 
 the StjTian branch of the House of 
 Hapsburg. At the age of twenty he was 
 called to govern Styria, Camiola, and 
 Carinthia, and in 1440 was chosen long of 
 the Germans in succession to Albert II., but 
 it was not till 1452 that he was crowned 
 emperor by the Pope. By his indolence and 
 want of resolution he lost considerable por- 
 tions of his empire, and refused to take 
 arms against the Turks, even when they 
 had penetrated so far as Camiola. By the 
 marriage of his son Maximilian to Mary of 
 Burgundy, however, the power of his house 
 was greatly increased. 
 
 Frederick I., King of Prussia, and third 
 elector of Brandenburg of the name 
 {b. 1667, d. 1713), was second son of 
 Frederick WilHam, the great elector, whom 
 he succeeded in 1688. He sent six thou- 
 sand men to aid the Prince of Orange in 
 his English expedition, and twenty thou- 
 sand to aid the emperor against the 
 French. On the 18th of January, 1701, he 
 was crowned first king of Prussia, having 
 increased the power of iiis house by the pur- 
 chase of some principalities, and also by his 
 services to other princes. After the decease 
 of his first wife, Elizabeth of Hesse-Cassel, 
 he married Sophia Charlotte, sister of the 
 elector of Hanover, afterwards George I. of 
 England, and by her became the father of 
 Frederick William I. He founded the Uni- 
 versity of Halle, and also the academy of 
 sciences and the academy of painting and 
 sculpture in Berlin. 
 
 Frederick XL, King of Prussia, "the 
 Great" {b. 1712, d. 1786), was son of 
 Frederick William I., and of Sophia 
 Dorothea of Hanover. By his father's 
 well-meant brutahty he was driven to 
 attempt fliglit to England, but through the 
 indiscretion of his confidant, Lieutenant 
 Katte, he was arrested, condemned to death 
 for desertion, and kept in prison for two 
 years, until released at the soHcitation of 
 foreign princes. He then made a show of 
 submission to his father, and in 1733 con- 
 sented to a marriage with the Princess 
 Elizabeth Christina of Brunawick-Wolfen- 
 biittel, though never treating her as his 
 wife. He was fond of literature and study, 
 for which his coarse and illiterate father had 
 
 nothing but contempt. From his marriage 
 till his father's death Frederick Uved in the 
 castle of Eheinsberg, gave himself up to 
 literature and music, and to the society of 
 learned men whom he gathered around him. 
 During this period began his correspondence 
 with Voltaire, which was followed up later 
 by personal acquaintance. In 1740, the 
 year of his accession to the throne, Charles 
 VI. of Germany died, and Frederick took 
 the opportunity to wrest Silesia from that 
 prince's daughter. This act proved to be the 
 beginning of three wars, of which the last, 
 breaking out in 1756, is known the Seven 
 Years' war. During this conflict his capital 
 was taken, and twice he was reduced to 
 such straits that he meditated suicide, but 
 the sudden death of his enemy, Elizabeth of 
 Russia, saved him, her sou, Peter III., not 
 only withdrawing from the league against 
 him, but sending to his help a force of 
 24,000 men. After 1763, when the war 
 came to an end, Frederick set himself with 
 extraordinary energy to repair its ravages, 
 and lived long enough to witness a state of 
 considerable prosperity. Before his death 
 he organised a confederation of German 
 princes as a safeguard against Austrian 
 pretensions. 
 
 Frederick III., Friedrich Wilhelm Niko- 
 laus Karl, King of Prussia and German 
 Emperor (b. 1831, d. 1888), was the 
 eldest son of the Emperor WiUiam. He 
 was educated partly by Dr. Ernest Cur- 
 tius, and partly at the University of 
 Bonn. In January, 1858, he married 
 Princess Victoria Adelaide, Princess Royal 
 of England. He went through the Danish 
 war, and commanded the second army 
 in the war with Austria, penetrating 
 through the mountains into Bohemia, and 
 arriving just in time to supi^ort the first 
 army. In the Franco-German war he 
 commanded the first army. The assault 
 at Weissenburg on August 4th was two 
 days later followed by the memorable 
 action of Worth, in which the greater part 
 of MacMahon's army was annihilated. He 
 also highly distinguished himself by his 
 passage of the Meuse on the day of Sedan. 
 During the siege of Paris he was raised to 
 the rank of field-marshal, and it would 
 appear from his diary that, in the proceed- 
 ings which resulted in the formation of the 
 German Empire, he played a part hardly 
 inferior to that of Bismarck. When, on the 
 9th of March, 1888, he ascended the German 
 throne, he had for some time been aft'ected 
 with a malignant formation in the throat; 
 but, though dangerously ill within a fort- 
 night of his accession, he rallied sufficiently 
 to be able to perform the greater part of his 
 duties. After terrible suffering, borne with 
 heroic resignation, the disease proved fatal. 
 The closing months of his life were greatly
 
 Pre 
 
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 Fre 
 
 vexed by a dispute with Prince Bismarck as 
 to the proposed marriage between his 
 daughter, the Princess Victoria, and Prince 
 Alexander of Batteuberg. The emperor 
 was a man of wide knowledge, of enUghtened 
 views, and of admirable temper, and his 
 death was a great disappointment to those 
 who looked to him to liberaUse the insti- 
 tutions of Germany and foster her arts. 
 
 Frederick I., Elector-Palatine, " the Vic- 
 torious" [b. 1425, d. 1476), was second son 
 of the Elector Louis III. He had to fight 
 hard to secure his kingdom, but was finally 
 victorious at Seckendorf in 1462. 
 
 Frederick II., Elector - Palatine, " the 
 "Wise" {b. 1483, d. 1556), was fourth son of 
 the Elector Philip, and succeeded his brother, 
 Ludwig, in 1544. He commanded the Im- 
 perial army in 1529, when Vienna was be- 
 sieged by the Turks and saved by the King 
 of Poland. 
 
 Frederick III., Elector-Palatine {b. 1515, 
 d. 1576), succeeded in 1559, adopted the new 
 religious views under the influence of Mel- 
 ancthon, and was of great service to the 
 Reformation. 
 
 Frederick IV., Elector Palatine, "the 
 Upright," succeeded his father, the Elector 
 Louis, in 1583, under the regency of his uncle, 
 John Casimir. 
 
 Frederick V., Elector-Palatine (6. 1596, 
 d. 1632), was son of Frederick IV., whom 
 he succeeded in 1610. In 1613 he mar- 
 ried the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of 
 James I. of England. In 1619 he was 
 elected king of Bohemia, but his army wa.s 
 destroyed at Prague, and the electorate 
 conferred by the empire upon the Duke 
 of Bavaria. The rest of his Hfe was spent 
 in exile. One of his thirteen children was 
 the fiery Prince Rupert of CavaHer fame ; 
 his second son, Charles Loius, eventually 
 became elector. 
 
 Frederick I., Frederick William Charles, 
 King of Wiirtemberg {b. 1754, d. 1816), 
 succeeded to the kingdom of Wiirtemberg 
 in 1797, was made elector in 1804, and, 
 having come to terms with Napoleon, ob- 
 tained the title of king, which he contrived 
 to retain by joining the allies in good 
 time. 
 
 Frederick L, " the Warlike," Elector and 
 Duke of Saxony (b. 1369, d. 1428), was son 
 of Duke Frederick " the Severe," whom he 
 succeeded in 1423. In the conflict with the 
 Hussites he met with a disastrous defeat at 
 Aussig in 1426. 
 
 Frederick H, "the Good," Elector and 
 Duke of Saxony {b. 1412, d. 1464), was son 
 of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 1428. 
 He was engaged in continual wars with the 
 
 Hussites, and with members of his own 
 family. 
 
 Frederick III., "the Wise," Elector and 
 Duke of Saxony {b. 1463, d. 1525), suc- 
 ceeded his father, Ernest, in 1485. A wise 
 and humane prince, he was the founder of 
 the University of Wittenberg, and the pro- 
 tector of Luther. 
 
 Frederick III., "the Handsome," Duke 
 of Austria {b. 1286, d. 1330), was the son of 
 the Emperor Albert I., and of Elizabeth of 
 Cariuthia. In 1315 he was elected emperor 
 of Germany at Cologne in succession to 
 Henry VII., but at the same time Louis of 
 Bavaria was also elected at Aix-la-ChapeUe ; 
 and in the war which followed, Frederick 
 was. in the end, beaten and captured at 
 Miihldorf in 1322. He was kept in detention 
 for three years, but was then released, and 
 the two monarchs came to an arrangement 
 by which the empire was shared between 
 them. 
 
 Frederick V., Duke of Austria (6. 1380, 
 d. 1436), lost most of his dominions 
 by throwing in his lot with Pope John 
 XXIII. 
 
 Frederick I., King of Denmark and Nor- 
 way {h. 1471, d. 1533), was son of Christian I. 
 Against his desire he was called to the throne 
 by the nation, to whom the tyranny of 
 Christian II. had become intolerable. He 
 gave the Danes a constitution and proclaimed 
 religious liberty, became a Lutheran, aban- 
 doned all claim to Sweden, and made peace 
 with Gustavus Vasa. 
 
 Frederick II., King of Denmark and Nor- 
 way (J). 1534, d. 1588), son of Christian III., 
 came to the throne in 1550. He subdued 
 Ditmarsh, and waged a seven years' war 
 with Eric XIV. of Sweden, which was ended 
 by the treaty of Stettin, Sweden having to 
 pay all the military expenses. When peace 
 came, Frederick turned it to good accoimt in 
 improving his kingdom. He was a patron 
 of art and science, and gave Tycho Brahe the 
 island of Huen, where the astronomer 
 erected his observatory. 
 
 Frederick III, of Denmark (6. 1609, d. 
 1670), was elected king of Denmark and 
 Norway on the death of his father. 
 Christian IV. During his reign Denmark 
 was invaded by Charles X. of Sweden, and, 
 though the attack was repulsed, the drain 
 upon the national resources brought about a 
 revolution, which resulted in important 
 constitutional changes. 
 
 Frederick IV., of Denm««xk {b. 1671, d. 
 1730), ascended the throne of Norway in 
 1699, in succession to his father. He entered 
 into an alliance with Saxony and Russia 
 against Charles XII. of Sweden, but the
 
 Pre 
 
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 Pre 
 
 war resulted in his having to pay a large 
 indemnity. 
 
 Frederick V., of Denmark {b. 1722, d. 
 1766), succeeded his father, Christian VI., 
 in 1746. He was a great patron of art and 
 letters, and stimulated the industrial enter- 
 prise of his subjects, but left the state bur- 
 dened with a considerable debt. 
 
 Frederick VI., of Denmark (b. 1768, d. 
 1839), began to rule in 1784 as regent for his 
 father. Christian VII., and as king in 1808. 
 His adhesion to the armed neutrality 
 arranged by Xapoleon led to the bombard- 
 ment of Copenhagen in 1801, and iinaUy to 
 the loss of Norway. In 1834 he created a 
 new constitution. 
 
 Frederick VII., of Denmark (b. 1808, d. 
 1863), only son of Christian VIII., was the 
 last of the Oldenburg Une, and was called to 
 the throne in 1848. His whole reign was 
 troubled by the revolt of Schleswig-Holstein, 
 but it was left to his successor to see the 
 province torn from the country by Austria 
 and Prussia. 
 
 Frederick, Prince of Wales (6. 1707, d. 
 1751), eldest son of George II., came into 
 conflict with his father over his marriage, 
 and threw in his lot with the Opposition. 
 On his death the eldest of his nine children 
 became Prince of Wales, and afterwards 
 came to the throne as George III. 
 
 Frederick Augustus L, first King of 
 Saxony (6. 1750, d. 1827), was son of the 
 Elector Frederick Christian. He joined 
 the league formed by Frederick the Great 
 in 1778, and in 1791 refused the crown 
 of Poland. He assumed the title of king 
 of Saxony on making a treaty of peace 
 with Napoleon, whom he then followed. 
 After Leipzig, however, he was driven out 
 of his kingdom, a portion of which was 
 irrecoverably lost to him. 
 
 Frederick Augustus n., King of Saxony 
 (b. 1797, d. 1854), nephew of the former, 
 was a wise and skilful ruler. In 1830, 
 his father, Prince Maximilian, abdicating, 
 he was made co-regent with his uncle, 
 Anthony. He became sole ruler in 1836, 
 and in 1848 made considerable concessions 
 to popular feeling. 
 
 Frederick Augustus III., Elector of 
 Saxony and King of Poland {b. 1696, d. 
 1763), succeeded his father as elector of 
 Saxony in 1733, and the following year was 
 crowned king of Poland. Of this latter 
 kingdom he lost a considerable portion, 
 owing to the encroachment of his neigh- 
 bours, Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 
 
 Frederick Charles, Prince of Prussia 
 (b. 1828, d. 1885), known as the "Red 
 Prince" from the colour of hia favourite 
 
 hussar uniform, was the eldest son of 
 Prince Charles, brother of the German 
 emperor William, his mother being a sister 
 of the Empress Augusta. He served in the 
 first Schleswig-Holstein war, and having 
 become a general of cavalry, with command 
 of the third army corps, he commanded the 
 right vring of the Prussian army during the 
 Danish war of 1864. In the Austrian war 
 of 1866 he commanded the first army, and to 
 him the crowning victory of Sadowa was 
 mainly due. In the Franco-German war he 
 commanded the second army, which he led 
 to victories at ThionviUe, Gravelotte, and 
 St. Privat, and thus blockaded Bazaine in 
 the entrenchments of Metz. After Bazaine's 
 surrender with 170,000 men, the Prince 
 hastened westward to check the armies of 
 Chanzy and D'AureUes de Paladine in their 
 attempts to relieve Paris from the south. 
 A series of battles lasted almost uninter- 
 ruptedly from the middle of November till 
 the middle of January, when the French 
 army of the west was rendered impotent at 
 Le Mans. In the previous October he had 
 been created field-marshal Pnnce Frederick 
 was father of the Duchess of Connaught. 
 
 Frederick William I., King of Prussia 
 {b. 1688, d. 1740), succeeded his father, 
 Frederick I., in 1713, and at once entered 
 upon a policy of severe economy, and 
 even parsimony. For learning and all 
 the refinements of life he had nothing 
 but contempt; but the effect of his 
 thoroughly practical policy in developing 
 the resources of his country was enormous, 
 and when he died he left an army of 80,000 
 men, brought to a state of the highest dis- 
 cipline, and a reserve of 9,000,000 thalers. 
 By Sophia Dorothea, daughter of George I., 
 he was father of Frederick " the Great." 
 
 Frederick William II., King of Prussia 
 (b. 1744, d. 1797), son of August Wilhelm, 
 the second son of Frederick William I., 
 succeeded his uncle Frederick the Great 
 in 1786. He was too much occupied in 
 unworthy pleasures to be a successful ruler, 
 and although by the second and third 
 partitions of Poland, and also by acquir- 
 ing Anspach and Baireuth, he added to 
 his territory, he, on the other hand, lost 
 the trans-Rhenish provinces to the French 
 republic. He wasted the treasure left by 
 his uncle, lowered the reputation of Prussia 
 among foreign nations, and displeased his 
 subjects by taking from their Uberties and 
 adding to their taxation. 
 
 Frederick William HI., King of Prus- 
 sia {b. 1770, d. 1840), was the eldest son 
 of the Prince of Prussia, who afterwards 
 became king as Frederick William II., by 
 his second wife, Louisa of Hesse. Trained, 
 like all the IlohenzoUems, to the pro- 
 fession of arms, he went through tha
 
 Fre 
 
 330) 
 
 Pre 
 
 campaigns of 1792 and 1793. He married 
 the Princess Louisa of Mecklenburg-Stre- 
 litz, and succeeded to the throne on No- 
 vember 16th, 1797 ; and, though adverse 
 to any constitutional improvement, at once 
 entered upon a series of administrative re- 
 forms. After long delay, he, in 1806, joined 
 the coaUtion agaiust Napoleon. VVitliiu a 
 week the Prussians were totally defeated at 
 Jena and Auerstadt, and the kingdom lay 
 helpless at the feet of France. The work of 
 national regeneration was then quietly and 
 steadily pursued, and when the remains of 
 the Grande Armee were in full retreat through 
 Germany, the king concluded an alliance 
 with Russia and Austria, and declared war 
 against Napoleon. He was present at head- 
 quarters during the eventful campaign of the 
 autumn of 1813, and also took part in the 
 invasion of France in 1814. On peace being 
 restored, the king showed some tendency to- 
 wards constitutional reform, but fell under 
 the influence of reactionary counsellors ; and 
 after 1818 a period of arbitrary government 
 began, and Prussia joined the Holy AlHance. 
 Although his home policy was unpopular 
 with many of his subjects, the king personally 
 was greatly esteemed. 
 
 Frederick William IV., King of Prussia 
 (b. 1795, d. 1861), was eldest son of the 
 preceding. After a careful education, not 
 only in arms, but also in the sciences 
 and. arts, and having in 1823 married 
 Elizabeth, daughter of King Maximilian 
 of Bavaria, he succeeded to the throne in 
 1840 with a reputation for liberal sympa- 
 thies, but was filled with consternation by the 
 revolution of 1840, and both at home and 
 abroad his policy was marked by irresolution. 
 He was an active supporter of the United 
 Germany movement, but when in 1849 the 
 Frankfurt National Assembly offered him the 
 imperial crown, he declined it. During the 
 last three years of his life he was afB^icted 
 with paralysis and partial insanity, and the 
 administration was carried on by his brother, 
 Prince WilUam, afterwards King of Prussia 
 and German Emperor. 
 
 Frederick WilUam, Elector of Branden- 
 burg, "the Great Elector" {b. 1620, d. 
 1688), succeeded to the electorate in 1640, 
 and at once set himself to repair the 
 ravages of the Thirty Years' war. In 1657 
 he secured from Poland the independence 
 of Prussia. In 1672 he formed a league 
 against Louis XIV., and although he defeated 
 the Swedes, whom Louis induced to invade 
 Brandenburg, he was in the end forced by 
 the desertion of allies to sign the treaty of 
 St. Germain (1679). The rest of his reign 
 was devoted to the development of the re- 
 sources of his kingdom, and the encomrage- 
 ment of leamins. 
 
 Frederick William Louis, Grand Duke of 
 
 Baden (b. 1826), succeeded his father, the 
 Grand Duke Leopold, as regent on April 
 24th, 1852. In September, 1866, he nar- 
 rowly escaped assassination. He assumed 
 the title of Grand Duke on the 5th of Sep- 
 tember, 1856, and married a daughter of 
 William I. of Prussia on the 20th of the same 
 mouth. In the Franco -German war he threw 
 in liis lot with Prussia, having long been an 
 advocate of German unity. 
 
 Freeman, Edward Augustus, D.C.L. (b. 
 1823, d. 1892), historian, was born at Har- 
 bome, Staffordshire, and educated at Trinity 
 College, Oxford, where he gained a second 
 class in classics in 1845, and was elected to a 
 fellowship. He first made his mark as a 
 student of mediaeval architecture with a 
 History of Architecture pubUshed in 1849. 
 In 1856 appeared the History and Antiqui- 
 ties of St. Bavids, in which he collaborated 
 with the Rev. W. B. Jones. In 1863 came 
 the first volume of a History of Federal 
 Government. His greatest work, the History 
 of the Norman Conquest, in five large vol- 
 umes, appeared between 1867 and 1876, and 
 the Reign of William liufus and Accession of 
 Henry I. in 1882. He has also written the 
 History and Conquests of the Saracens and 
 the Ottoman Power in Europe (1877), the 
 History of the Cathedral- Church of Wells 
 (1870) and several other works, some of 
 them in the nature of popular exposition. 
 In 1884 he succeeded Dr. Stubbs as Regius 
 professor of modern history at Oxford. In 
 politics he is an ardent Liberal, and has 
 rendered great services to the principle of 
 nationality in south-eastern Europe. 
 
 FreUigratll, Ferdinand [b. 1810, rf. 1876), 
 German poet, bom at Detmold, twice foimd 
 it necessary to retire to England because 
 of his political views, and while there 
 translated Bums, Moore, and Longfellow 
 into German. When he returned to Ger- 
 many he was received with acclamation, 
 and during the war of 1870 wrote some 
 stirring battle songs. As a writer of lyrics 
 he stands in the front rank. 
 
 Frelingtiuysen, Frederick {b. 1753, d. 
 1804), American statesman. 
 
 Frelinghuysen, Frederick Theodore {b. 
 1817, d. 1885), American statesman, nephew 
 of Frederick Frelinghuysen, was a mem- 
 ber of the United States Senate from 
 1866 to 1869, and from 1871 to 1877; and 
 during 1881 to 1885 was secretary of state 
 in President Arthur's cabinet. 
 
 Frelinghuysen, Theodore {b. \l%l,d. 1861), 
 American statesman, was second son of Fred- 
 erick Frelinghuysen, and sat in the Senate 
 from 1821 to 1825. In 1849 he was appointed 
 chancellor of the University of New York, 
 and in 1844 was the Whig candidate for the 
 vice-presidency of the States.
 
 Pr6 
 
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 Pre 
 
 Fremont, John Charles {b. 1813, d. 
 1890), American general, explorer, and 
 politician, was born at Savannah. After 
 engaging in several exploring expeditions 
 for the Government, he fitted out one 
 at his own expense, with the object 
 of finding a practicable route over the 
 mountains to California. This was in 
 October, 1848: he reached Sacramento, after 
 enduring great privations, in the spring of 
 1819, and acquiied a large estate cont ainin g 
 valuable gold mines. In 1856 he was one 
 of the Republican candidates for the presi- 
 dency of the United States, but was un- 
 successful. The Civil war having broken 
 out, he was made a major-general, and 
 placed in command of the western depart- 
 ment, but was recalled for issiiing a pro- 
 clamation freeing slaves in his district. He 
 then received another command, but, being 
 superseded by General Pope, resigned his 
 commission. In 1864 he was again nomi- 
 nated for the presidency, but withdrew his 
 name. For transactions in connection with 
 the promotion of a r.iilway he was sentenced 
 by a French tribunal to fine and imprison- 
 ment, but as he was no longer in France, 
 the penalty was not enforced. From 1878 
 to 1881 he was governor of the territory of 
 Arizona. 
 
 Freppel, Monseigneur Charles !^mi1e (jb. 
 1827, ^d. 1891), Bishop of Angers, bom at 
 Obemai, was appointed professor of sacred 
 eloquence at Paris in 1854, and soon acquired 
 fame as a teacher, writer, and preacher. At 
 the general election of 1881 he was returned 
 as Legitimist deputy for Brest, and was re- 
 elected in 1885. 
 
 Frere, Sir Henry Bartle {b. 1815, d. 
 1884), diplomatist and statesman, was 
 nephew of John Hookham Frere. Hav- 
 ing distinguished himself in Indian ad- 
 ministration, he, in 1850, became chief com- 
 missioner of Scind. After the suppres- 
 sion of the Mutiny, to which he greatly 
 contributed by his occupation of the for- 
 tress of Moultan, he took a leading part 
 in the reconstruction of Indian finance. 
 From 18G2 to 1867 he was Governor of Bom- 
 bay, and entered upon a policy of energetic 
 reform. On his return to England he be- 
 came a member of the Indian Council. In 
 1872, having held the presidency of the 
 Royal Geographical Society in the interval, 
 he negotiated a treaty with the Sultan of 
 Zanzibar by which the slave traflic in the 
 interior was abolished. For this he was re- 
 warded with a seat in the Privy Council. In 
 1877 he was appointed Governor of the 
 Cape and High Commissioner for the settle- 
 ment of native affairs in South Africa. 
 His attempt to confederate the South African 
 colonies failed, and his subsequent attack 
 upon Cetewayo was censured, not only by 
 the Liberals but also by the Govenmient. 
 
 In 1880 he was recalled, and took no fur- 
 ther part in ofiicial Ufe. 
 
 Frere, John Hookham (J. 1769, d. 1841), 
 diplomatist and author, uncle to the pre- 
 ceding, vras bom in London. He en- 
 tered Parhament in 1796 as member for 
 Looe, and in 1799 succeeded Canning as 
 Foreign under-secretary. In 1800 he 
 was appointed envoy-extraordinary and 
 plenipotentiary to Lisbon, and in 18u2 was 
 transferred to Madrid. For persuading 
 Sir John Moore to advance toward Madiid 
 with totally inadequate forces, he was 
 greatly blamed and had to be recalled. 
 Refusing a peerage and the post of am- 
 bassador to St. Petersburg, he retired to 
 Malta, and there occupied himself until his 
 death with Uterary labours, among them 
 being a brilliant translation of the plays 
 of Aristophanes. 
 
 Fr^re, Pierre Edouard (J. 1819, (^.1886), 
 French figure painter, bom in Paris, ex- 
 hibited at the Salon of 1843, and in 
 1855 became a knight of the Legion of 
 Honour. 
 
 Fr^ron, Ehe Catherine {b. 1718, d. YJIQ), 
 French critic, bom at Quimper, waa 
 brought up by the Jesuits, and defended 
 the Church against Voltaire and the Ency- 
 clopaedists. 
 
 Fresnel, Augustin Jean (6. 1789, d. 1827), 
 French geometer and optician, bom at 
 Broglie, extended to a large class of op- 
 tical phenomena the imdulatory theory of 
 light enunciated by Hooke. He was also 
 the first to construct compound lenses as a 
 substitute for mirrors. 
 
 Freimd, Wilhelm {b. 1806), German phi- 
 lologist, bom at Kempen, Posen, is chiefly 
 known by his Worterbuch der Latemis- 
 chen Sprache, which is the foundation of our 
 leading English-Latin dictionaries. 
 
 Freyomet, Charles Louis de Saulces de 
 {b. 1828), French statesman, bom at Foix, 
 was in 1870 chosen by Gambetta as chief of 
 the military cabinet formed to resist the in- 
 vading Germans, and with rare devotion set 
 himself to work to raise armies and organise 
 the commissariat. In 1876 he was elected 
 senator by the department of the Seine ; in 
 1877 he became minister of public works ; 
 and in December, 1879, formed a cabinet of 
 his own, himself hokling the portfolio of 
 foreign affairs. In the followmg year he 
 resigned, and in 1882, when he had a second 
 time formed a ministry, again becoming 
 minister for foreign affairs, his tenure of 
 office was even shorter, for he was defeated 
 on the Egyptian question in July of the 
 same year. In April, 1885, he was foreign 
 minister in the cabinet of M. Brisson, and 
 at the close of the year formed his third
 
 Pre 
 
 (332) 
 
 Fro 
 
 ministry, which came to an end in 1886. He 
 •was minister of war in the Floquet and 
 second Tirard cabinets (1SS8 and 1889), and 
 afterwards became for the fourth time 
 prime minister, being at the same time war 
 minister. In 1890 he was elected a member 
 of the French Academy. 
 
 Freycinet, Louis Claude de Saulces de 
 (i. 1779. d. 1842), French navigator, joined 
 the expedition sent out under Captain 
 Baudin in 1800 to explore the south and 
 south-west coasts of Australia; and in 1817 
 commanded the Uranie in its scientific expe- 
 dition to South America and the Pacific 
 islands. The result of the voyage, which 
 lasted for three years, was published under 
 his supervision, imder the title of Voyage 
 Autour du Monde (1825-44). 
 
 Fres^tag, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (J>. 
 1788, d. 1861), German Arabic lexico- 
 grapher, bom at Lunsberg, was professor 
 of oriental languages at Bonn from 1819 
 till his death. His chief work is his 
 Arabic dictionary, Lexicon Arahico-Latinum 
 (1830-37). 
 
 Freytag, Gustav {b. 1816), novelist and 
 historian, bom at Kreuzberg, Prussian 
 Silesia, has produced, in addition to come- 
 dies, etc., some novels distinguished by 
 sincerity, himiour, and keen delineation 
 of character. Debit and Credit appeared 
 in 1855, and The Lost Manuscript in 
 1864. 
 
 Frideswide, patron saint of Oxford, 
 flourished in the 8th century. She was 
 canonised in 1481. 
 
 Friedlander, IVIichael {b. 1833), Hebraist, 
 has published several commentaries on the 
 Talmud and other branches of Hebraic 
 literature. 
 
 Friedrich, Johann (J. 1836), Eoman 
 Catholic divine, became professor of the- 
 ology at Munich in 1865, and took part in 
 the Vatican council in 1870, but in the fol- 
 lowing year was excommunicated for having 
 allied himself with Dr. DolUnger in the Old 
 CathoUc movement. 
 
 Fries, Elias Magnus {b. 1794, d. 1878), 
 celebrated Swedish botanist, bom at Smaa- 
 land, was appointed professor of rural 
 economy at Upsala in 1836, and in 1851 
 professor of botany. Amongst Swedish 
 naturalists he was second only to Lmnseus. 
 He gave special attention to the order 
 fungi. 
 
 Fries, Jacob Friedrich (b. 1773, d. 1843), 
 German philosopher, a native of Barby, 
 Prussian Saxony, was professor at Jena 
 and Heidelberg. It was his aim to re- 
 strain philosophy within the strict limits 
 laid down by Kajit. 
 
 Frith, John (b. circa 1503, d. 1533), re- 
 former, a native of Westerham, Kent, was 
 the author of a number of treatises in 
 advocacy of Protestantism. He was burnt 
 at Smithfield. 
 
 Frith, William Powell, E.A. (6. 1819), 
 a native of Studley, near Eipon, studied 
 at Sass's academy and in the Eoyal 
 Academy schools in 1835. In 1840 he 
 exhibited Othello and Desdemona at the 
 British Institution, and Malvolio before the 
 Countess Olivia at the Royal Academy. 
 His first important work was Coming of Age 
 in the Olden Time, which was engraved, and 
 became immensely popular. Among the 
 best known of his works are his Ramsgate 
 Sands (1854), The Derby Day (1858), Claude 
 Duval (I860), The Mailway Station (1862), 
 and King Charles IL.^s Last Stmday (1867). 
 He is the author of some charming volumes 
 of reminiscences. He was made A.B.A. in 
 1846, and R.A. in 1852. 
 
 Fritigem, Visigoth leader in the 4th cen- 
 tury, and predecessor of Alaric, gained 
 several victories over the Romans, cul- 
 minating in the triumph of Hadrianople in 
 378, in which the Roman general Valens 
 and two-thirds of his troops were slain. 
 These results were largely due to the success 
 with which he promoted union among the 
 Gothic tribes. 
 
 Frobel, Friedrich Wilhebn August (J). 
 1782, d. 18-32), German educationist, bom 
 at Ober Weissbach, was the origina- 
 tor of the Kindergarten system. In 
 1825 he published a work in exposition 
 of his theory of the education of children, 
 and in 1836 established a school at Blan- 
 kenberg, with a view of putting it into 
 practice. For the most part his system was 
 received with ridicule, but since his death, 
 in spite of the opposition of the Prussian 
 government, who objected to its supposed 
 " socialistic tendencies," it has been widely 
 adopted in Geimany, and even more so in 
 America and England. 
 
 Frbtoel, Julius (6. 1806), political writer, 
 and nephew of the preceding, bom at 
 Greishem, in the Thuringian Forest, was one 
 of the democratic leaders in the revolution of 
 1848. Afterwards he retired to America, 
 and on his return to Germany was banished. 
 He has since lived in England. 
 
 Frobenius, Johannes {b. 1460, d. 1527), 
 printer, was a native of Franconia. 
 
 Frobisher, Sir Martin {b. circa 1535, d. 
 1594), mariner, a native of Yorkshire, made 
 his first voyage iu 1576 under the patronage 
 of Earl Dudley, vrith the object of dis- 
 covering a north-west passage to China, and 
 proceeded as far as Frobisher's Bay. In 
 1677 and 1578 he conducted two HimilaT
 
 Pro 
 
 ( 333 ) 
 
 Pro 
 
 expeditions. In 1585 he served under Drake 
 in the attack upon the Spanish settlements 
 in the West Indies, and in the conflict with 
 the Spanish Armada commanded the 
 Trmmph, and so distinguished himself as to 
 gain knighthood. In defending Brest 
 against the Spaniards he received a wound, 
 from which he died a few days afterwards 
 at Plymouth. His Three Voyages was pub- 
 lished by the Hakluyt Society in 1867. 
 
 Froissart.Jean (6. 1337, «?. 1410), chronicler 
 of the wars between France and England, 
 was the son of a painter of arms. In his 
 twentieth year he undertook to write the 
 history of the wars of France, England, and 
 Spain for Robert, Lord of Beaufort: and 
 having come to England to tear himself from 
 a love affair, he presented a portion of the 
 work to Philippa, wife of Edward III. He 
 thus became attached to the English court 
 till the death of the queen in 1369, and during 
 the interval he travelled extensively. After- 
 wards his friend and patron, the Count de 
 Blois, procured for him a treasurership and 
 canonry at Chimay. In 1395, when he again 
 came to England collecting materials for his 
 history, he was received with great distinction 
 by Richard II. His Chronicles, written in 
 French, extend from 1326 to 1400. 
 
 Fromentin, Eugfene {b. 1820, d. 1876), 
 French painter of Eastern scenes, a native 
 of La RocheUe, became a chevalier of the 
 Legion of Honoiir in 1859, and an officer 
 in 1869. 
 
 Frontenac, Louis de Buade, Comte de (b. 
 1620, d. 1698), French administrator, became 
 governor of the French territory in North 
 America in 1672, and again in 1689, when he 
 brought the Iroquois to submission, and 
 successfully defended Quebec against the 
 British. 
 
 Frontinus, Sextus Julius {d. circa 104), 
 Roman general and author, became gov- 
 ernor of Britain in 75 and subdued the 
 Silures, and was also twice consul. His 
 works deal with the art of war, and the 
 water-supply of Rome. , 
 
 Fronto, Marcus Cornelius (b. circa 100, 
 d. circa 170), Roman general and rhetorician, 
 bom in Numidia, was tutor of Marcus Aure- 
 liu3 and Lucius Verus. In 143 he was 
 consul. 
 
 Frost, Edward William {b. 1810, d. 
 1877), painter, was bom at Wandsworth. 
 After studying in Sass's academy, he 
 was in 1829 admitted a student of the 
 Royal Academy. In the cartoon compe- 
 tition of 1843 he gained a prize of £100 
 for his Vna Alarmed by the Fauns and 
 Satyrs. He was made A.R.A. in 1816 and 
 R.A. in 1871. The field to which he chiefly 
 devoted himself was mythology. 
 
 Frost, Thomas (6. 1821), journalist and 
 miscellaneous writer, bom at Croydon, took 
 an active part in the Chartist agitation, 
 and has published, among other works, 
 Secret Societies of the European Revolution 
 (1876). 
 
 Frothmgham, Octavius Brook (*. 1822), 
 American theological writer and axt critic, 
 a native of Boston, Mass., was for some 
 years a Unitarian minister, but in 1881 
 formally withdrew from church connec- 
 tion, and has since given himself up en- 
 tirely to literature. One of his best known 
 books is his Life of Theodore Parker 
 (1874). 
 
 Froude, James Anthony {b. 1818), his- 
 torian and miscellaneous writer, was bom 
 at Dartington, Devon, a son of an arch- 
 deacon of Totnes, and was educated at 
 Oriel College, Oxford, where he fell under 
 the influence of the Tractarian leaders. 
 Intended for an ecclesiastical career, he 
 was elected fellow of Exeter College, and 
 received deacon's orders, but a fundamental 
 change of his views, explained in his Nemesis 
 of Faith, led him to abandon his fellowship 
 and devote himself to literature. His great 
 work, The History of England from the Fall 
 of TFolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish 
 Armada, appeared between 1856 and 1869, 
 and, although it has been greatly criticised 
 on the score of accuracy, its brilUant literary 
 qualities have secured for it a wide popu- 
 larity. Among Mr. Fronde's other works 
 are : Sho7-t Studies on Great Subjects, The 
 English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century 
 (1872-1874), Oceana (1886), the English in 
 the West Indies (1888), and a monograph on 
 lord Beaconsfeld {1890). In 1889 he made 
 his appearance as a novelist with The 2'uo 
 Ch iefs of Bunboy. He is also the biographer 
 of ms mend, Thomas Carlyle, and none of 
 his works has provoked more controversy 
 than his Life oj Carlyle, Carlyle' s Reminis- 
 cences, and The Letters and Memorials of Jane 
 Welsh Carlyle. Mr. Froude' s is a singularly 
 brilliant yet simple style. His great rhe- 
 torical power, vivid imagination, strong per- 
 ception of character, and keen eye for the 
 picturesque invest all that he has written 
 with high artistic merit. 
 
 Froude, Richard Hurrell {b. 1803, d. 1836), 
 theoloji^an, brother to the preceding, was also 
 a native of Dartington, and was educated at 
 Ottery, at Eton, and at Oriel College, Ox- 
 ford, where he became fellow and tutor. 
 He was a prominent leader in the Tract- 
 arian movement, and the author of the cele- 
 brated Tracts Nos. IX. and LXIII. His 
 Remains, published in 1839 by Keble and 
 Newman, created much commotion on ac- 
 coiuit of their advanced teaching. 
 
 Froude, William (J>. 1810, d. 1879),
 
 Pra 
 
 (334) 
 
 Pnl 
 
 mathematician, military and naval engineer, 
 ■was a brother to the preceding. His edu- 
 cation be^an at Westminster. At Oriel 
 College, Oxford, where he was a pupil 
 of John Henry Newman, he took a first class 
 in mathematics in 1832. For a few years he 
 was the assistant of the younger Brunei, 
 and was engaged in the construction of the 
 Bristol and Exeter Railway. On his retire- 
 ment from professional work he gave his 
 attention to questions of naval engineering, 
 and, in the long run, most of his conclusions 
 were adopted by the Admiralty. 
 
 Frugoni, Carlo Innocenzo {b. 1692, d. 
 1688), Italian lyric poet, was a native of 
 Genoa. 
 
 Fmmentius, St. {d. circa 360), Bishop of 
 Axum, introduced Christianity into Ethiopia 
 (Abyssinia), and is also said to have trans- 
 lated the Scriptures into Ethiopian. 
 
 Frundsberg, Georg von (*. 1473, d. 1527), 
 German general, bom in Swabia, fought 
 in the Italian wars of the Emperors 
 Maximilian and Charles V., and was largely 
 instrumental in the victory of Pavia. 
 
 Fry, Sir Edward {b. 1827), lawyer and 
 theological writer, bom at Bristol, was 
 educated at the Bristol college, and at 
 University College, London. He took sUk 
 in 1869, and ia 1877 was appoiuted a judge 
 of the High Court of Justice and knighted. 
 In 1883 he was appointed to a lord justice- 
 ship of appeal. He has been an examiner 
 in law to the University of London, as well 
 as to the Council of Legal Education. 
 
 Fry, Elizabeth (b. 1780, d. 1845), phi- 
 lanthropist, bom at Norwich, was the 
 daughter of John Gumey, a wealthy mer- 
 chant and banker. In 1813 she began to 
 visit the prison of Newgate, and was one 
 of the most active members of the ladies' 
 association started four years later "for the 
 improvement of female prisoners in New- 
 gat°." In 1818, accompanied by her brother, 
 she went the roimd of the prisons in the 
 north of England and Scotland, and in 1827 
 visited those of Ireland. In 1838-39 she 
 inspected the more important French prisons, 
 and in 1840-41 travelled through Belgium, 
 Holland, Prussia, and Denmark on the same 
 mission. Her persevering efforts brought 
 about a great improvement in prison disci- 
 pline, and also in the hospital system and 
 the treatment of the insane. 
 
 _ Fryxel, Anders (*._ 1795, d. 1881), dis- 
 tinguished Swedish historian, is best known 
 by his Narratives from Su-edish History, 
 of which an English translation appeared 
 in 1844. 
 
 Fuad Pasha, Mahmud {b. 1814, d. 1869), 
 TurkiBh etatesmaq and author, abandoned 
 
 the practice of medicine for a diplomatic 
 career. After holding some minor appoint- 
 ments he, in 1848, was named Ottoman com- 
 missioner to settle the revolutionary disputes 
 in the principalities of Moldavia and Walla- 
 chia. In 1853, for a short time, he was minis- 
 ter for foreign affairs; in 1860 he became 
 grand vizier ; in 1863 war minister ; and a 
 little later was again foreign minister. 
 From mistaken views of the credit system 
 he was instrumental in largely increasing 
 the Porte's financial difficulties. 
 
 Fuchs, Leonard {b. 1601, d. 1566), Bava- 
 rian botanist and physician, was for thirty- 
 five years a professor at Tubingen, and 
 wrote, among other works, a History of 
 Plants. The genus of plants which includes 
 the fuchsia is named after him. 
 
 Fulgentius, St. {b. circa 468, d. 633), 
 more foimally inown as Fabius Clau- 
 dius Gordianus I'ulgentius, a native of 
 Leptis, North Africa, was appointed Bis- 
 hop of Ruspe in 608, but was almost 
 immediately banished because of his op- 
 position to Arianism, and it was not till 
 fourteen years had been spent in exile that 
 he was recalled. A collected edition of his 
 works, which include the celebrated treatise 
 De Fide, was published at Mayence in 
 1515. 
 
 Fulk, Coimt of Anjou and King of Jerusa- 
 lem, succeeded his brother as ruler of Anjou 
 in 1109. Soon afterwards he was at war 
 with Henry I. of England, but in 1119 he 
 gave his daughter's hand in marriage to 
 Henry's son William, who perished in re- 
 turning from Normandy to England. In 
 1129 he went crusading, and, having married 
 a daughter of Baldwin II., became king of 
 Jerusalem in 1131. 
 
 Fulk of Marseilles, Bishop of Toulouse 
 (d. 1231), was in his youth a troubadour, but 
 turned aside to an ecclesiastical career, and 
 became bishop of Toulouse. While holding 
 this office he sided with Simon de Montfort 
 against Count Baymond VI., and helped 
 the former to pillage his diocese. He was 
 one of the bitterest persecutors of his age, 
 and his cruel fanaticism was the least of 
 his faults. 
 
 Fuller, Andrew {b. 1754, d. 1816), Bap- 
 tist preacher and theologian, a native 
 of Wicken, Cambridgeshire, was the first 
 secretary of the Baptist Missionary So- 
 ciety, founded in 1792. In 1784 he jmb- 
 lished The Gospel Worthy of all Accepta- 
 tion, which had the effect of considerably 
 modifying the hyper- Calvinism then pre- 
 valent among his co-religionists. In 1783 
 appeared a powerful treatise dealing 
 with the Calvinistic and Socinian systems. 
 He also wrote The Harmony of Scripturt 
 (1817).
 
 Pul 
 
 (335) 
 
 Pyt 
 
 Fuller, Maxgaret. [See Ossoli, Countess 
 of.] 
 
 Fuller, Thomas (J, 1608, d. 1661), divine, 
 historian, and wit, was a native of North- 
 amptonshire, and was educated at Queen's 
 College, Cambridge, where he gradu- 
 ated m 1628. He was ordained in 1630, 
 and in the following year was chosen fel- 
 low of Sidney Sussex College. After hold- 
 ing several positions in the Church, he, 
 in 1641, became minister of the Savoy, but 
 his EoyaUst sentiments bringing him into 
 danger, he was obUged to leave London, and 
 in 1643 joined the king at Oxford. His 
 moderation, however, gave offence. Ap- 
 pointed chaplain to the Royal army, he 
 showed that however moderate his political 
 action might be, he was deeply in earnest in 
 the discharge of his duties. In 1647 he re- 
 turned to London to preach at St. Clement's, 
 Eastcheap, but before long was suspended. 
 Soon afterwards, however, he was presented 
 by the Earl of Carlisle to the curacy of 
 Waltham Abbey, and succeeded in satisfying 
 Cromwell's " tryers." In 1658 he was pre- 
 sented to the rectory of Cranf ord, Middlesex, 
 and after the Restoration was appointed 
 chaplain to the king, and made doctor of 
 divinity. Among his works are The History 
 of the Holy War (1639), The Holy and Pro- 
 fane State (1642), Good Thoughts in Bad 
 Times (1645), A Pisgah-sight in Palestine 
 (1650), Church History of Britain (1655), 
 and The Worthies of England, published 
 posthumously in 1662. 
 
 Fullerton, Lady Georgiana (6. 23rd Sep- 
 tember, 1812, d. 19th January, 1885), reli- 
 gious novelist, was bom at Tixall Hall, 
 Staffordshire, daughter of the first Earl 
 Granville, and in 1833 was married to 
 Alexander Fullerton. Her first story, Ellen 
 Middleton, appeared in 1844. In 1846 she 
 seceded to the Roman Church. 
 
 Fulton, Robert (Jb. 1765, d. 24th February, 
 1815), a native of Little Britain, Pennsyl- 
 vania, invented a miU for sawing and polish- 
 ing marble, a machine for spinning flax, a 
 dredging-machine, etc., but his reputation 
 chiefly rests upon his being the first to apply 
 steam to navigation with any degree of 
 success, though the actual invention of the 
 steamboat is claimed for John Fitch (q.v.). 
 In 1814 he constructed the first war steamer 
 of the United States. 
 
 Fumiss, Harry (*. 1854), artist and 
 caricatiiri'^t, was bom at Wexford, the 
 son of English parents. As an artist 
 he is chiefly self-taught, and started 
 working for publishers at an early date. 
 
 He came to London in 1873 and joined the 
 staff of the Illustrated London I^eios. In 
 1880 he began to contribute to Punch, and 
 in 1884 was promoted to the regular staff. 
 In 1888 he exhibited a series of caricatures 
 of the pictures of our leading artists. More 
 recently he has delivered lectures illustrating 
 the humours of Parliament. 
 
 Fumivall, Frederick James, LL.D. (*. 
 1825), philologist, entered University College, 
 London, in 1841, and subsequently graduated 
 B.A. at Cambridge in 1846. He has devoted 
 himseK to the study of Early and Middle 
 English literature, and is one of the most 
 distinguished members of the new school of 
 English philology. For many years he was 
 the editor of the Philological Society's new 
 Engllfih Dictionary, now being pubhshed by 
 the Clarendon Press. In 1885 his philo- 
 logical labours were rewarded with a Civil 
 List pension of £150. 
 
 Fiirst, Julius (A. 1805, d. 1873), Ger- 
 man Orientalist, of Jewish parentage, 
 was from 1864 to the time of his death 
 professor of the Aramaic and Talmudic 
 languages at Leipzig. 
 
 Fuseli, Henry [Johann Heinrich Fuseh] 
 {h. 1741, d. 1825), historical painter, a native 
 of Ziirich, was obliged to leave his native 
 town for exposing some shortcomings on 
 the part of the chief magistrate, and in 
 1765 came to England, and on the advice of 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds resolved to devote him- 
 self to art. For nearly nine years he studied 
 in Italy. His work always suffered from 
 his lack of early training in drawing. He 
 was elected A.R. A. in 1 788, full member in 
 1790, lectui'er on paiating in 1799, and 
 keeper of the Royal Academy in 1804. He 
 was cynic, wit, poet, and enthusiast, and 
 his published lectures on painting are 
 still read. He was buried in St. Paul's 
 Cathedral. 
 
 Fust, or Faust, Johann {d. circa 1466), 
 to whom, in company with Guttenberg and 
 Schoeffer, is attributed the invention of 
 printing, was a goldsmith of Mayence. He 
 entered into partoership with Guttenberg in 
 1450, and they printed, among other works, 
 the Bihlia Sacra Latina. 
 
 Fustel de Coulanges {p. 1830, d. 1889), 
 French antiquarv, born in Paris, was the 
 author of Xa Cite Antique (1864), which was 
 crowned by the French Academy, and went 
 through many editions. 
 
 F3rt, Jan {b. 1625, d. 1671), Dutch painter, 
 bom at Antwerp, excelled chiefly in depicting 
 stilllife.
 
 Gaa 
 
 ( 336 ) 
 
 Gad 
 
 Gaal, Bemaert {d. 1671), Dutch land- 
 Bcape-painter of the school of Wouver- 
 
 maus. 
 
 Qabbiani, Antonio Domenico {b. 1652, d. 
 1726), Florentine painter, patronised by the 
 Grand Duke Cosimo III. ; was killed by a 
 fall from a scaffold when painting the 
 cupola of Castello. 
 
 Gabelentz, Hans von der (b. 1807, d. 1874), 
 philologist of Altenberg, who mastered more 
 than eighty languages ; his chief work was 
 a book oil the Melanesian languages. 
 
 Gabinius, Aulus {d. between 50 and 
 45 B.C.), consul and tribune ; author of the 
 lex Gabinia, by which Pompey was given 
 the command of the great expedition against 
 the pirates. He was afterwards proconsul 
 of Syria, but was on his return to Rome 
 accused of treason and malversation, and, 
 though defended by Cicero, condemned to 
 exile. 
 
 Gaboriau, Emile (6. 1835, d. 1873), French 
 novehst, son of a notary, served in a 
 cavalry regiment and as a carrier's clerk 
 before he began to write. He at first con- 
 tributed to minor newspapers, for which he 
 wrote hght sketches and some historical 
 essays. Eventually, however, he became 
 known as the author of novels having for 
 their subject crime and detectives. Among 
 these were L' Affaire Lcrouge (1866), Le 
 Crime d'Orcival (1867), and La Beqringolade 
 (1876). 
 
 Gabriac, Marquis de {b. 1792, d. 1865), 
 French statesman ; served under Napoleon ; 
 in 1823 named plenipotentiary in Sweden ; 
 was subsequently sent to Rio Janeiro, where, 
 in conjunction with representatives of Eng- 
 land and Austria, he obtained the separation 
 of Brazilian and Portuguese governments, 
 and, in 1828, the adoption in Brazil of French 
 maritime law. He was then sent as am- 
 bassador to Switzerland ; on his return, in 
 1830, retired into private life till 1841, when 
 he was made a peer of France. He then 
 agitated for freedom of education, which 
 became law in 1850. Three years later he 
 was named senator by Napoleon III. He was 
 the author of Les Republiques de P Amerique 
 du Sud considerees dans leur Aveiiir, and of 
 Dom Pedro I., Notes et Souvenirs Personnels 
 (1854). 
 
 Gabriel, Jacques Ange {d. 1782), French 
 architect of the last century ; designed the 
 Ecole Militaire and other buildings. His 
 grandfather and father were also eminent 
 members of the same profession. 
 
 Gabriel de Chinon {d. 1670), Capuchin 
 
 monk and missionary, passed some years in 
 Persia ; set on foot a mission to Kurdistan, 
 and died of dysentery at Malabar. His 
 Relations Nouvelles du Levant was published 
 after his death. 
 
 Gabriel Sionita (*. 1577, d. 1648), learned 
 Marouite ; was professor of oriental lan- 
 guages at Rome and Paris. He translated 
 the Psalms from Syriac into Latin. 
 
 GabrieUe, ' ' La Belle. ' ' ISee Estrees.] 
 
 Gabrielli, Cattarina (*. 1730, d. 1796), 
 Italian singer ; adopted by Prince Gabrielli, 
 whose cook was her mother. She was a 
 pupil of Porpora. 
 
 Gabrielli, Francesca {b. 1755, d. 1795), 
 singer ; called " GabrielUna " to distinguish 
 her from Cattarina. 
 
 Gagon, Francjois (6. 1667, d. 1725), French 
 satirical poet, who attacked all the leading 
 members of the Academy, including Bossuet, 
 and underwent imprisonment for writing 
 Pv'ete sans Fard (1696). 
 
 Gadbury, John (6. 1627), astrologer and 
 j)upil of Lilly. Predictions in his almanacks 
 about the Popish plot brought him into 
 trouble. 
 
 Gaddesden, John of (d. circa 1350), ap- 
 pointed by Edward II. the first court 
 physician ; wrote Rosa Anglica seu Practica 
 Medimnae. 
 
 Gaddi, Taddeo {b. 1300), the most cele- 
 brated of a family of Florentine painters, 
 and a pupil of Giotto. He finished the 
 campanile of the cathedral at Florence, 
 which that master had begun. Gaddo {d. 
 1312), father of Taddeo, and Angelo (d. 
 1387), son of the latter, were painters of 
 some repute. 
 
 Gade, Niels Wilhebn (6. 1817, d. 1890), 
 Danish composer ; bom at Copenhagen ; 
 gained the prize of the Copenhagen Musical 
 Association for his NachMdnge von Ossian 
 in 1841 ; studied at Leipzig and in Italy ; 
 succeeded Mendelssohn as director of the 
 Gewandhaus concerts, and, on his return to 
 Denmark, became organist and master of 
 the Chapel Royal. In 1876 he was granted 
 a life pension of 3,000 crowns. His chief 
 works are the Erl King^s Daughter and 
 Springtide Phantasy. 
 
 Gadebusch, Friedrich (b. 1719, d. 1788), 
 German historian, author of the Annals of 
 Livonia,
 
 Gad 
 
 (337) 
 
 Gag 
 
 Gadsden, Christopher (b. 1724, d. 1808), 
 American statesman ; correspondent of 
 Samuel Adams, and one of the framers of 
 the constitution of South Cai'olina. 
 
 Gaekwar, Kanhojee, eldest illegitimate 
 sou of Goviad Rao, who died in 1800 ; 
 usm-ped the state authority, and tried to 
 obtain English support by territorial con- 
 cessions. The governor of Bombay sup- 
 ported the lawful heir, and in 1818 Kanhojee 
 surrendered. Having made several sub- 
 sequent attempts to rebel, he was imprisoned 
 at Madras, where he died. 
 
 Gaekwar, Mulhar Eao, cousin of Govind 
 Rao's son ; supported Kanhojee, and became 
 involved in hostilities with the English. He 
 was defeated in 1801 at Kurree and sur- 
 rendered, and was kept under surveillance 
 by the Bombay government till his death. 
 
 Gaelen, Alexander van {h. 1670, d. 1728), 
 Dutch artist, most of whose works are battle- 
 pieces ; came to England and painted the 
 portrait of Queen Anne. 
 
 Gaertner, Joseph {b. 1732, d. 1791), 
 German botanist, native of Wurtemberg ; 
 visited almost every country in Europe, 
 and was in England made a fellow of the 
 Royal Society. His work. Be Fructibus et 
 Seminibus Plantarum, was published between 
 1789 and 1791. 
 
 Gaetano, Giovanni, Italian mariner of 
 the 16th century, in the employ of 
 Charles V., who, after returning from the 
 New World, wrote an account of his ad- 
 ventures, which was reprinted in Ramusio's 
 Raccolta delle Navigazioni e de^ Viaggi, 
 
 Gafifarel, Jacques (i. 1601, d. 1681), 
 librarian to Cardinal Richelieu. His 
 Curiosttes Inouyes sur la Sculpture TnUsman- 
 iqtie des Persans was translated into English. 
 
 Gaforio, or Gafori, Franchino {b. 1451, d. 
 1522), Itahan writer on music ; published 
 Practica Musicce and other works. 
 
 Gage, Sir Henry (b. 1597, d. 1645), dis- 
 tinguished Royalist officer in the great Civil 
 war ; relieved Basing House in September, 
 1644, but was killed a few months later in a 
 skirmish near Abingdon. 
 
 Gage, Sir John {b. 1479, d. 1556), states- 
 man and soldier ; commanded at the battle 
 of Solway Moss, where Jajraes V. was 
 defeated, but is believed to have quarrelled 
 with Henry VIII. about Catherine of 
 Aragon. As a zealous Catholic, he was in 
 great favour with Queen Mary, who ap- 
 pointed him Lord Chamberlain. 
 
 Gage, Thomas {d. 1656), traveller ; became 
 a Dominican monk in Spain, whence he set 
 out as a missionary for the Philippines. He 
 w 
 
 never, however, arrived there, but settled in 
 Guatemala, and engaged in missionary work 
 among the Indians of Central America. On 
 his return to England he pubHcly abjured 
 Romanism, and published A New Survey 
 of the West Indien, which was ordered by 
 Colbert to be translated into French. 
 
 Gage, Thomas {b. 1721, d. 1787). soldier, 
 served under Braddock in 1756. In 1760 he 
 was governor of Montreal, and three years 
 later succeeded Lord Amherst as commander 
 of the British forces in America. As gover- 
 nor of Massachusetts he was instructed to 
 put down the revolutionary movement 
 around Boston, and his seizure of the rebel 
 stores at Cambridge and other places led to 
 open hostilities. He was recalled to 
 England in October, 1775, being considered 
 incompetent. 
 
 Gagem, Friedrich von {b. 1794), son of 
 Johann ; served in the Austrian and Nether- 
 land armies, and was killed while in com- 
 mand of the ti'oops of the Duke of Baden 
 in the Baden revolutionary movement led by 
 Hecker in 1848. 
 
 Gagem, Heinrich Wilhelm August von 
 {b. 1799, d. 1880), his brother; served at 
 Waterloo ; supported the fonnation of a 
 miion of German states under Prussia, and 
 presided at the Frankfort assembly of 1849, 
 when the imperial crown was offered to 
 Frederick Wniiam IV. Again at Erfurt, in 
 1850, he advocated the same views. He also 
 took part in the Schles-vvig-Holstein campaign 
 of 1849-50, after which he retired from 
 public life. 
 
 Gagem, Johann Christopher von (5. 1766, 
 d. 1852), German statesman and writer ; an 
 opponent of Napoleon, and an active 
 advocate of German unity. He took part 
 in the Tj'rol rising of 1812, and was present 
 at the congress of Vienna as representative 
 of the Netherlands. He wi'ote several 
 political works. 
 
 Gagnier, Jean (6. 1670, d. 1740), French 
 Orientalist; took orders, but wishing to 
 marry, became a Protestant ; he came 
 to England, and was made professor of 
 Hebrew at Oxford, receiving degrees from 
 that university and from Cambridge. His 
 chief works are an edition of Ben Gorion'a 
 History of the Jews, and of Abulfeda's Life 
 of Mohammed in Arabic and Latin. 
 
 Gagni or Gagn6, Jean de {d. 1549), reader 
 to Francis I., whose permission he obtained 
 to have many curious manuscripts pub- 
 lished ; also wrote a commentary on the 
 New Testament and some Latin poems. 
 
 Gaguin, Robert (6. circa 1425, d. 1502), 
 French chronicler and diplomatist. His 
 chief work is Compendium supra Francorum 
 gestts usque ad annum 1491.
 
 Gai 
 
 (338) 
 
 Gal 
 
 Gail, Jeau Baptiste {b. 1755, d. 1S29), 
 French Hellenist; translated Theocritus and 
 Anacreon, besides many other classics ; 
 narrowly escaped proscription during the 
 Reign of Terror. His wife, from whom he 
 separated, composed some operas. 
 
 Gail, Jean Francjois {b. 1795, d. 184.5), son 
 of the preceding ; musician and Greek 
 scholar, his chief work being Geographi 
 
 Minorcs. 
 
 Gaillard, Antoine, pseudonym of the 
 Sieur de la Porte Neille, an imitator of 
 Rabelais, whose (Euvres Melees were pub- 
 lished iu 1634. 
 
 Gaillard, Honore Reynaud de (6. 1641, d. 
 1727), eloquent court preacher ; directed 
 the education of Turenne, and was con- 
 fessor to Mary of Modena, second wife of 
 James II. 
 
 Gaine, Hugh {d. 1807), journalist; started 
 the New York Mercury ia 1752, at first as 
 a Whig paper, but afterwards made it 
 Royalist. At the close of the American war 
 he became a bookseller, and acquired a large 
 estate. 
 
 Gaines {b. 1777, d. 1849), American 
 general, took part ia the war of 1812; 
 was severely wounded at Fort Erie 
 (1814), where he gained the rank of 
 brevet-major-general, and received the 
 thanks of Congress ; was also in the battle 
 of Chrystler's Field. He served in the 
 Creek war of 1876 and was wounded. He 
 was tried by court-martial for calling out 
 the Southern militia without orders on the 
 outbreak of the Mexican war, but escaped 
 censure. 
 
 Gainsborough, Thomas (b. 1727, d. 1788), 
 landscape and portrait painter, son of a 
 draper, was bom at Sudbury. At the age of 
 thirteen he came to London, determined to 
 support himself by painting, and took lessons 
 of Gravelot. He soon made a name for him- 
 self by his portraits, and at the age of nine- 
 teen married, and resided at Ipswich. Here 
 he made the acquaintance of Thicknesse, 
 who persuaded him to go to Bath, where 
 occupation had been found for him. Gains- 
 borough now devoted himself to landscape- 
 painting, his success in which procured him 
 admission in 1768 to the Royal Academy. 
 He made the acquaintance of Sir Joshua 
 RejTiolds and other artists of reiDute, with 
 whom, however, his relations were never 
 very intimate. His best known portraits 
 are those of the royal family, of Kean, and 
 of Abel, the musician. Among his land- 
 scapes are The Shepherd's Boy and The 
 Woodman in the Stoym. He died in London. 
 
 Gairdner, James {b. 1828), historian, son 
 of a surgeon ; was bom and educated at 
 
 Edinburgh. In 1846 he obtained an appoint- 
 ment in the Record Office, and became in 
 1859 assistant-keeper of the Public Records. 
 He is chiefly known as the euxtor of the 
 Fasten Letters (1872-75), but he has also 
 edited Histuria Regis Henrici Septinii, Let- 
 ters and Papers illustrative of the licign oj 
 Richard III., and continued Professor 
 Brewer's Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. 
 for the ^^ Rolls ^^ Series, and several works 
 for the Camden Society. Besides these, he 
 has done original work in his Life and Reign 
 of Richard III. (1878), and, in conjunction 
 with Mr. Spedding, Studies in English His- 
 tory, and is the writer of Henry VII. ia 
 Twelve English Statesmen (1889). 
 
 Gaisford, Thomas {b. 1780, d. 1855), clas- 
 sical scholar ; educated at a private school 
 at Winchester, and at Christ Church, Ox- 
 ford, where he was elected student in 1800. 
 While tutor at the college he published an 
 edition of the Enchiridion of Hephsestion. 
 In 1811 he was appointed Regius professor 
 of Greek, and in 1825 prebendary of 
 Worcester, and was also rector of Westwell, 
 in Oxfordshire, from 1815 to 1847. He 
 also held prebends at St. Paul's, LlandafE, 
 and Durham, the last of which he exchanged 
 in 1831 for the deanery of Christ Church. 
 He was a learned and laborious editor and 
 commentator, the chief results of his research 
 being an edition of the Lexicon of Suidas 
 and fixe Etymologicon Magnum. The "Gais- 
 ford Prize," founded after his death, is 
 awarded annually at Oxford for Greek 
 prose and verse. 
 
 Gains [Caius] Roman iurist of the 2nd cen- 
 tury ; author of Libri Institutiotiem Quat- 
 tuor, discovered in 1816 at Verona, and first 
 published at Berlin ia 1821 by Goschen ; a 
 third edition appearing by Lachmann in 
 1841. It was the model for Justinian's 
 Institutes. 
 
 Galba, Servius Sulpicius ((^. after 138 B.C.), 
 Roman prastor ; subdued the Lusitanians, and 
 then massacred and enslaved them (150 B.C.); 
 tried but pardoned ; was consul 144 B.C. 
 
 Galba, Servius Sulpicius (Jb. 3, d. 69), 
 successor of Nero as emperor of Rome, but 
 was in power little more than seven months 
 before being murdered by the soldiers of 
 Otho. 
 
 Galbraitli, William (b. 1786, d. 1850), Scot- 
 tish mathematician and divine ; published 
 astronomical and barometrical tables be- 
 tween 1827 and 1834, and many mathe- 
 matical papers. 
 
 Gale, Benjamin {b. 1715, d. 1790), phy- 
 sician, bom at Killingworth, Connecticut; 
 invented an improved drill-plough, and 
 wrote many political essays. About 1750 
 he published A Dissertation on Inoculation.
 
 Gal 
 
 (339) 
 
 Gal 
 
 Gale, John (i. 1680, d. 1721), Baptist 
 minister; studied at Leyden and obtained 
 degrees of M.A. and Ph.D. ; read under 
 Limborch at Amsterdam ; wrote an answer 
 to WaU's Hcitory of Infant Baptism. Some 
 of his works were printed by subscription 
 after his death. 
 
 Gale, Roger (b. 1672, d. 1744), antiquarian, 
 member of Parliament, and commissioner 
 of stamps and excise ; was first vice- 
 president of the Society of Antiquaries. He 
 published ^ntonlni Itinerarium Britan- 
 niarum, and the Knowledge of Medals. 
 
 Gale, Samuel, brother of the preceding 
 (&. 1682, d. 1754), edited Lord Clarendon's 
 History of Winchester Cathedral, and con- 
 tributed some papers to the Archmologia 
 and the Bibliotheca Topographia Britannica. 
 
 Gale, Theophilus (b. 1628, d. 1678), In- 
 dependent minister; lost his fellowship of 
 Magdalen College, Oxford at the Restora- 
 tion ; was then tutor to Lord Wharton's sons, 
 and afterwards minister in Holbom. His 
 chief works are The True Idea of Jansenism 
 and The Court of the Gentiles. 
 
 Gale, Thomas, father of Roger and 
 Samuel {b. 1636, d. 1702), scholar and anti- 
 quary ; was Regius professor of Greek at 
 Cambridge for six years, after which he 
 became master of St. Paul's school, and in 
 1697 dean of York. He was also fellow and 
 secretary of the Royal Society, and published 
 many classical and antiquarian works. 
 
 Galen, Christopher van (6. 1600, d. 1678), 
 Prince-bishop of Mimster ; led an army 
 against the Turks in 1664 ; was called a 
 " mitred brigand." 
 
 Galenus [Galen] {b. 130), physician; bom 
 atPergamos ; lived some time at Alexandria 
 and Rome, whither he was recalled by Mar- 
 cus Aurelius when travelling in Asia ; is 
 supposed to have died at Pergamos. His 
 chief work is that on The Use of the different 
 Parts of the Human Body, which, with his 
 other works, was regarded as authoritative, 
 and used as a text-book throughout the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 Galeotti, Marzio {d. 1494), Italian writer ; 
 celebrated for his knowledge of occult 
 science ; is chiefly kno%vn as having collected 
 the bon mots of Mathias Corvinus, king of 
 Hungary. 
 
 Galeotti, Sebastiano (d. 1746), Tuscan 
 painter ; bom about 1676, 
 
 Galerius. \_See Maximianus.] 
 
 _ Galeswinthe {d. 568), daughter of Athana- 
 gilde, king of the Goths; was married to 
 Chilperic, king of Neustria, who poisoned 
 her in 568. 
 ■w2 
 
 ^Galiani, the Abbe Fernando {b. 1728, d. 
 1787), savant ; wrote several economical and 
 political treatises, among which are a Dia- 
 logue^sur les Bles and a work on The iJuties 
 of Neutral Princes. He has been called 
 " MachiaveUino." 
 
 Galignani, John Anthony (b. 1796, d. 
 1873), jovirnalist; established and edited, 
 with his brother M'illiam, Galiynayii's 
 Messenger; also founded the Galignani Hos- 
 pital at Paris, and joined with William in 
 defraying the cost of building the hospital at 
 CorbeU. The latter died in 1882. 
 
 Galilei, Galileo {b. 1564, d. 1642), as- 
 tronomer and natural philosopher ; born at 
 Pisa; was educated first at Florence, but 
 afterwards returned to Pisa to study medi- 
 cine, for which profession his father designed 
 him. Here, after becoming known as an 
 opponent of the Aristotehan maxims, he 
 discovered in 1582 the law of the vibrations 
 of the pendulum. Soon afterward he began 
 to study mathematics, and was appointed 
 professor at Pisa when only twenty-five. 
 Thence he removed to Padua in 1593, and 
 during his residence there invented a ther- 
 mometer and constructed his first telescope, 
 the invention of which he had heard of at 
 Venice. He also made astronomical dis- 
 coveries, and was re-established in 1610 at 
 Pisa by his patron, Cosimo de' Medici. Here 
 it was that his opposition to traditional 
 views, and especially his advocacy of the 
 Copemican doctrine that the sun was the 
 centre of the universe, brought him into 
 conflict with the Inquisition, but proceedings 
 were dropped on Galileo's promise not to 
 teach the obnoxious doctrine. On the pub- 
 lication, however, in 1632, seventeen years 
 after, of his Lialogue on the same subject, 
 he was again sxmimoned to Rome, con- 
 demned to imprisonment for life, and re- 
 quired to solemnly recant his opinion. He 
 was confined at first in the house of one of 
 the Inquisitors, his pupil, but was after- 
 wards allowed to Hve in Florence, where he 
 died, having been blind four years. His 
 works were published in Florence in the 
 years 1843-6. 
 
 Galilei, Vincenzo {b. 1606, d. 1649), son of 
 Galileo ; taught by his father ; proposed 
 the application of pendulums to clocks 
 about 1640. 
 
 Galitzin, Alexander, son of Mikhail Qj. 
 1718, d. 1783), general, and favourite of 
 Catherine II. ; defeated the Turks at Choc- 
 zim in 17G9. 
 
 Galitzin, Dmitri (b. 1770, d. 1840), Rus- 
 sian noble and missionary : served in the 
 Austrian army, but in 1792 resolved to 
 travel in America ; was ordained Roman 
 Catholic priest in 1795; foimded, under the 
 name of "Father Smith," the Catholic
 
 Gal 
 
 (340) 
 
 Gal 
 
 colony of Loretto, in Pennsylvania, and 
 settled there for life, making, however, 
 frequent journeys. His name is given to a 
 village near Loretto, and a monument was 
 erected to him there in 184S. 
 
 Galitzin, Dmitri (6. 1721, d. 1773), Rus- 
 sian statesman ; endowed a hospital at 
 Moscow, which was opened in 1802. 
 
 Galitzin, Emanuel (b. 1804, d. 1853), 
 soldier and author ; was born and educated 
 at Paris, but in 1825 went to Russia ; joined 
 the army, and served with distinction in 
 Turkey, being wounded at Varna in 1828. 
 After his return in the next year, he retired 
 from the service, and devoted himself to 
 literature — his chief works being Za Fin- 
 lande en 1S48, the result of a tour through 
 that country, and Contes Russes, a French 
 translation, with biographical notices, of 
 the chief Russian fable- writers. Prince 
 Galitzin was also an eminent geographer 
 and corresponding member of the Geogra- 
 phical Society of London. 
 
 Galitzin, Georg Bulyakov (d. 1585), 
 general ; carried out the vengeance of Ivan 
 the Terrible against Wenden in 1577. 
 
 Galitzin, Mikhail {d. after 1514), general; 
 was defeated and taken prisoner by the 
 Poles, but released by the king ; was in 
 great favour with the Tsar. 
 
 Galitzin, Mikhail {b. 1675, d. 1730), general 
 and statesman \mder Peter I. ; served 
 against the Turks, and was wounded at 
 Azov at the age of twelve ; commanded 
 against the Swedes in 1700, and was again 
 wounded, but succeeded, as governor of 
 Finland, in driving them out of the province, 
 and in 1720 gained one of the first victories 
 of the Russian navy over them. He nego- 
 tiated for Peter the Great the treaty of 
 Neustadt ; was made field-marshal in 1724, 
 and was named senator by the Tsarina Anne 
 in 1730, in which year he died at Moscow. 
 
 Galitzin, VassiHi (<?. 1619), a supporter of 
 the pretender Dmitri (Demetrius) ; mur- 
 dered the royal family in 1605 ; afterwards 
 conspired against Dmitri, and also against 
 his successor. 
 
 Galitzin, Vassilii {b. 1633, d. 1713), gene- 
 ral and statesman, sumamed " the Great " ; 
 reorganised the army, and, as minister, 
 assisted the Tsar Feodor in reducing the 
 power of the nobles, and in other reforms ; 
 was chancellor during the regency under 
 Princess Sophia, for whom he suppressed 
 the rebellion of the Stretlitz, preparing 
 their suppression by Peter the Great. He 
 served that Tsar as statesman and soldier, 
 but incurred his jealousy on his return from 
 a successful expedition against the Tartars 
 of the Crimea, and was in 1689 disgraced. 
 
 having, probably, also been engaged in a 
 plot with me jirincess Sophia against the 
 Ufe of Peter. He died at Moscow, having 
 been allowed to return from his place of 
 exile. 
 
 Gall, Franz Josef (6. 1758, d. 1828), with 
 Spurzheim, the first propounder of phren- 
 ology ; born at Pforzheim, in Baden ; 
 studied at Baden, Strasburg, and Vienna, 
 where he took the degree of M.D., and 
 began to practise. In 1798 he began to 
 put forth his theories in Wieland's Beutscher 
 Mercur, and to give lectures on the subject 
 of phrenology. His success was checked by 
 an interdiction from the government on the 
 ground of irreligion, and he left the city 
 with his pupil, Spurzheim, and entered 
 on a lecturing tour throughout Germany, 
 arriving in 1807 in Paris, where he practised 
 as a doctor, but failed to obtain recognition 
 as a man of science. A visit to London in 
 1823 was also unsuccessful, and he returned 
 to Paris, where be lived untU his death. His 
 Anatomic et Physiologie du Systeme Nerveux 
 appeared between 1810 and 1818 ; and his 
 work Sur les Fonctions des Cerveaux between 
 1822 and 1825, both in conjunction with 
 Spurzheim. 
 
 Gall, St. (b. 551, d. 646), Irish abbot; 
 evangelised the Swiss, and built a monastery 
 in the Canton which now bears his name. 
 
 Galla Placidia. \_See Placidia.] 
 
 Gallagher, William D. (6. 1808), Ameri- 
 can journalist and poet; son of a rebel 
 of '98 ; edited the Cincinnati Mirror (1831), 
 the Western Literary Journal (1836), and 
 was co-editor of the Cincinnati Gazette 
 from 1839 to 1850. In 1841 he published 
 Selections from the Poetry of the West, 
 having previously written Erato. He has 
 also written upon agriculture, and especially 
 upon the development of the resources of 
 the North-West. Another poem, Miami 
 Woods, was published in 1881. 
 
 Galland, Antoine {b. 1646, d. 1715), French 
 Orientalist ; went to Constantinople in 1670 
 to study Greek theology, bringing back 
 some marbles on his return nine years 
 later. He translated The Thousand and One 
 Nights into French, and also the Indian 
 fables of Bidpai and Lokman. 
 
 Gallatin, Abraham Albert (6. 1761,_ d. 
 1849), American statesman and economist; 
 born at Geneva ; went to America and 
 fought in the war of Independence ; became 
 a senator in 1793, and secretary to the 
 treasury in 1801 ; opposed the war of 1812, 
 and signed the treaty of Ghent, with which 
 it ended, in 1814 ; was American minister in 
 France from 1815 to 1823, and was sent on a 
 special mission to England in 1826. He was 
 a member of the Free Trade convention at
 
 Gal 
 
 (341) 
 
 Gal 
 
 Phfladelphia in 1831, and was fovmder of 
 the Ethnological Society. He opposed the 
 Mexican war in a popular pamphlet, and 
 was in Congress a leading member of the 
 Democratic party. He was a successful 
 financier, doing all in his power, by pam- 
 phlets and administration, to check the in- 
 crease of the national debt. Reminiscences of 
 Mr. Gallatin, by J. R. Bartlett, were pub- 
 lished in 1841. 
 
 Gallaudet, Thomas (*. 1787, d. 1851), 
 American clergyman of Huguenot birth ; 
 bom at Philadelphia ; becoming interested 
 in the education of the deaf and dumb, 
 he visited Europe in 1815 ; became on his 
 return principal of an asylum for the deaf 
 and dumb, and, on resigning this, chaplain 
 to a similar institution at Hartford for the 
 insane. He edited six volumes of the Annals 
 of the Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 Galle, Andre (6. 1761, d. 1844), French 
 medallist, employed by the republic, the 
 emperor, and the Bank of France. 
 
 GaUe, PhiUppe (6. 1537, d. 1612), Flemish 
 engraver, bom at Haarlem, but lived chiefly 
 at Antwerp, where he was engaged in com- 
 merce. His sons, Theodore {b. 1560) and 
 Comeille " le Vieux " (6. 1570) his pupils, 
 greatly surpassed him in his art, especially 
 the latter, among whose works are several 
 portraits after Van Dyck and Rubens. Cor- 
 neUle was also an engraver. 
 
 Gallienus, Roman Emperor {d. 268), asso- 
 ciated with him by his father Valerianus in 
 253 ; sole emperor, 260 ; was slain by the 
 praetorians in 268. 
 
 Gallissoniere, Rolland Michael Barrin, 
 Marquis de la (*. 1693, d. 1756), French ad- 
 miral, entered the navy ia 1710, and served 
 with distinction; was French governor of 
 Canadafroml747tol749;andinl755defeated, 
 off Martinique, the English fleet under Byng 
 sent to capture it. In 1751 he published a 
 memoir of the French colonies in America. 
 
 Gallo, Marzia duca di (*. 1753, d. 1833), 
 Neai)olitan statesman; in his early years a 
 diplomatist in the service of the Austrians at 
 Naples and Vienna, signed the preliminaries 
 of Leoben and the peace of Campo Formio, 
 after which he returned to Naples. In 1805 
 he obtained from Napoleon the evacuation 
 of Naples by the French, but next year, 
 when Ferdinand IV. was driven out and 
 Joseph Bonaparte became king, the Miir- 
 quis de Gallo became his minister, accom- 
 panying him also to Spain in 1808. On the 
 restoration of the Bourbons in 1815 he re- 
 turned to Naples, re-entered their service 
 after a short interval, and accompanied Fer- 
 dinand to the congress at Laybach, where 
 he opposed Austrian intervention. When 
 the Austrians again entered Naples the duca 
 di Gallo retired into private bf e. 
 
 Galloche, Louis {b. 1670, d. 1751), French 
 painter, and instructor of Lemoyne. Hia 
 pictures deal with historical subjects. 
 
 GaJlois, Charles Andre (b. 1789, d. 1851), 
 French historian and publicist ; wrote His- 
 toire d«s Journalistesde la Ricolution (1845), 
 and published Biopraphie des Contemporains 
 par Napoleon (1824), Histoire de Napoleon 
 par lui-mime (1825), and Histoire dela Con- 
 vention Nationale apres lui-mime (1835). 
 
 Gallois, Jean Antoine (d. 1828), French 
 politician; president of the Tribunate in 
 1802, and secretary from 1804 to 1813 ; was 
 also employed by Louis XVIU. on his re- 
 turn. 
 
 Gallonio {d. 1605), Italian priest ; wrote a 
 treatise on the modes of torture practised by 
 the pagans on the early Christians, and a 
 Uf e of St. Philip Neri and other saints. 
 
 Galloway, Joseph (A. 1730, d. 1S03), 
 American loyalist : advocated, in opposition 
 to Dickinson, the conversion of the Penn- 
 sylvanian government into royal form ; pro- 
 posed a plan of settlement with the mother- 
 country in the Congress of 1774 : on the 
 declaration of independence joined the 
 Royal army, and in 1778 went to England, 
 where in the next year he was examined 
 before the House of Commons on the conduct 
 of the war, the failure of which he declared 
 to be due to the incompetency of Lord Howe. 
 In 1788 Galloway was attainted by the 
 Pennsylvania legislature, and his estates 
 ordered to be sold. Besides several pam- 
 phlets, he was author of Historical and 
 Folitical Reflections on the American Re- 
 bellion, and some curious works on the alle- 
 gorical meaning of prophecies. 
 
 Gallucci, Giovanni, Italian astronomer of 
 the 16th century ; author of Theatrttm 
 Mundi et Temporis (1589). 
 
 Galluppi, Pasquale [b. 1770, d. 1848), 
 Italian philosopher of reactionary tendencies ; 
 professor of logic and metaphysics at Naples ; 
 author of a criticism of Fichte's views and 
 of Elementi di Filosofia (1832). 
 
 Gallus, Cnaeus Cornelius {d. circa 26 B.C.), 
 Roman poet: made prefect of Egypt by 
 Augustus in 31 B.C.; recalled and condemned 
 to exile for misgovemment, he put an end 
 to his hfe. His works are lost, but he is 
 known to posterity from Virgil's dedication 
 to him of Georgics, book iv. 
 
 Gallus, Roman Emperor {d. 453 or 454), 
 succeeded Decius by election ; made a himiili- 
 ating peace with ithe barbarians, and was 
 murdered by his soldiers. 
 
 Gaily, Henry {b. 1696, d. 1769), theologian, 
 chaplain to the king; author of Considera- 
 tions upon Clandestine Marriage, a translation
 
 Gal 
 
 (342) 
 
 Gam 
 
 of Theophrastus, and Dissertations against 
 Pronouncing Greek according to Accents. 
 
 Gait, Sir Alexander T. [b. 1817), distin- 
 guished Canadianstatesman, son of John Gralt, 
 was born at Chelsea, and educated in England 
 and Canada, to which latter country he early 
 emigrated, entering the service of the British 
 and American Land Company, and being 
 appointed commissioner in 1844. In 1849 
 he entered political life, and signed the ' ' An- 
 nexation " manifesto. After an interval of 
 retirement, he, in 1853, again appeared in 
 public life, and continued to take part in 
 affaii-s till 1872, being especially active in 
 promoting federation of the North American 
 colonies and intercolonial railway com- 
 munication. He was minister of finance 
 from 1858 to 1862 ; again from 1864 to 1866, 
 when he resigned on account of his opposition 
 to the educational policy of miuisters, but 
 again nest year for a few months held the 
 same office, and was privy councillor. He 
 was delegate to the Colonial Conference at 
 London of 1875-7, and in the following year 
 accompanied Sir Charles Tupper on a mission 
 to London to confer on the Nova Scotia 
 question. He was a fourth time, in 
 1879, finance minister ; was a member of 
 the Fisheries Commission of 1877, and in 1881 
 Canadian delegate at the International 
 Monetary Conference at Paris. From 1880 
 to 1883 he was high commissioner to Great 
 Britain. His name is also connected with 
 the Grand Trunk railway as one of its chief 
 founders ; and he was the author of Canada 
 from 1849 to 1859. After 1859 he acted with 
 the Liberal-Conservatives, having previously 
 been a Liberal. 
 
 Gait, John {b. 1779, d. 1839), Scottish 
 novelist, born at Irvine, Ayrshire ; after 
 failing in trade, he travelled on the Conti- 
 nent, and on his return to London devoted 
 himself to literature. Besides several novels, 
 he wrote lives of Byron and Benjamin "West, 
 some tragedies, and books on travel. 
 
 Galton, Francis, F.R.S. {b. 1822), scientific 
 writer; educated at King's College, London, 
 and Trinity, Cambridge ; obtained the medal 
 of the Royal Geographical Society for his 
 Narrative of an Explorer of Tropical South 
 Africa, in which he described his travels, 
 and soon after (1855) published his Art of 
 Travel. He then devoted himself to mete- 
 orology, embodying the results of his in- 
 vestigations, in Meteoragraphia (1863). He 
 has, however, gained his reputation as a 
 student of heredity, his chief works on the 
 subjecrt being Hereditary Genius : its Laws 
 and Consequences, which appeared in 1869 ; 
 Inquiries into Human Faculty and its De- 
 velopment (1883), the Record of Family 
 Faculties (1834), and Natural hiheritance 
 (1889). He took active part in the pro- 
 ceedings of the British Association, and 
 
 was in 1885 president of the Anthropo- 
 logical Society. 
 
 Galuppi, Baldassare {b. 1703, d. 1785), 
 Italian musician ; employed by Catherine II. 
 of Russia ; composed four Symphonies. 
 
 Galvani, Aloisio {b. 1737, d. 1798), dis- 
 coverer of galvanism ; born at Bologna, at 
 which university he studied anatomy, and 
 took his doctor's degree, becoming professor 
 in 1762. In 1790 he was deprived of his 
 professorship, being unable, through re- 
 ligious scruples, to take the oath required of 
 hirn by the government of the Cisalpine Re- 
 public, who, however, shortly before his 
 death offered to make an exception in his 
 favour. His Commentary on the Forces of 
 Electricity in 31u>icular Action, which de- 
 scribed his great discovery, was published in 
 1791. 
 
 Gama, Jos^ Basilio da (b. 1740, d. 1795), 
 Brazilian poet, his chief work being Uruguay 
 
 (1769). 
 
 Gama, Vasco da {d. 1525), Portuguese 
 navigator, of noble family ; discovered the 
 route to India by the Cape of Good Hope 
 •in 1497 ; appointed viceroy of India on the 
 death of Albuquerque in 1524 by John III. 
 of Portugal. His first voyage is celebrated 
 in the Lusiad of Camoens, who was with 
 him. 
 
 Gamaches, iEtienne (d. 1756), French 
 j)hilosopher ; wrote under pseudonym 
 " Chariguy," Systeme du Cosur, and As- 
 tronomic Physique. 
 
 Gamaclies, Philippe de {b. 1568, d. 1625), 
 French theologian, his chief works being a 
 commentary on the Summa of St. Thomas 
 Aquinas and Theologia Practica (printed in 
 1629). 
 
 Gamaliel (1st century), Jewish rabbi; 
 teacher of St. Paul ; advised the release of 
 the apostles in 33 (Acts v.). 
 
 Gamba, Jacques (6. 1763, d. 1833), French 
 traveller ; author of Voyage dans la Russie 
 Meridionale (1820-24). 
 
 Gamba, Pietro, Contedi ((J. 1801, <f. 1826), 
 Italian patriot, brother of the Countess 
 Guiccioli, mistress of Lord Byron, whom he 
 accompanied to Greece ; was taken by a 
 Turkish corsair, but released, and rejoined 
 BjTon at Missolonghi ; wrote Narrative of 
 Lord Byron'' s Last Journey in Greece, where 
 he died. 
 
 Gambacorta, Francesco {d. 1355), Italian 
 noble, "conservator of Pisa"; offered the 
 signiory to Emperor Charles IV., but after- 
 wards intrigued against him ; was executed 
 with his two brothers on a charge of con- 
 spiracy.
 
 Gaun 
 
 (343) 
 
 Gan 
 
 Gambacorta, Pietro {d. 1392), nephew of 
 Francesco, exiled after his death ; recalled in 
 1369, and made captain -general ; obtained 
 from Chai'les IV. recognition of the liberty of 
 Pisa ; made alliance with Florence ; assassi- 
 nated by order of his friend, the chancellor 
 Appiani. 
 
 Gambacorta, Giovanni, nephew of Pietro, 
 last lord of Pisa, after whose death 
 he was exiled; he was recalled in 1405 
 to aid in the expulsion of the Florentines, 
 who held the citadel of Pisa ; but in March, 
 1406, treacherously opened the gates to a 
 Florentine army, and went to live at 
 Florence. 
 
 Gambara, Lorenzo {b. 1506, d. 1595), Latin 
 poet, dependent of Cardinal Farnese ; author 
 of foirr books, Be Navigatione Christophori 
 Columbi, 
 
 Gambara, Veronica (fi. 1485, d. 1550), 
 Itahan poet, whose letters and poems were 
 printed in 1759; was visited by Charles V. 
 in 1530. 
 
 Gambart.Jean F€lix (6. 1800, d. 1836), 
 French astronomer, director of the Marseilles 
 observatory ; discovered thirteen comets be- 
 tween 1820 and 1833. 
 
 Gambetta, Leon Michel {b. 1838, d. 1882), 
 French statesman ; son of a grocer of Cahors ; 
 went as a young man to Paris with the ob- 
 ject of jiractising at the bar, but did notliing 
 remarkable till his thirtieth year. In 1868 
 he attracted notice by his conduct of the 
 defence in the proces Belescluze, and in the 
 next year was elected deputy for both Paris 
 and Marseilles, when he immediately became 
 the most influential member of the Oppo- 
 sition. After the outbreak of the war, in 
 the midst of the siege of Paris, he went to 
 Tours in a balloon, and was chiefly instru- 
 mental in organising the government, and 
 the conduct of the war. During the years 
 between the peace and 1879 Gambetta was 
 chiefly occupied with his idea of the re- 
 vanche and vnth the development of Oppor- 
 tunism. In the latter year it was his in- 
 fluence which in the main brought about the 
 abdication of Marshal Macmahon. On the 
 election of M. Gr^vy, he became president 
 of the Chamber, and in 1881 prime minister 
 of France, but only held office a few months, 
 resigning on January 27, 1S82, after which 
 he took very little part in affairs. He died 
 on December 31 of the same year from a 
 wound accidentally inflicted on himself by a 
 pistol shot. 
 
 Gambier, James, Baron (5. 1756, d. 1833), 
 British admiral, bom in the Bahamas, of 
 which his father was lieutenant-governor ; 
 early entered navy ; present at repulse of 
 French from Jersey in 1791, and afterwards 
 served on American coast ; rear-admii-al in 
 
 1796, having been with Lord Howe in his 
 victory of the preceding year. In 1807 he 
 was given the command of the fleet sent to 
 Copenhagen, and was created a baron in 
 recognition of his skilful conduct ; he refused 
 at the same time a pension. Two years later, 
 in consequence of a misunderstaudiug with 
 Lord Cochrane on the occasion of an attack 
 on a French fleet in the Aix roads, Lord 
 Gambier was tried by court-martial, but 
 acquitted. On the accession of William IV. 
 he became admiral of the fleet. 
 
 Gfambold, J. {d. 1771), English philologist; 
 joined the Moravians and became bishop ; 
 carried out their principles by working as 
 corrector of proofs ; was author of several 
 philological and theological works. 
 
 Gamon, Christophe de {b. 1576, d. 1612), 
 French poet, his chief works being Le Tresor 
 des Tresors and Les Pescheries, the first cele- 
 brating his achievements as an alchemist. 
 
 Gandolphy, Pierre {d. 1816), Eomanist 
 priest, author of Z^ne Defense de la Foi An- 
 cienne ; censured for a sermon which he 
 preached on the relations between temporal 
 and spiritual authority in 1816. 
 
 Gandon, James (6. 1741, d, 1824), English 
 architect; the first who received the gold 
 medal of the Eoyal Academy ; designed the 
 Custom House, and other buildings in Dub- 
 lin ; edited part of Vitnivhis Britannicus. 
 
 Ganganelli. \_See Clement XIV., Pope.] 
 
 Ganilli, Charles (6. 1758, d. 1826), French 
 statesman and economist ; one of the Com- 
 mittee of Seven who sat at the H6tel de Ville 
 on the day of the taking of the Bastille ; was 
 imprisoned under the Reign of Terror, but 
 saved from transportation by the death of 
 Robespierre ; member of the Tribunate under 
 the Consulate, but excluded in 1802 ; as 
 deputy for lie Cantal at the Restoration, op- 
 posed several of the government measures ; 
 wrote several economical works, among 
 which were Systeme d'Economie Fiiblique 
 (1809-21) and Theorie d^£conomie Folitique 
 (1816-22). 
 
 Gannal, Jean Nicholas (6. 1791, d. 1852), 
 French chemist ; employed in the organisa- 
 tion of military hospitals ; present with the 
 "GrandArmy" in Russia in 1812, andseveial 
 times taken prisoner ; employed at the Ecole 
 Polytechnique ; afterwards worked privately, 
 and applied his chemical knowledge to im- 
 provements in the manufacture of candles, 
 ink, lint, and paper, and published in 1837 
 Histoire des Embattmements, a work which 
 involved him in controversy with several 
 physicians. 
 
 Gans, Edward (6. 1798, d. 1839), German 
 jurist ; appointed lecturer on law at Berlin 
 m 1820, and maintained philosophical as
 
 Gau 
 
 (344) 
 
 Gar 
 
 opposed to historical views of his subject ; 
 visited France aud England in 1830. On his 
 return in 1835 he began a course of lectures 
 on the Sistory of the Last Fifty Years, 
 •which was cut short by the Prussian govern- 
 ment on account of their constitutional ten- 
 dency. Besides several books on jurispru- 
 dence, Gaus edited the works of Hegel, to 
 whose school he belonged. 
 
 Gantheaume, Comte Honors (b. 1755, d. 
 ISIS), Freuch admiral ; entered the navy at 
 a very early age ; served in America under 
 d'Estaing, in India under Suffren, aud was 
 present at the captoi'e of Grenada. In 1794 
 he was wounded when under the command 
 of Villaret-Joyeuse ; after various other 
 services, was appointed chief-of-staff to 
 Brueys, and afterwards to the chief naval 
 command ou the Nile and Egyptian coasts, 
 in which capacity he took part in the siege 
 of Acre, the battle of Gaza, and the attack 
 on Aboukir, and escorted Bonaparte in his 
 flight from Egypt. He was appointed head 
 of the ocean fleet which was to have pro- 
 tected the invasion of England in 1805. 
 Subsequently he directed many other naval 
 operations under Napoleon, and was charged 
 by Louis XVIII. to bring about the sub- 
 mission of Marshal Brune, for which service 
 he was made peer of France, and received 
 the Cross of St. Louis. 
 
 Garampi, Giuseppe {b. 1723, d. 1792), 
 Italian antiquary, cardinal, and bishop ; 
 visited Germany, Flanders, France, and 
 England with the view of discovering manu- 
 scripts ; collected an immense library, and 
 prepared materials for a great episcopal 
 history under the title of Orbis Christianus. 
 The catalogue of his library, with a bio- 
 graphical notice, was published at Rome in 
 1796. 
 
 Garasse, Franqois {b. 1585, d. 1631), 
 Jesuit controversialist, author of numerous 
 works, chiefly in defence of his society or 
 directed against its opponents, the chief of 
 which are Elixir Calvinisticum, Le Rabelais 
 Refortne, and La Doctrine Curieuse des Beaux 
 Esprits de ce Temps (1623). 
 
 Garat, Dominique Joseph (6. 1749, d. 
 1833), French statesman ; worked for Panc- 
 koucke, who introduced him to Rousseau and 
 the Encyclopaedists. He pronounced the 
 eloge on Fontenelle, and was made professor 
 of history at Paris in 1785. He was elected 
 member of the Constituent Assembly, and 
 reported its proceedings in the Journal de 
 Paris. He succeeded Danton as minister of 
 justice after the massacres of September, 
 which he defended, and notified officially to 
 Louis XVI. his condemnation. In May, 
 1793, he was transferred to the ministry of 
 the interior as successor to Roland, and by 
 his weak conduct contributed to the fall of 
 
 the Girondins, trying in vain to save his 
 friend Condorcet. Garat was also employed 
 imder the Dii-ectory, the Consulate, and the 
 Empii'e. As a member of the senate he 
 voted for the abdication in 1814; in 1816 he 
 was expelled from the Institut as a revolu- 
 tionist. He was the author of many works, 
 the best known of which is Memoires sur la 
 involution. 
 
 Garat, Jean Pierre (6. 1764, d. 1833), 
 Freuch vocalist ; nephew of Dominique ; 
 educated for the bar, but soon devoted him- 
 self to music, and became a great tenor; 
 became secretary to the Comte d'Artois, 
 and was presented to Marie Antoinette, 
 who gave him a pension. In 1793 he left 
 France in company with the violinist Roele, 
 but returned in 1794, and on the formation 
 of the Paris conservatoire was made pro- 
 fessor of singing, and trained several of the 
 most noted vocalists. He first made known 
 in France the music of Mozart, besides him- 
 self composing some very popular pieces. 
 
 Garbett, James (6. 1802, d. 1879), scholar 
 aud theologian ; in 1841 succeeded Keble as 
 professor of poetry ; Bampton lecturer in 
 1842, his subject being a Vindication of the 
 Church of England, against the Tractarians; 
 became archdeacon of Chichester on the 
 resignation of Mr. (Cardinal) Manning. 
 
 Garbieri, Lorenzo (6. 1580, d, 1654), 
 Italian painter of the Bolognese school, 
 friend of Spaela, his chief pictures being 
 St. Peter at Prayer, Circe, and the Martyr- 
 dom of Saint Cecilia, at Bologna, and several 
 oils and frescoes at Modena. 
 
 Garbo, RafFaelino del {b. 1476, d. 1534), 
 Florentine painter, pupil of Lippi, the 
 greater part of whose frescoes are lost; 
 several of his oil-paintings are at Florence, 
 Rome, and Berlin. 
 
 Garcam, or Gargao, Pedro Dorrea (&. 1724, 
 d. 1772), Portuguese lyric poet; thrown by 
 Pombal into prison, where he died. His 
 complete works were published in 1778. 
 
 Garcia, First Count of Castile (6. 908, d. 
 990), defeated the Moors under Almanzar 
 in 984, but was soon after himself defeated 
 and taken prisoner, and died of his wounds. 
 His son, the second count (h. 1008), was 
 assassinated in 1022 by one of the Velee, 
 pretenders to the throne of Castile. 
 
 Garcia, Manuel de Populo Vincente {b. 
 1775, d. 1832), Spanish musician: gained 
 reputation as a singer in the theatres of 
 Cadiz and Madrid, and subsequently at 
 Paris and in Italy. Between 1816 and 1824 
 he lived alternately in London and Paris, 
 after which he went to New York and from 
 thence to Mexico. Having been robbed just 
 before his return to Europe, he was obUged
 
 (xar 
 
 (346) 
 
 Crar 
 
 to devote himself to teaching, among his 
 pupUs being his daughter, Madame Malibran. 
 He composed everal operas, the best known 
 of which is H Calif o di Bagdad. His son 
 Manuel (bom at Madrid in 1805) was 
 professor of music at London and Paris, and 
 author of Metnoire sur la Voix Humaine 
 (1840), and Ecole di Garcia (1841). 
 
 Garcia, Marie. \See Malibran.] 
 
 Gaxcia di Mascarenhas (6. 1596, d. 1656), 
 Portuguese poet; escaped from prison at 
 Coimhas, and after a year at Madrid wan- 
 dered through Italy and France, passing 
 thence to Brazil, where he remained nine 
 years and fought agaiost the Dutch. On 
 his return to Portugal he was imprisoned in 
 the tower of Sabujat for some years, on 
 account of a supposed treasonable corre- 
 spondence with the Spaniards, but was 
 liberated on restoration of Portuguese inde- 
 pendence, and honoured by Joao IV. A 
 poem which he wrote in Brazil is lost, but 
 his Viriato Tragico was much admired, and 
 was reprinted in 1854. 
 
 Garcia y Paredes, Diego (6. 1466, d. 1530), 
 Spanish soldier; served against the Portu- 
 guese and Moors in 1478 ; killed messengers 
 sent by his family to bring hini home after 
 Ms father's death, and, having proceeded to 
 Rome, entered the service of Alexander VI. ; 
 afterwards aided the Venetians against the 
 Turks, by whom he was taken prisoner, but 
 escaped, and in 1501 returned to serve the 
 pope, and fought for him against the Orsini 
 and the French. Eetuming to Spain, he 
 defended his friend Gonsalva di Cordova, 
 and in 1508 was sent to the help of 
 the Emperor Maximilian in his war with 
 Venice. He was present at the battle of 
 Pavia (1525). Don Diego Garcia is one of 
 the national heroes of Spain ; his auto- 
 biography was printed in the Claros Varones 
 de Espdna. 
 
 GarcUasso de la Vega (b. 1503, d. 1536), 
 Spanish poet and soldier ; bom at Toledo of 
 a noble family; followed Charles V. to 
 Italy; was present at the siege of Vienna 
 by the Sultan Solyman, after which he fell 
 into disgBace for tr3Tng to bring about the 
 marriage of one of his nephews with a lady 
 of the imperial house. After a short im- 
 prisonment on an island in the Danube, he 
 returned to court, and in 1535 was wounded 
 in the siege of Tunis. After his return he 
 accompanied Charles V. on his campaign in 
 Provence, and died from wounds received at 
 Frejus. His poems, in which he imitated 
 the Italians, were first pubhshed with those 
 of Boscan in 1543. 
 
 Garcilasso de la Vega id. 1568), Spanish 
 traveller and ^vriter (called "the Inca," 
 from his mother being a Peruvian princess) ; 
 Bon of a Spanish captain who had served 
 
 under Cortes and Pizarro ; explored Peru, 
 and published the result in his Comentaries 
 Jteales que tratan del Origen de los Incas ; 
 excited the suspicions of Philip II. by his 
 influence over the Peruvians, and was re- 
 called to Spain and imprisoned. 
 
 Gardiaer, Allen Francis (6. 1791. d. 1851), 
 English sailor and missionary ; after serv- 
 ing some years in the navy, devoted himself 
 to missionary work: went to Zululand in 
 1834, then to South America ; after a short 
 time in England founded the Patagonian 
 Missionary Society, and in 1850 went again 
 to South America, whence he and his party 
 never returned, having died of starvation. 
 
 ^^Gardiner, James, Colonel {b. 1688, d. 
 1745), Scottish military officer; served with 
 distinction at EamilUes ; killed at Preston- 
 pans ; said by his biographer. Dr. Doddridge, 
 to have had supernatural intimation of his 
 death. 
 
 Gardiner, Samuel Eawson (*. 1829), Eng- 
 lish historian ; was educated at Winchester and 
 Christ Church. In 1884 he was elected fellow 
 of All Souls', and was for some years pro- 
 fessor of modem history at King's CoUege, 
 London. His historical works include The 
 History of England from the Accession of 
 James I. to the IJisgrace of Chief Justice Coke 
 (1863), Frince Charles and the Spanish 
 Marriage (1869), England under the Duke of 
 Buckingham and Charles I. (1875), The 
 Personal Government of Charles /., and the 
 Fall of the Monarchy of Charles /., aU these 
 being republished as a continuous work in 
 1883-4 ; An Fntroduction to the Study of 
 English History (with J. B. Mullinger), 
 History of the Great Civil War, and a com- 
 plete History of England in three volumes. 
 In 1882 a Civil List pension of £150 
 was granted him ia recognition of his 
 valuable contributions to the history of 
 England. 
 
 Gardiner, Stephen {h. 1483, d. 1555), 
 English ecclesiastical statesman ; natural 
 son of Dr. Woodville, Bishop of Salis- 
 bury, brother of Edward IV.'s queen ; 
 became secretary to Cardinal Wolsey, was 
 employed to negotiate the divorce from 
 Catherine of Ai'agon, and was named Bishop 
 of Winchester in 1531 and secretary of 
 state : adopted the king's supremacy over 
 the Church, and defended it in Jje Vera 
 Obedientin, but opposed Cromwell and the 
 Protestants ; was imprisoned under Edward 
 VI. and deprived of his bishopric, but was 
 restored and made chancellor under Mary ; 
 first opposed and afterwards forwarded the 
 Spanish marriage : directed the persecution, 
 in the midst of wliich he died. 
 
 Gardiner, William (*. 1770, d. 1853), 
 musical writer: one of the first English 
 admirers of Beethoven; he had a large
 
 Gar 
 
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 Gtar 
 
 acquaintance with literary men of the day, 
 induding Terry, of the 'Morning Chronicle, 
 Robert Hall, Dr. Parr, and Moore ; published 
 Sacred Melodies in 1812, and between that 
 year and his death. Lives of Haydn and 
 Mozart, Judah (oratorio), the Music of 
 Nature, Music and Friends, and other works. 
 
 Gardner, Allan, Lord {b. 1742, d. 1808), 
 English admiral; distinguished himself as 
 captain of the I)iike in Eodney's victory 
 over the French in 1782; became rear- 
 admiral in 1793, and nest year received a 
 baronetcy for his services under Lord Howe 
 on June 1 ; attempted to put down the 
 mutiny at Portsmouth at great personal 
 risk ; was created in 1800 an Irish peer, and 
 afterwards became a peer of the United 
 Kingdom; succeeded Earl St. Vincent in 
 the command of the Channel fleet. He sat 
 in thi'ee successive parliaments. 
 
 Gardner, Percy {b. 1846), archaeologist, 
 M.A. of Oxford and Litt. Doc. of Cam- 
 bridge ; was appointed assistant in the 
 Department of Antiquities at the British 
 Museum in 1871 ; elected fellow of Christ's 
 CoUege, Cambridge, 1872, and Disney pro- 
 fessor of archaeology in 1880. In 1887 he 
 became Merton professor at Oxford. 
 Among his works are The Types of Greek 
 Coins (1883), and several volumes of cata- 
 logues of Greek coins in the British Museum. 
 He edited the Journal of Hellenic Studies 
 from its coromencement. 
 
 Garengeot, Ren6 (6. 1688, d. 1759), French 
 surgeon ; author of Traite des Operations de 
 Ghirurgie, published in 1723. 
 
 Garet, Jean {b. 1627, d. 1694), French 
 Benedictine ; editor of Cassiodorus (1676). 
 
 Garfield, James Abraham (i^. 1831, d. 
 1881), youngest child of Abram Garfield, 
 who died at the age of thirty - three ; was 
 educated at Chester and Hiram, Ohio (his 
 native state), and WilUams College, where 
 he graduated with high honours in 1856 ; 
 became president of Hiram College next 
 year, and studied law while he taught 
 classics; began public life as a member of 
 the Ohio Senate in 1859, and gave special 
 attention to the military organisation of the 
 state. On the outbreak of the Civil war 
 Garfield received a commission as colonel of 
 Ohio volunteers, and won the battle of 
 Middle Creek in 1862, after which he was 
 named brigadier-general. In 1863 he was 
 made major-general for his gallantry at 
 Chickamauga, but at the end of the year 
 resigned his commission in order to sit in 
 Congress. He was immediately placed upon 
 the committee of military affairs, but gave 
 his attention to other matters also. At the 
 end of the war he was transferred to the 
 finance committee, where he was zealous for 
 the resumption of cash payments. In 1868 
 
 he was chairman of the new committee on 
 banking and currency. He opposed Presi- 
 dent Johnson's views on the treatment of 
 the Confederates, and made notable speeches 
 on these and other matters. On the retire- 
 ment of Mr. Blaine to the Senate Garfield 
 became leader of the Republican party in 
 the House of Representatives, and was 
 successful in defeating the attempts of the 
 Democrats to interfere with the conduct of 
 elections. In 1880 he supported Sherman's 
 candidature for the presidency, but was 
 himself elected. On July 2nd, 1881, he was 
 shot by a disappointed place-hunter, when 
 about to set out on a trip to New England. 
 His wife {nee Rudolph) received a large 
 subscription after his death. Many of Gar- 
 field's speeches have been published; the 
 best hie of him is by J. R. Gihnore (New 
 York, 1880). 
 
 Garibaldi, Giuseppe (b. 1807, d. 1882), 
 Italian soldier, born at Nice; entered the 
 Piedmontese navy, but was obliged to leave 
 Italy in 1834, on account of his participation 
 in the Young Italy movement. He went at 
 first to France, but afterwards took service 
 with the Bey of Tunis as captain of a 
 frigate. He next went to America, and 
 supported the rising of Uruguay against the 
 Brazilians, by whom he was made prisoner 
 in 1842. After his liberation he again served 
 in the navy of Uruguay, and in the course 
 of operations his wife, a Creole, was taken 
 prisoner, but escaped. In 1844 Garibaldi 
 fought for Montevideo against Buenos 
 Ayres, and performed many brilliant feats. 
 Hearing of the state of affairs in Europe in 
 1847, he left Montevideo, and on arriving at 
 Genoa offered his sword to Charles Albert, 
 who, however, declined the offer. Garibaldi 
 then went to Milan, where the Committee 
 of Public Safety gave him the command of 
 3,000 men, and sent him to the relief of 
 Bergamo. He was not able to achieve much 
 at this time, and retired into Switzerland, 
 whence he came to Nice, which had elected him 
 as representative, and proclaimed himself a 
 repubUcan. Next year he was summoned 
 by Mazzini, after the fiight of Pius IX., to 
 Rome, and was entrusted with the defence 
 of the city against the French and Austrians. 
 From thence he dealt several severe blows to 
 the Neapolitans, but was unable to save 
 Rome. He now attempted a guerilla war- 
 fare with the Austrians, but soon had to 
 take refuge at Genoa, whence he once mora 
 sailed for America. On his arrival he 
 settled at New York as a chandler, then 
 went to California, and afterwards on a 
 voyage to China. In 1854 he returned to 
 Genoa, bought part of the island of Caprefl-a, 
 and settled there as a farmer for five years. 
 In 1859 he took part in the war against the 
 Austrians, and after the peace of Villafranca 
 landed in Sicily with his " thousand heroes,"
 
 Gar 
 
 (347) 
 
 Gar 
 
 and defeated the Neapolitans. On his way 
 to Naples he first met Victor Emmanuel. In 
 1862 he attempted to induce the Hungarians 
 to revolt against Austria, but was unsuc- 
 cessful, and him self marched on Rome. He 
 was opposed by the Italian govemment, 
 wounded, and captured, but was allowed to 
 retire to Caprera. In 1S64 he visited Eng- 
 land ; in 1866 fought against Austria in the 
 Tyrol, and obtained the cession of Venice. 
 Next year he tried to free Rome from the 
 papal government, but was arrested by the 
 Italian government and imprisoned in Ales- 
 sandria. Soon he was allowed to hve under 
 sui-veillance at Caprera, whence he escaped 
 with his son-in-law in a small boat (October 
 14th), and, joining the insurgents, defeated 
 the papal troops at Monte Rotonda (October 
 16th), but having been himself defeated at 
 Montana he was again imprisoned. Gari- 
 baldi's last appearance in arms was on the 
 side of the French in the war of 1870. He 
 was elected deputy for Nice, Dijon, and 
 Paris, but being prevented as foreigner from 
 addressing the Assembly, he returned to 
 Caprera, where, with his third wife and 
 family, he lived till his death. His first 
 wife had died in the disastrous flight from 
 Rome in 1849. In 1876 Garibaldi received a 
 pension from the nation, and, as representa- 
 tive of Rome, occasionally appeared in the 
 ItaUan parliament. 
 
 Gariel, Pierre {d. 1670), French historian, 
 author of L^Origine, les Changements, et 
 V Etat present de VUglise Cathklrale de Saint 
 Pierre de Mont pettier, and other works about 
 Montpellier, where he was born, and of 
 which at his death he was doyen. 
 
 Garisolles, Antoine (6. 1587), French Pro- 
 testant theologian and Latin poet ; presided 
 over the national synod at Charenton in 
 1645, and resisted the demands of the 
 government ; author of La Voie du Saint, 
 and Adolphide, a Latin poem, in recognition 
 of which Queen Christina of Sweden sent 
 him her portrait, but he died before re- 
 ceiving it. 
 
 Garland, Augustus H. (b. 1832), Ameri- 
 can statesman ; was prominent as a 
 lawyer at the time of the opening of the 
 CivQ war, and was a delegate to the 
 Arkansas Convention of 1861, which voted 
 secession from the Union, but \\as personally 
 opposed to the measure. He became, how- 
 ever, a member of the Confederate States 
 Congress, and sat in the Lower House from 
 1861 to 1864; on its dissolution he resumed 
 his profession. In 1867 he was elected a 
 member of the United States Senate, but, as 
 a Confederate, was not then allowed to sit. 
 In 1874 he became governor of Arkansas; 
 in 1877 he became a United States senator, 
 and in 1885 was attornej^-general to Presi- 
 dent Cleveland's administration, after the 
 
 conclusion of which he recommenced his 
 professional pursuits. 
 
 Garlande, Jean de, English poet and gram- 
 marian of the 13th century; studied philo- 
 sophy at Oxford ; author of Be Contemptu 
 Mundi (sometimes attiibuted to St. Bernard), 
 De Triumphis EcclesicB, and Be Bictionibus 
 Obscuris. 
 
 Garneray, Jean Fran9ois (6. 1755, d. 1837), 
 French painter, pupil of David, his chief 
 pictures being*i3ortraits of Charlotte Corday 
 (painted while she was before the revolu- 
 tionary tribunal) , of Catherine de Medicis, 
 of Louis XVI. on the terrace of the Temple, 
 of Baron Trenck, and of Diane de Poitiers 
 asking from Francis I. the pardon of her 
 father. 
 
 Garnerin, Andrd Jacques {b. 1769, d. 1823), 
 French aeronaut ; went up in Moutgolfier'a 
 baUoou in 1790; became an army inspector 
 in 1793, and was captured by the Austrians ; 
 invented the parachute, making his first suc- 
 cessful trial of it in 1797 in the park of Mon- 
 ceaux ; subsequently made descents at St. 
 Petersburg (1800), and London (1807) ; was 
 patronised by Napoleon ; died from a blow 
 on his head. His elder brother, Jean Bap- 
 tiste {d. 1849), contested with him the inven- 
 tion of the parachute, and made improve- 
 ments in it. 
 
 Garnet, Henry {b. 1555, d. 1606), Jesuit; 
 was executed in 1606 on the charge of com- 
 plicity in the Gunpowder Plot. 
 
 Gamett, Richard (h. 1789, d. 1850), philo- 
 logist and divine ; educated for commerce, but 
 took orders in 1813, and became a master at 
 Blackburn grammar school ; taught himself 
 German. In 1838 he was appointed assist- 
 ant-keeper of printed books at the British 
 Museum, having previously devoted himself 
 to philology. His philological essays were 
 collected by his son in 1858. He also con- 
 tributed to the Transactions of the Royal 
 Institution an able paper on The Formation 
 of Ice at the Bottom of Rivers. His younger 
 brother, Thomas (d. 1878), a cotton manu- 
 facturer, devoted his leisure to experiments 
 in agriculture and natural history ; and 
 another, Jeremiah {d. 1870), was known in 
 Lancashire as a journalist and politician. 
 
 Gamett, Richard (6. 1835), verse-writer 
 and literary editor; eldest son of the pre- 
 ceding, to whose post at the British 
 Museum he succeeded, being appointed 
 keeper of printed books in 1890. He took 
 great pnrt in the improvements effected at 
 the British Museum, especially in the form- 
 ation of the General Catalogue. Among his 
 works are lo in Egypt and Other Poems 
 (1859';, Idylls and Epigrams, chiefly from 
 the Greek Anthology (1869), Iphigentn in 
 Delphi (1890), besides biographies of Carlyle,
 
 Gar 
 
 (348) 
 
 G-ar 
 
 Emerson, and Milton in the Great Writers 
 series, manj' contributions to encyclopaedias, 
 and editions of his father's Philological Es- 
 says, De Quincey's Opium Eater, and Melics 
 of Shelley. 
 
 Gamett, Thomas (6. 1756, d. 1802), first 
 professor of the Royal Institution of Great 
 Britain, where he gave the first lecture in 
 1801. 
 
 Gamier, Charles Georges (6. 1746, d. 1795), 
 French writer, author of Nouveaux Proverbes 
 Dramatiques (1784), Voyages Imaginaires 
 
 (1787). 
 
 Gamier, fitienne Barthelemy {b. 1759, d. 
 1849), French painter, his chief pictures 
 being historical. The Emperor Maurice De- 
 throned by the Usurper Fhocas, Socrates draw- 
 ing Akibiades ^away from a Souse whose 
 Pleasures would iveaken his Courage, and the 
 Desolation of Priam's Family, painted at 
 Eome ; Napoleon in his Cabinet meditating 
 upon a Map of Europe, and others, painted at 
 Paris and exhibited at the Salon. 
 
 Gamier, Germain (6. 1754, d. 1821), French 
 economist ; brother of Charles, procureur to 
 the chatelet ; was a member of the Club 
 Monarchique in 1790, and refused, two years 
 later, the ministry of justice, after which he 
 left France. On his retirrn he held several 
 offices under the Directory and Consulate. 
 On the return of the Bourbons he was named 
 minister and member of the conseil prive, 
 and supported freedom of exportation and of 
 the press. He translated the Wealth of 
 nations, and published several economical 
 works. 
 
 Gamier, Jean (J. 1612, d. 1681), French 
 Jesuit philosopher ; author of various philo- 
 gophical and historical works, among which 
 were Liber Diurnus Romanorum Pontificum 
 and Organi Philosophic Rudimenta. 
 
 Gamier, Jean Giullaume {b. 1766, <?. 1840), 
 French mathematician ; professor in 1788 at 
 the Protestant Academie Militaire of Colmar ; 
 examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique from 
 1795 to 1800, and assistant to Lagrange. 
 Subsequently professor at St. Cyr and Ghent. 
 He wrote and edited numerous works. One 
 of his pupUs was Poisson. 
 
 Gamier, Jean Jacques {b. 1729, d. 1805), 
 French historian; went to Paris with twenty- 
 four sous in his pocket ; was received into 
 the College d'Harcourt, and took minor 
 orders ; patronised by the Comte de Saint 
 Florentin, and appointed inspector of the 
 College Royal in 1768 ; in 1781 elected pen- 
 sionary of the Academie des Inscriptions, 
 but lost this in 1790 by refusing to take the 
 oath to the new constitution, became a 
 royalist, and lived in indigence during the 
 revolution, but was granted a pension by 
 
 the consular government. Among his nu- 
 merous works are Traite de VOrigine du 
 Gouvernetnent Civile, and De V£ducation 
 Civile. 
 
 Gamier, Jean Louis Charles {b. 1825), 
 French architect; bom at Paris, where he 
 studied at the Ecole Speciale de Dessin and 
 the £cole des Beaux-Ajrts, gaining, in 1848, 
 the great prize for his design for a Conserva- 
 toire pour les Arts et Metiers. He afterwards 
 travelled in Greece, and on his return ex- 
 hibited a polychromatic design for the re- 
 storation of the temple of Jupiter, in^gina, 
 a paper on which he published in the Revue 
 Archiologique in 1856. In 1861 his plan for 
 the new Paris Opera House was unanimously 
 adopted by the jury, and on the occasion of 
 its opening in 1S75 the architect was deco- 
 rated with the Cross of the Legion of Honour. 
 M. Gamier designed also the theatre at 
 Monaco, and on his visit to London in 1886 
 received the gold medal of the Institute of 
 British Architects. 
 
 Gamier, Jean de Saintes {b. 1754, d. 1820), 
 French revolutionist ; member of the 
 National Convention, and a violent montag- 
 narc? / proposed the law against ^e emigres 
 of October 22; voted for death without 
 appeal of the king ; an active proscriptionist 
 in 1793, and a chief organiser of the comite 
 de salut public. On August 7 he proposed 
 that Pitt should be declared " ennemi du genre 
 humain." He was sent on a mission against 
 the royalists of the west and the Vendeans ; 
 supported the proscription of the Dantonists, 
 and became president of the Jacobin club in 
 1794. He tried to save Carrier; but from 
 this time became more moderate. Afterwards 
 member of the Conseil des Cinq Cents, and 
 member of the representative Chamber 
 during the Hundred Days. He was arrested 
 at the restoration, sent to Belgium, and from 
 thence to the United States, where he was 
 drowned in the Ohio. 
 
 Gamier, Marie Joseph Francois {b. 1839, 
 d. 1873), French traveller ; entered the navy, 
 and was in 1862 appointed inspector of the 
 natives in Cochin China. He suggested and 
 accompanied a mission to Thibet, which tra- 
 versed country hitherto unknown to Eiu-o- 
 peans, and took careful observations. On 
 the death of the commander of the expedition. 
 Gamier took his place, and led it to the 
 Yang-tze-Kiang and the coast of China. 
 After a brief stay in France, he returned, and 
 traced the course of the Yang-tze-Kiang, 
 and afterwards was employed by the governor 
 of Cochin China to establish a French pro- 
 tectorate over Tonkin. He took Hanoi (No- 
 vember, 1873), but was assassinated soon 
 afterwards. He was the author of Za 
 Siege de Paris (1871), and his expedition is 
 described in Voyage d' Exploration en Indo- 
 Chine pendant 1866-7-8 (published 1873).
 
 Gar 
 
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 Gar 
 
 Gamier, Robert {h. 1534, d. 1590), French 
 poet ; destined for the bar and practised for 
 a short time ; anthor of Porcie and other 
 tragedies. 
 
 Gamier-Pag^s, Etienne Joseph Louis {b. 
 1801, d. 1841), French politician; after being 
 engaged, through his poverty, in many menial 
 occupations, became in 1822 bookkeeper in 
 a commercial house. Subsequently he be- 
 came an advocate, and soon began to mix 
 in poUtical affairs, and especially in the 
 revolution of 1830. Xext year he obtained 
 a seat in the Assembly, and became con- 
 spicuous as a republican and opponent of the 
 government of Louis PhiUijpe. His speeches 
 La the session of 1839 were very remarkable. 
 
 Gamier-Pag^s, Louis Antoine (b. 1803, 
 d,. 1878), French politician, half-brother to 
 Etienne ; took part in the revolution of 1830, 
 and on the death of his brother took his 
 place in the Chamber as leader of the c6te 
 Gauche. During the revolution of 1848 he 
 was elected mayor of Paris and finance 
 minister to the provisional government. 
 His failure in the latter capacity led to his 
 retirement for some time from political Ufe, 
 during which time he occupied himself in 
 writing Spisode de la Revolution de I848, 
 which was a defence of his conduct. Li 1864 
 he was returned for one of circumscriptions 
 of Paris, and was prosecuted as one of the 
 founders of the Democratic Electoral Com- 
 mittee. His views were, however, now too 
 moderate for his party, and he retired from 
 public Ufe soon after the German war, having 
 been a passive member of the government of 
 national defence. 
 
 Garrick, David (A. 1716, d. 1779), English 
 actor, son of a captain in the army ; was bom 
 at Hereford, and came to London with Dr. 
 Johnson in 1736 to study law. On the death 
 of his father, however, he joined his brother, 
 a wine merchant, but soon gave this up to go 
 on the stage. He made his first appearance, 
 under the name of Lyddal, at Ipswich, in 
 1741, and soon after played "Richard" in 
 the theatre of Goodman's Fields, where his 
 success enabled him to get an engagement at 
 Drury Lane. In 1743 he went to Dublin; 
 in 1747 became joint patentee of Drury Lane, 
 two years later marrying Mademoiselle 
 Violette. He acted at Drury Lane until 
 1776, when he retired and sold his share in 
 the concern. His last appearance was on 
 June 10 as Don Felix in The Wonder. He 
 died on January 20, 1779, and was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. His Correspondence was 
 pubUshed in 1831. 
 
 Garrison, William Lloyd (A. 1805, d. 1879), 
 American abolitionist, of humble Vjirth ; was 
 apprenticed at the age of thirteen to the 
 printer of the Newhuryport {Massachusetts) 
 herald, for which paper he afterwards wrote. 
 
 In 1826 he became owner and editor of tha 
 Free Press, and in the next year editor of the 
 National Philanthropist, in which temper- 
 ance and emancipation were advocated. In 
 1831 he started The Liberator, and from 
 henceforth devoted himself entirely, at great 
 personal risk, to the cause of slavery abolition. 
 He visited England tliree times — in 1833, 
 1840, and 1866, and was weU received. In 
 1847 Sonnets and other Poems from his pen 
 were pubUshed, and in 1852 a selection from 
 his speeches and writings. 
 
 Garrod, Alfred Baring, Sir (6. 1819), Eng- 
 Ush physician (physician extraordinary to 
 the Queen), was first in medicine at both 
 the M.B. and M.D. examinations of London 
 University (1842 and 1843). In 1851 he was 
 appointed physician and professor of thera- 
 peutics at University College Hospital ; in 
 1863 physician at King's College Hospital, 
 and in 1874 consulting physician. In 1856 
 he became feUow of the Royal CoUege of 
 Physicians, and was vice-president in 1888. 
 He deUvered the Gulstonian lectui-es in 1858, 
 and the Lumbian lectures in 1883. In 1858 
 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 Among his works are On the Conversion of 
 Benzoic into Mippuric Acid in the Animal 
 Ecotwmy {Chemical Society^s Transactions, 
 1843) ; Eesearches on the Pathological Con- 
 dition of the Blood in Chohra (^London Journal 
 of Medicine, 1849) ; On the Condition of the 
 Blood and Urine in Gout, Rheumatics, and 
 BrighVs Disease, etc. {Medico- Chirurgical 
 Transactions (1849-56) ; The Essentials of 
 Materia Medica and Therapeutics (1855) ; and 
 On the Nature and Treatment of Gout and 
 Rheumatic Gout, the last of which has 
 been translated into French and German. 
 He first introduced Uthia as an internal 
 remedy. 
 
 Garsault, Francois de {b. 1691, d. 1778), 
 French writer, author of the Nouveau Parfait 
 Marichal, the leading French work on 
 horses ; also contributed to the Recueil de 
 V Academie des Sciences papers on similar sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Garth, Richard, Sir {b. 1820), EngUsh 
 lawyer ; educated atEton and Christ Church; 
 was called to the bar in 1847, and sat in 
 Parliament for Guildford from 1866 to 1868. 
 In 1875 he was named chief justice of Ben- 
 gal, which ofiice he resigned in 1886. He is 
 a privy councillor. 
 
 Garth, Samuel, Sir {b. 1660, d. 1719), 
 English physician ; educated at Cambridge ; 
 came to London : became a f eUow of the 
 Royal CoUege of Physicians in 1693, and 
 gained a large practice ; was a member of 
 the Kit- Cat Club, and a friend of Addison 
 and Pope. His chief work was a satirical 
 poem, The Dispensary, which attained great 
 popularity.
 
 Gar 
 
 (350) 
 
 Gas 
 
 Gartner. [See Gaertner.] 
 
 Gaxve. Christian (6. 1742, d. 1798), German 
 philosopher, translated the De Ojficiis by re- 
 quest of Frederick the Great; wrote De 
 Matione Scribendi Historiam Fhilosophicam, 
 and translated several English authors. 
 
 Garzi, Lodovico (6. 1640, d. 1721), Italian 
 painter, pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and rival 
 of Carlo Maratti. 
 
 Garzom [b. 1549, d. 1589), Italian jurist 
 and writer, author of numerous works, the 
 chief of which are II Theatro de Varii e Di- 
 rersi Cervelli Mondani and L'' Sospidale de' 
 Pazzi Inciirabili. 
 
 Gasaprino, Barizza (6. 1370, d. 1430), 
 Italian philologist; patronised by Maria 
 Visconti, Duke of Milan : his epistles, pub- 
 lished in 1470, were the first typographical 
 productions in France, and he did much 
 towards the revival of classical studies. 
 
 Gascoigne, George (6. 1537, d. 1577), 
 English poet and dramatist, entered at 
 Gray's Inn, but was obliged by extrava- 
 gance to leave the country and serve in the 
 army of William of Orange. He was made 
 prisoner at Ley den, and, after his return to 
 England, engaged in literature, writing 
 masques and dramas, the best known of 
 which is Princelye Pleasures at the Courte of 
 Kenihvorth (1576). 
 
 Gascoigne, William (6. 1621, d. 1644), 
 English astronomer; invented the micrometer 
 and improved telescopes ; was killed at the 
 battle of Marston Moor. 
 
 Gascoigne, Sir William (6. circa 1350, d. 
 1419), English judge; appointed a king's 
 Serjeant in 1397, and chief justice in 1400 ; 
 refused to pronounce sentence upon Arch- 
 bishop Scrope and Lord Mowbray, as being 
 peers, in 1405 ; is said to have, on small 
 authority, committed Piince Henry to prison. 
 
 Gaskell,_Mary (fi. 1822, d. 1865), English 
 novelist {nee Stevenson), married a Unitarian 
 minister, and wrote Mary Barton (1848), 
 Moorland Cottage (1850), and several con- 
 tributions to Household Words, which in- 
 cluded Cranford and North and South; 
 Wives and Daughters was appearing in the 
 Cornhill at the time of her death. She also 
 wrote a biography of Charlotte Bronte. She 
 was a friend and helper of Thomas Wright, 
 and was very active in charitable works 
 during the cotton famine. 
 
 Gasparin, Thomas Augustin de (6. 1750, 
 d. 1793), French politician ; entered the 
 army ; was a chief instrument in uniting the 
 Comtat and Venaissin to France ; was mem- 
 ber of the comite militaire in the Legislative 
 Assembly ; appeased the Soissons mutiny in 
 August, 1792. In the National Convention 
 
 he acted with the montagnards ; accused the 
 Girondins ; went on a mission to the army, 
 deserted by Dumouriez ; on his return be- 
 came a member of comitede salutpublique, and 
 advised the sending of representatives to the 
 armies, himself going on several missions, 
 among the rest to Toulon, where he is said 
 to have brought about, by his influence, the 
 acceptance of Bonaparte's plan. He was 
 killed at his native place, Orange, in an en- 
 counter with the royalists. 
 
 Gasparini, Francesco (6. 1665, d. 1752), 
 Italian composer and harpsichord player, 
 having Benedict Marcello and Domenico 
 Scarlatti as his pupils. He composed many 
 operas and cantatas, and wrote a treatise on 
 accompaniment. 
 
 Gassendi, Pierre (6. 1592, <?. 1655), French 
 mathematician and astronomer; as royal 
 professor at Paris was the first to observe 
 the transit of Mercury; as a philosopher 
 was a Baconian and opponent of Descartes, 
 and a friend and supporter of Galiter. 
 Among his works are Institutia Astronomica 
 (1647), Tychonis Brahcei, Nicolai Copernici, 
 Georgii Fuerbachii, et Joannis Regiomon- 
 tani Vitce (1654) ; the philosophical Dis- 
 quisitio Metaphysica adversus Cartesium; De 
 Vita, Moribus, et Flacitis £pieuri, and many 
 others. 
 
 Gassion, Jean de (b. 1609, <?. 1647), French 
 Huguenot soldier ; served in the army of 
 Gustavus Adolphus, and on his return to 
 France in that of the Prince de Conde, being 
 present at Rocroi. He became a Marshal of 
 France, and died from a wound at the siege 
 of Lens. 
 
 Gassmann, Fre'd^ric Leopold {b. 1729, d. 
 1774), Bohemian composer; keeper of the 
 imperial library of music at Vientna; died 
 from the result of a carriage accident. 
 Among his numerous operas are Merope 
 and 11 Trionfo d'Amore. 
 
 Gassner, Johann Josef (6. 1727, d. 1779), 
 German priest ; laid claim to extraordinary 
 powers of healing by imposition of hands, 
 and practised exorcism. He was patronised 
 by the Duke Charles of Wurtemberg, but 
 was forbidden by the Emperor Joseph II. 
 to reside at Ratisbon. 
 
 Gast, John {b. 1715, d. 1788), Irish writer, 
 author of the Rudiments of Grecian History, 
 which was translated into French, and had 
 much vogue. 
 
 Gastelier, Rene Georges {b. 1741, d. 1821), 
 French doctor ; member of the Legislative 
 Assembly ; arrested during the Terror, and 
 only saved by death of Robespierre ; author 
 of several medical works, among which are 
 Traite sur Us Specifiques en Medicine, 
 Traite stir les Maladies des Femmes en CoucheSf
 
 Gas 
 
 ( 351 ) 
 
 Gau 
 
 and Demonstratio su/r la SuppUce de la 
 Guillotine, which he held to be painless. 
 
 Gaston de Foix. \_See'Fo\s..'\ 
 
 Gastrell, Francis {b. 1662, d. 1725), 
 EngHsh divine, preacher at Lincoln's Inn, 
 canon of Christ Church, and afterwards 
 Bishop of Chester ; opposed ia the House of 
 Lords the sentence on Atterbury, Bishop of 
 Rochester ; and obtained the thanks of the 
 university of Oxford for contesting the 
 validity of degrees conferred by the Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. He was an active 
 opponent of the Deists in the Trinitarian 
 controversy of 1715, and was also the 
 author of Uhristian Institutes. 
 
 Gates, Horatio (6. 1728, d. 1806), 
 American general ; born in England, and 
 accompanied General Braddock, but subse- 
 quently purchased an estate ia Virgioia, 
 where he lived until the outbreak of the war 
 in 1775, when he was appointed by Congress 
 adjutant-general. He performed many ser- 
 vices to the American cause, the greatest 
 of which was the defeat of Burgoyne at 
 Saratoga. In the latter part of the war he 
 held a command in the south, and was not 
 so successful, being defeated by Lord Com- 
 waUis at Camden. 
 
 Gatling, Richard Jordan (6. 1818), 
 American inventor ; a doctor by profession ; 
 assisted his father in some agricultural 
 improvements, and himself invented a 
 machine for sowing rice, subsequently 
 adapting it to wheat^sowing. In 1850 he 
 invented a double-acting hemp-brake, and 
 in 1857 a steam plough ; but his most cele- 
 brated invention was that of the revolving 
 gun, which bears his name, the conception 
 of which came to him in 1861. In 1865 the 
 gun wa^ improved and tested, and was 
 forthwith brought into use by the United 
 States service ; and several European 
 governments also adopted it. Among Dr. 
 Gatling's later inventions are an improved 
 method of casting steel cannon and a 
 pneumatic gun for discharging explosives. 
 
 Gatta, Bartolommeo della {d. 1491), 
 generally known as Don Bartolommeo 
 d'Arezzo, Tuscan miniaturist and painter ; 
 entered the order of Camaldoli, and became 
 abbot of the monastery of Arezzo ; worked 
 with Perugino in the Sistine Chapel at 
 Rome. His chief paintings are San Roceo 
 and San Girolamo at Arezzo ; his miniatures 
 are perhaps lost, but some may possibly be 
 amongst those in the duomo of Lucca. 
 
 Gatteaux, Nicolas Marie (Jb. 1751, d. 
 18o2), French engraver of medals ; son of a 
 locksmith; apprenticed to a jewellery en- 
 graver ; was presented by a friend to the 
 director of the Monnaie des medailles, and 
 modelled in wax the Battles of Alexander 
 
 painted by Le Brun. In 1773 he engraved 
 the portrait of Louis XVI. ; in 1781 that of 
 the Comte de Maurepas, in 1785 d'Alembert. 
 His son, Jacques Edouard (6. 1788), was also 
 an engraver of repute. 
 
 Gatti, Bernardino (b. 1495, d. 1575), 
 Italian painter: pupil of Correggio; called 
 " d Sojaro " ; his chief pictures are the Loaves 
 and Fishes at Cremona, and a Madonna at 
 Parma. His nephew, Gervasio Gatti {d. 
 1631), was a great imitator of Correggio. 
 
 Gattinara. {See Arborio.] 
 
 Gatty, Alfred (6. 1813), English writer and 
 divine ; wrote, with his wife Margaret {nie 
 Scott) , The Old Folks from Home, an account 
 of a tour in Ireland in 1861, and edited a 
 Life of Br. Wolff, ^ besides writing a Life of 
 Br. Scott, which is out of print. After the 
 death of his wife (1873), Dr. Gatty, besides 
 several volumes of sermons, published A Key 
 to In Memoriam annotated by Lord Ten- 
 nyson. His daughter, Mrs. Ewing, wrote 
 tales for the young. 
 
 Gau, Fran9ois Chretien (6. 1790, d. 1853), 
 French architect ; made a tour on foot 
 through Egypt and Nubia to survey the 
 monuments, and published an account of 
 them in his Antiquites de la Nubie. He 
 also wrote a work on the ruins of Pompeii. 
 
 Gauden, John {b. 1605, d. 1662), English 
 Royalist theologian ; at first took the side of 
 the Parliament, and became chaplain to the 
 Earl of Warwick ; was named one of the 
 Westminster Assembly of Divines ; after- 
 wards opposed the trial and execution of 
 Charles I., and claimed the authorship of 
 Eikon BasiUke. After the Restoration he 
 became successively Bishop of Exeter and 
 of Worcester. 
 
 Gaudentius, St. (d. 427), was appointed 
 Bishop of Brescia against his wiU ; in 405 
 went to Constantinople to intercede with 
 Arcadius on behalf of St. Chrysostom. 
 
 Gaudin, Marc Antoine (6. 1804, d. 1884), 
 French physician and chemist; invented a 
 pneumatic pump in 1827, and wrote many 
 works, among which are Beux 31emoires sur 
 le Groiipement des Atomes dans les Molecules, 
 printed in the Annates de Chimie et de 
 rhysique, and Trait'e pratique de Photo- 
 graphie (1844-45). 
 
 Gaudin, Martin Michel (b. 1757, d. 1844), 
 French fiuancier; served under the Directory 
 and Xapoleon I., and was created by the 
 latter Due de Gaeta. After the restoration 
 of the Bourbons he was governor of the 
 Bank of France for fourteen years (1820- 
 34). He wrote several financial works, 
 among which the chief is Notice Historique 
 sur les Finances de France depuis ISOO jusqu'ai 
 pr Avril, 1814.
 
 Gau 
 
 (352) 
 
 Gaw 
 
 Oanli. [See Baciccio.] 
 
 Gaultier, Garquille Hugues {b. 1574, d. 
 I634r), French comedian, called Guerin ; said 
 to have been a baker's boy, and with two 
 of his comrades to have re-established 
 burlesque on the French stage. He vsrote 
 Chansons, and prologues called Bu Mensonge 
 and I)u GaUmatias. 
 
 Gaiintlett, Henry John (b. 1806, d. 1876), 
 English musician; organist in his father's 
 church at Olney at the age of nine; was 
 afterwards articled to a solicitor, and in 
 1831 began to practise in London in partner- 
 ship with his brother, being at the same 
 time organist at St Olave's, Southwark. He 
 brought about the adoption of the C organ ; 
 did much to spread the study of Handel, 
 Bach, Beethoven, and the great German 
 composers ; and was chosen by Mendelssohn 
 to play the organ part in the production of 
 the Elijah in lSi6. In 183i3 he became 
 organist at Christ Church, Newgate Street, 
 and held the same post afterwards at several 
 other churches, and from about 1842 gave 
 himself up wholly to music. He composed 
 and edited many psalm and hymn tunes, 
 and also lectured and wrote on music. 
 With Charles C. Child he published Rymnal 
 for Matins and Evensong (Gregorian) in 
 1844; with Rev. W. J. Blow The Church 
 Symn and Tune Book (1844-51) ; with 
 Keans The Comprehensive Tune Book (1846- 
 47), etc. 
 
 Gauss, Karl Friedrich (6. 1777, d. 1855), 
 German mathematician aud astronomer, 
 patronised by the Duke of Brunswick, who 
 defrayed the expenses of his education at 
 Brunswick and Gottingen, where in 1801 he 
 produced Disquisit tones Arithmeticae. In 
 1807 he became professor and director of the 
 observatory at Gottingen, and held the 
 position until his death. During this 
 period he brought out many works on pure 
 mathematics, astronomy, and other sciences, 
 among which the chief are Theoria Motus 
 Corporum Ccelestium, in Sectionibus conicis 
 Ambientium {\%Q2), Recherches siir la Geodesic 
 stiperieure (1844-47) i and invented the 
 Heliotrope. 
 
 Gauthey, Emilaud Marie (i. 1732, d. 
 1806), French engineer, constructed the 
 Canal du Centre (1783-91), and wrote 
 Traite sur la Consfruciion des Fonts et des 
 Canaux. 
 
 GautMer (d. 1097), Norman knight 
 called "Sans Avoir," went on the first 
 Crusade ; on his way from Constantinople to 
 Palestine was MlleS in an ambuscade laid 
 by the Sultan of Iconium. 
 
 Gautier, Theophile {h. 1811, d. 1872), 
 French poet and romance writer; a leader 
 of the romantic school : contributed to La 
 
 Presse, Revue des Beux Mondes, the Moniteur, 
 and the Journal Official. In 1858 he was 
 named an officer of the Legion of Honour ; 
 obtained a pension in 1863, and in 1868 
 became librarian to the Princesse Mathilda. 
 He failed, however, in gaining admission to 
 the Academy, for which he was a candidate 
 in 1869. He was the author of Constanti' 
 nople, Voyage en Espagne, and Voyage en 
 Russie, in which he described his travels; 
 Poesies (1830), La Comedie de la Mort (1838), 
 and several novels and plays, besides a 
 series of articles on the poets of the reign of 
 Louis XIIL , republished under the name of 
 Les Grotesques, which he contributed to 
 La France Litter aire, edited partly by him- 
 self, and Tresors d'Art de la Russie written 
 in collaboration with Richebourg. 
 
 Gautier de Coutances (6. 1140, d. 1207), 
 Norman statesman, Bishop of Lincoln and 
 afterwards of Rouen ; sent by Henry II. as 
 ambassador to France ; invested Richard I. 
 with duchy of Normandy, and accompanied 
 him on the Crusade; went home as justi- 
 ciary ; took the side of Philip Augustus, and 
 helped him recover Normandy from John. 
 
 Gavaxni, nom de plume of Sulpice Guillaum 
 Chevalier (6. \%Ql, d. 1866), French carica- 
 turist, who illustrated Eugene Sue's Juif 
 Errant, and Balzac's Biable a Paris. 
 
 Gavazzi, Alessandro (6. 1809, d. 1889), 
 Italian preacher and reformer ; entered the 
 Bamabite order in 1825, and afterwards 
 became professor of rhetoric at Naples. He 
 took great part in the early reforming 
 schemes of Pio Nono, and "was chaplain- 
 general to the patriotic legion sent to Milan. 
 On the pope's becoming reactionary, 
 Gavazzi withdrew his allegiance from him, 
 and joined in the agitation which led to his 
 flight. Gavazzi afterwards came to Eng- 
 land, where his lectures against the papacy 
 were well received ; they were repeated in 
 the United States and Canada. He was 
 with Garibaldi in his expedition of 1860, 
 and in 1876 and following years undertook 
 another lecturing tour in England to pro- 
 vide fimds for the Italian Free Church, of 
 which he was a founder. 
 
 Gaveston, Piers {d. 1312), Gascon fa- 
 vourite of Edward II., who, notwithstand- 
 ing his promise to his father, recalled him 
 to England, and loaded him with riches and 
 honours ; was twice banished through the 
 influence of the barons, to whom he had 
 made himself obnoxious, and was finally 
 seized and beheaded by the Earl of War- 
 wick. 
 
 Gawan, Khwaja Mahmfid (/;. 1403, d. 
 1481), Indian statesman, of Persian descent; 
 left his country and went to India, where he 
 entered the service of Alla-oo-deen Bah- 
 muny II., Nizam of Beeder; was prime
 
 Gay 
 
 ( 353 ) 
 
 Ged 
 
 minister of Hoomayoon Shah, his successor, 
 and regent durincr the minority of Nizam 
 Shah and Mahmud Shah, sons of the latter. 
 He organised with great ability the revenues 
 of the country, built and endowed many 
 public institutions, and was a patron of 
 learned men, himself possessing many ac- 
 complishments. He was destroyed by the 
 intrigues of a rival minister, who obtained 
 his execution through the affixing of liis 
 seal to a forged letter, which was afterwards 
 acknowledged as such by Mahmud Shah. 
 
 Gay, Claude de (6. 1795, d. 1873), French 
 botanist and traveller; explored South 
 America in 1828 and succeeding years; 
 Hintoriajiscia y politica de Ch'de. 
 
 Gay, Delphine. [See Girardin.] 
 
 Gay, John (6. 1685, d. 1732), English poet ; 
 at first an apprentice to a London silk-mercer; 
 in 1712 became secretary to the Duchess of 
 Monmouth, and while in her service was 
 patronised by Swift and Pope, to the latter 
 of whom he dedicated a poem on Rural 
 Sports. In these years (1712-14) he also 
 wrote The Shepherd's Walk and Trivia. 
 His first efforts at dramatic writing were 
 not successful, but the Captives, produced in 
 1724, led to his being asked to write his 
 Fables for the instruction of the young 
 Duke of Cumberland. His most successful 
 work was the Beggar's Opera, played at 
 Covent Garden in r727. PolUj, the sequel, 
 was prohibited by the Lord Chamberlain, but 
 was profitable to the author, who, however, 
 in vain tried to obtain the post of poet- 
 laureate. 
 
 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis {b. 1778, d. 
 1850), French chemist and natural philo- 
 sopher; befriended by Berthollet; became 
 professor of chemistry at the Ecole Poly- 
 technique and of physics at the Sorbonue ; 
 made improvements in barometric, ther- 
 mometric, and hygrometric instruments ; 
 and by his balloon ascents of 1804, when he 
 ascended to the height of more than four 
 imles,_ ascertained valuable facts as,' to the 
 electricity of the atmosphere, and the in- 
 fluence _ of terrestrial magnetism in the 
 upper air. 
 
 Gaydngos y Arce, Pascual de {b. 1809), 
 Spanish Orientalist and historian, sent at an 
 early age to France, where he attended the 
 lectures of Baron de Sacy ; came to England,- 
 married and returned to Spain, where he 
 was made interpreter to the foreign office. 
 On the outbreak of the Carlist war he came 
 again to England, and lived in London till 
 1843, whence he returned to Spain, and was 
 appointed professor of oriental languages 
 at Madrid. In 1881 he became director of 
 public instruction, but soon after returned 
 to England. He classified the Spanish 
 MSS. at the British Museum; translated 
 
 into English the History of the Mohammedan 
 Dynasties, by Almakkari; and contributed 
 several papers to Spanish societies on the 
 history of Mohammedan Spain. 
 
 Gayot de Pitaval, Franqois {b. 1673, d. 
 1743), French jurist, author of Causes 
 Celebres, published during the years 1734-43. 
 
 Gayton, Edmund {b. 1609, d. 1066), 
 English humorist ; author of Pleasant Notes 
 on Bun Quixote (1645), and the Art of 
 Longevity (1659). 
 
 _ Gaza, Theodore {b. 1398, d. 1478), Byzan- 
 tine scholar and reviver of Greek literature ; 
 after the capture of Constantinople by the 
 Turks, went to Italy and studied Latin ; 
 was invited to Rome by Pope Nicholas V., 
 in order to translate Greek authors into 
 Latin, having previously been patronised by 
 the Duke of Ferrara. His chief work was a 
 Greek grammar, praised by Scaliger ; it was 
 printed in 1495 by Aldus. 
 
 Gazet, Guillaume {b. 1554, d. 1611), 
 French ecclesiastical historian ; author of a 
 Histoire des Saintes. 
 
 Geach, Charles {b. 1808, d. 1854), English 
 banker; at first a clerk in the Bank of 
 England, afterwards chairman of the Mid- 
 laud banking company ; entered Parliament 
 in 1851 ; was connected with many manu- 
 facturing establishments, and became a 
 managing director of the Crystal Palace 
 when transferred to Sydenham. He also 
 engaged largely in English and foreign 
 railway enterprise. 
 
 Gebeliu. [See Court.] 
 
 Geber or Yeber (d. circa 675), Arabian 
 chemist, many of whose MSS. are in the 
 Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris. 
 
 Gebhard (*. 1547, d. 1611), Archbishop 
 and Elector of Cologne ; having become a 
 Protestant and married Agnes de Mansfeld, 
 was excommunicated and deposed, and 
 came to England, where he had some help 
 from Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Gebbardl, Johann Ludwig {b. 1699, d. 
 1764), German historian; author of Der 
 EuropcLischen Kaiser und Koniglichen Hauser 
 Historischen und Genealogische Erlaiiterung, 
 and other works. 
 
 Ged, William {d. 1749), Scottish goldsmith, 
 the real inventor of stereotype, the invention 
 being improved by M. F. Didot. 
 
 Gedaliah {d. 588 b.c), Jewish prince; 
 made governor of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, and slain by Ishmael. 
 
 Geddes, Alexander (Jb. 1737, d. 1802), 
 Romanist priest . undertook a translation of 
 the Bible for the ose of his co-religionists.
 
 Ged 
 
 (354) 
 
 Gel 
 
 ■who, however, suspected his orthodoxy; 
 afterwards wrote Critical Remarks on the 
 Hebrew Scriptures, in which he attacked the 
 character of Moses. 
 
 Geddes, James ib. 1710, d. 1749), Scottish 
 scholar, author of an Essay on the Compo- 
 sition of the Ancients. 
 
 Geddes, Michael {b. 1640, d.llU), Scottish 
 ecclesiastical historian, chaplain of the Eng- 
 lish factory at Lisbon till silenced by the In- 
 quisition ; succeeded Burnett as chancellor of 
 Salisbury ; author of History of the Church 
 of Malabar, and History of the Church of 
 Ethiopia. 
 
 Geddes, WQliam Duquiel (*. 1828), Scottish 
 classical scholar, born at Glass, Aberdeen ; 
 became by competition rector of Aberdeen 
 grammar school in 1853, was elected in 
 1855 professor of Greek at Aberdeen uni- 
 versity, of which he became principal in 
 1885. Among his works are A Greek Gram- 
 mar (1855), Problem of the Homeric Poems 
 (1878), Flosculi Graci Borealis (1882), and 
 with Mr. P. Duquiel, a book on The Heraldic 
 Ceiling of Aberdeen Cathedral. 
 
 Gedike, Friedrich (b. 1745, d. 1803), Ger- 
 man scholar, author of Gedanken uber 
 Purismus und Sprachbereicherung, as well as 
 of many educational works and editions of 
 the classics. 
 
 Gedoyn, Nicolas, Abb^ de {b. 1667, d. 
 1744), French critic and friend of Ninon de 
 I'Enclos; translated QuintiHan, Pausanias, 
 and other writers. 
 
 Geefs, GuiUaume {b. 1806, d. 1860), 
 Belgian sculptor; maker of the national 
 monimient in the Place des Martyrs, 
 Brussels, to the victims of the revolution of 
 1830 ; exhibited in the exhibition of 1851 
 Group of Sleeping Children, and the Lion in 
 Love, also carved some of the woodwork in 
 Liege cathedral. 
 
 Geer, Karl, Baron von (5. 1720, d. 1778), 
 Swedish naturalist ; left a valuable natural 
 history collection to the Stockholm Academy 
 of Science, and wrote Memoires pour servir a 
 VHistoire des Insectes. 
 
 GefOraxd, Fabre [b. 1806, d. 1867), Haytian 
 general ; deposed the emperor, Faustin I. 
 (Soulouque), and became president of the 
 Haytian republic in 1858; suppressed 
 several revolts of Salnave, but was deposed 
 and banished by him iu 1867, when he fled 
 to Jamaica and died there. 
 
 Gehler, Adolf Ferdinand (i. 1775, d. 
 1815), German mineralogist and chemist, 
 edited Neues Journal fiir Chimie, founded 
 £epertorium der Pharmacie. 
 
 Gehler, Johann Hart (A. 1732, d. 1796), 
 
 German naturalist and physician ; author of 
 Be Characteribus Fossilium Externis. 
 
 Gehler, Johann Samuel {b. 1751, rf. 1795), 
 Gennan physicist ; author of Physikalisches 
 Worterbuch (1787-95). 
 
 Geijer, Erik Gustav (6. 1783, d. 1847), 
 Swedish historian and poet ; visited England 
 in 1809; professor of history at Upsala in 
 1817; sat twice in the diet; declined a 
 bishopric ; wrote A Complete History of 
 Sweden (Srenska folkets Historid), The 
 Viking, as well as songs for Jenny Lind, 
 whose friendship he enjoyed. 
 
 Geikie, Archibald (b. 1835), Scotch geolo- 
 gist ; bom in Edinbiirgh, and educated at 
 the High School and university ; fellow of 
 the Royal Societies both of London and 
 Edinburgh, and of many foreign academies, 
 was appointed in 1855 to the Geological 
 Survey, and became in 1807 director-general 
 of the Geological Survey of the United 
 Kingdom; was in 1870 first holder of the 
 Murchison professorship of geology and 
 mineralogy in Edinburgh University, and 
 received the degree of LL.D. from the 
 latter in 1885, and from St. Andrews in 
 1872. Among his works, besides contribu- 
 tions to geological periodicals, are the f ollow- 
 ing-.—T/ie Story of a Boulder (1858), The 
 Phenomena of the Glacial Drift of Scotland 
 (1863), A Studenfs Manual of Geology, in 
 conjimction with J. B. Jukes (1871), 
 Memoir of Sir Rod. Murchison, with Notices 
 of his Scientific Contemporaries, etc. (1874), 
 Class-book of Physical Geography (1877), A 
 Text-book of Geology (1882), A Class-book 
 of Geology (1886), as well as two volumes in 
 the Science Primers, and (in conjunction 
 with Dr. G. Wilson) Life of Professor 
 Edward Forbes (1861). 
 
 Geikie, James (3. 1839), Scotch geologist, 
 brother of preceding, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., 
 etc., joined the Geological Siurvey in 1861, 
 and became district surveyor, which post he 
 resigned on his appointment in succession to 
 his brother as professor of geology at Edin- 
 burgh. In 1876 he accompanied Sir A. 
 Ramsay to Gibraltar to report on the water- 
 supply of that place. He was one of the 
 founders of the Scottish Geographical 
 Society, and was elected in 1890 president of 
 the Geographical Society. His chief works 
 are The Great Lee Age and its Relation to 
 the Antiquity of Man (1874), Prehistoric 
 Europe (1881), Outlines of Geology (1886), 
 Songs and Lyrics of Heine and other Ger- 
 man Poets (1887). 
 
 Gelasius I. {d. 492), Pope, elected 492 ; is 
 said to have held a coimcil at Borne to 
 decide what books were canonical. 
 
 Gelasius II. {b. 1050, <f. 1119), Pope; was 
 opposed by the Emperor Henry V., who set
 
 Gel 
 
 (355) 
 
 Gen 
 
 np Burdiu as Gregory VIII., and compelled 
 him to fly to Clugny, where he died. He 
 wrote a life of Erasmus and six epistles. 
 
 Geldenhaur, Gerard {b. 1480, d. 1542), 
 " Gerard of Nimeguen ; " Dutch theologian ; 
 sent by Maximilian of Burgundy to Witten- 
 berg ; became a Protestant, and thereby lost 
 the friendship of Erasmus. 
 
 Gelder, Arnold van {b. 1645, d. 1727), 
 Dutch painter of the school of Rembrandt, 
 whose pupil he was. His best picture, Kinff 
 Solomon on his Throne surrounded by his 
 Court, is at Dort. 
 
 Gel^e, Claude \_See Lorraine.] 
 
 Gelimer.last king of the Vandals (flourished 
 6th century) ; conquered by Belisarius, and 
 came to Rome ; was given by Justinian a 
 home in Gulatia, where he died. 
 
 GeU, Sir WiUiam (6. 1777, d. 1836), 
 English archaeologist ; accompanied Queen 
 Caroline to Italy as her chamberlain, and 
 settled there ; gave an account of his dis- 
 coveries in Fompeiana, Topographia Tro- 
 jana, and Topographia Grceca. 
 
 Gellert, Christian Fiirchtegott (b. 1715, d. 
 1769), German poet; author of Fables, Die 
 Schwedisehe Grdfin, and Lieder. His brother 
 Christian Ehregott {d. 1795) wrote a book 
 on the Frinciples of Metallurgical Chemis- 
 try. 
 
 Gem, Giovanni Battista (b. 1498, d. 1563), 
 Italian writer ; son of a tailor, which occu- 
 pation he himself pursued; gave a course 
 of lectures explanatory of the Divina Coin- 
 tnedia at Florence, whose academy he 
 founded, and became first president of. 
 His best works were I Capricci del Bottaja, 
 and La Circe. 
 
 Gellibrand, Henry {b. 1597, d. 1636), 
 English clergyman ; devoted his time rather 
 to mathematics than to his profession ; 
 became professor of astronomy in Gresham 
 college, and continued Briggs's Trigono- 
 metria Britannica. 
 
 Gellius, Aulus, Latin author of the 2nd 
 century ; wrote Nodes Atticce, composed at 
 Athens, and containing fragments of many 
 works now lost. 
 
 Gelon or Gelo {d. 478 b.c), tyrant of 
 Syracuse ; served in the guard of Hippo- 
 crates of Gela, whose children he dis- 
 possessed, and seized power for himself; 
 repulsed Carthaginian invasion of Sicily. 
 
 Gemelli-Carreri (b. 1651), Italian travel- 
 ler ; made a voyage roimd the world, which 
 he described on his return in Giro del 
 Mondo. 
 
 Geminiani, Francesco {b. 
 x2 
 
 1680, d. 1762), 
 
 violinist and composer, pupil of Corelli; 
 came to England in 1714, and settled there, 
 receiving the patronage of George I. and of 
 Walpole, who saved him from ruin caused 
 by his extravagance in buying pictures ; 
 author of Dizionario Armonico, and Art of 
 Flaying on the Violin (1740), the latter being 
 the first work ever published on the subject, 
 besides several sonatas and concertos. He 
 died at Dublin. 
 
 Geminiani, Giacinto or Gemignano {b. 
 1611, d. 1681), Italian painter, pupil of 
 Ponssin ; painted some of the subjects from 
 the life of Constantine in the baptistery of 
 St. John Lateran. 
 
 Gemistius, Georgius, called "Pletho" 
 {b. 13W, d. 1491), Byzantine writer; de- 
 fended the Greek Church against the Latin, 
 and attended the council of Florence in 
 order to reconcile them; founded a Pla- 
 tonic school at Florence, and wrote many 
 works, of which I)e Gestis Gracorum (in 
 Greek) is the chief. 
 
 Gemma, Frisius (J. 1508, d. 1555), Dutch 
 mathematician ; favourite of Charles V. ; 
 wrote Methodus Arithmeticce (1540). 
 
 Gempak, Sougita, Japanese physician of 
 the 18th century; learnt Dutch, and in- 
 troduced many European discoveries in 
 China and Japan, 
 
 Gence, Jean Baptiste (5. 1755, d. 1840), 
 French scholar ; edited The Imitaiio Christt, 
 of which he maintained that Gerson and 
 not a Kempis was the author. He devoted 
 thirty years to his researches on the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 Genebrard, GUbert (fi. 1537, d. 1597), 
 French divine ; Archbishop of Aix ; author 
 of De Sacrarum Flectionum Jure, for which 
 he was banished — the object of the book 
 having been to support appointment of 
 bishops by clergy and people and not by 
 royal nomination. 
 
 Genest, Charles Claude (i. 1639, d. 1719), 
 French verse-writer ; made a poet by fashion 
 rather than merit ; author of Frincipes de 
 Fhilosophie. 
 
 Genet, Francois (*. 1640, <^. 1707), French 
 divine ; Bishop of Vaison ; incurred royal 
 displeasure by befriending the Jansenists ; 
 drowned while crossing a torrent. He 
 wrote TJieologie Morale, ou Solution des Cas 
 de Conscience. 
 
 G^nevi6ve, St. {d. 512), patron saint of 
 Paris ; said to have predicted the invasion of 
 the barbarians; encouraged the people to 
 resist Attila. In 1^52 the first church was 
 dedicated to her in Paris. 
 
 Genga, GLrolamo {b. 1476, d. 1551), Italian
 
 Gren 
 
 (366) 
 
 Gen 
 
 painter and architect ; pupil of Perugino ; 
 painted scenery for the theatre of Urbino, 
 and did much work at Kome and Florence, 
 at which latter place there is an altar-piece 
 by liim in St. Catherine's Church. His son, 
 Bartolomeo (d. 1558), completed some of his 
 works, and designed fortifications for the 
 knights of St. John at Malta. 
 
 Gengis Khan (*. 1162, d. 1227), Emperor of 
 the Mongols, whose real name was Temout- 
 chin, the title meaning "the chief of the 
 most powerful." Havmg consolidated the 
 Tatar tribes, he marched against the 
 Emperor of China, whose general he was, 
 overran his empire (1212-1214), ravaged 
 northern India, which he temporarily sub- 
 dued, and penetrated into Russia through 
 Persia. Having reached the Crimea, 
 sacked numerous towns, and slaughtered 
 millions of men, the Tatars returned and 
 Gengis died. 
 
 Genlis, Stephanie F^licit^, Comtesse de, 
 (*. 1746, d. 1830), French writer; daughter 
 of the Marquis de St. Aubin ; married 
 Comte de Genlis when very young ; edu- 
 cated herself after marriage, and taught 
 the children of the Due de Chartres, 
 including Louis Philippe, writing mean- 
 while several educational works. In 1790 
 she accompanied the Princess Adelaide to 
 England, and afterwards went with her 
 royal pupils to Switzerland. She dissuaded 
 Louis Philippe from accepting the crown, 
 thinking him unfit for the throne. In 1800, 
 after travelling through Europe and being 
 expelled from Russia, she returned to 
 France, and was well received by Napoleon, 
 but never gained the favom-of Louis XVIII. 
 Her chief works were Za Religion Con- 
 sidere comme V Unique Base de Bonheur, a 
 book ridiculed by Buffon, Zes Meres Rivales, 
 Mademoiselle de Clermont, and Dictionnnire 
 des Etiquettes de la Cour, and other 
 romances. 
 
 Genuadius, Georgius Scholarius {b. 1400, 
 d. 1460), Patriarch of Constantinople ; as a 
 layman accompanied the Emperor John 
 Palaeologus to the Council of Ferrara, and 
 delivered three orations in favour of union 
 of the Eastern and Western churches, but 
 afterwards advocated the contrary views. 
 He was elected patriarch after the capture 
 of Constantinople, by the express wish of the 
 sultan, and delivered before him an apology 
 for the Christian faith. He retired from 
 the patriarchate two or three years before 
 his death. He is not to be confounded with 
 Gennadius, another Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople, who died in 471. 
 
 Gennari, Benedetto "the Elder" {b. 
 1550, d. IGIO), Italian painter; thought the 
 best of his time ; his finest picture is Bapthne 
 d''un Roi par St. Amien, in the church of 
 San Giovanni, Bologna. 
 
 Gennari, Benedetto, "the Younger" (i. 
 1633, d. 1715), Italian painter; grandson of 
 the preceding, and, like him, a native of 
 Bologna, nephew and pupil of Guercino, 
 whose style he followed ; vras employed in 
 Paris by Louis XTV., and in London by 
 Charles II. and James 11. His pictures 
 were chiefly portraits, and he inixoduced 
 the Flemish style into Italy. 
 
 Gennari, Cesare (fi. 1641, d. 1688), 
 Bolognese painter ; brother of preceding ; 
 exceUed chiefly in landscape and historical 
 painting. The father of Cesare and hia 
 brother Ercole (d. 1658) was also a painter, 
 and married Guercino's sister. 
 
 Gennaro, Giuseppe (6. 1701, d. 1761), 
 Italian jurist ; was educated by the Jesuits, 
 and wrote Republica Juris Consultorum, tak- 
 ing part also in many legal reforms at 
 
 Naples. 
 
 Gennete, Claude Leopold {b. 1706, d. 
 1782), French physicist, author of Construe-' 
 tion des Cheminees, a,nd Fur%/ication de l' Air. 
 
 Genovesi, Antonio {b. 1712, d. 1769), 
 Italian philosopher; professor of meta- 
 physics and political economy at Naples; 
 persecuted for his adherence to the doctrines 
 of Newton, but protected by Archbishop 
 Galliani. His chief work is Eletnetitorum 
 Artis Zogico-CriticcB. 
 
 Genseric, {b. 406, d. 477), King of the 
 Vandals, reigned at first with his brother 
 Gonderic, afterwards alone, and greatly 
 strengthened the Vandal power in Spain. 
 In 429 he invaded northern Africa, stamped 
 out Christianity, and from his new capital, 
 Carthage, made incursions on the inhabitants 
 of Italy and Sicily. In 455, being invited to 
 Rome by the widow of Valentinian to take 
 part against liis murderer Maximus, he caused 
 the city to be sacked for fourteen days, and 
 carried away among his prisoners tlie 
 Empress Eudocia and her sons, besides 
 much treasure. Genseric professed to be an 
 Arian Christian. 
 
 Gensonn^, Armand (b. 1758, d. 1793), 
 French politician ; one of the chief leaders of 
 the Girondists; tried to save Louis XVI., 
 opposed the excesses of the Jacobins, but 
 was overcome by them, and guillotined in 
 the October following the fatal 10th 
 August. 
 
 Gen-sy6-ten-w6 {b. 679, d. 748), Empress 
 of Japan ; encouraged the study of ancient 
 Chinese, and formed a collection of laws, 
 abdicated after a reign of nine years, during 
 which appeared Nippon-Ki, the history of 
 Japan from the Creation. 
 
 Gent, Thomas (b. 1691, d. 1778), English 
 antiquary ; author of a History of York, a 
 HxHtory of Hull, and an Autobiography.
 
 Gen 
 
 (357) 
 
 Geo 
 
 Gentil, Jean Baptiste (i. 1726, d. 1799), 
 French officer, who served against the 
 English in India, and when the French 
 were driven from the Camatic assisted the 
 native princes against them. Being ohliged 
 to leave India, he returned to France, where 
 he died miserably, having lost his pension. 
 He wrote several works on India. 
 
 GentilescM. [See Lomi.] 
 
 Gentili, Gentile {d. 1348), Italian phy- 
 sician ; known as " the Speculator ; " author 
 of iJe Febrihus. 
 
 GentUis, Alhericus {b. 1551, d. 1611), 
 Italian jurist ; came to England, and, heing a 
 Protestant, was made professor of civil law 
 at Oxford in 1587 ; wrote I)e Juris Inter - 
 pretibus Dialogi. His brother, Scipione {d. 
 1616), published Annotations on 'lasso, and 
 his son, Eoberto {b. 1590), translated Sarpi's 
 History of the Inquisition. 
 
 Gentilis, Giovanni (6. 1520, d. 1566). Nea- 
 politan heretic ; became 3 Socinian, and went 
 to Geneva, where he was beheaded for hav- 
 ing attacked the doctrine of the Trinity and 
 having left the city without leave. 
 
 Gentleman, Francis {b. 1728, d. 1784), 
 Irish dramatic writer, published the Dra- 
 matic Censor, vrrote Royal Fables, and ap- 
 peared as an actor. 
 
 Gentz, Friedrich von {b. 1764, d. 1832), 
 German publicist ; drew up the manifesto 
 issued by Austria against Napoleon, and was 
 author of several documents of a similar 
 nature : was previously a short time in Eng- 
 land, where he saw Pitt. At the Congress 
 of Vienna he acted as secretary, as also at 
 Paris in 1815, and at those which followed 
 the restoration. He wrote a life of Mary 
 Queen of Scots, and several articles for the 
 Journal Historique. A selection from his 
 works was published in 1838. 
 
 Geoffrey, Marie Therese {b. 1699, d. 1777), 
 French lady of humble birth, who, having 
 married a rich man, was able to receive in 
 her salon the most distinguished French- 
 men and foreigners of her time, including 
 the Encyclopaedists, Hume, Horace Walpole, 
 etc. 
 
 GeoflTrey I. {d. 987), Count of Anjou; a 
 great warrior and legendary hero (" Grise 
 Gonelle"). 
 
 Geoffrey II., "Martel" (*. 1007, d. 1060), 
 succeeded Fulk III. ; received Tours from 
 Henri I. of France as a reward for his ser- 
 vices : founded the Abbey of Trii ite de 
 Vendome and became a monk, to whose 
 tomb annual processions were made by the 
 canons of St. Laud. 
 
 1109), nephew of the last; dispossessed his 
 elder brother of Touraiae. 
 
 Geoffrey IV., " Plautagenet " (6. 1113, rf. 
 1 150), mai-ried Matilda, daughter of Henry I. 
 of England, and widow of the Emperor 
 Henry V., and founder of the Plantagenet 
 line. In 1147 he followed Louis VII. on a 
 crusade, and died soon after his return. Pre- 
 viously he had been chieiiy engaged in try- 
 ing to get possession of Normandy, an 
 object which he attained after the capture 
 of Stephen at Lincoln. 
 
 Geoffrey I. (d. 1008), son of Conan, Count 
 of Rennes ; became first Duke of Brittany. 
 
 Geoffrey II. (*. 1158, d. 1186), Duke of 
 Brittauy ; third son of Henry II. of England ; 
 obtained title by marriage wdth daughter 
 of Conan IV. ; allied himself with Philip 
 Augustus against his father on several occa- 
 sions ; was killed through injuries received 
 at a tournament. His son, Arthur, was 
 bom after his death. 
 
 Geoffrey Gaimar, Anglo-Norman poet of 
 the 12th century; author of L^Esoterie des 
 Engles. 
 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth (b. circa 1100, d. 
 1154), British chronicler. Bishop of St. 
 Asaph ; translated the prophecies of Merlin, 
 and wrote Mistoria Britonum, in which 
 the former were inserted. 
 
 Geoffrey of Vend6me (d. 1132), French 
 statesman and cardinal; friend of Popes 
 Urban II. and Paschal II., the latter of 
 whom he rebuked for yielding to the Em- 
 peror Henry V. on the Investiture question. 
 His works were printed in 1610. 
 
 Geoffrey, Claude Joseph {b. 1685,^.1752), 
 French chemist ; made many experiments, 
 and drew up the first table of chemical 
 affinities. 
 
 Geoffroy, Etienne Fran9ois, "the Elder" 
 {b. 1672, d. 1731), brother of preceding, 
 French physician, whose chief work, Traite 
 de la Matiere Medicate, was translated into 
 English, German, and Italian. 
 
 Geoffroy, Etienne Louis [h. 1725, d. 1810), 
 French zoologist; son of preceding; wrote 
 two importaut works, Histoire Abreyee des 
 Insectes des Environs de Paris, and Disserta- 
 tions sur VOrgane de VOme de V Homme, de» 
 Reptiles, et des Poissons. 
 
 Geoffroy, Julien Louis (h. 1743, d. 1814), 
 French critic ; educated as a Jesuit ; on tiie 
 dissolution of the onlor became a tutor, and 
 afterwards a journalist, contributing dra- 
 matic articles to the Journal des Debats ; 
 also published L'' Ami du Roi and L^Annee 
 Litteraire. 
 
 Geoffrey IIL, "Le Rechin" (J. 1043, d. \ Geoffroy de Vinsant, English writer ol
 
 Geo 
 
 (358) 
 
 Geo 
 
 Latiu poems, of the 12tl» century; author of 
 2(bra roetria. 
 
 GeoflEroy Saint HUaire, fitienne {b. 1772, d. 
 1814), French naturalist ; rescued his friend, 
 tlie mineralogist. Abbe Haiiy, from prison 
 in 1 792 ; was appointed to the chair of 
 zoology in the Jardin des Plantes in 1793, 
 where he made acquaintance with Cuvier, 
 and brought together a large collection ; 
 accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, and 
 placed in the Paris museum the results of 
 the expedition ; made collections from Spain 
 and Portugal by plunder of museums and 
 libraries. Having afterwards become pro- 
 fessor of zoology to the Faculte des Sciences, 
 he gave his attention to philosophic ana- 
 tomy, and carried on a controversy with 
 Cuvier, who denied his doctrine of the 
 mutability of species. In 1840 Saiut Hilaire 
 became blind. His chief works are Phi- 
 loMphie Anatoinique (1818-20) and Sur 
 V Unite de Composition Organiqtte (1828). 
 
 Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, Isidore i.b. 1805, 
 d. 1861), French naturalist; son of Etienne; 
 was at first assistant to his father, and after- 
 wards succeeded hirn as professor at the 
 Sorboune and the Musee. He took the place 
 of BlainviUe at the Academic des Sciences, 
 and was active in the foundation of the 
 Societe d'Acclimatation. His chief works 
 are Histoire Natmelle Generale et Particu- 
 hire des Anomalies de POrffanisation, and 
 Histoire Naturelle Generale des Eegnes Or- 
 ganiques. 
 
 George, Duke of Clarence. \_See Cla- 
 rence.] 
 
 George, Duke of York. [See York.] 
 
 George, Henry (6. 1839), American land 
 reformer; was bom at Philadelphia, and, 
 after being successively in a countiug-hou.se 
 and a printer's office and at sea, settled in 
 California, and in 1866 joined the staff of a 
 San Francisco paper. He afterwards be- 
 came editor of two papers there, and made 
 his first essay on the land question in Our 
 Land and Land Policy, published in 1871. 
 In 1876 he was state-inspector of gas- 
 meters, but in 1880 removed to New York, 
 and the next year came to Ireland on his 
 way to England. He was there arrested as 
 a "suspect" under Mr. Forster's Act, but 
 was soon released. Progress and Poverty 
 had been written in 1879, and its author 
 undertook lecturing tours in 1883 and 1889 
 in support of his principles. Beside this 
 book he published Tlie Irish Land Question 
 in 1881, Social Problems in 1884, and Pro- 
 tection and Free Trade in. 1886, when he was 
 a candidate for the mayoralty of New 
 York. 
 
 George, Prince of Denmark (6. 1653, d. 
 1708), married Princess Anne of England, 
 
 and was appointed on her accession lord 
 high admiral ; was a person of no poUtical 
 or other importance. 
 
 George, St., of Cappadocia, Arian 
 Patriarch of Alexandria in 356 when 
 St. Athanasius was expelled; a bitter per- 
 secutor of the orthodox, was murdered 
 by a pagan mob in the reign of Julian for 
 desecrating a temple of the sun. Some 
 have identified him with St. George of 
 England. 
 
 George, St. (Jl. circa 300), patron saint 
 of England; served as a soldier iinder Dio- 
 cletian, but having complained to him of 
 the persecution of the Christians, was im- 
 prisoned in Nicomedia, tortured, and be- 
 headed. He was canonised by Pope Gela- 
 sius in 494 ; and is sujjposed to have been a 
 native of Lydda, where a church was built 
 over his relics. 
 
 George Syncellus {Jl. 9th century), wrote 
 a chronicle from Adam to Diocletian. 
 
 George of Cyprus {d. 1290), appointed 
 when a layman by Andronicus Palaeologus 
 to the see of Constantinople. The Arme- 
 nians at first refused to recognise him, but 
 afterwards submitted. 
 
 George of Trebizond (b. 1396, d. 1485), 
 Greek scholar ; came to Rome as a teacher 
 in 1435, and was made secretary to Nicolas 
 V. some years later ; translated many of the 
 classics, and did much towards the revival 
 of letters. 
 
 George the Fisidian, oriental historian, 
 of the 7th century ; wrote a history of the 
 expedition of Heraclius against the Persians 
 in 622 ; also a poem, Hexcemeron. 
 
 George I. (6. 1660, d. 1727), King of Eng- 
 land ; became, in accordance with the Act of 
 Settlement, first of the Hanoverian kings, 
 having succeeded to the electorate of Han- 
 over in 1698 ; came to England on the 
 death of Anne in 1715, but passed most of 
 his time in Hanover; quarrelled with his 
 wife and his eldest son, but did not inter- 
 fere with the conduct of English affairs; 
 died on his way to Hanover. 
 
 George II. (6. 1683, d. 1760), King of Eng- 
 land, son of the last named ; married Caroline 
 of Anspachin 1705, and headed opposition to 
 his father; succeeded to the throne in 1727 ; 
 quarrelled with his son Frederick, and 
 banished him from the palace ; adopted a 
 warlike foreign policy, and was present at 
 the battle of Dettingen (1743), but left the 
 control of home affairs in the hands of Queen 
 Caroline and Walpole. His last years were 
 illiuninated by the successes of Pitt's first 
 administration. 
 
 George in. {p. 1738, d. 1820), King of
 
 Geo 
 
 ( 359) 
 
 Ger 
 
 England, son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, 
 who died in 17(31 ; took an active part 
 in alTairs until incapacitated by illness. 
 Having ascended the throne in 1760, he 
 married Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Stre- 
 litz ; obtained the resignation of Pitt 
 and Newcastle, and appointed Lord Bute, 
 who had been his governor, minister, 
 but was again for a time obliged to 
 submit to the Whigs; was strongly in 
 favour of the prosecution of Wilkes, and 
 against any concessions to the American 
 colonies ; obtained a minister to carry out 
 his wishes in Lord North, who held office 
 from 1770 to 1783 ; by imcoustitutional in- 
 fluence obtained the overthrow of the coali- 
 tion ministry, but submitted almost entirely 
 to the influence of the younger Pitt, until 
 he proposed a measure for the relief of the 
 Eoman Catholics. In 1772 he obtained the 
 passing of a stringent Act regulating mar- 
 riages in the royal family. In 1786 his life 
 was attempted by Margaret Nicholson, and 
 in 1788 his first illness withdrew him from 
 affairs for several months. In 1800 his life 
 was again attempted, and from the year 
 1810, when he again became insane, his 
 reign was practically at an end. Although 
 not a man of education, he became patron 
 of the Eoyal Academy when it was founded 
 in 1786, and of the Royal Institution in 
 1799. He was very painstaking in business, 
 but narrow in his views, and not invariably 
 scrupulous as to the methods by which he 
 got rid of ministers who refused to act as 
 his clerks. 
 
 George IV. (6. 1762, d. 1830), son of 
 George III.; was appointed regent in 1810, 
 and succeeded to the throne in 1820 ; had 
 previously been on bad terms with his father 
 on account of his alHance with the Whigs 
 and the extravagance and inmiorality of his 
 private Ufe, having illegally married Mrs. 
 Fitzherbert, and twice had ms debts paid by 
 the nation. In 1795 he married Caroline 
 of Brunswick, but separated from her 
 the next year, and on his accession refused 
 to allow her to be crowned, and brought a 
 charge of adultery against her. In 1821 he 
 visited Irelaud and Hanover, and in the 
 next year Scotland. In 1829 he gave a re- 
 luctant consent to the Eoman Catholic Re- 
 lief Bill, to which he was really almost as 
 much opposed as his father had been. 
 
 George V. (*. 1819, d. 1878), last king of 
 Hanover, the blind son of Ernest Augustus, 
 whom he succeeded in 1851 ; was actively 
 opposed to constitutional government, and 
 obtained the abrogation of the constitution 
 of 1848. Having hesitated for some years 
 between Austria and Prussia, he at length 
 determined to join the former, and his terri- 
 tory was invaded by the Prussians and an- 
 nexed in 1866. His last years were chiefly 
 spent at Paris. 
 
 George I., of Greece Q>. 1843), a Danish 
 prince, brother of the Princess of Wales; 
 was induced by Earl Russell to become 
 king of the Hellenes in 1863 ; at the same 
 time the Ionian Islands were restored, and 
 a new constitution of the most liberal kind 
 was promulgated, but has not worked very 
 well. The king has had great difficulty in 
 restraining his subjects from attacks on the 
 Turks to recover from them their own 
 ancient possessions, aud if it had not been 
 for the cession of part of Macedonia and 
 Epirus in 1880 he might have been obliged 
 to abdicate. 
 
 George I., Grand Duke of Russia (6. 
 
 1100, d. 1156), "Dolgorouki," son of 
 Wladimir Monamaque ; fought with his bro- 
 thers for their portion of his father's in- 
 heritance ; made roads across the steppes, 
 and is said to have laid the foimdatious of 
 Moscow. 
 
 George II. (6. 1190, d. 1238) was defeated 
 and kiUed in an invasion of the Tatars, who 
 took Moscow. 
 
 George IIL (d. 1328) reigned under the 
 suzerainty of the Tatars ; was killed by 
 Dmitri in revenge for his father's murder. 
 
 Georgel, Jean Fran(jois {b. 1731, d. 1813), 
 French diplomatist; celebrated for his de- 
 fence of his patron. Cardinal Rohan, in the 
 trial of the diamond necklace affair (1785-6) ; 
 afterwards settled at Fribourg, and wrote 
 Memoires, which were published in 1817. 
 
 Georget, Jean Etienne (6. 1795, d. 1828), 
 French physician ; author of Be la FoUe 
 (1820), and Fhysiologie du Systhne Nervetuc 
 (1821). 
 
 Geraldini, Alessandro (b. 1455, d. 1525), 
 cupbearer to Isabella of Castile; became 
 tutor to her daughters, and used his influ- 
 ence in favour of Columbus. He also went 
 on a mission to England to reconcile Henry 
 VIII. and Catherine, his former pupil. He 
 died as Bishop of Hispaniola in his diocese. 
 
 Geramb, Ferdinand, Baron de (6. 1772, d. 
 1848), French adventurer ; served in several 
 foreign armies ; became a Trappist in 1812, 
 and m 1831 went on a pilgrimage to Jeru- 
 salem. He wrote Aspirations aux Plaies de 
 Notre Seigneur and Voyage de la Trappe d 
 Rome. 
 
 Gerard. \_See Grandville.] 
 
 Gerard, Alexander (b. 1728, d. 1796), 
 Scotch writer ; friend of Beattie and Reid ; 
 author of Genius and Taste. 
 
 Gerard, Balthasar (6. 1658, d. 1684), 
 Jesuit fanatic, who assassinated William of 
 Orange at Delft, and was executed with 
 horrible tortures. Hia family was ennobled
 
 G^r 
 
 (360) 
 
 Ger 
 
 by Philip II., and he is enrolled among 
 Romanist martyi-s. 
 
 Gerard, Etienue Maurice, Comte (6. 1773, 
 d. 1S.32), French soldier and marshal of 
 France, served with distinction in Napo- 
 leon's campaigns, having tirst come into 
 notice by his conduct as aide-de-camp to 
 Bernadotte in the iineiite against the French 
 ambassador in 1798; was made baron for 
 his services at Wagram; commanded the 
 rear-guard in the retreat from Moscow ; was 
 made count after the battle of Bautzen, and 
 was prominent in the campaign of 1814. 
 Gerard was not dismissed by Louis XVIII., 
 but joined Napoleon on his escape, and was 
 present at Waterloo. He then lived at 
 Brussels till 1817 ; on his return to France 
 he entered the Chamber as a member of the 
 Opposition, and waspromiuent in the revo- 
 lution of 1830 ; Louis Philippe made him 
 war-minister, and at the same time mare- 
 chal de France. After commanding at the 
 siege of Antwerp in 1832, he became war 
 minister again in 1834, but soon resigned. 
 In 1842 he became jrand chancellor of the 
 Legion of Honour, and a senator in 1852, but 
 took little part in public affairs after 1848. 
 
 Gerard, Fran9ois Pascal (6. 1770, d. 1837), 
 French painter ; painted about three hundred 
 portraits, including the Duke of Wellington 
 and the other allied leaders who were at 
 Paris after Waterloo, as well as several 
 royal personages, but his most celebrated 
 pictures are La Bataille d^ Austerlitz in the 
 Tuileries, and Entree de Henri IV. d Paris, 
 executed for Louis XVIII. 
 
 G^raxd, Jules (*. 1817, d. 1864), French 
 soldier, known as "the Lion Killer," be- 
 cause he went to the province of Constan- 
 tiae to kill lions. He wrote an account of 
 his exploits. 
 
 Gerard, Louis {b. 1733, d. 1819), French 
 botanist, author of Flora Gallo-ProviticiaUs. 
 
 Gerard, Philippe Louis (*. 1737, d. 1813), 
 French writer, author of Theorie du Bon- 
 heur and Lemons d^Histoire. 
 
 Gerard Thom, Tenque, or Tunc (b. 1040, 
 d. 1121), founder and first grand master of 
 the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, after- 
 wards known as Knights of Rhodes and of 
 Malta. 
 
 Gerard de Cremona (*. 1114, d. 1187), 
 Italian translator of Arab writers ; trans- 
 lated into Latin Rasis, Aviceona and Al- 
 mansor. 
 
 Gerard de Nerval [See Labrunie.] 
 
 Gerard of Sabbionetta, probably the same 
 as Gerard of Cremona. 
 
 Gerarde, John {b. 1545, d, 1607), English 
 
 botanist : gardener to Lord Burghley ; also 
 practised as a surgeon in London, and vnrote 
 a Herbal, or General History of Plants. 
 
 Geraud, Pierre Hercule {b. 1812, d. 1844), 
 French archaeologist ; author of Paris sous 
 Philippe Ic Bel, for which he received a 
 medal from the Acadc^mie de Belles Lettres. 
 He was also employed in collecting unpub- 
 lished documents about the Albigenses, and 
 published an account of the discoveries of 
 a society for the exploration of the ruins of 
 Carthage. 
 
 Gerbais, Jean {b. 1629, d. 1699), French 
 theologian ; author of Ordinationes Universi 
 Cleri Oallicnm. 
 
 Gerber, Ernst Ludwig (6. 1746, d. 1819), 
 German organist and musical writer, wrote 
 Neues Historisch- Biog raphisches Lexicon der 
 Tonkitnstler, upon which he was engaged for 
 fifteen years. 
 
 Gerberon, Gabriel {b. 1628, d. 1711), 
 French Bendictine ; was imprisoned for 
 upholding the doctrines of Jansenius, but 
 released after a verbal retractation in 1710. 
 
 Gerbert. [See Sylvester II.] 
 
 Gerbert, Martin, Baron de Homan (6. 
 1720, d. 1793), German prelate, published a 
 collection of MSS. of church music in 
 Italian, French, and German, under the title 
 of Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musicd Sacra, 
 as well as a work called De Cantu et Musicd 
 Sacra a Primd Ecclesice JEtate usque ad 
 prcBsens Tempus. 
 
 Gerbier, Sir Balthasar {b. 1592, d. 1667), 
 Flemish painter and architect ; introduced 
 by Buckingham to Charles I. , who employed 
 him diplomatically in Flanders, where he 
 met and treated writh Rubens. After going 
 to Surinam in order to found a new colony, 
 he was obliged to return to Europe, and, 
 settling in England, was employed under 
 Charles II. aa an architect. 
 
 Gerbillon, Jean Francois (J. 1634, d. 
 1707), Jesuit missionary ; obtaiaed the fa- 
 vour of the emperor of China, and assisted 
 Gaubil in his efforts to teach Christianity. 
 
 Gerdil, Giacinto (b. 1718, d. 1802), Roman 
 cardinal and philosophical writer: author of 
 A Treatise on the Immateriality of the Soul, 
 and of the Nature and Origin of Ideas, both 
 of which were directed against Locke. 
 
 Gerhardt, Karl Friedrich (6, 1816, d. 
 1856), German chemist; some time professor 
 at Montpellier, having studied under Liebig; 
 returned to Paris, and wrote Tratte de 
 Chimie Organiqus. 
 
 Gerhardt, Paul (6. 1607, d. 1676), German 
 theological poet, his works being embodied 
 in Die Gesdnge Paul Gerhardts, some of
 
 G6r 
 
 (361) 
 
 Ger 
 
 which have been translated in the Zr/ra 
 Germanica of Miss Wiukworth. 
 
 Gericault, Jean Louis (6. 1790, d. 1824), 
 French painter, his chief picture being The 
 Shipurcck of the Medusa in the Louvre. 
 
 Gering, Udalricus (rf. 1510), German prin- 
 ter, invited by Louis XL in 1470 to set up a 
 press in Paris at the Sorbonne, to whom be 
 left considerable property ; printed Corpus 
 Juris Canonici. 
 
 Gerle, Christophe Antoine Dom Gerle (6. 
 1748, d. circa 1803), French ecclesiastic; 
 prominent in the revolution ; member of the 
 States-General in 1789, and a leader in the 
 " se)-ment du Jeu de Faunie,'" afterwards 
 notorious as a supporter of Catherine Theot ; 
 was employed under the Empire as a clerk 
 in the ministry of the interior. 
 
 Germain, Antoine-Henri Marie {b. 1824), 
 French politician and financier ; aided in 
 founding and became chairman of the Credit 
 Lyonnais ; entered the Chamber in 1869, and 
 was again elected in 1871. As member of 
 the National Assembly he acted with the 
 " left centre," made several important 
 speeches on the budgets, and opposed the 
 later financial policy of the repubhc. 
 
 Germain, Charles Antoine {d. 1835), French 
 poUtician and historian ; was arrested as a 
 partisan of Gracchus Baboeuf in 1796, and 
 condemned to exile ; published after his 
 return Pastes Giviles de la France. 
 
 Germain, St. (6. 496, d. 576), Bishop of 
 Paris ; attended the third councU there ; 
 excommunicated Charibert for incest. 
 
 Germain, Sophie (*. 1776, d. 1831), French 
 mathematician ; pupil of Lagrange and 
 correspondent of Gauss ; in 1815 gained the 
 prize given by the Institute for the discovery 
 of the law of vibration of elastic surfaces. 
 
 Germaine, Lord George. \See Sack- 
 ville.] 
 
 GermanicuB, Caesar {h. b.c. 16, d. a.d. 19), 
 Roman general ; grandson of Augustus ; 
 refused to accept the empire from his 
 soldiers ; commanded the troops of the 
 empire in Germany, and defeated Hermann; 
 afterwards had an imperium in the East; 
 probably poisoned by his uncle, the Emperor 
 Tiberius, who was jealous of his fame. 
 
 GermanuB {h. 380, d. 448), Bishop of 
 Auxerre ; was sent by Pope Celestine to 
 suppress the Pelagian heresy in Britain, 
 where he established schools. 
 
 GermanuB, "the Patrician" {d. 550), 
 Byzantine general ; defeated the Slavonic 
 invaders of Thrace, and put down Tzotzas 
 in Africa ; was disgraced because of the cap- 
 ture of Antioch by Chosroes, King of Persia, 
 
 against whom he held the command ; died 
 ten years after on his way to Eiu'ope, 
 whither he had been summoned to repel the 
 Gothic invasion of Italy. 
 
 Germanus I., Patriarch of Constantinople 
 {d. 740), took part in the elevation of Leo 
 the Isaurian to the Eastern empire, but sub- 
 sequently disagreed with his iconoclastic 
 opinions, and was deposed ; was canonised 
 by both Latin and Greek churches after his 
 death. 
 
 Germanus H., " the Younger " (rf. 1256), 
 elected patriarch, but obliged to live at 
 Nice, in Bithynia, because Constantinople 
 was in the hands of the Latins. He en- 
 deavoured to re-unite the churches, but 
 failed, and afterwards wrote a tract against 
 the Latins. He also wrote an Exposition of 
 the Greek Liturgy. 
 
 Germanus III., elected patriarch in 1267 
 by the influence of Michael Palseologus, but 
 soon retired into a monastery ; attended 
 the council of Lyons in 1277, when a tem- 
 porary reunion of the Greek and Latin 
 churches was agreed upon. 
 
 G^rdme, Jean Lton {b. 1824), French 
 painter ; membre de I'Acadi'mie des Beaux- 
 Arts, and honorary R.A. ; born at Vesoul, 
 where his early years were spent ; went to 
 Paris in 1841, and studied under Paul Dela- 
 roche at the Ecole des Beaux -Arts. After 
 a journey to Italy in company with his 
 master, he returned to France, and exhibited 
 for the first time in the Salon of 1857, after 
 which he visited Turkey and Egypt in pur- 
 suit of subjects for his paintings. In 1863 he 
 was appointed professor in the ficole des 
 Beaux- Arts ; in 1869 he received the order 
 of the Red Eagle ; and was appointed com- 
 mander of the Legion of Honour in 1878. 
 Among his pictures are the following : — 
 The Irieze of the vase commemorative of 
 the London exhibition of 1851 ; The Age of 
 Atigustiis and the Birth of Jesus Christ, 
 The Flagne at Marseilles, Rex Tibicen ; 
 Ccesar and Cleopatra, The Slave Market of 
 Cairo, and many other pictures of Eastern 
 scenes. 
 
 Geronimi, Felice {b. 1792, d. 1859), Italian 
 physician ; author of several works on the 
 theory of medicine, among which are Onto- 
 logismo Doininatore delta Medicina, and 
 Saggio di Filosojia delta Storia Medica. 
 
 Gerritsy, Dirck, traveller of the 16th cen- 
 tury), explored the coasts of China, and 
 gained the name of " China " in conse- 
 quence ; discovered South Shetland in 1598 ; 
 was wrecked on the coast of Chili, imprisoned 
 by the Spaniards next year, and died soon 
 after. 
 
 Gersdorf, Johann de, German surgeon
 
 Ger 
 
 (362) 
 
 Ges 
 
 of the 16th century ; introduced at Strasburg 
 instruments for extracting balls and other 
 substances from the body. 
 
 Gersen, Jean, a monk who waa falsely 
 said to }iave written in the 13th century the 
 Imitatio Christi. 
 
 Gerson, Jean Charlier de, " Doctor 
 Christianissimus " (6. 1363, d. 1429), French 
 theologian and reformer ; doctor of the 
 Sorbonne and chancellor of Paris ; made 
 active efforts at the council of Constance 
 (1414) to close the schism in the papacy, 
 and took the leading part in the condem- 
 nation of Hubs ; being unsuccessful in his 
 attempts at reform, he retired first to the 
 Tyrol, and afterwards to a Celestine convent 
 at Lyons, where he preached and vsrote 
 several works, including Be Consolatione 
 Theologice, Commentaries on the Fsalms, and 
 (perhaps) Be Imitatione Christi. 
 
 Gerstaecker, Friedrich (b. 1816, d. 1874), 
 German traveller ; bom at Hamburg ; went 
 in 1837 to America, where he spent six years 
 him ting and travelling. In 1849 he again 
 left Germany, and travelled to South 
 America and Australia, returning three 
 years later and settling at Leipzig. In 1860 
 he accompanied the Duke of Gotha to Egypt 
 and Abyssinia. He wrote accounts of his 
 travels and several tales, many of which 
 have been translated into English, French, 
 and Dutch. Among the latter are Im Busch, 
 Gold, Hell und Bwikel, etc. 
 
 Gerstenberg, Heinrich Wilhelm von {b. 
 1737, d. 1823), German poet; served some 
 time in the Danish army, afterwards as a 
 civilian, and then became director of the 
 lottery of Altona ; wrote Ugolius and Min- 
 ona, Oder die Angelsachsen. 
 
 Gerster, Etelka (b. 1857), Hungarian 
 singer ; born at Kaschlau ; studied under 
 Madame Marchesi from 1873 to 1876, 
 when she made her debut at Venice in 
 Verdi's Rigoletto. She afterwards sustained 
 the parts of Ophelia, Lucia, Ameira, and 
 Marguerite. At Berlin the demand to hear 
 her was so great that 21,000 applications in 
 writing for places in the theatre are said to 
 have been refused. After leaving Berlin 
 she visited Pesth, St. Petersburg, and Mos- 
 cow, where she was appointed Kammer 
 Sanger in, and received presents from the 
 Tsar and Tsarina. She first came to Eng- 
 land under the management of Mr. Maple- 
 son in 1877, appearing in London at Her 
 Majesty's Theatre in La Sonnambula with 
 very great success. 
 
 Gerstner, Franz Josef von {b. 1756, d. 
 1832), German engineer; author of the 
 Mandhuch der Mechanik ; planned the rail- 
 road between Budweis and Linz, which 
 brought into conununication the North Sea 
 
 and the Mediterranean and Black Sea— a 
 project which was carried out by his son, 
 Franz Anton {d. 1840), who laid down the 
 first railway in Russia (1834). 
 
 Gervaise, Franqois {b. 1660, d. 1761), 
 French ecclesiastical historian ; author of 
 Vie de St. Cyprien, Vie de Pierre Abelard et 
 Heloise, etc., and Lettres d'un Theologien, 
 which was suppressed. 
 
 Gervaise, Nicolas (d. 1729), French mis- 
 sionary ; brother of Francjois ; went to Siam 
 about ] 682, and wrote Histoire du Siam in 
 1688 ; was massacred with other mission- 
 aries by the Caribs in Spanish Guiana. 
 
 Gervaise [Gervasius] of Canterbury 
 
 (12th century), English monk and historian ; 
 author of Lives of the Archbishops of Canter- 
 burg from Augustine to Hubert, a Chronicle 
 containing the reigns of Stephen, Henry II., 
 and Richard I., and Mappa Mundi. 
 
 Gervaise of Tilbury, English chronicler 
 of the 12th century ; favourite of Henry II. 
 of England and of the Emperor Otho IV. ; 
 to amuse the latter he vrrote Otia Lmperi- 
 alia — a medley of history, geography, and 
 legend. 
 
 Gervinus, George Gottfried {b. 1805, d. 
 1871), German Shakespearean scholar and 
 historian ; at first thought of scientific study, 
 but, under the influence of Schlosser, at 
 Heidelberg, turned his attention to history. 
 After two years spent in teaching at Frank- 
 fort, he took his degree from Heidelberg, 
 and went to Italy, and published on his 
 return Historische Schriften. In 1835 he 
 held a professorship at his old university, 
 and in 1836 obtained the chair of history at 
 Gottingen, which latter he lost on account 
 of his protest against the suspension of the 
 Hanoverian constitution. After another 
 visit to Italy he returned and founded in 
 1847, in conjunction with some friends, the 
 Beutsche Zeitung. In 1848 he was elected 
 to the Diet by the Hanse Towns, but did 
 not remain long in public life. His chief 
 works are Ueber den Goethe'' schen Brief- 
 wechsel, Shakespeare (1849-50), and Ges- 
 chichte des Neunzehnter Jahrhundert seit 
 den Wiener Vortrdgen (1855-65). 
 
 Gesenius, Friedrich Heinrich Wilhelm (b. 
 1786, d. 1842), German OrientaUst ; professor 
 of theology at Halle for thirty years, during 
 which he produced a Hebrew and Chaldee 
 Bictionary, a Hebrew Elementary Book, and 
 a Critical History of the Hebrew Language 
 and Literature. 
 
 Gesner, Conrad von (fi. 1516, d. 1565), 
 Swiss naturalist ; professor of natural his- 
 tory at Zurich for twenty-four years ; wrote 
 Histories Animalium as well as Bibliotheca 
 Universalis — a catalogue of Greek, Latin,
 
 Ges 
 
 (363) 
 
 Ghi 
 
 and Hebrew writers. He was called the 
 *' Pliny of Germany," and was ennobled for 
 his researches, 
 
 Gesner, Johann Jacob {b. 1707, d. 1787), 
 Swiss numismatist ; author of Thesaurus 
 Numismaticm Veterum Gracorum et Roman- 
 orum, and Numismata Regum Macedonim. 
 
 Ge3ner, Johann Mathias {b. 1691, d. 1761), 
 German scholar; author of Thesaurus Latinee 
 Linguce, and other works. 
 
 Gesner, Salomon (6. 1730, d. 1788), Swiss 
 painter and poet ; ran away from the book- 
 seller at Berlin with whom his father had 
 placed him ; wrote and published at Zurich, 
 his native town, Idyllen, Tod Abels, and 
 several tales, besides painting and engraving 
 landscapes. 
 
 Geta, PubHus Septimius (6. 189, d. 212), 
 son of Severus, and joint-emperor with his 
 brother, Caracalla, by whose orders he was 
 murdered in the arms of his mother, Julia. 
 
 Gevaert, Francois Auguste {h. 1828), Bel- 
 gian composer ; bom at Haysse ; son of a 
 baker ; studied at the Ghent conservatoire, 
 and was soon appointed organist of the 
 Jesuits' church there. In 1847 he obtained 
 the first prize in the Brussels national com- 
 petition, and soon afterwards composed his 
 first two operas, Hughes de Somerghan and 
 La Comedie a la Ville. In 1849 he went to 
 Spain, and sent reports on Spanish music to 
 the Brussels Academie. In 1867 he became 
 inspecteur de la musique at Paris, and in 
 1871 director of the Brussels coyiservatoire. 
 His chief compositions are Georgette and La 
 Billet Marguerite, produced at Paris, and 
 Die Nationale Verjaerdoz, composed in 
 honour of the twenty-fifth year of King 
 Leopold's accession, as well as works on the 
 history of music, the chief of which are 
 Leerboek van den Gregoriuenischen Zang 
 (1856), Les Gloires d'Ltalie (1868), and, Les 
 Origines du Chant Liturgique de VEglise 
 Benedictine Latine (1890). 
 
 Geyer. \_See Geijer.] 
 
 Geysa {d. 997), Magyar chief; after his 
 own conversion by his wife, Sarolta, intro- 
 duced Christianity into Hungary. He was 
 father of St. Stephen of Hungary. 
 
 Geysa II., King of Hungary {b. 1129, d. 
 1161), carried on successful wars with Russia 
 and the Eastern empire, and allied himself 
 with Frederick Barbarossa. 
 
 Gliatgay, Shirzi Rao {d. 1810), Mahratta 
 oilicer ; committed many cruelties against 
 Nana Fumawees, minister of Rao Peshwa, 
 and by the fascination of his daugliter, who 
 had married Sindia, exercised for some time 
 great influence over that prince, by whom, 
 however, he wsis at length ordered to be 
 contined, and, on his resistance, was killed. 
 
 Ghazan-Klian (b. 1271, d. 1304), Mongol 
 sovereign of Persia ; a convert from Budd- 
 hism to Mahometanism ; introduced great 
 improvements into his country, and was 
 himself a man of some culture. 
 
 Ghazee-00-Deen minister of Shah Allum 
 in the 18th century, the rebellion of whose 
 vizier he crushed, but was afterwards at- 
 tacked by the emperor, whom he caused to be 
 blinded and deposed, raising Alumgeer to 
 the throne. In 1759 he procured the assassi- 
 nation of the latter to prevent his holding 
 communication with Abdallee, who had 
 invaded India. 
 
 Ghazi Hassan {d. 1790), Turkish com- 
 mander ; served the svdtan against the 
 Russians, and put down rebellions in Syria, 
 Egypt, and the Morea, but was executed 
 soon after becoming grand vizier. 
 
 Ghazy-oo-Deen {d. 1752), heir to the 
 Nizam of Deccan, but kept out of his do- 
 minions by an usurper, his half-brother, 
 Salabut Jung, who had the support of the 
 French, who induced his own mother to 
 poison him. 
 
 Ghazy-Togluk, Emperor of Delhi {d. 
 1325), originally a slave of Bulbun ; put 
 Khusro the ustirper to death, and was 
 elected emperor, but was soon after killed 
 by the fall of a building in which he was 
 banqueting. 
 
 Gheias-00-Deen, Toghluk {d. 1325), son 
 of a Turkish slave ; founded third Tatar 
 dynasty of Delhi ; his life was written by 
 the Persian poet. Emir Khosrou. 
 
 Gheias-oo-Deen Bulbun {d. 1286), Em- 
 peror of India ; originally a slave ; suc- 
 ceeded Nasr-oo-deen in 1266 ; cleared away 
 the forest of Delhi to the circumference of 
 100 miles ; administered strict justice, and 
 patronised men of letters. 
 
 Gherardesca, Ugolino della {d. 1288), 
 Italian noble ; deserted the GhibeUines, and 
 became a chief of the Guelfs, by whose 
 influence he became captain -general of 
 Pisa. His cruelty alienated both parties, 
 and he was imprisoned and starved to death. 
 A description of his sufferings is put into his 
 mouth by Dante in the Inferno. 
 
 Ghetaldi, Marino {b. 1566, </. 1627), Vene- 
 tian statesman and mathematician ; author 
 of the Promotns Archimedes. 
 
 Ghiberti, Lorenzo (*. 1378, d. 1455), 
 Italian sculptor and bronze-founder ; at 
 twenty-two competed successfully with the 
 first men of his day for the design of the 
 second pair of bronze gates for the Baptistery 
 at Florence, the subject being The Sacrifre 
 of Abraham ; he was immediately ordered 
 to execute the design of another paii'. He 
 also painted the rose window of Santa
 
 Ghi 
 
 (364) 
 
 Gib 
 
 Croee, and made a gold mitre for 
 Eugeiiius IV. 
 
 GMka, Alexander (4. 1795, d. 1862), ap- 
 pointed hospodar of Wallachia in 1834 by 
 Russia and Turkey, but offended the latter, 
 who compelled the sultan to remove him for 
 arresting Bulgarians engaged in a rising 
 coimtenanced by Russia. 
 
 Ghika, Gregor {d. 1777), Hospodar of 
 Wallachia and Moldavia ; taken prisoner by 
 the Russians in 1769, but restored at the 
 peace : protested against the cession of 
 Bukovina to Russia, and was strangled by 
 order of the sultan. 
 
 Ghika, Gregor (b. 1807, d. 1857), Hospodar 
 of Moldavia ; brought up in France and 
 Germany ; initiated reforms in Moldavia, 
 but his schemes for the union with Wallachia 
 excited the hostility of Austria and Turkey, 
 by whom he was compelled to abdicate. He 
 went to France in 1856, and shot himself 
 the next year. 
 
 Ghilini, Girolamo {h. 1589, d. 1670), 
 Italian writer; author of Teatro (fUomini 
 
 Litterati. 
 
 Ghirlandajo, Domenico di Bigordi {h. 1449, 
 d. 1498), Tuscan painter; master of Michael 
 Angelo ; employed by Sixtus IV. to paint 
 frescoes in the Sistine chapel. There are 
 eeveral of his works at Rome and Florence. 
 
 Ghirlandajo, Rodolfo (*. 1482, d. 1560), 
 Italian painter ; sou of last-named ; friend 
 of Raffaele and Michael Angelo ; employed 
 by the pope and the Grand Duke of 
 Florence ; finished one of Raffaelle's Vir- 
 gins. 
 
 Ghisi, Diana {b. 1536, d. 1590), Italian 
 engraver: "La Mantuano" ; married Fran- 
 cesco di Volterra ; was praised by Vasari. 
 
 GMsi, Giovanni Battista (6. 1500), "II 
 Majituano " ; Italian engraver, his chief 
 works being The Burning of Troy and 
 Jjavid and Goliath. 
 
 GMsi, Georgio {b. 1523, d. 1590), son of 
 th( last-named ; engraver of The Prophets 
 and the Sibyls. 
 
 Ghisi, Teodoro (*. 1546, d. 1579), painter; 
 brother of Georgio, and pupil of Giulio 
 Romano, whose unfinished works he com- 
 pleted. 
 
 GMsolfi, Giovanni {b. 1624, d. 1683), 
 Italian painter ; pupil of Salvator Rosa, a 
 native of Milan, celebrated for the archi- 
 tectural beauties of his pictures. 
 
 GMzni Khan, Mahomed Ghori {d. 1206), 
 succeeded his brother, Gheias-oo-Deen, as 
 king of Ghuzin ; invaded India several 
 *jme8 while commanding for the latter, and 
 
 conquered Mooltan and all northern India. 
 He was assassinated by some Gakkurs when 
 on his way to Lahore. 
 
 Gholam Khadir {d. 1788), RohiUa chief, 
 who got possession of Delhi by treachery, 
 and committed many cruelties, putting out 
 the eyes of Shah AUum. He was eventually 
 captured and put to death by Siadia. 
 
 Ghoori, Hooshung {b. 1432), had many 
 wars with the king of Guzerat, by whom 
 he was accused of poisoning his father ; for- 
 tified Mandoo, his capital, and ornamented 
 it with beautiful buildings and artificial 
 lakes, some of which are stUl to be seen. 
 
 Giacomelli, Michael Angelo {b. 1695, d. 
 1774), Italian philologist ; made Archbishop 
 of Chalcedon by Clement XIII., but de- 
 prived by his successor for supporting the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 Giafar {b. 700, d. 764), Mahometan Iman, 
 whose Traditions are considered of great 
 importance. He is known as Sadek, " the 
 Just." 
 
 Giambullari, Pier Francesco {b. 1495, d. 
 1564), Italian scholar; author of Storia 
 d'Hiiropa, a corrected edition of which was 
 found at Pisa in 1822. 
 
 Gianni, Francesco (b. 1759, d. 1822), 
 Italian improvisatore ; brought up as a 
 tailor ; made his debut at Milan ; attracted 
 the attention of Napoleon, whose praises he 
 sung, and by whom he was rewarded with a 
 pension. 
 
 Giannone, Pietro (S.1676, <f. 1748), Italian 
 historian, whose great work, Istoria Civile 
 del Regno di Napoli, drew down upon him 
 the anger of the Church for its attack on the 
 temporal authority of the pope and Catholic 
 abuses. He was protected by Charles VI., 
 but ultimately fell into the power of his 
 enemies, and died in prison. 
 
 Giard, Alfred {b. 1846), French politician 
 and zoologist ; bom at Valenciennes, and 
 educated there and at Douai ; became pro- 
 fessor of zoology at the Faculty des Sciences 
 de Paris in 1880, and wrote many papers on 
 the subject. He also founded and became 
 director of the Laboratoire de Zoologie 
 Maritime de Wimereux. In 1882 he entered 
 the Chamber and joined the "extreme left." 
 
 Giardini, Felice [b. 1716, d. 1796). ItaUan 
 violinist ; made a very successful appearance 
 in London, but met with misfortune as 
 lessee of the Italian Opera House, and died 
 in poverty at Moscow. 
 
 Gib, Adam {b. 1714, d. 1788), Scotch Pres- 
 byterian ; foumled the Secession church ; 
 preached against the rebellion of 1745 ; was 
 called "Pope Gib " for his arrogance.
 
 Gib 
 
 (365) 
 
 Gib 
 
 Gibbon, Benjamin Phelps (i. 1802, d. 1851), _ 
 line engraver ; engraved Mulready's Wolf j 
 and the Lamb. 
 
 Gibbon, Charles {b. 1842, d. 1890), English 
 novelist; author of Storm Beaten (1862), 
 Robin Gray (1869), For Lack of Gold (1871), 
 In Honour Bound (1874), Queen of the 
 Meadow (1880), Aimret (1886), Beyond Com- 
 pare (1888), and other works. 
 
 Gibbon, Edward (*. 1737, d. 1794), English 
 historian ; bom at Putney, and educated at 
 Westminster and Magdalen College, Oxford. 
 While at the University he was received 
 into the Romish Churcti, but having been 
 sent to a Calvinist at Lausanne became a 
 Protestant again the next year. At Lausanne 
 he met Voltaire, and "fell in love with 
 Mademoiselle Curchod, afterwards Madame 
 Necker. He returned to London in 1758, 
 and after a short term of service in the 
 Hampshire militia, revisited the Continent, 
 staying especially at Paris and Rome. When 
 again in England he wrote Memoires Litter'- 
 aires de la Grand Bretagne, and set to work 
 on his great book, Tlie Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Etnpire, the iirst volume of which 
 appeared in 1776 and the last in 1788. He 
 entered Parliament in 1774 as a supporter of 
 Lord North, wrote the Memoire Jnstijicatif, 
 and obtained a place at the Board of Trade. 
 From 1783 to 1793 he lived at Lausanne, 
 and died soon after his return. 
 
 Gibbons, Grinling (6. 1648, d. 1721), Dutch 
 carver in wood, recommended by Evelyn to 
 Charles II., who employed him in Windsor 
 Chapel, where he carved much of the orna- 
 mental woodwork, and executed also the 
 foliage ornamentation of the choir of St. 
 Paul's, the episcopal throne in Canterbury 
 cathedral, and similar work at Chatsworth 
 and other noblemen's seats; appointed 
 master carver by George I. 
 
 Gibbons, Orlando (6. 1583, d. 1625), 
 English musical composer, organist at the 
 Chapel Royal at the age of twenty-one; 
 composed madrigals, but is chiefly loiovni 
 for his church musia 
 
 Gibbs, Joseph {b. 1798, d. 1864), English 
 civil engineer ; after some time spent in the 
 Dutch colonies, came to Holland, and, with 
 Mr. Deaue, undertook the draining of Haar- 
 lem Moer ; was the autlior of several in- 
 ventions for sawing and cutting wood, among 
 which was Gibbs's "elbow-joint" applied 
 to the making of inlaid floors, the engraving 
 of copper plates, and other purposes. He 
 was also much employed in railway-making. 
 
 Gibbs, Sir Vicary {b. 1751, d. 1820), Eng- 
 lish judge ; called to the bar in 1783 ; gained 
 a large practice ; was especially distintruished 
 for his conduct, in conjunction witli Er.skiue, 
 for the defence of the treason cases of Hardy, 
 
 Home Tooke, and Thelwall. In 1805 he 
 became SoUcitor-General, two years after 
 Attorney-General, and 1812 a judge of the 
 Common Pleas. In 1818 he resigned. 
 
 Gibbs, Woolcott (*. 1822), American 
 chemist ; graduated at New York College of 
 Physicians in 1845 ; studied at Berhn and 
 under Liebig at Gissen, and returned to 
 America in 1848. From 1849 till 1863 he was 
 professor of physics and chemistry in New 
 York, and was then elected Rumford pro- 
 fessor at Harvard. During the Civil War 
 he was a member of the executive committee 
 of the sanitary commission, and in 1873 
 commissioner to the Vienna exhibition. 
 
 Gibelin, Esprit Antoine (6. 1739, d. 1814), 
 French writer and painter, author of Be 
 rOrigine de la Forme du Bonnet de la Liberie. 
 
 Gibert de MontrenU (13th century), 
 French romaucist; author of ia Violettc, a. 
 work which has been much translated and 
 imitated. 
 
 Giberti, Giovanni (6. 1495, d. 1543), 
 Bishop of Verona, and patron of the learned ; 
 prepared the propositions of the council of 
 Trent, and issued from his private press 
 Homilies on St. PanVs Epistles, and other 
 works of the Greek fathers. 
 
 Gibson, Edmund {b. 1669, d. 1748), Eng- 
 lish prelate and Saxon scholar ; Bishop suc- 
 cessively of Lincoln and London ; author of 
 a Latin translation of the Saxon Chronicle, 
 an edition of Camden's Britannia, and of 
 Codex Juris Fcelesiee Anglicance. He was in 
 bad repute at court on account of his de- 
 nunciation of its corruption. 
 
 Gibson,Edward, Lord Ashbourne {b. 1838), 
 educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; en- 
 tered Parliament in 1875, and in 1877 was 
 made Attorney-General for Ireland. In 1885 
 he was created a peer, and was appointed Lord 
 Chancellor of Ireland, which post he was 
 again given in 1886. He is the author of 
 the Ashbourne Act (1885), for the sale of 
 Irish holdings to tenants. 
 
 Gibson, John (6. 1790, d. 1866), English 
 sculptor ; bom near Conway ; the son of a 
 market-gardener ; worked in the studios of 
 Canova and Thorwaldsen ; revived the use 
 of colour in statuary, and gave a fine example 
 in his tinted Venus; elected to the Royal 
 Academy in 1836 ; lived chiefly at Rome, 
 where he died. Among the best specimens 
 of his art are The Hours leading the Chariot 
 of the Sun, and Phdethon driving the Chariot 
 of the Sun, Hylas and the Nymphs, as well 
 as portraits of the Queen and Huskisson in 
 Westminster Palace, and of Sir R. Peel in 
 the Abbey. 
 
 Gibson, John George (b. 1846), British 
 statesman^, brother of Lord A^shbonme,
 
 Gib 
 
 (366) 
 
 Gif 
 
 and youngest son of Mr. W. Gibson, of 
 Rockf orest, Tipperary ; was educated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, and called to the 
 Irish bar in 1870. In 1885 he entered Par- 
 liament as one of the members for Liverpool, 
 and was appointed Third Serjeant-at-law. 
 In 1886 he became Solicitor-General for 
 Ireland. 
 
 Gibson, Richard (6. 1616, d. 1690), EngUsh 
 painter ; pupil of Lely ; page and favourite 
 of Charles I., who was present at his mar- 
 riage, an event which was celebrated in 
 Waller's Marriage of Bioarfs, Gibson being 
 less than four feet in height, 
 
 Gibson, Thomas Milner (6. 1807, d. 1884), 
 English politician ; educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge ; was at first a Conser- 
 vative, and lost his seat for Ipswich on 
 changing his views. As a leader in the 
 movement against the Corn Laws he gained 
 a seat for Manchester in 1841, and five years 
 after was appointed by Lord J. Russell vice- 
 president of the Board of Trade, but re- 
 signed in 1848. He opposed the Crimean 
 war, and failed to hold his seat at Man- 
 chester in 1857, but was soon after elected 
 for Ashton-under-Lyne, which he repre- 
 sented till 1868. As president of the Board 
 of Trade from 1859 to 1866 he took an active 
 part in the abolition of the paper and ad- 
 vertisement duties. In 1868 he retired from 
 public life. 
 
 Gichtel, Johann Georg (i. 1638, d. 1710), 
 German mystic; founded a sect, preaching 
 celibacy and asceticism ; published Bbhme's 
 works. 
 
 Gideon, Judge of Israel; defeated the 
 Midianites, and died about 1210 b.o. 
 
 Gi6, Pierre de Rohan de {d. 1513), marshal 
 of France ; accompanied Charles VIII. to 
 Italy ; educated the Count d'Angouleme, 
 afterwards Francis I., but offended his 
 mother, Louise of Savoy, and retired to his 
 chateau at Angers. 
 
 Giedde, Ove (6. 1594, d. 1661), Danish 
 admiral ; made a settlement at Tranquebar, 
 in the Carnatic, and served in the wars 
 against Sweden and Denmark. 
 
 Giedroyc, J. F. Xavier (6. 1787, d. 1855), 
 PoUsh prince and patriot ; son of Romuald 
 Thadeus ; taken prisoner with his father in 
 the retreat from Moscow, and sent to Siberia, 
 but released next year ; present with Napo- 
 leon at "Waterloo ; sent to Siberia for two 
 years by the Tsar Nicholas for refusing to 
 take the oath of fidelity, and suifered con- 
 fiscation of his property. 
 
 Giers, Nicholas Carlovitch de {b. 1820), 
 Russian statesman ; entered the foreign 
 office in 1838 : served in Moldavia and Hun- 
 gary, and in 1850 became first secretary at 
 
 Constantinople, whence, three years later, he 
 went as adviser of the Russian plenipoten- 
 tiary in Wallachia and Moldavia. In 1856 
 he became member of the council of state 
 and consul-general to the court of the 
 Khedive, and again from 1858 to 1863 served 
 in the Danubian provinces. After this he 
 was for six years minister-plenipotentiary in 
 Persia ; then minister- resident to the Swiss 
 confederacy and at Stockholm, becoming, in 
 1875, director of the Asiatic department at 
 St. Petersbui-g. On the retirement of Prince 
 Gortschakoff in 1882 he became minister of 
 foreign affairs, having been of great assist- 
 ance to the latter in his last years. In 1SS8 
 he celebrated the jubilee of his entrance into 
 political Ufe. 
 
 Gieseler, Johann Karl Ludwig (b. 1793, d. 
 1854) , German Protestant theologian ; profes- 
 sor at Gottingen ; wrote an able essay on the 
 authorship of the Gospels, in which he op- 
 posed Eichhom's theory of their derivation 
 from a common source. He was also author 
 of Zehrbitch der Kirchengeschichte. 
 
 Giirard, Stanley L. {b. 1788, d. 1858), Eng- 
 hsh journalist; supported the Castlereagh 
 administration in the St. James's Chronicle, 
 and, as editor of the Standard, strongly op- 
 posed the Emancipation policy of the Govern- 
 ment, and afterwards defended the Irish 
 Church in the anti-tithe agitation. 
 
 Giffard, William {d. 1129), Norman states- 
 man ; chancellor to William I. and his sons, 
 and Bishop of Winchester ; introduced the 
 Cistercians into England, and founded the 
 priory of St. Mary's Overy, Southwark. 
 
 Giffen, Robert (6. 1 837) , English statistician, 
 born in Lanarkshire : acted as solicitor's clerk 
 at Glasgow : in his early years and after- 
 wards was employed in commerce there, till, 
 about 1860, he became connected with the 
 Stirling Journal as sub- editor. In 1862 he 
 went to London, and joined the staff of the 
 Globe, and was afterwards assistant-editor 
 of the Economist, under Mr. Bagehot, and 
 for a short time assisted Mr. Morley with 
 the FortnigUhj Revieiv. From 1873 to 1876 
 he was city editor and vmter on trade and 
 finance to the Daibj News, becoming in the 
 latter year chief of the statistical department 
 of the Board of Trade. Among his writings 
 are Stock Exchange Securities : an Essay on 
 the General Causes of Fluctuation in their 
 Price (1878), and Essays in Finance (1st 
 series, 1879; 2nd, 1886), consisting chiefly 
 of papers and presidential addresses read 
 before the Statistical Society. 
 
 Gifford, Robert, Lord (1779, d. 1826), 
 English lawyer, son of a grocer ; entered the 
 Middle Temple in 1800 ; was called to the 
 bar in 1808, and soon gained a large practice 
 on the western circuit. In 1817 he entered 
 Parliament, and was made Solicitor- General,
 
 Gif 
 
 (367) 
 
 Gil 
 
 in which capacity he took part iu the prose- 
 cution of the Luddites. In 1819 he became 
 Attorney- General, and as such conducted the 
 prosecution of Thistlewood and Queen 
 Caroline, and iu 1824 was named Chief 
 Justice of Common Pleas, and created a peer. 
 
 Gifford, William {b. 1757, d. 182G), English 
 critic and verse-writer, son of a plumber 
 and glazier of Ashburton ; was bom and 
 bred in great poverty ; served in a coasting- 
 vessel and as a shoemaker, till he attracted 
 the attention of a surgeon named Cookesley, 
 by whose efforts he was sent to school, and 
 afterwards to Oxford. After taking his de- 
 gree, he became tutor to Lord Grosvenor's 
 son, whom he accompanied on the Continent, 
 and on his return devoted himself to litera- 
 ture, writing the Baviad in 1794, and soon 
 after the Maviad, and contributing to the 
 Anti- Jacobin. He afterwards edited Mas- 
 singer and Ben Jonson, and became first 
 editor of the Quarterly Review m 1809, hold- 
 ing the post till 1824. 
 
 Giggeo, Antonio {d. 1632), Italian Orient- 
 ahst; patronised by Cardinal Borromeo,with 
 whose assistance he published his Thesaurus 
 Zinffuce ArabiccB. 
 
 Gigliucci, Countess. \_See Novello.] 
 
 Gigot d'Elb^e (6. 1752, d. 1794), Vendean 
 commander; gained several victories over 
 the republican troops, but was ultimately 
 defeated and shot ; called by his soldiers 
 "General Providence." 
 
 Gilbart, James W. (6. 1794, d. 1863), 
 English banker ; first manager of the London 
 and Westminster Bank, which was the first 
 joint- stock bank in London; author of a 
 Practical Treatise on Banking, and of the 
 History of Banking in America. 
 
 Gilbert, Alfred (6. 1854), English sculptor, 
 A.R.A. ; studied under Boehm in London, 
 and afterwards in Paris at the ^ficole des 
 Beaux- Arts under CaveHer. He subsequently 
 went to Rome, where he executed in marble 
 the Kiss of Victory and Icarus. Among his 
 other works are Perseus Arming and the 
 Enchanted Chair, exhibited at the Royal 
 Academy in 1886, and a statue of Queen 
 Victoria. 
 
 Gilbert, Anne Taylor (A. 1782, d. 1866), 
 Enghsh writer for the young, sister of Isaac 
 and Jeffrey Taylor ; joint-author with her 
 sister Jane of Original Poems for Infant 
 Minds ; married in 1818 the Rev. Joseph 
 Gilbert, author of The Christian Atonement. 
 
 Gilbert, Davies (6. 1767, i. 1839), president 
 of the Royal Academy, and patron of Sir 
 Humphry Davy ; also wrote a Parochial 
 Jlistory of Cornwall. 
 
 GUbert, Sir Humphrey (&. 1639, d. 1684), 
 
 English navigator, half-brother to Sir W. 
 Raleigh ; made a voyage to North America 
 in 1583, and took possession of New- 
 foundland, but was wrecked off the Azores 
 on his way home. He published, in 1576, 
 a Discourse to prove a Passage by North- West 
 to Cathaia and the East Indies. 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Jeffrey (*. 1674, d. 1726), 
 EngUsh judge; called to the bar in 1698; 
 in 1714 became a judge of the King's Bench 
 in Ireland, and next year Chief Baron of 
 the Irish Exchequer. In 1719 he was com- 
 mitted by the Irish House of Lords for 
 granting an injunction by order of the Eng- 
 hsh House of Peers in an appeal from the 
 Irish courts. In 1725 he became Chief Baron 
 of the English Exchequer. He published 
 several legal works (Reports of Cases in 
 Equity, etc.), and was a fellow of the Royal 
 Society. 
 
 GUbert, Sir John (6. 181 7) , English painter ; 
 exhibited his first picture in 1836 in the 
 Suffolk Street gallery, a water-colour, en- 
 titled The Arrest of Lord Hastings by the Pro- 
 tector Richard, Duke of York, after which he 
 continued to exhibit iu oils at the British In- 
 stitution and the Royal Academy. In 1871 he 
 was knighted, and elected president of the 
 Society of Painters in Water- Colours; in 1872 
 was A.R.A. , and became an Academician 
 in 1876. Among his earlier pictures are 
 Don Quixote giving Advice to Sancho Panza, 
 The Education of Gil Bias, and Othello be- 
 fore the Senate. In addition to many Shake- 
 spearian scenes, the chief of his more recent 
 paintings are The Doge of Venice in Council 
 (1876), King Henry VI. (1880), The 
 Morning of Aqincourt (1884), Sir Launcelot 
 (1887), and Ego et Rex Metis (1889). He 
 also made many contributions to the Illus- 
 trated London News, and illustrated Shake- 
 speare and other English classics. 
 
 GUbert, John Thomas {b. 1829), British 
 historical writer ; bom at Dublin ; was sec- 
 retary of the Irish Public Record Office from 
 1867 to 1875, and edited Facsimiles of the 
 National MSS. of Ireland, Chronicles and 
 Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 and wrote History of the City of Dublin 
 (1854-9), History of the Viceroys of Ireland 
 from 1172-1509 (1865), History of Affairs in 
 Ireland, 1641-52 (1879-81), and History of 
 the Irish Confederation and the War in Ire- 
 land, 1644-9 (1882-90), as well as numerous 
 other works. 
 
 GUbert, Joseph Henry {b. 1817), English 
 chemist and man of science ; son of Rev. J. 
 Gilbert ; was born at Hull, and early met 
 with a gunshot accident, which deprived 
 him of the sight of one eye. After leaving 
 school he pursued his scientific studies at 
 Glasgow, under Professor Thomson, and at 
 University College, London, under Professor
 
 Gil 
 
 (368) 
 
 Gil 
 
 Graham and Dr. Aiithoiiy Thomson, spend- 
 ing a short time also ia the laboratory of 
 Liebig, at Giesseu, where he took his Ph.D. 
 On his return he assisted Dr. Thomson 
 in London, and gave some attention to the 
 chemistry of calico-dyeing near Manchester. 
 From the year 1843 he became associated 
 with Sir J. "B. Lawes in researches on agri- 
 cultural chemistry, the results of which were 
 published in the Transactions of the Royal 
 Society, the JouriMl of the Chemical Society, 
 the Journal of the Roy al Agricultural Society, 
 the Reports of the British Association, etc. 
 Dr. Gilbert was a fellow of the Chemical 
 Society in 1841, and became president in 
 1882, and a fellow of the Royal Society in 
 18G0. He paid two visits to Canada and 
 America to study agricultirre, and was in 
 1884 appointed Sibthorpian professor of 
 rural economy at Oxford. 
 
 Gilbert, Josiah (6. 1814), English writer 
 on art ; born at Eotherham ; grandson of 
 Eev. Isaac Taylor and son of Rev. J. Gilbert ; 
 was a portrait-painter in London for some 
 years afterwards ; wrote Art : Its Scope and 
 Furpose (1858), Art and Religion (1871), 
 and Landscape in Art before Claude and Sal- 
 vator (1885) ; was also joint-author of the 
 Dolomite Mountains (1864), and editor of 
 Autobiography and Memorials of Mrs. Gil- 
 bert (Anne Taylor). 
 
 Gilbert, St. (6. 1083, d. 1189), rector of 
 Sempriugham, Lincolnshire ; founded several 
 Benedictine and Augustinian houses ; gave 
 asylum to Becket. 
 
 Gilbsrt, St. {d. 1152), foUowed Louis 
 VII. on crusade, but was so grieved at the 
 wickedness of the crusaders that he returned 
 and founded a convent and a monastery. 
 
 Gilbert, "the Universal" (/. 1150), 
 learned theologian ; sent for from Antwerp, 
 and made Bishop of London by Henry I. 
 
 GUbert, WilUam {b. 1540, d. 1603), English 
 natural philosopher ; court physician under 
 Elizabeth and James I. ; published an im- 
 portant book on the magnet. 
 
 GUbert, WilUam Schwenck (b. 1836), 
 English dramatist and writer ; was clerk in 
 the Privy Council Office from 1857 to 1862, 
 and was called to the bar in 1864. He con- 
 tributed the Bab Ballads to Fun in 1861, and 
 produced his first burlesque. Dulcamara in 
 1866, which was followed by La Vivandiire 
 and Robert the Devil, etc. Among his more 
 serious plays were The Palace of Truth (pro- 
 duced at the Haymarket in 1870), Pygmalion 
 and Galatea (1871)> Sweethearts (1874), and 
 Engaged (1877). From 1875 to 1889 he wrote 
 librettos to Sir Arthur Sullivan's operas, the 
 chief of which were Trial by Jury (1876, 
 the Royalty), The Sorcerer (1877), H.M.S. 
 Pinafore (1878), The Pirates of Penzance 
 
 (1880), Patience (1882). lolanthe, The 
 Princess Ida, The Mikado, in successive 
 years, Ruddigore (1887) The Yeomen of the 
 Guard (1888), The Gondoliers (1889). The 
 Mountebanks was produced in 1892. 
 
 Gilbert de la Porr^e, or Porretanus (6. 
 
 1070, d. 1154), French philosopher and 
 Bishop of Poitiers; chief of the Realists; 
 accused of heresy in 1147, but not con- 
 demned. 
 
 Gilchrist, Alexander (6. 1828, d. 1861), 
 Scotch biographer ; son of a Unitarian 
 minister; educated at University College 
 school, London, where he met the Rossettis ; 
 was called to the bar, but did not practise ; 
 lived at Guildford, and afterwards in Chejme 
 Row, next door to Carlyle, where he com- 
 posed, but did not live to finish, his Life of 
 Blake, having already, in 1855, published a 
 Life of Etty. 
 
 Gilchrist, John Borthwick (i. 1759, d. 
 1841), English Orientalist ; professor of Hin- 
 dustani and Persian at Calcutta ; on his re- 
 turn to England published a Hindustani 
 dictionary and grammar, and the Oriental 
 Linguist, 
 
 Gildas, St., "The Wise" (J,. 6th cen- 
 tury), supposed author of De Excidio Brit- 
 annice; but nothing certain is known of 
 him. 
 
 GUden, Charles (6. 1665, d. 1724), En- 
 glish writer; author of the DeisVs Manual; 
 was attacked by Pope in the Dunciad. 
 
 Gilder, Richard Watson (fi. 1844), Ameri- 
 can poet; son of a Methodist minister; served 
 in the Federal army in 1863 ; was pay- 
 master on the Camden and Amboy railway, 
 and then became a journalist, being con- 
 nected successively with the Newark Adver- 
 tiser, the Newark Register, and Eours at 
 Monte; when, in 1870, the latter was in- 
 corporated with Scribner^s Monthly, he 
 became part editor, and in 1881 editor of 
 its successor, the Century. He was one of 
 the founders of the American Copyright 
 League and the Authors' Club, and pro- 
 duced the following poems: The New Day 
 (1875), The Poet and his Master (1878), 
 Lyrics (1885), and The Celestial Passion, 
 (1887). 
 
 Glide, or Gilden (d. 398), Moorish general ; 
 governor of Africa for the Romans about 
 386 ; was defeated and slain by Ms brother 
 Mascezel, when he had rebelled against 
 Honorius. 
 
 Giles, or Gilles. [See Hunnius.] 
 
 Gilfillan, George (6. 1813, d. 1878), Scotch 
 divine, critic and essayist ; bom at Comrie, 
 Perthshire ; son of a Secessionist minister ; 
 was ordained Presbyterian minister in 1836|
 
 Gil 
 
 (369) 
 
 Gin 
 
 his congregation being at Dundee. Here he 
 published A Gallery of Literary Portrmts 
 (1845-54), Christian Heroism (1869), and was 
 engaged, when he died, on a History of 
 British Poetry. He also published several 
 eermons, which excited great controversy, 
 aud were considered unorthodox. In 1S81 
 Mr. F. Henderson edited some of his Sketches, 
 Literary and Theological. 
 
 Gilibert, Jean Emanuel (b. 1741, d. 1814), 
 French physician ; author of Histoire des 
 Plantes de VEurope and Le Medium Natu- 
 raliste. 
 
 Gill, Alexander {b. 1564, d. 1635), English 
 scholar ; head-master of St. Paul's ; teacher 
 of Milton, and author of several learned 
 works. His son, Alexander {d. 1642), who 
 succeeded him as head, was a great friend 
 of the poet, but was dismissed from his 
 mastership for severity, and imprisoned for 
 speaking ill of King James. 
 
 Gill, David {b. 1843), British astronomer; 
 astronomer royal at the Cape ; bom in 
 Scotland and educated in Aberdeen, where 
 he erected a private observatory; assisted 
 Lord Lindsay in designing the observatory 
 at Dunecht m 1870, and took part in the 
 expedition sent by that nobleman to the 
 Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus. 
 The results were pubUshed as the joint 
 work of Lord Lindsay and Mr. Gill. At 
 the same time the latter arranged the 
 chronometric and telegraphic longitude de- 
 tenninations between Berlin, Malta, Alex- 
 andria, Aden, Bombay, and Mauritius, and 
 undertook the measurement of the first base 
 line of the geodetic survey of Egypt. In 
 1877 he went to Ascension to observe the 
 apposition of Mars, and published the 
 results in 1881. In 1883 he set on foot 
 the geodetic survey of South Africa, and 
 between 1881 and that year was engaged 
 in researches on the parallax of the fixed 
 stars. As a reward for his labours he 
 received the Medjidieh from the Khedive, 
 the Valz medal from the Academie des 
 Sciences, and the gold medal of the Royal 
 Astronomical Society, and in 1883 was 
 elected fellow of the Eoyal Society. 
 
 Gmespie, Colonel {d. 1814), English 
 officer ; suppressed the mutiny at Vellore, 
 near Arcot in 180G; distinguished himself 
 by driving the French out of Java in 1811 
 and defeating the natives ; was killed when 
 serving in the Bengal army iu the war with 
 Nipal. 
 
 Gillespie, George {d. 1648), Scotch 
 minister ; commissioner to the Westminster 
 Assembly in 1643 ; wrote Aaron^s Rod 
 Blossoming and The Ark of the Testament 
 Opened. 
 
 Gillies, Duncan (6. 1830), Victorian 
 
 statesman ; bom in Scotland ; went to Aus- 
 traha in 1854 ; was elected to the Victorian 
 Parliament in 1859, and was minister of 
 lauds in 1868, aud a?ain in 1875. From 
 1872 to 1875, and again from 1880 to 1883, 
 he was minister oi railways, and became 
 premier in 1886, but was defeated and 
 resigned in November, 1890, in which year 
 he had been chairman of the Federal 
 Conference. 
 
 Gillray, James (1757, d. 1815), English 
 I caricaturist ; son of a Chelsea pensioner ; 
 I began, in 1778, to use his satirical pencil 
 t in the Whig interest, directing it agaiust 
 George YH., Farmer George and his Wife; 
 afterwards, as a Tory, used his talents 
 against Napoleon and Fox. In 1811 he be- 
 came insane as a result of his intemperate 
 habits. 
 
 Gilly, Jacques Laurent, Comte de (b. 1769, 
 d. 1829), French general ; served iu Napo- 
 leon's campaigns; joined him on his esciipe 
 from Elba with the troops he commanded 
 for Louis XVIII. ; was pardoned after the 
 restoration, and died in France. 
 
 Gilman, Daniel Coit (b. 1831), American 
 educationist; bom in Norwich, Connecti- 
 cut ; graduated at Yale ; travelled two years 
 in Europe, aud was librarian and professor 
 of physical geography in Yale College from 
 1856 to 1872. In 1865 and 1866 he was 
 superintendent of the public schools of 
 Connecticut, and in 1872 became president 
 of the university of California. In 1875 he 
 was appointed first president of the univer- 
 sity founded by John Hopkins at Baltimore. 
 He wrote many articles on general subjects, 
 but the bulk of his work was educational, 
 and is contained chiefly in addresses to 
 various colleges, reports, aud articles in the 
 North American Review. 
 
 Gilpin, Bemard (6. 1517, d. 1583), 
 Romanist priest; the "Apostle of the 
 North," who, in the course of controversy 
 with Hooper and Peter Martyr, became 
 converted ; refused prefeiTuent, and died in 
 his parish at Haughton-le- Spring. 
 
 GUpin, Sawi-ey {b. 1733, d. 1807), English 
 animal -painter ; patronised by the Duke 
 of Cumberland; painted the Triumph of 
 Camillns. 
 
 Gilpin, William {b. 1724, d. 1804), Enghsh 
 clergyman and writer ; brother of last-named ; 
 ■wrote a. Life of Bernai-d Gilpin and several 
 books on the picturesque. 
 
 Gin, Pierre Louis Charles (b. 1726, d. 
 1827), French lawyer ; defended Louis XVI., 
 and translated Hesiod and Herodotus. 
 
 GingTiene, Pierre Louis (6. 1748, d. 1316), 
 French scholar ; author of Histoire Litteraire 
 i'ltalie.
 
 Gin 
 
 (370) 
 
 Gir 
 
 GinkeU, Godaxt de (h. 1630, d. 1703), 
 Dutch general ; came with William III. to 
 Englaua, aud was with him at the Boyne ; 
 afterwards commanded in Ii'elaud ; took 
 A.thloue ; defeated the French at Aughrim in 
 1691, and concluded the treaty of Limerick. 
 He was created Earl of Athloue, aud subse- 
 quently served in Flanders under WilUam 
 and Marlborough. 
 
 Ginsburg, Christian {b. 1830), Polish 
 rabbinical scholar, LL.D. (Glasgow) ; 
 author of Historical and Critical Comment- 
 arij OH the Song of Som/s (1857), Commentary 
 on Ecvlesia^stes (1861), The Karaites (1862), 
 The Essencs (1864), The Kabbalah (1865), 
 Commentary on Leviticus (1882), The Mas- 
 sorah (1880-6) and kindred works, besides 
 having contributed to the Dictionary of the 
 Bible, and taken part in the revision of the 
 Old Testament, aud written a work on the 
 Moabite stone in 1871. 
 
 Gioberti, Vinceuzo {b. 1801, d. 1852), 
 Italian patriot and philosopher, born at 
 Tui-in, where he became court-chaplain, 
 but was banished in 1833 on suspicion of 
 plotting against the government. He went 
 to France and then to Brussels, where he 
 taught philosophy and published several 
 works, the chief of which was Teorica del 
 Sovrannaturale, directed against Kant and 
 Cousin. In 1843 appeared his Primato 
 Morale e Civile degV Italiani. In 1848 the 
 author was recalled to Italy, elected deputy 
 for Turin, and became prime minister of 
 Victor Emmanuel, but he was soon obliged 
 to retire to Paris, where he died, having in 
 the previous year brought out 11 Hinnova- 
 mento Civile d^ Italia. 
 
 Giocondo, Fra Giovanni (Jl. loth cen- 
 tury), Italian architect aud Dominican 
 monk, who built the bridge of Notre Dame 
 for Louis XII. ; desigued several buildings 
 at Verona for the Emperor Maximilian, and 
 assisted in the building of St. Peter's at 
 Rome. He also did good work as an 
 engineer at Venice. 
 
 Gioja, Flavio (13th century), Italian 
 sailor, who was for some time credited 
 with the invention of the mariners' com- 
 pass. 
 
 Gioja, Melchiore (6. 1767, d. 1829), Italian 
 statistician and economist ; imprisoned for 
 republican opinions. His chief works were 
 Nuovo Prospetto delle Scienze Economiche 
 (1815-17), aud Filosofia delta Statistica. 
 
 Giordani, Vitale, (6. 1633, d. 1711), ItaUan 
 mathematician; served as a saOor in the 
 Venetian fleet ; had to learn arithmetic as 
 secretaiy to the admiral, and was afterwards 
 made mathematician to the Queen of 
 Sweden and professor at Rome by Louis 
 
 Giordano, Luca {b. 1632, d. 1705), Italian 
 painter ; called " Fra Presto " on account of 
 his speedy execution ; a pupil and imitator 
 of Spagnoletto and Pietro of Cortona ; was 
 much employed in his native Naples, and 
 invited to Madrid, where he decorated the 
 Escurial with his frescoes, and has also left 
 specimens of his work at Rome aud Venice. 
 
 Giorgi, Antonio {b. 1711, d. 1797), Italian 
 scholar, who wrote a work on the history of 
 Thibet, while totally ignorant of the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Giorgione, Giorgio Barbarelli {b. 1478, d. 
 1511), Italian painter; founder of the 
 Venetian school, and rival of Tiziano. Some 
 of his portraits are at Hampton Court, but 
 his frescoes, in which lay his great ex- 
 cellence, have perished. 
 
 Giottino. [See Stefano.] 
 
 Giotto, Ambrogiotto Bondone (5. 1276, d. 
 1336), Italian painter and architect; pupil of 
 Cimabue and friend of Dante, whose por- 
 trait he painted at Ravenna ; was son of a 
 citizen of Florence, and apprenticed to a 
 woolstapler; painted frescoes at Assisi, 
 and was probably the founder of the 
 modem school of portrait-painting. About 
 1299 he went to Rome, where he painted 
 and worked in mosaics ; and subsequently 
 was employed at Padua and Florence, where 
 his frescoes in the Peruzzi chapel of Santa 
 Croce were discovered in 1863. He also 
 painted the Miracle of the Loaves and FishesBt 
 Naples, and designed the campanile of Flor- 
 ence. He was buried in the cathedral there. 
 
 Giovanelli, Ruggiero (16th century), 
 Italian musical composer ; successor of 
 Palestrina as chapel-master in the Vatican ; 
 composed madrigale and motetti. 
 
 Giovanni da Fiesole, called " Fra Ange- 
 lico " {b. 1387, d. 1455), Florentine painter 
 aud Dominican monk; employed by Pope 
 Nicholas V. , for whom he painted an oratory, 
 and was offered the archbishojiric of Flor- 
 ence as a reward. His best works (frescoes 
 in the convent of San Marco, Florence) were 
 undertaken for its founder, Cosmo de' 
 Medici. Some of his pictures are in the 
 National Gallery. 
 
 Giovio, Paolo {b. 1483, d. 1552), Italian 
 historian ; patronised by Leo X. and his 
 successors, and made bishop of Nocera in 
 1528 ; author of De Piscibus Romanis and 
 Elogia Virorum Ulustrinm. 
 
 Giraldi, Giovanni. [See Cinthio.] 
 
 Giraldi, Lilio Gregorio {h. 1479, d. 1552), 
 Italian poet and archaeologist ; lost a valu- 
 able library when Rome was sacked by the 
 Germans; was patronised by Leo X. and 
 Buccessive popes, and Uved with Pico della
 
 Gir 
 
 (371) 
 
 Gir 
 
 Mirandola, was author of Historia de JJiis 
 trtntium, and a treatise On the Reform of 
 the Calendar. 
 
 Giraldus Cambrensis (b. 1146, d. 1223), 
 English historian, whose real name was 
 Gerald de Barri, bom in Pembrokeshiie, and 
 educated at Paris, where he was afterwards 
 professor of canon law; as archdeacon of 
 St. David's was zealous as a reformer of 
 clerical abuses ; went to Ireland as secretary 
 to Prince John in 1185, and wrote Topo- 
 graphia Hibernice ; afterwards went with 
 Heniy 11. to France ; was several times 
 elected to the see of St. David's, but opposed 
 by the king. Among his chief works, a 
 collected edition of which was published by 
 Professor Brewer and Mr. Dimock for the 
 "Rolls Series," were Expugnatio Hibernxa, 
 Descriptio Cambrice, and De Rvbus a se 
 Gestis. 
 
 Girard, Gabriel (*. 1677, d. 1748), French 
 scholar, interpreter of Slavonic languages, 
 and author of a Uictionnaire de Synonymes 
 Frangais, which procured him election to 
 the Academy. 
 
 Girard, Gregoire (6. 1765, d. 1850), Swiss 
 educationist, author of Rapport sur 
 I'Institut de M. Festalozzi d, Iverdon (1810), 
 and Cours Educatif de la Langue Maternelle 
 (1840-48). 
 
 Girard, Philippe Henri de {b. 1775, d. 
 1845), French engineer and chemist, in- 
 vented a flax-spinning machine in 1810, 
 when Napoleon I. had offered a prize of 
 1,000,000 francs for the best specimen. He 
 did not receive the prize, but his brother 
 was pensioned by Napoleon III. While in 
 Austria Girard invented a tubular boiler; 
 and subsequently, having entered the service 
 of Alexander I. of Russia, founded a flax 
 manufactory in Poland, and directed its 
 mines. The village of Girardow took its 
 name from him. 
 
 Girard, Simon (6. 1765, d. 1836), French 
 engineer; accompanied the expedition of 
 1798 to Egj-pt, and produced a memoir 
 giving the results of his survey of the 
 resources of the country ; was employed by 
 Napoleon and Louis XVIII. in making 
 canals and superintending the drainage and 
 gas supply of Paris. 
 
 Girardin, fimile de (J. 1806, d. 1881), 
 French journalist, founder of Tm Presse, in 
 which appeared the fiTst femlleton (1836), 
 having previously established the Journal 
 den ConnaiMances Util-es, and been active in 
 Betting on foot savings' banks. In 1831 he 
 married Delphme Gay, who shared his 
 literary labours, and contributed letters to 
 Za Presge, under the name of ' ' Vicomte de 
 Lannay," besides writing some novels and 
 dramas. In the revolution of 1848 Emile 
 t2 
 
 played a cliief part, having compelled Louia 
 Philippe to sign his ab(Scation, which he 
 himself carried to the republicans. "La 
 Girandole " (weathercock) was, however, 
 trusted by no party, and was immediately 
 imprisoned by Cavaignac. In 1850 he was 
 elected to the assembly, in which he sup- 
 ported the liberty of the press ; after 1851 
 he left Paris, and five years later gave up 
 La Fresse, and retired^ into private life. 
 Among his works are Entile (1827), and Au 
 Hasard, and a collection of his articles 
 Qicestions de mon Temps (1836-56), pub- 
 lished in 1858. His dramas were much 
 inferior to those of his wife, who wrote 
 Judith, Cleopatra, Cest le Faute du Mari, 
 Lady Tartufe, and others. 
 
 Girardin, Louis Stanislas Xavier, Comte 
 de {h. 1762, d. 1827), French politician, 
 pupil of Rousseau, and supporter of the 
 revolution in the Legislative Assembly, of 
 which he became president, but was im- 
 prisoned by the comite de salut public as a 
 moderate. In 1814 he entered the army, 
 and became attached to Joseph Bonaparte, 
 whom he accompanied to Naples and Spain. 
 After the restoration of the Bourbons he 
 held some small offices, but afterwards 
 became known as a member of independent 
 views. 
 
 Girardon, Francois (6. 1628, d. 1715), 
 French sculptor and architect ; went to 
 Italy, and on his return became chancellor 
 of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. 
 Specimens of his work are the sculptures on 
 the fountain of the pyramids at Versailles. 
 
 Giraud, Giovanni, Count (6. 1776, d. 
 1834), Italian dramatist, whose comedies 
 were published in 1S23. 
 
 Giraud, Herbert {b. 1817), English 
 chemist and botanist, deputy inspector- 
 general of the Bombay army, educated at 
 Edinburgh, entered the service of the East 
 India Company in 1842; in 1845 was 
 appointed professor of chemistry and botany 
 at Bombay, and chemical analyst to the 
 Bombay government. He was the first to 
 introduce the study of chemistry and 
 botany into the presidency, and made 
 numerous contributions to the Botanical 
 Society of Edinburgh, the London and 
 Edinhirgh FhilosopMcal Magazine, Tram- 
 actions of the Bombay Branch of the Royal 
 Asiatic 'Society and Physical Society, etc. 
 
 Giraud, Jean Baptiste (6. 1752, d. 1830), 
 French sculptor of independent means, who 
 ornamented his house with casts of the best 
 Italian sculptures, and made it the resort of 
 artists. His pupil, Pierre Giraud (rf. 1836), 
 was celebrated for his sculptures of 
 animals. 
 
 Girault-Duvlvler, Charles Pierre (b. 1765,
 
 Gir 
 
 ( 372) 
 
 Gla 
 
 d. 1S32), Freuch philologist ; author of 
 Graminaire des Grammaires (1311), aud 
 Eitcyelopi'die de V Antiquite. 
 
 Oirdlestone, Edward {b. 1805, d. 1885), 
 Euglish Theologian aud social refoi'nier ; 
 was scholar of Balliol, aud successively 
 vicar of Deane, Lancashire, cauou of 
 Bristol, aud vicar of St. Nicholas, aud 
 iuciimbeut of Halbertou. Devon, aud of 
 Olvestou, near Bristol. He was an Evan- 
 geUcal leader, and took much interest in the 
 welfare of the agricultural labourers, beiug 
 one of those who prepared the way for the 
 Agricultural Labourers' Uuion. 
 
 Girodet-Trioson, Anne Louis (6. 1767, d. 
 1824), French painter, pupil of Regnault 
 and David. His best worlcs were Sommeil 
 d^Endymion, portraits of ,the Vend^an 
 leaders, aud Saint Louis en Egypte. 
 
 Girtin, Thomas {h. 1773, d. 1802), Eng- 
 lish painter; friend of Turner, and one of 
 the early water-colourists ; also introduced 
 painting on cartridge-paper ; painted pano- 
 ramas of London and Paris. His picture of 
 Eivaulx Abbey is now at South Kensington. 
 
 Gisbert, Blaise {b. 1657, <?.,1731), French 
 writer; author of L'' Art d'' Elever un Prince 
 (1684), dedicated to the Duke of Burgundy. 
 
 Gisbome, Thomas {b. 1758, d. 1846), Eng- 
 lish philosophical writer and divine, author 
 of Principles of Moral Philosophy (1789), 
 and some poems. 
 
 Gisco {d. 240 B.C.), Carthaginian general ; 
 commanded against the Romans at Lily- 
 baeum, taken piisoner and put to death by 
 mercenaries. 
 
 Ginlio-Romano. [^See Romano.] 
 
 Giusti, Giuseppe (*. 1809, d. 1850), 
 Italian poet ; bom in a village between 
 Florence and Pescia, studied law at Pisa, 
 and set up as an advocate at Florence in 
 1834, but busied himself chiefly in writing 
 in the Tuscan dialect political satires, of 
 which the chief were La Guigliottina a 
 Vapore {The Steam Guillotine) in 1834 ; 
 Dies Irce on the death of Francis of Austria 
 in the next year; and Lo Stivale {The 
 Boot) in 1836. In 1854 he produced 
 II Ginyillino {The Placeman) ; and in 
 1874 II Oongresso de'' Birri {The Congress 
 of Police), which had a large sale. He 
 also wrote a commentary on Dante, and a 
 few serious poems. He was twice elected to 
 the Tuscan Parliament. 
 
 Giustiniani, Agostino {b. 1470, d. 1536), 
 Italian Orientalist ; appointed Hebrew pro- 
 fessor at Paris by Francis I., and published 
 an edition of the Hebrew Psalter, with 
 Greek, Arabic, and Chaldaic in parallel 
 columns— the first 'Polyglot." He waa 
 
 drowned on a voyage from Corsica to 
 Genoa. 
 
 Givry, Anne d'Angelure de {d. 1594), 
 Freueh general and partisan of Henri IV. ; 
 was killed at the siege of Laon. 
 
 Gladstone, John Hall {b. 1827), Eng- 
 lish man of science and writer, studied 
 chemistry under Professor Graham at Uni- 
 versity College, and under Liebig at 
 Giessen; lectured on chemistry at St. 
 Thomas's Hospital, 1850-52, and was 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 
 1853. He was Fullerian professor of 
 chemistry at the Royal Institution 1874-7, 
 president of the Physical Society 1874-6, 
 and of the Chemical Society 1877-9. He 
 was a member of the Royal Commission on 
 Lighthouses from 1859 to 1862, and of the 
 Gun- Cotton Committee from 1864 to 1868, 
 and was elected in 1873 member of the 
 London School Board. Besides his contribu- 
 tions to philosophical transactions and 
 scientific societies, he was author of a 
 Biography of M. Faraday (1872); Points of 
 supposed Collision between the Scriptures 
 and Natural Science (1872) ; Miracles as 
 Credentials of Revelation (1873) ; and Spell- 
 ing Reform from an Educational Point of 
 View (1878). 
 
 Gladstone, William Ewart (6. 1809), Eng- 
 lish statesman and author; fourth son of 
 Sir John Gladstone of Fasque, was bom at 
 Liverpool ; educated at Eton aud Christ 
 Church, and, after a Continental tour, was 
 elected as a Conservative for Newark in 
 1832. He entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1833, 
 but was never called to the bar. In Decem- 
 ber, 1834, he became a lord of the Treasury 
 in Sir R. Peel's administration, and in the 
 next year under-secretary for the colonies. In 
 1841 he took office a second time under Peel 
 as vice-president of the Board of Trade, and 
 was sworn of the Privy CouncU, succeeded 
 to the presidency of the Board in 1 843, resign- 
 ing two years later. He agreed with Peel's 
 action on the Com Law question ; but after 
 being for a short period secretary for the col- 
 onies, retired from Parliament for a time. In 
 1 847 he was elected for Oxford University, and 
 between this year and 1852 gradually modi- 
 fied his opinions, formally separating from 
 his party in 1851. In 1852 he was Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer in the Coalition min- 
 istry, but resigned at the end of 1855 on the 
 question of the Crimean inquiry moved for 
 by Mr. Roebuck. In 1858 he went as com- 
 missioner to the Ionian Islands, and on his 
 return became Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 imder Palmerstou, taking a great part in 
 the repeal of the paper duty and the com- 
 mercial treaty with France. Mr. Gladstone 
 was rejected by his imiversity in 1865, pro- 
 bably on account of his support of the Uni- 
 versity Commission, and was then returned
 
 Gla 
 
 (373) 
 
 Gla 
 
 for South Lancashire. On Palmerston's 
 death he became leader in the House of 
 CommonB, and in 1 866 brought in a Reform 
 Bill, on the defeat of which Lord Russell's 
 goTemment resigned. He opposed Dis- 
 raeli's bill, and then took up the question of 
 Irish disestablishment, which, on resuming 
 ofnca in 1868 as First Lord of the Treasury, he 
 settled to his satisfaction. Having been 
 rejected in Lancashire, he now sat for 
 Greenwich; the other questions he dealt 
 with between 1868 and 1874 were the Irish 
 land question, elementary education, pirr- 
 chase in the army, vote by ballot, and the 
 Alabama claims. He was defeated on the 
 Irish University Bill in 1873 and resigned, 
 but was obliged to resume office till the dis- 
 solution, when his party was defeated, but 
 he retained his seat for Greenwich. After 
 opposing the Public Worship Regulation 
 Act, he took very Little part in public affairs 
 until the Bulgarian agitation in 1876, when 
 he began actively to oppose the foreign 
 policy of the Government. At the end of 
 1879 he undertook his first Midlothian cam- 
 paign, was elected in 1880 for that con- 
 stituency, and a second time became 
 Premier, again imiting with it the Chan- 
 cellorship of the Exchequer. In his second 
 ministry he passed the Laud Act of 1881, 
 a repressive measure dealing with Ireland, 
 and the Franchise and Redistribution 
 Acts of 1885, the last measures, how- 
 ever, not without the assistance of the 
 Opposition leaders. Besides these questions 
 he was much occupied with the affau's of 
 Egjrpt, where tho suppression of Ai'abi was 
 followed by the revolt of the Soudanese, the 
 destruction of Hicks Pasha's army, and the 
 mission of General Gordon. In June, 1885, 
 the Liberal Government were defeated on 
 the budget, and the Conservatives held 
 office for a few months. Early in 1886 Mr. 
 Gladstone became Premier a third time, but 
 his Home Rule Bill divided his party and 
 he was defeated, while at the general election 
 his opponents were successful, and Lord 
 Salisbury became head of the Unionist 
 Government. But in 1892 he returned to 
 power. Mr. Gladstone has produced works 
 on various subjects. In 1841 he was author of 
 The State in its Relations with the Church ; 
 in 1845 of Remarks on Recent Conimercial 
 Legislation ; in 1851 of a Letter on the 
 State Proseoitions of Naples, which 
 he had visited in the previous year ; in 
 1858 of Studies on Homer, and in 1874-5 of 
 two pamphlets on the Vatican Decrees, and 
 an article in the Quarterly Review on The i 
 Speeches of Pius LX. During his retirement I 
 after the elections of 1874 he wrote Homeric ' 
 Synchronism, and two pamphlets on the 
 Bulgarian question, and in 1879 published 
 a collection of writings called Gleaninys of j 
 Past Tears. He was also author of Jnventns ] 
 Mundi, and of numerous contributions to 
 
 periodicals, particularly on the Irish Ques- 
 tion, and on Christian evidences. 
 
 Glaisher, James (6. 1809), English 
 meteorologist ; was employed on the 
 ordnance survey of Ireland in 1829, and at 
 the Cambridge observatory from 1833 to 
 1836, when he became assistant in the 
 astronomical department at Greenwich, 
 being appointed in 1840 superintendent of 
 the magnetic and meteorological depart- 
 ment, which he held till his retirement in 
 1874. In 1849 he was elected fellow of the 
 Royal Society ; he was also connected with 
 the Meteorological Society for many years, 
 and was president of the Microscopical 
 Society, the Photogi-aphic Society, and the 
 Aeronautic Society respectively. In 1880 he 
 became chairman of the Palestine Explora- 
 tion Fund. Between 1863 and 1866 he made 
 several balloon ascents, and attained the 
 greatest height yet known — the results of 
 the ascents having been published in The 
 Reports of the British Association, and in 
 Travels in the Air. He is the author of 
 numerous books and paj^ers concerning 
 astronomy, meteorology, and the theory of 
 numbers, and he completed the Factor 
 Tables of Hurckhardt. 
 
 Glaisher, James (b. 1848), son of the pre- 
 ceding; second vwangler at Cambridge, 
 and fellow of Trinity in 1871, and Sc.D. in 
 1887; was elected fellow of the Royal 
 Society in 1875, was president of Cambridge 
 Philosophical Society, 1882-4, of the Loudon 
 Mathematical Society, 1884-6, and of the 
 Royal Astronomical Society, 1886-1888, 
 Among his works are Llliptic Functions, 
 Theory of Numbers, Mathematical Tables, 
 etc. 
 
 Glanvil, Sir John {d. 1661), English jurist, 
 author of Reports of Contested Elections, 
 which were published in 1775. 
 
 Glanvill, Joseph {b. 1636, d. 1680), English 
 philosopher and divine, author of Skepsis 
 Scientifca, Lux Orieutalis, and Considera- 
 tions on the Being of Witches, whose exist- 
 ence he maintained- 
 
 Glanville, Ranulphde {d. 1190), Norman 
 statesman, soldier and lawyer, justiciary 
 under Henry II. ; defeated the Scots at 
 Alnwick in 1 1 74 ; was victorious over the 
 Welsh, and accompanied Richard I. on 
 crusade, being killed at the siege of Acre. 
 He was the author or editor of the Be Legibus 
 et Consuetudinibus Regni Anglia. 
 
 Glaser, Christophe (d. 168^1), Swiss 
 chemist, apothecary to Louis XIV., dis- 
 covered the " sal-i)olychrist of Glaser," and 
 wrote Traite de Chimie. 
 
 Glass, John {h. 1698, d. 1773), Scotch 
 Presbyterian minister, deposed by the
 
 G-la 
 
 (374) 
 
 Gli 
 
 General Assembly for hia attacks on the 
 Covenant ; founded sect of the Glassites. 
 
 Glass, George (6. 1725, d. 1765), Scottish 
 navigator ; sou of last named ; made dis- 
 coveries in Africa, and published a Hiatori/ 
 of the Canarif Islands, where he was im- 
 prisoued by the Spaniards in 1765 ; was 
 murdered by his crew ou the voyage home. 
 
 Glauber, Jan {b. 1646, d. 1726), Flemish 
 paiuter, called "Polydore." his pictures 
 dealing chiefly with Roman and Alpine 
 scene r J'. 
 
 Glauber, Jan Gottlieb (i. 1646, d. 1726), 
 Flemisli painter ; brother of last-named ; 
 called " Myrtillo," from his pastoral scenes ; 
 also painted cabinet pictures. 
 
 Glauber, Johann Rudolf (6. 1604, d. 
 1668), German chemist ; discovered the salts 
 called by his name, as well as pyroligneous 
 acid and sal-ammoniac. 
 
 Glazebrook, R. T. {b. 1854), English 
 physicist ; educated at Liverpool college and 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was 
 elected fellow in 1877, having been fifth 
 wrangler. In 1880 he was appointed 
 demonstrator of physics at the Cavendish 
 laboratory, and was elected a fellow of the 
 Royal Society in 1882. He was Hopkin's 
 prizeman in 1888, and is the author of A 
 Text-book of Physical Optics, and, with 
 W. N. Shaw, of A Text- book of Practical 
 Physics, besides papers in the Transactions 
 of the Royal Society and the Philosophical 
 Magazine. 
 
 Gleichen, Count (Prince "Victor of Hohen- 
 lohe) (6. 1833, d. 1892), sculi^tor, brother of 
 the Prince of Hohenlohe, and nephew of 
 Queen Victoria ; served in the Baltic cam- 
 paign, and in the naval brigade at 
 Sebastopol, 1854-5, and in the Chinese war 
 of 1857 ; afterwards gave himself up to art. 
 Among his many sculptures were The Deluge, 
 a Statue of Alfred the Great made in 
 Sicilian marble for the town of Wantage, 
 where it was placed in 1877, and many 
 statues exhibited at the Royal Academy. 
 He married a daughter of Admiral Sir G. 
 Seymour. 
 
 _Gleiclien, Wilhelm F. von {b. 1717, d. 
 1783), German naturalist, who served as an 
 olficer in the campaign of the Rhine : his 
 chief works are Newest Microscopical Dis- 
 coveries, and a Treatise on the Solar Micro- 
 scope, illustrated by himself. 
 
 Gleig, George Robert (J>. 1796, d. 1888), 
 English biographical writer and divine; 
 served as an officer in the Peninsular war, 
 and the American war of 1812 ; took orders 
 in 1S22, was chaplain to Chelsea Hospital 
 m 1844, chaplain-general of the forces in 
 1846; author of The Subaltern (1825), 
 
 British Military Commanders (1832), 
 Memoirs of Warren Hastings (1841), and 
 The Story of Waterloo (1847). 
 
 Gleim, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig {b. 1719, 
 d. 1803), German poet, author of Kriegslieder 
 (1778), and Leitgedichte (1789-1803); was 
 called "the German Anacreou." 
 
 Glendower (Glyndwr), Owen {b. circa 
 1354, d. circa 1416), Welsh chief; descendant 
 of the Llewelyns ; was outlawed by Henry 
 ry., and joined the Hotspur rebellion ; main- 
 tained the contest for foui'teen years among 
 the Welsh mountains, assisted for a time 
 by a French force ; died while negotiating 
 with Henry V., whose widow his son 
 married. 
 
 Glenelg, Charles Grant, Baron {b. 1778, d. 
 1866), British statesman; son of Charles 
 Grant, and brother of Robert Grant; 
 was bom in India, and educated at Mag- 
 dalen College, Cambridge. In 1807 he was 
 called to the bar, but did not practise, 
 entering Parliament as member for Mont- 
 rose the same year. In 1818 he was elected 
 for Inverness- shire, and became a peer in 
 1835. He held the appointment of chief 
 secretary for Ireland, 1819 - 22, vice- 
 president of the Board of Trade, 1823-27, 
 and president 1827-8; and from 1830 to 
 1834 president of the Board of Control. 
 Lord Glenelg resigned the colonial secre- 
 taryship, which he had held for five years, 
 in 1839, on account of the recall of Lord 
 Durham from Canada, where his "ordi- 
 nance"' against the rebels had been dis- 
 approved by the Colonial Office. He did 
 not again hold office, but received a 
 pension of £2,000. 
 
 Gley, Gerard (*. 1761, d. 1830), French 
 A.bbe ; accompanied campaigns of Davoust, 
 visited Ubraiies, corresponded with 
 Napoleon, and wrote Voyage en Allemagne 
 et en Pologne. 
 
 Glinka, Michael Ivanovitch (6. 1803, d. 
 1857), Russian composer ; studied in Italy 
 and in Berlin under Dehn, and on his 
 return to Russia became court conductor 
 and director of the choir in the imperial 
 churches. After some time spent in 
 France, he came to Berlin again to see 
 Dehn, and died suddenly there. His chief 
 works were two operas. La Vie pour le Tsar, 
 and Russian et Leidmilla, which were the 
 first important musical productions of 
 Russia. 
 
 Glinka, Sergyer Nickolaivich {b. 1771, d. 
 1845), Russian writer; after serving some 
 years in the army, turned to literature ; 
 translated Young's Night Thoughts, wrote a 
 History of Russia for the young, and 
 Russian Reading, as well as some tales. 
 
 GUsson, Francis (6. 1596. d. 1677),
 
 Glo 
 
 (375) 
 
 Gly 
 
 English pliysician, author of Anatomia 
 Hepatm, in which Glissori's Capsule was 
 described, and made many important 
 researches in anatomy and physiology. 
 
 Gloucester, Duchess of (6. 1776, d. 1857), 
 Princess Mary, fourth daughter of George 
 III. ; married'her cousin, William Frederick, 
 Duke of Gloucester, in 1816; Uved a retired 
 life, engaged chiefly in works of benevo- 
 lence, and died at Gloucester House, Park 
 Lane. 
 
 Gloucester, Henry Stewart, Duke of (6. 
 1640, d. 1G60), second son of Charles I. 
 
 Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of, the 
 "Good Duke Humphrey" {b. 1391, d. 
 1447), son of Hem-y IV. ; was protector of 
 England during the early years of his 
 nephew, Henry VI., and the rival of 
 Cardinal Beairfort for the chief power ; was 
 a great protector of learned men^ but made 
 enemies by his ambition, and was found 
 dead under suspicious circmnstances at 
 Bvuy St. Edmunds. 
 
 Gloucester, Richard, Duke of. \_See 
 Richard III.] 
 
 Gloucester, Thomas, Duke of (6. 1355, d. 
 1397), sixth son of Edward III. ; created 
 duke in 1385, but, endeavouring to exert 
 too much influence over the young Richard 
 II. , was carried to Calais and put to death. 
 
 Gloucester, "William Frederick, Duke of 
 (6. 1776, d. 1834), nephew of George III., 
 married his cousin, the Princess Mary. 
 
 Gloucester, William Henry, Duke of (6. 
 1743. d. 1805), son of Frederick, Prince of 
 Wales, and brother of George III., whom 
 he offended by his marriage with the 
 Countess Waldegrave. 
 
 Gloucester, WOliam Stewart, Duke of 
 (6. 1689, d. 1700), son of Queen Anne. 
 
 Glover, John (6. 1767, d. 1849), English 
 painter ; son of a Leicester farmer ; became 
 master of the free school at Appleby in 
 1786 ; afterwards gave lessons in art at Lich- 
 field and in London, becoming in 1815 pre- 
 sident of the old Water-Colour Society. 
 He made a largo oil-painting of Durham 
 cathedral, but was unable to gain admission 
 to the Royal Academy. In 18-24 he assisted 
 in founding the Society of British Artists, 
 where he exhibited till 1830, when he went 
 to Australia and afterwards settled in 
 Tasmania, and died there. 
 
 Glover, Sir John Hawley {h. 1829, d. 1885), 
 English colonial statesman ; having served 
 in the navy for several years, was appointed 
 governor of Lagos iu 1862. In 1873 he 
 became special commissioner in the British 
 Gold Coast settlements, and as such he 
 
 co-operated with Sir G. Wolseley in Ashan- 
 tee, where he raised a, native force and 
 marched on Coomassie. From 1876 to 1881 he 
 was governor of Newfoundland, to which he 
 returned after two years in the Leeward 
 Islands. He was made G.C.M.G. for his 
 services in the Ashantee war. 
 
 Glover, Mary (6. 1782, d. 1850), English 
 actress ; daughter of an actor named Better- 
 ton ; was born at Newry, and made her 
 debut at Coveut Garden in 1797 in Percy. 
 She coniined herself chiefly to comedy, her 
 best part being Mrs. Malaprop, which she 
 played at Drury Lane four days before her 
 death. 
 
 Glover, Richard (h. 1712, d. 1785), 
 English poet and scholar ; son of a Loudon 
 merchant; produced Leonidas in 1737, and 
 next year Admiral Hosier''s Ghost. In 
 1739 he entered Parliament as an opponent 
 of V/alpole, and remained in public life till 
 1775, where he took great interest in com- 
 mercial questions; he wrote meanwhile 
 several tragedies. 
 
 Glover, Thomas (6. 1543, d. 1588), 
 English antiquary ; friend of Camden. His 
 Catalogue of Honour was printed in 1610. 
 
 Glover, William (6. 1819, d. 1875), 
 English composer ; son of Mrs. Glover, the 
 actress ; was at different times actor, 
 violinist and teacher, but is chiefly known 
 as composer of the cantata Tarn CShanter 
 (1855), and the operas Buy Bias (1861), and 
 Adminta. He died in America, where he 
 had lived for seven years. 
 
 Gluck, Christoph Willibald von (6. 1714, 
 d. 1787), Bohemian composer; founder of a 
 new school of opera. His first works were 
 conceived in the old Italian spirit, but were 
 very popular and gained him an invitation 
 to London, where he made the acquaintance 
 of Ame, but was not successful. He then 
 returned to Vienna to study and develop his 
 ideas. Clemenza di Tito was performed at 
 Naples in 1751, but his productions at 
 Vienna, Alceste, Paride ed Elenna, and 
 especially Orfeo ed Etiridice were his best 
 works. Iphlqhne en Aulide, produced in 
 1774, was also highly successful. In Paris 
 his works excited so great a controversy that 
 musical factions arose calling themselves 
 after him and his rival, the Italian Piccini, 
 the one being supported by Marie An- 
 toinette, who had been a pupil of Gluck, 
 and the other by Madame du Barry. 
 
 Glycas, Michael (12th century), Bvzan- 
 tine historian, author of Biblos Chrontke. 
 
 Glycerius (5tli century), Roman emperor 
 in 473 ; abdicated and became a priest in 
 474. 
 
 Glyn, Isabella {b. 1823), English actress ;
 
 Gly 
 
 (376) 
 
 Go1> 
 
 pupfl of Charles Kemble, her chief parts 
 Demg Lady Coustauce and Lady Macbeth. 
 
 Glynn, Joseph (6. 1799, d. 1863), English 
 eut;iueer; fellow-pupil with Stephenson of 
 Mr. John Bruce ; drew up a memorandum 
 for the Admiralty on the application of 
 screw-propellers to war-ships ; designer of 
 several of the first marine steam-engines, 
 and of the scoop- wheel for draining marshes, 
 He was a fellow of the Royal Society, and 
 many of his papers read before the Insti- 
 tute of Civil Engineers were translated into 
 other languages. 
 
 Gmelin, Johann Georg (6. 1709, d. 185o), 
 German botanist: professor of natural 
 history at St. Petersburg ; made a scientific 
 exploration of Siberia, and published the 
 results in Reisen dnrch tsibtrien. On his 
 return to Gei'inauy he became professor at 
 Tiibingen. His nephew, Samuel Gottlieb 
 {d. 1774), explored the country south of the 
 Caspian, but was captured and detained by 
 a hostile tribe. 
 
 Gmelin, Leopold (6. 1788, d. 1853), 
 German chemist ; son of a professor of 
 medicine at Gottiugen; published iu 1841 and 
 succeeding years his Handbuch der Chiniie. 
 
 Gneisenau, August Wilhelm Anton Graf 
 Neidhardt von {b. 1760, d. 1831), Prussian 
 soldier ; served previously in the Austrian 
 army, andasanAnspach-Baireuthmerceuary 
 in the British army in America. In 1786, after 
 an interview with Frederick, he obtained a 
 commission iu the Prussian army, and was 
 wounded at Saalfeld in 1802. Having been 
 present at Jena, he subsequently commanded 
 at the siege of Colberg. After the peace 
 he assisted Scharnhorst to reorganise the 
 Prussian army, and his efforts excited the 
 hostility of Napoleon, who enforced iu 1809 
 his retirement. After visiting England and 
 other countries, in 1811 he re-entered the 
 army and became Bliicher's quarter- master- 
 general in the war of Liberation, and 
 his second in command iu the Waterloo 
 campaign. In 182.5 he was appointed field- 
 marshal, but he took little further part in 
 public affairs, his Libei-al opinions being 
 looked upon with disfavour. 
 
 Gneist, Heinrich Hermann Rudolf Fried- 
 rich (b. 1816), German jurist and his- 
 torian ; bom at Berlin ; became in 1841 
 assessor of the Superior Coui-t, and in 
 1846 assistant judge iu the Sunreme 
 Tribunal. In 1848 he obtained a seat 'in the 
 Mimicipal Council, and ten years later 
 became a member of the Prussian Lower 
 House. In the imperial Parliament he was 
 for some time leader of the Left Centre, but 
 afterwards joined the National Liberals. 
 In 1875 he became a senior judge of the 
 Supreme Court of Prussia, and was ap- 
 pomted instructor in pohtical science to the 
 
 Emperor William II. Among his works are 
 TJie Constitution of Trial by Jury in 
 Geitnany, Nobility and Knighthood in 
 England (1853), The English Constitutional 
 and Administrative Law of the Present Bay 
 (1857-63), The Self-Governnient of Enaland 
 (1863), Enqlische Verfassungsgeschichte 
 (1882), and I>as englisches Parlament (188G), 
 the last having been translated. 
 
 Goad, John {b. 1615, d. 1689), English 
 scholar ; head-master of Merchant Taylors' 
 School for twenty years ; was dismissed for 
 Roman tendencies, and afterwards joined 
 that church. 
 
 Goadby, Robert (6. 1721, d. 1778), 
 Eughsh publisher of Sherborne, author of 
 An Illustration of the Holy Scriptures from 
 an Arian point of view. 
 
 Gobat, Samuel, D.D. (6. 1799, d. 1879), 
 Swiss ecclesiastic; was a Lutheran mis- 
 sionary in Abyssinia and afterwards vice- 
 principal of the Protestant college at Malta. 
 In 1846 he was appointed Bishop of Jeru- 
 salem on the nomination of the King of 
 Prussia, his conduct towards the Eastern 
 Church causing great controversy in Eng- 
 land, and precipitating Newman's apostacy. 
 
 Gobel, Jean Baptiste (A. 1727, d. 1794), 
 French revolutionist ; member of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly ; appointed Archbishop of 
 Paris, and installed by Talleyrand in 1791 ; 
 resigned in November, 1793, in order to take 
 a more active part in the revolution ; was 
 condemned for atheism with Hubert and 
 Clootz and executed in April, 1794. 
 
 Gobelin, Jehan («?. 1476), French dyer; 
 founder of the great manufacturing family, 
 setting up his works at Paris about 1450; 
 is believed to have invented scarlet dye. 
 
 Goblet, Rene (6. 1828), French states- 
 man ; bom at Aire-sur-la-Lys, called to the 
 bar at Amiens ; established a Liberal 
 journal under the Empire, but in 1871 
 entered upon political life as a member of 
 the republican Left in the Assembly. In 
 1876 he was rejected at Amiens, but elected 
 in the following year, and in 1879 obtained 
 a subordinate office. In 1881 he was re- 
 elected for Amiens, and next year was 
 appointed minister of the interior, under 
 M. Freycinet, but resigned with his 
 colleagues on the Egyptian question. In 
 the cabinet of M. Brisson as minister of 
 education and public works, he intro- 
 duced many reforms, and on the resignation 
 of his chief was reappointed by M. Frey- 
 cinet (January, 1886). His speech before 
 the Senate on primary education on 
 February 4th was ordered to be published 
 throughout France. In December M. 
 Goblet became prime minister as well as 
 minister of the interior and of foreign
 
 God 
 
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 God 
 
 aiEairs ad interim. In the election of 1889 
 he was defeated by a Royalist-Boulangist 
 coalition. 
 
 Godart, Jean {b. 1775, d. 1823), French 
 naturalist ; author of Histoire Naturelle des 
 Lepidopteres en France (1822). 
 
 Goddaxd, ArabeUa {b. 1836), English 
 pianist; horn near St. Malo; played at a 
 concert at St. Servan when four years old ; 
 took lessons from Kalkbrenuer at Paris, and 
 at eight years of age took part in a concert at 
 Buckiaghani Palace. She was afterwards 
 a pupil successively of Thalberg and Sir G. 
 Macfarren and made her debut in October, 
 1850, at the grand national concerts. In 
 1854 she made an extended Contiueutal tour, 
 giving concerts at Paris, Berlin, Leipzig, 
 Vienna, and Florence, returning to England 
 in 1856. In 1860 she married Mr. Davison, 
 a musical critic, but continued to perform 
 till 1873, when she went to Australia and 
 the United States. She returned to England 
 three years later. 
 
 Goddard, General ; marched across India 
 in 1788, and defeated Sindia ; carried on 
 operations against the Mahrattas, which 
 ended in the treaty of Salbye. 
 
 Goddaxd, Jonathan (b. 1617, d. 1674), 
 English physician; accompanied Cromwell 
 to Scotland aud Ireland ; became warden of 
 Merton CoUege, Oxford, and represented 
 the university in the Little Parliament ; 
 was deprived at the Restoration, but gave 
 himself to medical studies ; became a member 
 of the council of the Royal Society, and in- 
 vented " Goddard' s drops." 
 
 Godeau, Antoine (J. 1605, d. 1672), French 
 historian ; made Bishop of Grasse by Riche- 
 lieu and of Venice by Innocent X. ; wrote 
 Histoire de VEffUse, the first ecclesiastical 
 history in French. 
 
 Godefroy, Jacques {b. 1587, d. 1652), 
 French jurist ; brother of Theodore; edited 
 Codex Theodosianus and Fragmenta Duodecim 
 Tabularum. 
 
 Godefroy, Theodore {b. 1580, d. 1619), 
 historiographer of France ; wrote Le Cere- 
 monial de la France ; his son, Denis {d. 1665), 
 was author of Memoires sur les Droits 
 du Roi. 
 
 Goderich, Lord. \^See Ripon.] 
 
 Godfrey, Charles {b. 1799, d. 1863), 
 English musician ; foimder of a family of 
 band-masters ; was appointed musician in 
 ordinary to the king in 1831, and was 
 band-master of the Coldstream Guards. 
 He also composed waltzes for military 
 bands. His sons were educated at the 
 Royal Academy of Music, and all followed 
 their father's profession. 
 
 Godfrey, Sir Edmundsbury (b. 1621, 
 d. 1(378), Enghsh magistrate, received the 
 depositions of Titus Gates, and was murdered 
 soon afterwards, possibly by someone accused 
 by the informer. 
 
 Godfrey, Thomas {b. 1736, rf. 1763), Ameri- 
 can poet ; son of a mathematician, who per- 
 fected the quadrant; wrote the Court of 
 Fancy, and some plays. 
 
 Godfrey de Bouillon {d. 1100), crusader; 
 King of Jerusalem ; set out in 1096 ; took 
 Nicsea aud Antioch in 1097 ; defeated the Sar- 
 acens next year, and in 1099, after a month's 
 siege, took Jerusalem and slaughtered 
 the inhabitants. In the same year he was 
 elected king, but refused to assume the title, 
 and won the battle of Ascalon, dj-ing, prob- 
 ably by poison, in 1100. He drew up a code 
 known as Assises de Jerusalem. 
 
 Godfrey de Viterbo {d. 1191), German 
 historian ; secretary to the Emperors Fred- 
 erick I. and Heniy VI. and author of 
 Chronicon Universale, and other works, which 
 remain in manuscript. 
 
 Godiva (11th century), Mercian lady; 
 wife of Earl Leoffric ; is said to have ridden 
 naked through Coventry in order to obtain 
 from her husband the remission of a penalty 
 he had imposed upon the town. 
 
 Godkin, James (6. 1806, d. 1879), British 
 journalist and writer; bom in Ireland ; was 
 at first missionary to Irish Roman Catholics, 
 but, having vmtten the Rights of Ireland, 
 changed his profession, and came to London 
 as a joumaUst, where he edited several Scot- 
 tish and Irish papers. He was subsequently 
 Dublin correspondent of The Times. He 
 also wrote The Land War in Ireland, The 
 Religious History of Ireland, Religion and 
 Education in India, and oiher works, and 
 was awarded a pension for literary merit by 
 recommendation of Mr. Gladstone. 
 
 Godley, John Arthur, C.B. (fc. 1847), 
 English civil servant : was bom in London, 
 and educated at Rugby and Balliol, taking 
 many prizes at Oxford, and being fellow of 
 Hertford from 1874 to 1881 ; was called to 
 the bar in 1876, and, after having been twice 
 private secretary to Mr. Gladstone aud once 
 to Earl Granville, was made a commissioner 
 of Inland Revenue in 1SS2, and became 
 permanent under-secretary of State for 
 India in 1883. 
 
 Godolphin, John (6. 1617, d. 1678), 
 English civilian : at first a Puritan, and was 
 made judge of the Admiralty by Cromwell ; 
 but became a Royalist and king's advocate 
 after the Restoration. He was author of 
 Adm iralty Jurisdiction. 
 
 Godolphin, Sidney (6. 1610, d. 1643), 
 English Royalist poet ; friend of Hobbee ;
 
 God 
 
 (378) 
 
 Goe 
 
 was killed iu a skimiish in Devonshire 
 dui-iug the Great RebelUon. 
 
 GodolpMn, Sidney, Earl of (6. 1630, d. 
 1712). English statesman ; held office under 
 Charles 11., James II., William III. and 
 Anue ; took part in the secret negotiations 
 of Charles II. ■v^^th the French king ; voted 
 for the exclusion of James, but became his 
 minister, and corresponded with him when 
 First Lord of the Treasury under his suc- 
 cessor : as Anue's lord high treasurer, was 
 Marlborough's chief support, and shared his 
 fall in 1710. 
 
 Godoimov, Boris (6. 1552, d. 1605), Tsar 
 of Russia ; obtained the throne by violent 
 measures, and poisoned himself to escape the 
 vrrath of the heir of Feodor, whom he had 
 dispossessed ; was the introducer of serf- 
 dom into Russia. 
 
 Godoy, Manuel de, Duke of Alcudia (6. 
 1767, d. 1851), Spanish statesman; at first a 
 favourite and afterwards a minister of 
 Charles IV., was called "Prince of the 
 Peace," because he brought to an end in 
 1795 the war with France ; was dismissed in 
 1798, but some years after, when in office 
 again, intrigued with Napoleon for the over- 
 throw of the Bourbons ; was imprisoned on 
 the discovery of his schemes, but released by 
 Murat in 1808, and spent the rest of his life 
 at Rome and Paris as a pensioner of the de- 
 posed Charles IV. and of Louis Philippe. 
 
 Godwin, Earl of Kent {d. 1053), English 
 statesman, married the daughter of Knut, 
 and entered his service ; afterwards sup- 
 ported Harold Harefoot, and, on the ac- 
 cession of Edward the Confessor, headed the 
 English party against the Norman friends of 
 the king, who had married his daughter 
 Editha; consequently incurred his dis- 
 pleasure, and had to go into exile ; returned 
 and was reconciled to Edward, but died 
 suddenly soon after. 
 
 Godwin, Francis (b. 1561, d. 1633), English 
 bishop and writer ; author of Rerum Angli- 
 earum Annales, and of the Man in the 
 Moon. 
 
 Godwin, George (6. 1815, d. 1888), Eng- 
 lish architect; restorer of St. Mary Redcliffe, 
 Bristol ; author of an Essay on Concrete, for 
 which he obtained a medal from the Institute 
 of British Architects ; edited the Builder, and, 
 with Mr. Brittou, a History of the Churches 
 of London, and was secretary of the London 
 Art Union. 
 
 Godwin, Mary. [See Wollstonecraft.] 
 
 Godwin, Parke {b. 1816), American bio- 
 
 frapher and essayist, was bom in New 
 ersey and graduated at Princeton, practised 
 law for a short time, and then turned to 
 joumalisni, joining in 1837 the New York 
 
 Evening Post. He also contributed to the 
 Democratic Review and Putnam's Magazine ; 
 translated and edited Goethe's Autobiog- 
 raphy ; compiled a Handbook of Universal 
 Biography, which was re-issued under a new 
 title in 1878 ; and in 1882 published a Biog- 
 raphy of W. C. Bryant, whose daughter he 
 married. He took some part in politics, as 
 a supporter of the republican party. 
 
 Godwin, William (6. 1786, d. 1835), Eng- 
 lish writer ; friend of Shelley ; gave up his 
 vocation as a Dissenting minister in Suffolk, 
 to come to London and become a writer. 
 After conducting for a few years the Annual 
 Register, he brought out in 1793 his Inquiry 
 into Political Justice, and next year Caleb 
 Williams, a novel. He also contributed as 
 a Whig to the Morning Chronicle, and 
 wrote a History of the Commonivealth of 
 England (1824-8). His first wife vvas 
 Mary Wollstonecraft, whom he married 
 in 1797. 
 
 Goeben, Johann von {h. 1816, d. 1880), 
 German general; entered the Prussian army 
 as a private in 1833 ; served as a volunteer in 
 the Carlist wars; re-entered the Prussian 
 service in 1842, and was conspicuous in the 
 war of 1866. In 1870 he commanded the 
 eighth army corps, and was present at the 
 early battles of the war on the eastern frontier, 
 after which he was sent to the north and 
 defeated Faidherbe at Amiens and St. 
 Quentin. He published an account of his 
 adventures in Spain under the title Four 
 Years in Spain, 
 
 Goeckingte, Leopold Gunther von {b. 
 1748, d. 1828), German poet and statesman, 
 studied at Halle : was ennobled ^for his 
 services by Frederic William II. in 1789, and 
 ' in 1793 became councillor of finance at 
 I Berlin, afterwards holding office under the 
 Prince of Orange-Fulda and administering 
 the territory of the Princess of Courland. 
 He was the author of Sinngedichte, written 
 between 1772 and 1778, and Lieder Zweier 
 Liebenden between 1777 and 1779. 
 
 Goerres, Johann (6. 1776, d. 1848), Ger- 
 man writer ; was included in the deputation 
 of the Rhenish provinces which went to 
 the Directory to demand their union with 
 France ; became professor of natural history 
 at Coblentz, where he edited the revolution- 
 ary Rheinische Merkur, and wrote several 
 works. For writing Beutschland und die 
 Revolution he was expelled by the Prussian 
 government; but in 1837 he issued a pam- 
 phlet, Athanasius, when the Archbishop of 
 Cologne was arbitrarily arrested. 
 
 Goertz, George {d. 1719), Swedish states- 
 man; as minister of Charles XII. confis- 
 cated much property to recruit the finances, 
 and on the death of the king was beheaded 
 on a charge of treason.
 
 Goe 
 
 (379) 
 
 Gol 
 
 Goertz, Johann Graf von (6. 1737, d. \ 
 1821), Prussian diplomatist ; as plenipo- 
 tentiary of Frederic 11. at Munich, pre- 
 vented the designs of Joseph II. in Bavaria ; 
 ■was afterwards ambassador at St. Peters- 
 burg and the Hague, and represented 
 Prussia in the Diet at Ratisbon. His 
 Memoirs were printed in 1827. 
 
 Goes, Damiao de {b. loOl, d. 1573), Portu- 
 
 fuese historian and diplomatist ; author of 
 ,egatio Magni Imperatoris huiorum Fresbij- 
 teri Joannis, Chronica di Felicissitno Rey 
 Bon Manuel de Gloriosa Memoria, and other 
 works. 
 
 Goes, Hugo van der (6. 1419, d. 1480), 
 Flemish painter ; pupil of Van Eyck. Most 
 of his pictures are at Ghent and Bruges. 
 In the church of St. James at the latter 
 place is his great work, The Taking-Down 
 from the Croas. 
 
 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (6. 1749, 
 d. 1832), German poet, philosopher, and 
 romance writer ; was bom at Fraukf ort-on- 
 the-Main of noble family, and received a 
 liberal education. At sixteen he went to 
 Leipzig to study law, to which, however, 
 he did not contine himself. After about 
 two years' study of alchemy and mystical 
 writers, he went to Strasburg in 1769, 
 where he came under the influence of 
 Herder and met Waguer. On his return 
 to Frankfort two years later he published 
 Goetz von Berlichingen and Leider der 
 Werther, the latter of which was im- 
 mensely popular. lu 1775 he went to 
 Weimar, where the Grand Duke gave him 
 the office of chamberlain : and in 1786 to 
 Italy, where he travelled for two years, and 
 conceived some of his greatest works. The 
 dramas of Iphigenia, Egmont, and Torquato 
 Ta-sso were produced between 1786 and 
 1790, in which year also the first fragments 
 of Famt were published. In 1794 Goethe's 
 botanical researches brought him into con- 
 nection with Schiller, and in the same year 
 he produced Wilhebn Meister. The results 
 of his scientific studies were, besides The 
 Metamorphosis of Plants, the Beitrdge zur 
 Optik (1791-2), and a book on the theory of 
 colour, Farbenlehre, published in 1810, in 
 opposition to Newton's theories. Mean- 
 while Hermann und Dorothea had appeared 
 in 1797, and the greater part of Faust in 
 1807, the latter not being finished till the 
 year before his death. Next year he ac- 
 companied the Grand Duke of Weimar to 
 Erfurt, and had an interview with Napo- 
 leon. During his Last years he was occu- 
 pied with his autobiography, Aus Meinem 
 Lehcn. In 1856 Mr. G. H. Lewes pubHshed 
 the Life and Works of Goethe, and nu- 
 merous biographical and literary works con- 
 cerning him have appeared in Germany. 
 
 Goetze, Johann Melchior (6. 1717, d. 
 
 1786), German theologian and controver- 
 sialist, called the "Inquisitor of Ham- 
 burg; " wrote much in opposition to Lessing, 
 Goethe, and the Rationalists. 
 
 Goffe, WUliam (6. 1505, d. 1679), English 
 soldier ; one of the judges of Charles I., and 
 of Cromwell's major-generals. His last 
 years were spent in America, where his 
 name became known from his having, in 
 his old age, headed the inhabitants of his 
 village when attacked by Indians. 
 
 Gogol, Nikolai (b. 1808, d. 1852), Russian 
 writer ; made professor of history at St. 
 Petersburg by the Tsar Nicholas on account 
 of his drama The Reviser ; afterwards be- 
 came famous as the author of Dead Souls ; 
 in 1847 wrote Letters in favour of the 
 emancipation of the serfs. 
 
 Golding, Arthur (1 6th century), English 
 scholar; secretary of Cecil; translated Ovid's 
 Metamorphoses, and other Latin works. 
 
 Golding, Richard (6. 1785, d. 1865), Eng- 
 lish engraver ; employed by West to engrave 
 the Death of Nelson, and by Sir T. Lawrence 
 to reproduce his portrait of Princess Char- 
 lotte. Proofs of his work are rare. 
 
 "^Goldmark, Karl {b. 1832), Austrian com- 
 poser ; a pupil of Jansa at Vienna, at the 
 Conservatoire of which he studied. Among 
 his best works are the overture Sacuntala, 
 the grand opera Die Kiiningin von Saba, 
 and the symphony Die Ldndliche Hochzeit, 
 the last of which was played by Charles 
 Halle at Liverpool in 1877, and at the 
 Crystal Palace in March, 1878. 
 
 Goldoni, Carlo (6. 1707, <?. 1793), Italian 
 dramatist; son of a Venetian physician; ran 
 away from home, and joined some come- 
 dians ; on his return studied law at Padua. 
 He then went to Venice, and wrote come- 
 dies, taking Moliere as his model: after- 
 wards went to Paris ; taught the children of 
 Louis XV. Italian, and received a pension, 
 which was stopped by the Convention, but 
 restored. His best known work is Le 
 Bourru Bienfaisant. 
 
 Goldschmidt, Hermann {b. 1802, d. 1866), 
 German painter and astronomer, his chief 
 pictures being the The Sihgl of Cumm, ex- 
 hibited in 1845, and the View of Rome, in 
 1849. Having, when in Paris, heard a 
 lecture of Le Verrier, he began to study 
 astronomy, and discovered Lutetia and ten 
 minor planets, receiving the gold medal of 
 the Royal Astronomical Society, 
 
 Goldsmid, Sir Frederick, C.B., K. C.S.I. 
 
 (jb. 1823), English general and Persian 
 scholar ; served in the Chinese campaign of 
 1840-2, and in the Crimea ; was chief 
 director of the Indo-European telegraph, 
 1S65-70, and boimdary commissioner in
 
 Gol 
 
 ( 380) 
 
 Gom 
 
 Persia, 1870-3. He went on several mis- 
 sions to Persia, and from 1880 to 1883 was 
 controller of the Daira Sanieh in Egyj^t ; 
 while in 1885 he became secretary to the 
 Koyal Asiatic Society. His chief works are 
 Telegraph and Travel (1874), and Life of 
 Sir James Out.ram (1880). 
 
 Goldsmith, Oliver {b. 1728, d. 1774), 
 Euirlish poet and romance writer ; son of a 
 poor Irish clergyman of Pallas, Longford, 
 went as sizar, in 1744, to Trinity College, 
 Dublin, where he led a miserable life till 
 he took his degree live years later. Aftur 
 this — having failed to obtain ordination, 
 taken pupils for a time, and lost his money 
 by extravagance — he went to Edinburgh in 
 1752. and from thence to Leyden ; but, after 
 staying there a year, found himself pen- 
 niless, and travelled to London through 
 France, Switzerland, and Northern Italy, 
 supporting himself by flute-playing. After 
 a precarious existence as a surgeon, an 
 author, and a literai-y hack, he produced, in 
 1759, his Inqui'^-y into the Present State of 
 Folite Leant 1 1) g in JStiroye. This sold well, 
 and gained for the author the acquaintance 
 of Dr. Johnson. Soon after he was engaged 
 to contribute to the Public Ledger, and the 
 Citizen of the World, and among other con- 
 tributions wrote the Letters from a Nobleman 
 to his Son. The Trareller followed in 1765, 
 and The Vicar of Wakefield (sold for fifty 
 guineas only) ia 1766, but Goldsmith was 
 improvident as ever. As a dramatist he 
 became known as the writer of the Good- 
 Natured Man, brought out at Covent 
 Garden in 1768, and She Stoops to Conquer 
 in 1773, and as a poet by The Deserted 
 Village (1770), and his last work. The Re- 
 taliation. He wrote numerous other works, 
 among which may be mentioned Animated 
 Nature. 
 
 Goliath of Gath {d. circa 1063 B.C.), 
 Philistine giant killed by David. 
 
 Golius, Jacob {b. 1596, d. 1667), Dutch 
 Orientalist ; professor of Arabic at Leyden ; 
 went to Morocco and Constantinople, and 
 brought back valuable MSS.. now in Ley- 
 den museum ; made an Arabic translation 
 of the Liturgy and the Ref onned Confession 
 for the Christian slaves in Constantinople, 
 and was author of an Arabic-Latin dic- 
 tionary. His brother Peter {d. 1673), a 
 Romanist missioiiary, translated the Imi- 
 tatio Christi into Arabic. 
 
 _GoloTin, Ivan MikhRilovich (6. 1670, d. 
 1738), Russian diplomatist; fellow-pupil 
 %vith Peter the Great in the ship-yards of 
 Saardam, and sent by him on a mysterious 
 mission to Rome, for which the ambassador 
 was largely rewarded. 
 
 Golovnin, Vasili (b 1780, d. 1832), Rus- 
 sian naval officer, -while conducting the 
 
 survey of the sea-board of the Tsar's do- 
 minions, he visited Japan, and was im- 
 prisoned for two years, but collected valu- 
 able documents concerning the country. He 
 published in German an account of this and 
 another voyage made in 1817. 
 
 Goltz, Heinrich (b. 1558, d. 1617), Ger- 
 man engraver, the Apollo of Belvedere and 
 Farnesian Hercules being the best specimens 
 of his work. 
 
 Gomar, Francis {b. 1563, d. 1641), Dutch 
 theologian ; disputed with Arminius at the 
 synod of Dort (1618), and was active ia 
 promoting the persecuting decrees against 
 his followers ; studied some time at Oxford, 
 and received the degree of B.D. from Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 Gombart, Jean Ogier de [d. 1666), French 
 poet, author of Endgmion (1624), Poesies 
 (1646), and Epigrammes (1657). 
 
 Gombert, Nicolas (16th century), Flemish 
 musical composer ; attached to the court of 
 Charles v., and a pupil of Josquin ; com- 
 posed motets and psalm-tunes, also pastoral 
 songs and setting of poem of Avidius on the 
 death of Josquin. 
 
 Gomtaerville, Marion le Royde {b. 1600, 
 d. 1674), French novelist and academician; 
 made a point of omitting car and other 
 words from his works, the chief of which 
 were La Caritie (1622), Polexandre (1632), 
 and La Doctrine des Moetirs (1646). 
 
 Gomersal, Robert {b. 1600, d. 1646), Eng- 
 lish poet and divine ; author of The Levite'a 
 Revenge and other pieces. 
 
 Gomez, Madeleine Angelique, Madame de 
 {b. 1684, d. 1770), French novelist, her 
 chief work being Les Journees Amusantes 
 (1723-8). 
 
 Gomez, Sebastiano {d. 1682), the "Mulatto 
 of Murillo ; " used to listen to Murillo in- 
 structing his pupils, and, being surprised by 
 his master one day working at the head of 
 a Madonna, was given his freedom and 
 admitted as a pupil. 
 
 Gomez de Ciudad Real, Alvarez {b. 1488, 
 d. 1538), Spanish Latin poet, author of 
 Thalichristia, Proverbia Solomonis, etc. 
 
 Gomm, Sir William MajTiard (h. 1782, 
 d. 1875), English soldier; entered the army 
 in 1794, and served in all the campaigns of 
 the Napoleonic wars, being at the time of 
 Waterloo lieutenant- colonel. In 1837 he 
 became major-general ; was lieutenant- 
 governor of Jamaica from 1840 to 1843, and 
 governor of the Mauritius from that year 
 till 1849. During the years 1850-5o he was 
 commander-in-chief in India, having at- 
 tained the rank of general in 1854. In
 
 Gon 
 
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 Goo 
 
 1868 he became field-marshal, and in 1872 
 was appointed Constable of the Tower. 
 
 Goncalvez, Joaquim Alfonso (6. 1780, d. 
 1841), 'Portuguese missionary and Chinese 
 scholar, author of a Portuguese-Chinese 
 dictionary, and a Latin grammar for the 
 Chinese. 
 
 Goncourt, Edmond Louis de (6. 1822), 
 French novelist ; wrote, with his brother 
 Jules, who died in 1870, much art-criticism 
 and biography, and especially novels, two 
 of which Heme Maupenn (1864), and Ger- 
 minie Lacerteux were especially remarkable. 
 Edmond de Goncourt also produced in 1878 
 La Fille JElise. 
 
 Gondebaud, or Gundobald {d. 516), King 
 of Burgundy ; successor of Chiiperic, whom 
 he had slain in battle ; was attacked by 
 Clovis, king of the Franks, while attempt- 
 ing to reconcile the Arians to the Church, 
 and became tributary to him; introduced 
 the loi Gombette, a Burgundian code. 
 
 Gondi, Pierre de {b. 1533, <f. 1616), French 
 cardinal, brother of the Marechal de Eetz, 
 mediated between the pope and Henri IV., 
 and reconciled the latter to the Church ; was 
 successively Bishop of Saugres and Arch- 
 bishop of Paris. 
 
 Gondomax, Diego Sarmiento de Acuna, 
 Conde da (17th century), Spanish statesman, 
 as Spanish ambassador in London, obtained 
 from James I. the warrant for Raleigh's 
 execution on account of his attack on 
 Guiana, and influenced him in the direction 
 of a peaceful policy instead of an armed 
 interference in the Thirty Years' war in the 
 cause of his son-in-law. 
 
 Gongora y Argote, Luis (6. 1561, d. 
 
 1627). Spanish poet mentioned by Cervantes, 
 introduced a new style, conspicuous for its 
 artificiality, which was called after him 
 " Gongorism." In 1863 Archdeacon Churton 
 published an essay in his defence, accom- 
 panied with translations. 
 
 Gonthier, Johann (h. 1487, d. 1574), Ger- 
 man Hellenist ; physioian to Francis I., but, 
 having become a Protestant, was obliged to 
 retire to Metz. He did much to restore 
 anatomy in the university of Paris, and 
 was author of Syntaxis Grceca. 
 
 Gontran (d. 593), King of Burgundy ; son 
 of Clotaii-e I. ; took Avignon from his bro- 
 ther, Sigebcrt, and had frequent wars with 
 him and with Chiiperic; was excommuni- 
 cated by St. Germain for loose living; m- 
 troduced Roman institutions into Burgundy. 
 
 Gontran-Bozon {d. 597), French noble; 
 general of Sigebert, was put to death by 
 Gontr in of Burgundy. 
 
 Gonzaga, Gian Francesco, Marquis {d. 
 
 1519) ; headed the Italian league against 
 Charles VIII. of France. 
 
 Gonzaga, Federico (6. 1500, d. 1540), son 
 of last named ; created duke by Charles V., 
 and given principality of Montferrat. 
 
 Gonzaga, Giovanni di {b. 1394, d. 1444), 
 capUano of Mantua : created marquis by the 
 Emperor Sigismund, who invested him with 
 the town as an imperial fief. He distin- 
 guished himself in war against FUippo 
 Maria Visconti, and as a patron of the 
 learned, aud his son, Lodovico (d. 1478), 
 followed in his steps. 
 
 Gonzaga, Vincenzo (b. 1594, d. 1627), last 
 duke of the direct branch. 
 
 Gonzaga, Carlo (d. 1637), cousin of last 
 named ; son of Duke of Nevers ; acquired the 
 duchy after a severe war. His grandson. 
 Carlo (d. 1669), sold his French possessions 
 to Cardinal Mazarin in 1659. 
 
 Gonzaga, Ferdiuando Carlo (fi. 1652, d. 
 1708), son of preceding; fought for the 
 emperor against the Turks _ in Hungary ; 
 received a French garrison into Mantua in 
 1701, and subsequently, when his states 
 were invaded by the Germans, he was put 
 to the ban of the empire, and fled to France. 
 
 Gonzaga, Luigi di (6. 1267, d. 1360), took 
 part in the revolt of Mantua against Pas- 
 serino Bonacossi, and was elected capitano di 
 popolo, which dignity became hereditary. 
 
 Gonzaga, Tommasoo Antonio (i. 1747, d. 
 about 1793), Portuguese poet, accused of 
 participating in a conspiracy in Brazil, and 
 banished to Mozambique for ten years ; 
 called "Dirceo," from his popular lyrics 
 called Marilia di Dirceo, which were in- 
 spired by his love for a lady whom he was 
 about to man-y when arrested. 
 
 Gonzales, Antonio (15th century), Portu- 
 guese navigator ; the first to traffic in slaves, 
 the first cargo of whom he was obliged by 
 Prince Henry to restore. 
 
 Gonzalvo de Cordova (b. 1443, d, 1515), 
 called the " Great Captain," for his skill in 
 driving the French, xmder Charles VIII., 
 from Italy. He subsequently became 
 Spanish viceroy of Naples ; but Ferdinand 
 V , jealous of his reputation, deprived him 
 of office, and caused him to retire into pri- 
 vate life. 
 
 Good, John Mason (6. 1764, t?. 1827), Eng- 
 lish physician and linguist, wrote the Book 
 of Nature and other works; edited the first 
 complete edition of the Letters of Junius, 
 and translated Lucretius, Job, Proverbs, and 
 the Song of Solomon. 
 
 Good, Thomas Sword (*. 1789, d. 1872), 
 EngUsh painter, at first house-painter.
 
 Goo 
 
 (382) 
 
 Goo 
 
 afterwaids aime to London and exhibited 
 at the Academy figure-pieces in the style 
 of Wilkie, among which may be named 
 The Merry Cottcu/vrx, Smugglers Renting, 
 and Study of a Hoy, now in the National 
 Gallery, and a small portrait of Thomas 
 Bewick in Newcastle museum. 
 
 Goodale, George Lincoln, M.D. (b. 1839), 
 American botanist, graduated at Amherst 
 College, and received degrees from Bow- 
 doin and Harvard ; practised at Portland 
 (Maiue), and became in 1864 state assayer 
 of medicine. In 1867 he was appointed 
 professor of natural science in Bowdoin, and 
 next year became a member of Maine Board 
 of Agriculture, and professor of materia 
 medica in the Maiue school. In 1872 he 
 was lecturer on vegetable physiology at 
 Harvai'd, and next year assistant professor ; 
 and in 1878 professor of botany, becoming 
 in 1875 a member of the council of the Har- 
 vard library. Subsequently he was presi- 
 dent of the American Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, and among his 
 works are Wild Flowers of North America 
 (1882) and Physiological Botany, the second 
 part of Gray's Botanical Text- Book (1885). 
 
 GoodaU, Edward (6. 1795, d. 1870), Eng- 
 lish engraver, abandoned painting on being 
 commissioned by Turner to engrave his pic- 
 tures ; and also made plates for The South 
 Coasts, Rogers's Italy, and the Ziterary 
 Souvenir. 
 
 Goodall, Frederick (b. 1822), English 
 painter ; son of preceding ; won the silver 
 medal of the Society of Arts when little more 
 than a boy ; exhibited Card Flayers at the 
 Academy at the age of seventeen ; was 
 elected A.R.A. in 1853, and R.A. in 1863. 
 Previously to this his chief pictures had 
 been The Tired Soldier and the Village Holi- 
 day (in the National Gallery), and some 
 historical paintings. He travelled much for 
 the pui-pose of his studies, both in Europe 
 and Egypt. Among his more recent pic- 
 tures may be named The Song of the Nubian 
 Slave, Hagar and Ishmael (1866), A Litter 
 of Doves, and A Fruit Woman of Cairo 
 (1875) ; Glencoe (1877), Palm Sunday (1878), 
 Holy Childhood (1880), Crossing the Desert 
 and Water for the Camp (1883), Gordon's 
 Last Messenger (1885), Leading the Flock 
 (1889), and The Thames from Windsor Castle 
 (1890). 
 
 Goode, George Brown (J. 1851), American 
 ichthyologist; became assistant-director of 
 the National Museum, and supervised the 
 natural history department of the Phila- 
 delphia Exhibition in 1876 ; was United 
 States commissioner at the Fisheries Exhi- 
 bitions of Berlin and London : and in 1887 
 became United States fish commissioner. 
 Among his works are a Catalogue of the Fishes 
 
 of the Bermudas (1875), Game Fishes of the 
 United States (1883), A Jieview of the I'tsh- 
 ing Industries of the United States (1883), 
 Britons, Saxons, and Virginians (1887), and 
 American Fishes (1888). 
 
 Goodford, Charles Old, D.D. (b. 1812, d. 
 1884), I'rovust of Eton; was educated at 
 Eton and King's College, Cambridge, of 
 which he was for a short time fellow ; was 
 successively assistant-master, head-master 
 (1853-62), and provost of Eton. He edited 
 in 1854 an edition of Terence's comedies. 
 
 Goodman, Godfrey {b. 1583, d. 1655), 
 English divine; Dean of Rochester, and 
 afterwards Bishop of Gloucester ; was sus- 
 pended by Laud for Romanist tendencies ; 
 wrote a History of his own Times, which 
 was printed in 1839. 
 
 Goodrich, Samuel Griswold (6. 1793, d. 
 1860), American educational writer; better 
 known as " Peter Parley; " began life as a 
 publisher in Massachusetts, and became 
 afterwards United States vice-consul at 
 Paris. He visited England, Grermany, and 
 Holland at different times. 
 
 Goodricli, Thomas {b. 1480, d. 1554), 
 English divine ; Bishop of Ely ; one of the 
 Syndics in the divorce proceedings against 
 Catherine of Aragon ; took part in the 
 translation of the New Testament, and was 
 one of the compilers of the Prayer Book of 
 1549, and the author of The Inntitution of a 
 Christian Man. Under Edward VI. he was 
 Lord Chancellor. 
 
 Goodwin, Harvey, D.D. (J). 1818, d. 1891), 
 English divine ; was born at King's Lynn, 
 and educated at Caius College, Cambridge, 
 where he was for some years fellow and 
 mathematical lecturer, having been second 
 wrangler and Smith's prizeman. He was 
 Dean of Ely from 1858 to 1869, when he 
 became Bishop of Carlisle ; and is the author 
 of Essays on the Pentateuch, A Guide to the 
 Parish Chtirch, The Foundations of the Creed 
 (1889), and of some mathematical works. 
 
 Goodwin, Thomas {b. 1600, d. 1679), Cal- 
 viuist divine ; graduated at Cambridge when 
 sixteen, and was in his twentieth year fel- 
 low of Cathei-ine Hall; left Cambridge in 
 1634, and soon had to go to Holland on 
 account of Laud's persecutions, but was 
 invited to return by the Long Parliament, 
 and became president of Magdalen, Oxford, 
 in 1650. At the Restoration was, of course, 
 obliged to resign, and removed to London, 
 where he remained as a minister till his 
 death. He was with Cromwell at his death. 
 
 Goodyear, Charies (fi. 1800, d. 1860), 
 American mechanic; invented vulcanised 
 indiarubber about 1839 ; after several minor 
 discoveries, took out in all sixty patents for
 
 Goo 
 
 (383) 
 
 Gor 
 
 mventions of this nature, aud obtained in 
 1851 the Great Council medal at the Inter- 
 national Exhibition, and the grand medal 
 of the Paris Exhibition, as well as the 
 ribbon of the Legion of Honour. He re- 
 turned to America in 1858, and was at the 
 time of his death preparing a book upon 
 indiarubber and vulcanisation. 
 
 Googe, Barnaby {d. 1538), English poet 
 and translator, author of liyloys. Epitaphs 
 and Sonnetics (1563), and translator of the 
 Zodiac of Life, Aristotle's table of the Ten 
 Categories, and other works. He was a 
 relation of Cecil, and gentleman-pensioner 
 to Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Gool, Jan van (6. 1685, d. 1763), Dutch 
 landscape-painter, and author of the New 
 
 Theatre of Latch Fainters (1750-1). 
 
 Gordianusl. {h. 157, d. 238), Roman Em- 
 peror; succeeded Maximinus in 238, but was 
 killed in battle with Capellianus the same 
 year, together with his son. 
 
 Gordianus II. {d. 244), Roman emperor ; 
 proclaimed in 238 ; made war on Persia, and 
 was slain by his colleague, Philip the 
 Arabian. 
 
 Gordius, a Phrygian labourer, who, when 
 elected king, placed in the temple of 
 Jupiter his chariot, fastened by a yoke which 
 no one could undo. This " Gordian knot " 
 was said to have been cut by Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 Gordon, Adam Lindsay (6. 1833. d. 1870), 
 Australian poet ; son of an English officer ; 
 was educated at Cheltenham, but early emi- 
 grated to South Australia, where he tried 
 sheep-farming, and, after many adventures, 
 put an end to his life. His poems include 
 Bush Ballads, Sea Spray and Snow Brift, and 
 Ashtaroth (a dramatic lyric). 
 
 Gordon, Andrew (6. 1712, d. 1751), Scottish 
 physicist, who first used a cylinder in the 
 electric machine, and was author of Phoeno- 
 mena Electricitatis (1744). 
 
 Gordon, Sir Arthur Hamilton {b. 1817, 
 d. 1890), English colonial administrator; 
 youngest son of the Earl of Aberdeen, 
 to whom he was for some years private 
 secretary, was elected for Beverley in 1854, 
 and sat till 1857, and, after an imsuccessful 
 candidature for Liskeard. was in 1858 secre- 
 tary to Ionian Islands Mission. In 1861 he 
 was named governor of New Brunswick, 
 in 1866 of Trinidad, and in 1870 of the 
 Mauritius. In 1874 he became governor of 
 the Fiji Islands, and was also from 1877 to 
 1880 high commissioner for the Western 
 Pacific He was governor of New Zealand, 
 1880-1883, and after that of Ceylon. 
 
 Gordon. Charles George (*. 1833, d. 1886), 
 
 " Chinese Gordon; " English officer and phi- 
 lanthropist ; entered the Royal Military Col- 
 lege, Woolwich, in 1848. and obtained a 
 commission in the Engineers in 1852. After 
 two years at Chatham, and a short time at 
 Pembroke, he was sent to the Crimea, and 
 was present at the capture of Kiuburn. 
 During the years 1857-8 he was assistant- 
 commissioner at Galatz, and boundary 
 commissioner in America, After a short 
 time spent at Chatham he went in 1860 to 
 China, where he remained for several years ; 
 constructed the Taku forts, made an expedi- 
 tion to the Great Wall, but especially dis- 
 tinguislied himself as head of the force by 
 which the Tai-ping rebellion was crushed. 
 Declining the honoui-s oifered by the em- 
 peror, Gordon returned to England, and 
 obtained an ai>pointment at Gravesend. In 
 1871 he again went as conmiissioner to 
 Galatz, aud in 1874 went for the first time 
 to the Soudan, where, as governor for the 
 Khedive, he suppressed the slave trade. 
 In 1876 he resigned, but next year was in- 
 duced to return, and in the course of three 
 years completed the work he had begun in 
 1874. In 1880 he was appointed secretary 
 to Lord Ripon, Governor- General of India, 
 but immediately resigned, and went to 
 China, where he was able to prevent a 
 threatened war with Russia. On his return 
 he visited the west of Ireland, from whence 
 he went to the Mauritius, and in 1882 to 
 the Cape as commander-in-chief. In the 
 previous year he had attained the rank of 
 major-general in the British army. During 
 1883 he Hved in Palestine, and as the result 
 wrote liejlections in Palestine. Next year 
 he was about to go to the Congo as adminis- 
 trator for the king of the Belgians, when 
 he was called upon by the English Govern- 
 ment to proceed as British envoy to the 
 Soudan, being also nominated governor- 
 general by the Khedive. He was not sup- 
 ported by the home Government in his 
 efforts to rescue the besieged garrisons, and 
 was himself at last shut up m Khartoum, 
 where an expedition sent out to relieve him 
 arrived too late to prevent his death. 
 
 Gordon, Lord George (I). 1751, d. 1793), 
 EuKlish fanatic ; was active as a member of 
 Parliament and of the Protestant Associa- 
 tion in resistance to proposals of relieving 
 Catholic disabilities, and in 1780 headed the 
 riots in London, when he marched to the 
 Houses of Parliament at the head of a "No 
 Popery " mob. He was tried for high trea- 
 son, but acquitted. He died in prison for 
 libellous offences, having before his death 
 adopted Judaism. 
 
 Gordon, Sir John Watson (6. 1790, d. 
 1864), Scotch portrait -painter, a fellow 
 pupil with Wilkie at the Academy of the 
 Trustees for the Encouragement of Manu- 
 factures, and lived at Edinburgh all his life.
 
 Gor 
 
 (384) 
 
 Gor 
 
 In 1SJ7 his first i^ioture was exhibited at 
 the Scottish Academy, of wliich he became 
 president in I80O. lu 1841 he was elected 
 A.E.A., aud iu 1851 K.A. Among his por- 
 traits are those of Sir Walter Scott, the Earl 
 of Aberdeen, and Lord Cockburn. 
 
 Gordon, Lucie Lady Duff {b. 1821, d. 
 1869), English translator, daughter of John 
 Austin; went to Germany iu 1826, aud 
 formed a friendship with Heine, aud married 
 Sir- A. Durt" Gordon iu 1840. Iu 1839 she 
 translated Niebuhr's Greek Legends, in 
 1S44 Meiuhold's Amber Witch, aud iu 1849 
 Rauke's Hifitory of Brandenburg. She visited 
 the Cape for her health, and while there 
 wrote Letters from the Cnpe (1861-2) ; aud 
 in I86.3 went to Egypt. She also translated 
 Remarkable CrimnuU Trials from the Ger- 
 man, Stella and Vanessa, and other works. 
 
 Gordon, Patrick {b. 1635, d. 1699), Scots- 
 man, who was general in the Russian ser- 
 vice, and a friend aud adviser of Peter the 
 Great. 
 
 Gordon, Thomas {d. 1750), British writer; 
 employed by Walpole, published a transla- 
 tion of Tacitus, aud was author of Pillars of 
 Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Unshaken (1768). 
 
 Gordon, William {h. 1729, d. 1807), Ameri- 
 can historian ; went to America iu 1772 as a 
 supporter of the colonists, and produced in 
 1788 a History of the Independence of the 
 United States. 
 
 Gore, Catherine {b. 1800, d. 1861), English 
 novel writer, wife of Captain Gore. Among 
 her many novels the best known are Theresa 
 Marchniont and Mothers and Daughters 
 (1831). 
 
 Gbrgei, Arthur {b. 1818), Hungarian 
 general, studied chemistry at Prague, aud 
 wrote a work on acids ; joined Kossuth in 
 1848, and performed many brilliant ex- 
 ploits, but professed allegiance to Austria 
 at Waitzeu, aud was for a time deprived of 
 his command. On being restored he won 
 many brilUant victories for the Hungarian 
 cause, aud became minister of war. He was 
 again, however, deprived by Kossuth for 
 neglectiug to seize Vienna, but again re- 
 placed by the wishes of his soldiers. On 
 August 13th, 1849, however, he surrendered 
 to the Russians at Valagos. He was par- 
 doned by the Austriaus, and afterwards 
 employed iu engineering work. In 1852 
 appeared Mein Lnben mid Wirken in Ungarn 
 in den Jahren lS4S-9—a, defence of his 
 conduct— which was translated in 1858. 
 
 Gorgias of Leontini (6. 485 B.C., d. 380 
 B.C.!, .Sicilian philosopher and statesman, 
 ha%-Lug gone on a mission to Athens, settled 
 there, aud devoted himself to study. Hia 
 chief work is a philosophical treatise Of the 
 
 Non-being, or of Nature, aud several of hia 
 orations are extant. 
 
 Gori, Antonio (6. 1691, d. \lbl), Italian 
 archaeologist ; author of Inscriptiones An- 
 tiques, aud Museum Florentinum. 
 
 Goring, Lord George {d. 1657), English 
 Royalist commander iu the Great Rebellion ; 
 surrendered Portsmouth, and was defeated 
 in several engagements, after which he 
 became a Dominican friar in Spain. 
 
 Gorm {d. circa 941), King of Denmark, 
 aud a notable pirate. 
 
 Gorrie, Sir John (fi. 1824). English colonial 
 administrator; born at Kettle, Fifeshire; 
 the son of a Presbyteriau minister; edu- 
 cated at Edinburgh aud St. Andrew's ; was 
 called to the Scottish bar in 1856. He was 
 prominent iu his advocacy of the volunteer 
 movement, raising two artisan companies 
 in Edinburgh. Iu 1860 he went to America, 
 and, as a writer ou the Morning Star, sup- 
 ported the northern states. After some 
 mouths iu Jamaica, he came to London in 
 1868, with the view of entering Parliament 
 for the Border burghs, but withdrew iu 
 favour of Mr. Trevelyau. In 1869 he went to 
 the Mauritius as substitut procureur-geueral ; 
 shortly after became puisne j udge aud effected 
 several reforms. In 1876 he became chief 
 justice of the Fiji Islands, aud after- 
 wards high commissioner. In 1882 he was 
 knighted, and soon after transferred to the 
 Leeward Islands, where he carried out 
 several reforms in the interests of the in- 
 habitants, especially the Indefeasible Titles 
 ordinance. In 1885 he was removed to 
 Trinidad, where his administration was 
 popular and successful. 
 
 Gorsas, Antoine Joseph {b. 1751, d. 1793), 
 French revolutionary journalist. After 
 having been impi'isoned for his satirical 
 verses, he established the Courrier de Ver- 
 sailles in 1789, and attacked the court; 
 became a member of the National Con- 
 vention in 1792, but, having become too 
 moderate in his views, was obliged to fly to 
 Brittany, and on his return was tried by 
 the revolutionary tribunal and guillotined. 
 
 Gorst, Sir John Eldon {b. 1835), Enghsh 
 statesman ; son of Mr. E. C. Loundes, 
 who assumed the name of Gorst ; was 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 of which he was for some time fellow, 
 having been third wrangler in 1857. From 
 1861 to 1863 he was civil commissioner of 
 Waikato, New Zealand, and iu 1865 was 
 called to the English bar, becoming Queen's 
 Counsel iu 1875. From 1866 to 1868 he was 
 Conservative member of Parliament for 
 Cambridge, aud iu 1875 was returned for 
 Chatham. In the Parliament of 1880 he 
 was a member of the "Fourth party,"
 
 Gor 
 
 (385) 
 
 Gos 
 
 and, on the return of the Conservatives to 
 office, became Solicitor-General. In the 
 Unionist Government he was appointed 
 under-secretary for India. 
 
 Gortschakoff, Prince Alexander Michaelo- 
 vitch {b. 1798, d. 1883), Eussian statesman ; 
 entered the diplomatic service, and was in 
 1824 attache in London, from whence he went 
 as Russian minister to Stuttgardt, after hav- 
 ing negotiate 1 the marriage of the Crown 
 Prince of Wurtemberg with the Grand- 
 Duchess Olga. In 1850 he went to Frankfort 
 as minister to the German Confederation, 
 and formed an acquaintance with Bismarck. 
 After being minister at Vienna during the 
 Crimean war, and attending the Paris con- 
 ference, he was appointed, in 1856, secretary 
 for foreign affairs, and, some years later, 
 chancellor. His policy was, on the whole, 
 pacific, but he set himself gradually to 
 undo the treaty of 1856, in so far as it 
 affected Russian interests. Thus, in return 
 for his moral support of Prussia in 1870 
 he obtained her approval in the abrogation 
 of the Black Sea neutrality clause. As the 
 result of the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 
 he also regained for Russia the mouths of 
 the Danube. Gortschakoff's Asian policy, 
 actuated by dislike to England, probably 
 had much to do with the second Afghan 
 war. In 1879 he went to Berlin with the 
 object of improving the relations between 
 Russia and Germany, and in the following 
 year gave up office and retired to Baden- 
 Baden. 
 
 GortBchakofr, Prince Michael {b. 1795, d. 
 1861), Russian soldier; cousin of the last- 
 named ; served in the Turkish war of 
 1828-9, and composed a war-song on the 
 passage of the Danube: commanded the 
 artillery in the Polish insurrection of 1830 ; 
 took part in the Hungarian campaign of 
 1848. and distinguished himself in the 
 Crimean war by his skilful retreat from 
 Sebastopol. He was for the rest of his 
 life governor of Poland, and lived to see 
 the beginning of the last great insurrec- 
 tionary movement. 
 
 Goschen, George Joachim {b. 1831), Eng- 
 lish statesman of German Jewish extrac- 
 tion, bom in London ; educated at Rugby 
 and Oriel College, Oxford; was engaged in 
 banking as a partner in the firm of Friihling 
 and Goschen till 1865. He entered Par- 
 liament as Liberal member for the City 
 of London in 1863, and represented it till 
 1880. In 1866 he became chancellor of the 
 duchy of Lancaster and a cabinet minister, 
 having previously been vice-president of 
 the Board of Trade. In Mr. Gladstone's 
 first ministry he was president of the Poor- 
 Law Board, and afterwards First Lord of 
 * the Admiralty. In 1876 he accompanied 
 M. Joubert on a mission to Egypt with the 
 
 view of restoring the finances. In 1880 he 
 was returned for Ripon, but, owing to his 
 views on reform, was unable to take 
 office, and went as ambassador to the Porte, 
 when he compelled the Turks to carry out 
 those provisions of the Berlin treaty which 
 related to Greece. On his return to 
 England he took up in Parliament an inde- 
 pendent attitude, becoming gradually, how- 
 ever, more and more alienated from his 
 party. In 1885 he was returned for Edin- 
 burgh, but was rejected when, at the 
 next election, he opposed Mr. Gladstone's 
 Home Rule policy. In 1887 he joined 
 Lord Salisbury's Government as Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer, becoming member for 
 St. George's, Hanover Square. In 1888 he 
 carried out a scheme for the reduction of 
 the interest on the national debt. His 
 treatise on the Theory of Foreign Exchanges 
 was translated into French by M. Leon Say. 
 
 Goselini, Giuliano {b. 1525, d. 1587), 
 Italian poet ; author of Rime, published in 
 1572. 
 
 GoslicM, Laurence {b. 1535, d. 1607), 
 Polish orator; author of Be Optimo Sena- 
 tore (1568). 
 
 Goss, Sir John (b. 1800, d. 1880), English 
 organist and composer ; studied under 
 Attwood, whom he succeeded as organist 
 of St. Paul's in 1838, retiring in 1872 with 
 the honour of knighthood. He composed 
 several chants and anthems for special 
 occasions, notably. If ice Believe (for the 
 funeral of the Duke of Wellington), The 
 lord is my Strength (for the thanksgiving 
 service in 1872 on the recovery of the Prince 
 of Wales), and Praise the Lord. He was 
 also author of an Introduction to Harmony 
 and Thorough Bass. 
 
 Gosse, Philip Henry {b. 1810, d. 1888), 
 English naturalist ; was at first a merchant's 
 clerk, but, when he was sent to Newfound- 
 land and Canada, he devoted much attention 
 to entomology. The results of his visit to 
 these countries and to Jamaica and the 
 southern states of the Union were large 
 natural history collections and several 
 books, written between 1839 and 1850. The 
 chief of these were The Canadian Naturalist, 
 Letters from Alabama, and The Birds of 
 Jamaica. In 1856 he was elected F.R.S., 
 and contributed many papers to the society's 
 Catalogue of Scientific Papers. His son, 
 Edmund {b. 1849), critic, was Clark lecturer 
 in English literature at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, from 1884 to 1889. 
 
 Gossec, FranQois {b. 1733, d. l830), Bel- 
 gian musician ; published Symphonies in 
 1754, and composed much church music. 
 
 Goaselin, Pascal Fraucvois (b. 1751, d. 
 1830), French geographer and traveller;
 
 Got 
 
 (386) 
 
 Gon 
 
 made extensive researches throughout 
 Evirope, and wrote Geographie des Grecs 
 Analysee (1790). 
 
 Got, FraiK^ois Jules (b. 1822), French 
 actor : studied at the Conservatoire and 
 gained the first prize for comedy in 1843. 
 He first appeared at the Comedie Franc^aise 
 in 1844, and became sucietaire in 1850. One 
 of his best parts was Sganarelle, but he 
 played most frequently in modem comedies, 
 especially those of Augier, his creation of 
 " Giboyer " in Les Fils de Gihoyer having 
 been especially remarkable and popular. 
 
 Gotschallr, or Gotteschalchus (i. 806, d. 
 867), German heretic ; publicly flogged and 
 imprisoned by order of Hinemar, Arch- 
 bishop of Rheims for his predestinarian 
 views, and refused the last sacraments and 
 Christian burial. 
 
 Gottfried von Strasburg (r2th and 13th 
 centuries), German minnesinger; author of 
 Freidanks Bescheidenheit and Tristan und 
 Isolde. 
 
 Gottsched, Johann Christoph {b. 1700, d. 
 1766), German writer and critic ; professor 
 of philosophy and poetry at Leipzig ; did 
 much to reform the corrupt state of taste 
 in his day. His wife, Luise {d. 1762), co- 
 operated with him, and wrote some dramatic 
 pieces. 
 
 Goudinel, Claude (d. 1572), French com- 
 poser ; teacher of Palestrina at Rome ; 
 perished in the massacre of Huguenots at 
 Lyons in 1572. 
 
 Gouges, Marie Olympe de (b. 1755, d. 
 1793), French writer; supposed to have 
 been a daughter of Louis XV. ; was at 
 first a favourer of the revolution, but 
 afterwards defended the king and was 
 guillotined. 
 
 Gough, Sir Charles John Stanley 
 K.C.B., V.C. • entered the army in 1848 
 served in the Punjaub campaign of 1848-9 
 in the Indian Mutiny, being at the cap- 
 ture of Delhi, and gained the Victoria 
 Cross at the siege of Lucknow, where he 
 saved his brother's life ; in the Bhotan ex- 
 pedition of 1864-5, and in the Afghan war 
 of 1878-80, being three times mentioned 
 in despatches. He became major-general 
 in 1885, and lieutenant-general in 1889. 
 
 Gough, Hugh, Viscount (b. 1779, d. 1869), 
 British commander ; bom near Limerick ; 
 entered the army in 1794; after serving at 
 the Cape and the West Indies, went in 1809 
 to Portugal; distinguished himself and 
 gained a step at Talavera, and after the 
 Peninsular war held a command ia Ireland. 
 In 1837 Major-General Gough was sent to 
 India to command in Mysore, and next 
 year commanded the British troops in China. 
 
 His successful conduct of the war was 
 rewarded with a baronetcy, and he now 
 became commander-in-chief in India. In 
 that capacity he conducted the Mahratta 
 war of 1843, and the Sikh wars of 1845 and 
 1848, winning the battles of Moodkee and 
 Sobraon in the first, and of Chillianwallah 
 and Goojerat in the second. On his return 
 to England he was created viscount, an<? 
 received a pension. He became Privy Coun 
 cillor in 18.59, and field-marshal in 1862. 
 
 Gough, Sir Hugh Henry, Major-general, 
 V.C, K.C.B., entered the army iu 1853; 
 served in the Indian mutiny, being wounded 
 at the siege of Delhi and at Lucknow ; 
 gained the Victoria Cross in 1857, when, ia 
 command of Hodson's Horse, he charged 
 across a swamp and captured two guns in 
 the face of a suj)erior force. He also served 
 iu the Abyssinian war and the Afghan war, 
 being with Sir F. Roberts in the march to 
 Candahar. 
 
 Gough, John Bartholomew (b. 1817, d. 
 1886), temperance orator ; was born in Kent, 
 but iu 1829 emigrated to America. After a 
 life of intemperance, he, in 1842, became a 
 total abstainer, and from that time devoted 
 himself to the temperance cause as an 
 orator, visiting England several times, and 
 carrying on his campaign also iu the States 
 and the colonies. His Atitobiography was 
 published in 1879, and further personal 
 sketches called Sunlight and Shadoio in 
 1881, and an edition of his speeches was also 
 brought out. 
 
 Gough, Richard (6. 1735. d. 1809), English 
 antiquary ; made extensive researches ; 
 edited and translated Camden's Britannia, 
 and was also author of The Sepulchral 
 Monuments of Great Britain, and the His- 
 tory of the Society of Antiqiuiries of London. 
 He presented his valuable collection of 
 books, manuscripts, and prints to the 
 Bodleian library. 
 
 Goujon, Jean, French sculptor and archi- 
 tect of the 16th century ; executed some of 
 the Louvre sculptures, and the Fountain of 
 the Innocents. He may have been one of the 
 Huguenot victims of St. Bartholomew, 1572. 
 
 Goujon, Jean Marie Claude (6. 1766, d. 
 1795), French revolutionary minister of the 
 interior for a few days in 1794, and an 
 extreme Montagnard ; committed suicide in 
 1795 to avoid execution. 
 
 Goulard, Thomas id. circa 1784), French 
 surgeon; inventor of Goulard's "water," 
 and author of Traite des Preparations de 
 Plomb. 
 
 Goulbum, Edward Meyrick, D.D. (*. 
 1818), English divine ; educated at Eton and 
 BalUol, became fellow of Merton in 1841.
 
 Gou 
 
 (387) 
 
 Gon 
 
 From 1850 to 1858 he was head-master of 
 Eugby, and in 1859 chaplain to the Queen. 
 After holding several London benefices, he 
 became Dean of Norwich ia 1866, but 
 resigned iu 1888. He was a great opponent 
 of Dean Stanley, and was author of several 
 religious works, the chief of which, Thoughts 
 on Personal Meliglon, went through fifty 
 editions. 
 
 Goulbum, Henry (b. 1784, d. 1856), 
 English statesman ; was educated at Cam- 
 bridge, and entered Parliament as a 
 Tory in 1807. In 1810 he was appointed 
 under-secretary for Home aiiairs, and from 
 1812 to 1821 was under-secretary for the 
 colonies. He then became Chief Secretary 
 for Ireland, which office he held until, in 
 1828, made Chancellor of the Exchequer by 
 the Duke of Wellington. In 1831 he was 
 one of the successful opponents of Lord 
 Palmerston for Cambridge University. In 
 the Peel ministry of 1834 he vs-as Home 
 Secretary, and again in 1841, holding oifice 
 till 1846, after which he retired with Sir E. 
 Peel, and was never again in office. He 
 was a zealous Free-Trader and financial 
 reformer. 
 
 Gould, Benjamin Apthorp (5. 1824), Ameri- 
 can astronomer ; graduated at Harvard in 
 1844, and, after a year's school-teaching, 
 went to Europe and studied astronomy under 
 Gauss at Gottingen, taking the degree of 
 Ph.D. in 1848. before returning to America 
 he studied under Cerago at Paris, and met 
 Alexander von Humboldt and other men of 
 science. In 1851 he had charge of the 
 longitude operations of the coast survey, 
 and was one of the first to apply the tele- 
 graph for determination of longitudinal 
 difEerences. He was director of the Dudley 
 observatory from 1856 to 1859, where the 
 normal clock was first used to give time 
 telegraphically. In 1868 he was appointed 
 to organise the national observatory of the 
 Argentine republic, when he composed his 
 Uranotnetry of the Southern Heavens. Dr. 
 Gould also organised a national meteoro- 
 logical office, with stations from the tropics 
 to Tierra del Fuego, and from the Andes to 
 the Atlantic. BSs publications include a 
 Report on the Discovery of the Planet Nep- 
 tune (1850), and Investigations in the Mili- 
 tary and Anthropological Statistics of Ameri- 
 can Soldiers (1869). 
 
 Gould, John (6. 1804, d. 1881), English or- 
 nithologist ; son of a head-gardener at 
 Windsor ; was for some time employed in 
 the gardens of Ripley Castle, Yorkshire. 
 In 1827 he was appointed curator of the 
 Zoological Society's museum. Between 
 1832 and 1837 he brought out The Birds of 
 Europe, in five volumes, issuing simul- 
 taneously Tnonographs on separate groups. 
 In 1838 he went to Australia, which, as well 
 z 2 
 
 as Tasmania, he thoroughly explored, and 
 published as the result The Birds of Aus- 
 tralia (1840-8). At the exhibition of 1851 
 he showed a fine collection of humming- 
 birds, and, besides several monographs, was 
 author of The Birds of Great Britain, The 
 Birds of Xew Guinea, ai^d.t\x& Birds of Asia, 
 the last unfinished. 
 
 Goulston, or GiUston, Theodore {d. 1632), 
 English physician ; founder of the Gul- 
 stouian lecture, and author of Comments on 
 Galin, published in 1640. 
 
 Gounod, Charles Francois (6. 1818), French 
 composer; bom in Pans, and educated at 
 the Conservatoire under Halevy and Zim- 
 mermann, whose daughter he married ia. 
 1847. In 1839 he gained the prize for com- 
 position, and, after visiting Rome and 
 Vienna, became an organist in Paris, where, 
 in 1849, a high mass by him attracted 
 attention. Sappho, his first opera, was 
 produced in 1851, and the composer was 
 soon after appointed director of the Orpheon. 
 After some minor works, Faust appeared in 
 1859, being brought out at the Theatre 
 Lyrique. Jlireile followed in 1864, and 
 Romeo et Juliette in 1867. In 1870 Gounod 
 visited England and gave concerts at the 
 Albert Hall. Of his later works the chief 
 are Jeanne d''Arc (1873), The Redemption, 
 produced at Birmingham under his own 
 direction in 1882, and Mors et Vita, 
 
 Gourgaud, Gaspard, Baron (6. 1783, d. 
 1852), distinguished French general : served 
 throughout the campaigns of Napoleon I., 
 and was with him for some time at St. 
 Helena. On his return he published 
 Memoir es de Napoleon, and was one of 
 those who brought back the remains of the 
 emperor to Paris in 1840. In 1825 he 
 became involved in a duel with Segur, 
 arising out of a reply he had written to the 
 latter' s Histoire de la Grande Armee. He 
 also had a controversy with Sir Walter 
 Scott. 
 
 Gourgues, Dominique de (<i. 1593), French 
 sailor ; went to Florida to revenge the 
 murder of the French there ; defeated the 
 Spaniards and hanged his prisoners, but 
 was proscribed on his return. He was in 
 1593 offered a command by Elizabeth, but 
 died on his way to London. 
 
 Gourko, Nicholas, Count (fi. 1828), Rus- 
 sian general of Polish descent ; entered the 
 imperial body-guard in 1846 ; took part in 
 the Crimean war; became major-general 
 in 1867, 'and greatly distinguished himself 
 in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8. He 
 took Timova and crossed the Balkans, and 
 defended himself in the Shipka Pass against 
 a greatly superior number of TuiV's. He 
 commanded the cavalry at the siege of 
 Plevna, and defeated the relieving force of
 
 Gou 
 
 (388) 
 
 Gra 
 
 Mehemet AIL After the fall of the town 
 he again crossed the Balkans, and carried 
 out the concluding operations of the war. 
 He wa3 created count for his services, and 
 appointed governor of Poland. 
 
 Gourmont, Gilles de (d. etna 1733), 
 French printer ; was the first to employ 
 Greek and Hebrew tj-pes. 
 
 Goumay, Marie de Jars de (b. 1566, d. 
 1645), French poetess; wrote verses and some 
 prose works, including Egalite des Uommes 
 et des Femmes and Le Grief des Lames. 
 
 Gourville, Le Sieur Heraultde {b. 1625, d. 
 1703), French financier and diplomatist; 
 employed by Mazarin ; his Memoires were 
 published in 1724. 
 
 Gouvea, Antonio da (d. 1628), Portuguese 
 traveller ; an Augustinian monk ; went as a 
 teacher to Goa, and from thence as am- 
 bassador to Persia, where he acted as papal 
 nuncio, and was imprisoned ; was captured 
 by Barbary pirates on his return to Eiurope, 
 and released after two years' captivity; 
 brought out a Book of Travels in 1611. 
 
 Gouvion Saint Cyr, Laurent {b. 1764, d. 
 1830), French marshal, originally an actor; 
 rose to distinction in the early revolu- 
 tionary wars, and in 1798 was given the 
 command of the army sent against Rome ; 
 distinguished himself against Suvarov and 
 Wittgenstein, became one of Bonaparte's 
 marshals, and was taken prisoner at Leipzig 
 (1813) ; was appointed minister of war by 
 Louis XVIII. , and introduced many reforms 
 in the army ; published his Memoires between 
 1821 and 1831. 
 
 Gow, Andrew Carrick {b. 1848), English 
 paiuter ; was in 1868 elected member of the 
 Institute, in 1881 A.R.A., and R.A. in 1891. 
 Among his best pictures are Introduction of 
 Ladr/ Mary Wortleij to the Kit-Cat Club 
 (1873), The Relief of Let/den (1876), The 
 TSimult in the House of Commons, 1640 
 (1877), No Surrender (1878), Bothwell (1884), 
 Cromwell at Dunbar (1886). 
 
 Gow, Neil {b. 1727, d. 1807), Scotch violin 
 player and composer. 
 
 Gow, Nathaniel (b. 1766, d. 1831), son of 
 the above, violin player and composer of 
 Scotch airs and songs, including Caller 
 
 Serring. 
 
 Gower, John {d. 1408), English poet; 
 friend of Chaucer, who calls hira "Moral 
 Gower ; " graduated at Oxford, and studied 
 law at the Inner Temple, but was of inde- 
 pendent means. His chief work is in three 
 parts in Latin — Speculum Meditantis, Vox 
 Clamantis, and Confessio Amantis. 
 
 Gowers, William Richard, M.D. {b. 1845), 
 
 English physician and medical writer; in 
 1873 was appointed assistant -physician at 
 University College Hospital, and afterwards 
 became physician to that institution and to 
 the National Hospital for the Paralysed and 
 Epileptic, and professor of clinical medicine. 
 He was elected F.R.C.P. in 1879, and F.R.S. 
 in 1887. His chief works are Manual and 
 Atlas of Medical Ophthalmoscopy, Diagnosis 
 of Diseases of the Spinal Cord, and Manual 
 of Diseases of the Nervous System. 
 
 Gowing, Emilia Aylmer, nee Blake (6. 
 1846), English novelist and verse writer ; 
 author of Leon de Beaumanoir, the 
 dramas A Life Race and A Groivn of Life, 
 The Jewel Reputation and An Unruly Spirit 
 (novels). Ballads and Poems and The Cithern. 
 In her youth she gave French recitations, 
 and she married, in 1877, Mr. William Gow- 
 ing (" Walter Gordon "). 
 
 Gowrie, William Ruthven, Earl of {d. 
 1584), Scotch Protestant noble, who, as one 
 of the murderers of Rizzio, incirrred the 
 enmity of Mary Stewart, and was executed 
 for his share in the Raid of Ruthven, a 
 plot to take the young James out of the 
 possession of the Catholic faction. 
 
 Gowrie, John, Earl of {d. 1600), son of 
 last-named; engaged with his brother, 
 Alexander, in a plot to assassinate Jamea 
 VI., but was killed, and the plot frustrated, 
 
 Gozzi, Count Carlo (*. 1722, d. 1806), 
 Venetian dramatist, whose chief works were 
 Donna Serpente, Maestro Turchino, and Tu- 
 randot, or The Princess of China, the last of 
 which was translated by Schiller. Gozzi' 3 
 AiUobiography was also translated by Paul 
 de Musset in 1848. 
 
 Gozzi, Count Gasparo (1713, d. 1786), 
 Venetian Utteratexir ; reformed the uni- 
 versity of Padua after the suppression of 
 the Jesuits ; conducted the Osservatore and 
 the Mondo Morale, and also wrote Sermoni 
 and Defi'SfM di Dante. 
 
 Gracchus, Tiberius Semprouius {d. 212 
 B.C.), Roman general; commanded against 
 Hannibal, and defeated Hanno, but was 
 himself soon after made prisoner and 
 killed. 
 
 Gracclius, Tiberius Semprouius {d. 133 
 B.C.), Roman tribune; nephew of Scipio 
 Africanus ; became quasstor in 137 ; when 
 tribune carried his agrarian law, but was 
 soon after killed in a tumult raised by Scipio 
 Nasica, one of his aristocratic opponents. 
 
 Gracclius, Caius Sempronius (b. 154 B.C., 
 d. 121 B.C.), Roman tribune ; brother of last- 
 named ; renewed his brother's agrarian law, 
 and was more extreme in his measures ; 
 was twice tribune ; ultimately proscribed, 
 and slain with three thousand of his friends,
 
 Gra 
 
 ( 389) 
 
 Gra 
 
 his colleague, Drusus, having secretly ex- 
 cited the people against him. 
 
 Grace, William Gilhert {b. 1848), physician 
 and cricketer, whose achievements extend 
 over nearly thirty years. In July, 1879, he 
 received a testimonial from all classes of 
 players, and has since been known as the 
 "Champion." He has visited Australia 
 more than once, and has achieved greater 
 success as a hat and all round player than 
 any other cricketer. 
 
 Gradenigo, Pietro {b. 1249, d. 1311), Doge 
 of Venice ; carried on an imsuccessf ul war 
 against Genoa ; founded the " Libro d'Oro," 
 from the names iuscribed in which members 
 of the Grand Council were alone to he 
 chosen ; was excommunicated by the Pope 
 in 1309, and founded the CouncU of Ten in 
 1310. 
 
 Grafton, Augustus Fitzroy, Duke of (5. 
 1736, d. 1811), Enghsh statesman ; descended 
 from Charles 11. ; was Secretary of State in 
 Buckingham's first ministry (1765-6), and 
 nominal head of Chatham's administra- 
 tion from 1767 to 1770, during which he 
 Fas assailed by "Junius" with great 
 ferocity. 
 
 Grafton, Richard (16th century), English 
 printer ; was imprisoned under Henry VIII. 
 for printing without permission Matthews' 
 Bible and The Great Bible; also printed 
 Abridgment of the Chronicles of England, 
 and continued Hall. 
 
 Graham, George (b. 1675, d. 1751), English 
 astronomical mechanician ; superintended 
 and divided with his own hands the great 
 mural arch in the Greenwich Observatory; 
 made Dr. Bradley's sector, and the first 
 orrery for the Earl of Orrery, and made 
 several improvements in time-pieces. 
 
 Graham, Sir Gerald, Lieutenant-General, 
 V.C.,K.C.B., etc. (6. 1831), English soldier; 
 entered Woolwich in 1847, and received a 
 commission in the Royal Engineers in 1850, 
 becoming Heutenant- colonel in 1861, major- 
 general m 1881, and lieutenant-general in 
 1884. He served throughout the Crimean 
 campaign, gaining the Victoria Cross, the 
 third class Medjidieh, the Cross of the Le- 
 gion of Honour, and being twice mentioned 
 in despatches. He was woimded in 1860 in 
 China at the Taku forts. In the Egyptian 
 campaign of 1882 he commanded a division, 
 and received the thanks of Parliament. In 
 1884 he commanded the Tokar relief expe- 
 dition, and won the battle of Tamai, and 
 in 1885 the force sent to Suakim to open up 
 the road to Berber and lay down a railway. 
 In January, 1886, he wrote Last Words with 
 Gordon for the lortnightlg Rtview. 
 
 Graham, Sir James {b. 1792, d. 1861), 
 
 English statesman ; was Whig member for 
 Hull from 1818 to 1820. In 1825 he was 
 returned for Carlisle, and in 1830 for Cum- 
 berland, and was First Lord of the 
 Admiralty for a short time in the first 
 Reform ministry. He, however, resigned 
 in 1832 on the Irish Church question, and 
 gradually changed his views. In 1838 he ' 
 was Home Secretary under Sir R. Peel, and 
 in that capacity caused some of Mazzini's 
 letters to be opened. He was First Lord of 
 the Admiralty in the Aberdeen ministry, 
 and also imder Lord Palmerston, but re- 
 signed with Mr. Gladstone and others on 
 the appointment of the Crimean Inquiry 
 Commission. After this he took little part 
 in public affairs. 
 
 Graham, Thomas. [See Lynedoch, Lord.] 
 
 Graham, Thomas (*. 1805, d. 1869), 
 English chemist ; was professor of chemistry 
 at the Andersonian university 1830-7, and 
 for his discovery of the law of the diffusion 
 of gases gained the Keith prize at the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, and was elected 
 F.R.S. In 1837 he became professor at 
 London University ; was first president of 
 the Chemical Society and the Cavendish 
 Society, of the first of which he was the 
 chief founder, and gained the gold medal of 
 the Royal Society for his discoveries as to the 
 constitution of salts and phosphoric acid. 
 In 1855 he was made master of the Mint. 
 He was author of Elements of Chemistry 
 (1842), and Outlines of Botany (1841), 
 besides some works privately printed. 
 
 Graham of Claverhouse, John [b. 1643, d. 
 1689), Scotch soldier ; after some service in 
 the French and Dutch armies, was employed 
 against the Covenanters in Scotland, by 
 whom he was defeated at Drumclog in 1679 ; 
 was loyal to James II., who created him 
 Viscount Dundee. He was killed at 
 Killiecrankie. 
 
 Grahame, James {b. 1765, d. 1811), Scot- 
 tish poet ; at first a barrister, and afterwards 
 Episcopal clergyman. His chief work is 
 The Sabbath (1804). 
 
 GraiUy, Captal de Buch {d. 1377), French 
 soldier, who fought for Edward III. ; was 
 made prisoner by Du Gueselin in^ 1364 ; 
 became constable of Aquitaine in 1371, but 
 was again made prisoner by the French. 
 
 Grainger, James (<f. 1767), Scottish poet ; 
 author of The Sugar Cane (1764). 
 
 Gramaye, Jean BaptLste {d. 1635), Belgian 
 traveller and antiquary ; author of Asia 
 (1591), Historia Brabantica (1606), and 
 Africa Illustrata (1622). 
 
 Gramont, or Grammont, Antoine, Due de 
 {b. 1604, d. 167N), French soldier and 
 diplomatist ; marechal de France ; serve d in
 
 Gra 
 
 (390 ) 
 
 Gra 
 
 Germauy, Italy, and the Law Coimtries. 
 His Mimoires were published in 1716. 
 
 Gramont, Philibert, Comte de (J>. 1621, d. 
 1707), French soldier and courtier; served 
 in the wars of Louis XTV., and lived at 
 the English court from 1662 to 1669. His 
 Memoirs were written by Anthony 
 Hamilton. 
 
 Granby, John Manners, Marquis of {b. 
 1721, d. 1770), English general; served in 
 Grermany, and distinguished himself at 
 Minden ; was conunander-iu-chief from 
 1766 to 1769 ; was for a short time in office 
 under the Duke of Grafton. 
 
 Grandier, Urbain {d. 1634), French priest ; 
 defended the parochial clergy against tlie 
 monks ; was accused of bewitching the nuns 
 of Loudun, and burnt as a sorcerer. 
 
 Grandpr^, Louis Ohier, Comte de (b. 1761, 
 d. 1846), French navigator ; author of several 
 works describing his travels, the chief of 
 which are Voyage d la Cote Oecidentale de 
 VAfrique and Voyage dans I'Inde. 
 
 Grandville, pseudonym of Jean Gerard 
 (6. 1303, d. 1847), French caricaturist; illus- 
 trator of La Fontaine, Gulliver, and 
 Robinson Crusoe; was prosecuted for his 
 sketches of contemporaries, called Meta- 
 morphoses, which represented them under 
 the forma of animals. 
 
 Granet, Francois (b. 1692, d. 1741), French 
 critic, whose chief work is Reflexions sur les 
 Outrages de Litterature. 
 
 Granet, Francois Marcus {b. 1775, d. 1849), 
 French painter, his best picture being Le 
 Chceur des Capucins (1812) ; was made by 
 Louis Philippe keeper of his museimi. 
 
 Granet, Francois Omet {d. 1821), French 
 politician ; a strong republican, but an 
 opponent of Robespierre, whose wrath he 
 narrowly escaped ; was mayor of Marseilles 
 under the Empire, and on the restoration 
 was sent into exile, but returned some years 
 before his death. 
 
 Granger, James {b. circa 1716, d. 1776), 
 author of a Biographical History of England 
 (1769), and originator of '' grangerising. " 
 
 Grant, Albert, Baron {b. 1830), English 
 financier ; entered Parliament as member for 
 Kidderminster in 1865, and re-elected in 
 1874. In 1868 he was created baron by 
 Victor Emmanuel for his improvements at 
 Milan, and especially the opening of the 
 Victor-Emmanuel Gallerj-. He bought and 
 presented to London the whole of Leicester 
 Square, and, among other pubUc benefits, 
 presented to the National Gallery Landseer's 
 portrait of Sir W. Scott, for which he had 
 given £800, and immediately received in his 
 
 place a vote of thanks, moved by Sir S. 
 Northcote in the Commons. In 1875 Baron 
 Grant made a speech in his own behalf, 
 lasting more than three hours, in a case 
 vmder the Employer's Liability Act. 
 
 Grant, Sir Alexander (b. 1826, d. 1884), 
 English scholar ; educated at Harrow and 
 Balliol; was fellow of Oriel from 1848 to 
 1858, dui-ing which time he was engaged on 
 his edition of the Nicumachean Ethics, which 
 appeared in 1857. In 1859 he went to India 
 as inspector of schools, and in 1862 became 
 principal of Elphinstone College, Bombay, 
 and director of public instruction. In 1868 
 he was appointed principal of Edinburgh 
 University. Besides the book mentioned, 
 Sir A. Grant edited Ferrier's Greek Philo- 
 sophy, and wrote Story of Edinburgh 
 University during its First Three Hundred 
 Tears (1884). 
 
 Grant, Anne, nee Mac Vicar {b. 1755, d. 
 1838), Scotch poetess ; friend of Scott; was 
 left a widow in poor circumstances in 1801, 
 and soon after began to write, publishing 
 Original Poems in 1803, and Essays on the 
 Superstitions of the Highlands in 1811, 
 besides other poems. In 1826 she obtained 
 a Government pension. 
 
 Grant, Sir Francis {b. 1803, d. 1878), 
 English portrait-painter; elder brother of 
 Sir Hope Grant ; having dissipated a large 
 fortune, became a fashionable portrait- 
 painter; was elected A.R.A. in 1841 ; E.A. 
 in 1851 ; and president of the Royal 
 Academy in 1866. 
 
 Grant, George Monro, D.D. {b. 1835), 
 Canadian writer and divine ; l)om in Nova 
 Scotia ; won a bursary at eighteen, which 
 enabled him to go to Glasgow, where he 
 took high honours. On his return to Nova 
 Scotia he was for some time a missionary, 
 and was, in 1877, appointed principal of 
 Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario. He 
 wrote Ocean to Ocean (1872), wndi Picturesque 
 Canada (1884). 
 
 Grant, James (b. 1822, d. 1887), English 
 novelist ; bom at Edinburgh ; was some time 
 in American barracks with his father, and on 
 his return to England held for a short time 
 an infantry commission. In 1875 he became 
 a Roman Catholic. Chief among his numer- 
 ous novels were The Romance of J^Far (1846), 
 Bothwell (1851), Lticy Arden (1859), and 
 The White Cockade (1867). He also wrote 
 British Battles on Land and Sea (1873-75) 
 and Cassell's History of the JVar in the 
 Soudan (1885), and Old and New Edinburgh. 
 
 Grant, James Augustus {b. 1827, d. 1892), 
 English traveller ; served as a soldier in the 
 Sikh wars and the Indian Mutiny; accom- 
 panied the Abyssinian expedition of 1860, as 
 member of the iDt/»lligenv;e department, but
 
 Gra 
 
 (391) 
 
 Gra 
 
 is chiefly known as the explorer who accom- 
 panied Speke iu his expedition to discover 
 the sources of the Nile in 1860-63. He wrote 
 an account of the expedition in the Journal 
 of the Royal Geographical Society, and also 
 a Walk Across Africa. 
 
 Grant, Sir James Hope (h. 1808, d. 1875), 
 English soldier; entered the service in 1826 ; 
 served in the first Chinese war and in the 
 Sikh wars; in the Indian Mutiny was 
 present at Delhi on its recapture, and, having 
 effected a junction with Sir Colin Campbell, 
 was prominent in the ^relief of Cawnpore and 
 of Lucknow. Major-General Grant held 
 the chief command at the close of the 
 Mutiny, and also of the force sent to co- 
 operate with the J'rench in China in the year 
 1860. After this Jie was several years com- 
 mander-in-chief at Madras, and-held the 
 Aldershot command from 1872 till ihis death. 
 For his services in China he was created 
 G.C.B. 
 
 Grant, Sir Patrick, Field-marshal, G.C.^., 
 G.C.M.G. {b. 1804), English soldier; entered 
 the East India Company's army in 1820 ; was 
 on the staff of Sir "Hugh Gough in the 
 Gwalior campaign, and adjutant-general in 
 the Sutlej campaign, being twice severely 
 wounded. At the end of the Punjaub cam- 
 paign he became colonel and aide-de-camp to 
 the Queen. In 1849-50 he served under Sir 
 0. Napier against Kohat. In 1856 Major- 
 general Grant commanded the Madras 
 army, and acted as commander-in-chief in 
 1857, till the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell. 
 He was created G.C.B. after the Mutiny, 
 and appointed governor of Malta in 1867. 
 In 1874 he became governor of Chelsea 
 Hospital, having attained the rank of 
 general in 1870. In 1883 he was gazetted 
 field-marshal. 
 
 Grant, Robert, LL.D. (6. 1814), EugHsh 
 astronomer: bom at Grantoim-on-Spey. 
 His education was interfered with by ill- 
 health, but on his recovery he went to Lon- 
 don and Paris to make researches for his His- 
 tory of Phi/sical Astronomy, which appeared 
 in 1852. Soon after he became fellow of the 
 Astronomical Society, and in 1856 received 
 their gold medal for his work. After trans- 
 lating and editing, with Admiral Smyth, 
 Arago's Popular Astronomy, and having 
 gone through some practical work, he was 
 appointed in 1859 professor of astronomy 
 at Glasgow. Next year he went to Spain 
 to observe the total eclipse of the sun. In 
 1865 he was elected F.R.S. In 1883 he 
 published a Catalogue containing the mean 
 places of 6,415 stars, as a result of his ob- 
 servations while at Glasgow. 
 
 Grant, Robert Edmund (6. 1793, d. 1874), 
 Scotch naturalist; graduated at Edinburgh 
 in 1814, and after nve years of Continental 
 
 travel, became a fellow of the Royal College 
 of Physicians ; while practising as a doctor 
 was assistant to Barclay, the anatomist. 
 In 1827, when he had published several 
 papers on sponges, he was elected professor 
 of zoology and comparative anatomy at the 
 University of Loudon. "WTiile engaged in 
 his duties as such he made many researches, 
 and produced his Outlines of Comparative 
 Anatomy. In 1836 he was elected F.R.S., 
 and in 1837 Fullerian professor of phy- 
 siology at the Royal Institution. He tra- 
 velled much, taught himself Danish, and 
 studied phUology ; and at his death left his 
 library and private collections to University" 
 College 
 
 Grant, Ulysses Simpson [b. 1822, d. 1885), 
 American general and statesman ; entered 
 the army in 1843, and served with distinction 
 in the Texas campaign of 1845. In 1848 he 
 married, and in 1854 resigned his commission. 
 During the Civil war he captxired Fort 
 Henry (February, 1862), and Fort Donelson; 
 won the battle of Shiloh (April 6-7) ; de- 
 feated Price at luka (Sept. 19), and for his 
 capture of Vicksburg in July, 1863, was made 
 major-general. He further distinguished 
 himself by the rehef of Chattanooga in 
 November, and was voted a gold medal for 
 his services. In March, 1864, he became 
 lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief 
 of the Federal armies, and in httle more 
 than a year brought the war to a close. On 
 July 25th, 1866, he was named general of 
 the armies of the United States, and in 1868 
 became president, being re-elected ia 1872. 
 He successfully superintended the pacifica- 
 tion of the Southern states, the restoration of 
 the finances, and the disbanding of the army, 
 and he obtained from England the payment 
 of the Alabama claims. On his retirement 
 from office he made a tour round the world. 
 H;: iiig lost his moderate fortune in an un- 
 fortunate speculation, he wrote an account 
 of his life, which, being successful, to some 
 extent relieved him. He died of cancer 
 after a year's severe suffering. 
 
 Granville, Cardinal. \_See Perronet de 
 Granville.] 
 
 Granville, Earl. [^See Carteret. ] 
 
 Granville, Earl (4. 1773, d. 1846), English 
 diplomatist ; son of the Marquis of Stafford ; 
 entered Parliament as Lord Gower, and held 
 office imder Pitt and Addington. In 1815 
 he was created Viscount Granville for his 
 diplomatic services as ambassador at St. 
 Petersburg, the Hague and Paris, and in 
 1833 received the title of Earl. 
 
 GranviUe, Earl {b. 1815, d. 1891), Eng- 
 lish statesman : sou of last-named; educated 
 at Eton, and Christ Church ; entered Parlia- 
 ment as member for Morpeth in 1836, aiid 
 was elected for Lichfield in 1840, in which
 
 Gra 
 
 (392) 
 
 Gra 
 
 year he was made under-secretaiy for 
 Foreign Affairs and vice-president of the 
 Board of Trade. On the death of his father 
 in 1S46 he became a peer, and entered 
 the cabinet in 1801, being Lord Russell's 
 Foreign Secretary for a short time. After 
 having held several other offices, he became 
 Lord President of the Council and leader in 
 the Lords in 1858. In 18.39 he again held 
 that office, and occupied it till 18GG. In 1860 
 he was chairman of the commission of the 
 Great Exhibition of 1862. In Mr. Gladstone's 
 first ministry Lord Granville was at hrst 
 Colonial Secretary, and from 1870 Secretary 
 for Foreign Aiiairs. As such he arranged 
 the guarantee of Belgium by England, 
 France, and Prussia, protested against the 
 repudiation by itussia of the Black Sea 
 clause, and made an agreement with Gort- 
 schakofE as to the position of Afghanistan. 
 Between 1874 and 1880 he led the Opposition 
 in the Lords, and in 1880 became once more 
 Foreign Secretary, when his attention was 
 occupied hrst by the carrying- out of the 
 Berlin treaty, secondly by the French oc- 
 cupation of Tunis, against which he pro- 
 tested, and lastly by the Egyptian question. 
 He tried to estabUsh popular institutions in 
 Egypt, but was continually thwarted by 
 France, and his subsequent direction of 
 Foreign Aifairs was disastrous in the ex- 
 treme, being marked by the death of Gordon 
 and the difficulties with Russia on the 
 Afghan question. On the Home Rule ques- 
 tion Earl Granville supported Mr. Gladstone, 
 and was colonial minister in his short-lived 
 administration. Before his death he again 
 led the Opposition in the House of Lords. 
 
 Grasse-Tilly, Francois, Marquis de {b. 
 1723, d. 17SS). French admiral ; wascaptured 
 in his first voyage by Anson, and was for two 
 years prisoner in England. He co-operated 
 with Washington as commander of the 
 French fleet, but was defeated by Hood at 
 St. Christopher's, and captured by Rodney 
 in the battle of 1782. He was again two 
 years in England, and became absurdly un- 
 popular in France. 
 
 Grassini, Giuseppa {b. 1773, d. 1850), 
 Italian singer, made her debut at Milan m 
 1794, and soon became the first singer in 
 Italy. In 1800 she sang before Bonaparte, 
 and afterwards went to Paris. In 1803 she 
 came to London, where she was the rival of 
 Mrs. BiUington. Aiter this she fulfilled a 
 very lucrative engagement at Paris, and 
 returned to Milan about 1817. 
 
 Gratian (6. 359, d. 383), Roman emperor; 
 son of Valentinian, on whose death he became 
 joint Emperor of the West, repelled an in- 
 cursion of the Alemanni ; chose Theodorus as 
 Emperor of the East, and, though not a 
 Christian, he was a friend of St. Ambrose, 
 and a destroyer of pagan rites. He was 
 
 ultimately murdered by the officers of 
 Muximus. 
 
 Gratian usurped the purple in Britain, 
 
 and was killed in 487. 
 
 Gratian, Italian canonist; wrote the 
 Dccrettini between 1139 and 1142. 
 
 Gratius [Graes], Ortwiuus (d. 1541), 
 German theologian; attacked by ReuchUn, 
 to whom he replied in his Lainentationes 
 Obscnrorum Virorum (1518). 
 
 Grattan, Henry {b. 1746, d. 1820), Irish 
 patriot, educated at Trinity College, Dublin, 
 and called to the Irish bar in 1772 ; entered 
 the Irish Parliament in 1775, and became an 
 Ojiposition leader. In 1780 he moved that 
 the crown was the only link between Eng- 
 land and Ireland, and in 1782, by means of 
 the Volunteer movement, succeeded in 
 obtaining legislative independence for his 
 country. His views on Catholic Emanci- 
 pation were not shared by the whole of his 
 party, and, after the recall of FitzwiUiam, 
 power passed from his hands to the United 
 Irishmen. Having been some years in re- 
 tu'ement, he actively opposed the Union, 
 and after an interval of two years entered 
 the British Parliament as member for 
 Malton. He was offered office by Fox, but 
 refused ; supported the Irish Insurrection 
 Bill of 1807, and devoted his last years to the 
 cause of the Catholic Emancipation. His 
 Memoirs and Speeches were edited by his son. 
 
 Grattan, Thomas Colley (b. 1796, d. 1864), 
 English writer ; born in Kildare ; intended 
 for the law, he served a short time in the 
 army ; after some contributions to periodi- 
 cals, published in 1823 Highways and 
 Bycways. While in Belgiimi he wrote A 
 History of the Netherlands (in Lardnefs 
 Cyclopcedid), and other works, and when 
 living at the Hague Jacqueline of Holland 
 and Aynes de Mansfeldt. He was after- 
 wards British consul at Boston. 
 
 Graun, Karl Heinrich (*. 1701, d. 1769), 
 German musician ; patronised by Frederick 
 the Great ; composed Ber Tod Jesu, a Te 
 I)eum, and several operas and cantatas. 
 
 Gravelot, Hubert Bourguignon (b. 1699, 
 d. 1773), French engraver and artist, who 
 illustrated the works of Voltaire, Racine 
 and Marmontel. 
 
 Graves, Charles (i. 1812), Irish mathema- 
 tician and divine ; was educated at Trinity 
 College, Dublin, where he became fellow 
 and professor of mathematics. He was 
 president of the Irish academy from 1860 
 to 1865, and in 1866 became Bishop of 
 Limerick. He has been made D.C.L. of 
 Oxford, and F.R.S., and was secretary to 
 the commission for the publication of the 
 Brehon laws.
 
 Gra 
 
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 Gre 
 
 Graves, Richard (b. 1715, d. 1804), Eng- 
 lish novelist, poet and divine, his chief work 
 having been The Spiritual Quixote, a satire 
 on the Methodists. 
 
 Gravina, Domenico da [d. circa 1350), 
 Neapolitan historian; author of Storia del 
 Regno Xapoli. 
 
 Gravina, Frederico {h. 1756, d. 1806), 
 Spanish admiral ; commanded the Spanish 
 contingent at Trafalgar, where he was mor- 
 tally wounded. 
 
 Gravina, Giovanni {b. 1664, d. 1718), 
 Italian jurist; author of Origines Juris 
 Civilis (1701-13). 
 
 Gray, Asa (*. 1810, d. 1888), American 
 botamst; after practising some time as a 
 doctor, published some papers on botany, 
 and was appointed in 1842 Fisher pro- 
 fessor of natural history at Harvard. In 
 1848 appeared his Manual of the Botany of 
 the Northern States, followed by A Text- 
 book of Botany, and many elementary treatises 
 on botanical subjects. He visited Europe 
 on several occasions, was a member of the 
 Royal and Linnean societies, and was one of 
 the earHest Darwinians. His Genera Florae 
 Ainericce Boreali-Ori,entalis was left un- 
 finished. 
 
 Gray, David {b. 1838, d. 1861), Scotch 
 poet ; son of a weaver near Glasgow ; came 
 to London in 1860, and received the patron- 
 age of Sidney Dobell and of Monckton 
 Mihies, by whose assistance The Luggie was 
 published. The author died early of con- 
 sumption, leaving, besides the above. In the 
 Shadows, a collection of sonnets written ia 
 his last days. 
 
 Gray, George Robert (*. 1808, d. 1872), 
 English naturalist ; obtained an appointment 
 in the natural history department of the 
 British Museum in 1831, and was the author 
 of A List of Genera of Birds, Sgnonijma, 
 an illustrated edition of which followed, and 
 of A Description and Figures of some new 
 Lepidopterous Insects, chiefly from Nepaul. 
 
 Gray, John Edward {b. 1800, d. 1875), 
 Enghsh naturalist; brother of last-named; 
 obtamed a post in the British Natural Histoiy 
 Museum in 1824, and in 1840 became keeper 
 of the zoological collection. Besides his 
 work connected with the Museum, he was 
 author of A Manual of the Land and Fresh- 
 Water Shells of the British Islands, A 
 Handbook of British Water-Weeds, and 
 various zoological publications. 
 
 Gray, Stephen {d. 1736), English physicist; 
 made some discoveries in electric conduction 
 and induction, which he published between 
 1720 and his death. 
 
 Gray, Thomas (*. 1716, d. 1771), EngUsh 
 
 poet ; educated at Eton and Cambridge ; in 
 1739 went on a continental tour with H. 
 Walpole, but in 1741 they quarrelled, and 
 Gray returned, and soon after settled at 
 Cambridge. In 1741 he wrote his Ode to 
 Eton College and some minor poems, and 
 ten years later the Elegy in a Country 
 Churchyard appeared. In 1757 he was 
 offered the laureateship, but declined. In 
 1768 he became professor of modern history 
 at Cambridge, but did not always carry out 
 his duties in person. Thtt Bard was pub- 
 lished in 1757. 
 
 Grazzini, Antonio Francesco {b. 1503, d, 
 1583), Italian poet; called "II Lasca " (the 
 Roach) ; founded the academy of La Crusca 
 to reform Italian literatm-e, and was the 
 author of Comimdie (1582), Cena, and 
 Sonnetti, published after his death. 
 
 Greatorex, Thomas (J. 1758, d. 1831), 
 English musician ; pupil of Dr. Cooke ; after 
 returning from an extended Continental 
 tour, settled in London as a teacher of 
 music, and ia 1793 became director of the 
 king's concerts of ancient music. In 1S19 
 he became organist of Westminster Abbey. 
 Besides adapting many of Handel's com- 
 positions, he devoted much attention to 
 science ; was a fellow of the Royal Society, 
 and wrote a memoir on the use of the 
 barometer for measuring heights. 
 
 Greatrakes, Valentine (*. 1628, d. 1700), 
 Irish quack: patronised by Charles II., by 
 whose permission he attempted cures by 
 touching, many of which are said to have 
 been successful. 
 
 Greaves, John [h. 1602, d. 1652), English 
 Orientalist and mathematician ; travelled ia 
 the East, and wrote Pgramidographia and 
 several unpublished MSS. ; was Savilian 
 professor at Oxford, and patronised by 
 Archbishop Laud. 
 
 Greeley, Horace {b. 1811, d. 1872). Ameri- 
 can journalist and politician ; son of a New 
 Hampshire farmer; came to New York, 
 and, after some failures, established in 1 841 
 the New York Tribune, in which he sup- 
 ported Lincoln and the union. In 1S48 he 
 became a member of Congress, and, though 
 not prominent there, was one of the founders 
 of the Republican party in 1855. He ulti- 
 mately, however, became a Democrat, and 
 unsuccessfully opposed Grant for the presi- 
 dency in 1872, but died the same j-ear. He 
 twice visited Europe. He was author of 
 The American Conflict (1864), What I Know 
 about Farming, and Recollections of a Busy 
 Life (1869). 
 
 Greely, Adolphus Washington (*. 1844), 
 American Arctic explorer; served in the Civil 
 war ; afterwards entered the signal office of 
 the war department, and in 1873"8urveyed the
 
 Gre 
 
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 Gre 
 
 Mississippi and Missouri. In 1S80 he was 
 appointed by Gartield head of the United 
 States Arctic expedition ; sailed the next year, 
 and in 1884 was rescued off Cape Sabine by 
 Captain Schley, having gone farther north 
 than any preceding expedition, and made 
 ini})(irtant discoveries, which were de- 
 scribed in his address to the Scottish Geo- 
 graphical Society. The expedition was 
 accused of cannibalism, but this Greely 
 denied in his Three Years of Arctic Service. 
 
 Green, Alexander Henry {b. 1832), Eng- 
 lish geologist ; son of Rev. T. S. Green ; was 
 sixth wrangler in 1855, and fellow of Caius 
 College ; joined the geological survey in 
 1861 ; became professor of geology and 
 mathematics at the Yorkshire college, 
 Leeds, in 1875, and professor of geology at 
 Oxford in 1888. His chief works are The 
 Geology of the Yorkshire Coalfield (1872), 
 and Physical Geology (1882, 3rd edition). 
 
 Green, John Richard {b. 1837, d. 1883), 
 EngUsh historian ; bom at Oxford, and 
 educated at Magdalen College school and 
 Jesus College ; took orders ui 1860, and was 
 some time vicar of St. Philip's, Stepney, 
 becoming in 1868 librarian at Lambeth. 
 He was author of A Short History of the 
 English People (1874), A History of the 
 English People (1877-80), The Making of 
 England (1882), and The Conquest of Eng- 
 land, published after his death by his 
 wife, who assisted him in various other 
 works, and herself wrote Henry II. in 
 the Twelve English Statesmen series. 
 
 Green, Joseph Henry (d. 1863), English 
 anatomist ; author of Vital Dynamics, 
 Mental Dynamics, and also Spiritual Philo- 
 sophy, published in 1865, after his death. 
 
 Green, Mary Anne Everett, nee Wood 
 (b. 1818), English historical writer; came 
 to Loudon in 1848 and wrote The Princesses 
 of England between 1849 and 1855. She 
 also edited for the Camden Society The 
 Diary of John Rons, and The Letters of 
 Queen Henrietta Maria, and calendared 
 several State papers for the Master of the 
 Rolls. She married in 1845 Mr. G. P. Green, 
 an artist. 
 
 Green, Matthew (h. 1697, d. 1737), Eng- 
 lish poet ; a custom-house officer, who in 
 the intervals of business wrote The Spleen, 
 which was commended by Pope and Gray. 
 
 Green, Thomas Hill {b. 1836, d. 1882), 
 English philosopher; became fellow of 
 Balliol in 1864, and the first lay tutor in 
 18G7, and took an active part in the 
 municipal government of Oxford. In 1877 
 he was elected Whji:e professor of moral 
 philosophy, and contributed to the Fort- 
 nu/l.ily Review a series of articles on Mr. 
 H. Spencer and Mr. G. H. Lawes : Their \ 
 
 Application of the Doctrine of Evolution to 
 Thought, having previously written in the 
 North British Review articles on the PhilO' 
 sophy of Aristotle, and Popular Philosophy 
 in its Relation to Life. He also published 
 two lay sermons. The Witness of God, and 
 Faith, published by Toynbee in 1878; but 
 his greatest work was Prolegomena to Ethics, 
 edited by Professor A. C. Bradley in 1883. 
 
 Green, Valentine [b. 1739, d. 1813), Eng- 
 lish mczzotiat engraver, his most celebrated 
 print being Regulus and Hannibal (after 
 West). He was prevented by the revolu- 
 tion from engraving the pictures of the 
 Diisseldorf gallery, for which he had re- 
 ceived a patent. In 1775 he was elected 
 A.R.A. 
 
 Greene, Nathaniel {b. 1742, d. 1786), 
 American general ; educated himself, and 
 broke with the Quakers on account of his 
 later military pursuits ; distinguished him- 
 self at the battle of the Brandywine ; was 
 defeated several times by Cornwallis, but 
 won the battle of Eutaw Springs. 
 
 Greene, Robert {b. 1560, d. 1592), English 
 dramatist ; educated at Cambridge ; is said 
 to have taken orders oii his return from the 
 Continent, but was a man of immoral hfe. 
 Besides five plays and several pamphlets, 
 he wrote an account of his life called The 
 Repentance of Robert Greene, which was 
 pubHshed in 1592. He was a friend of 
 Marlowe, Peele, and Nash, but made a 
 violent attack on Shakespeare as an 
 " upstart crow " in A GroaVs- Worth of Wit 
 bought with a Million of Repentance. 
 Greene's plays and poems were collected 
 and edited by Dyce in 1831. 
 
 Greenough, George B. (*. 1778, d. 1855), 
 English geologist; educated at Cambridge 
 and Gottingen ; was in Parliament for a 
 few years (1807-12), but devoted most of 
 his life to science, being one of the founders 
 and first president of the Geological Society. 
 He was also twice vice-president of the 
 Royal Society, president of the Geographical 
 Society, and fellow of other learned so- 
 cieties. He was author of A Geological Map 
 of England and Wales, A Geological Map of 
 India, and A General Sketch of the Physical 
 Features of British India. 
 
 Greenwell, William (*. 1820), Enghsh 
 archajologist and divine ; graduated at Dur- 
 ham, and became fellow of University Col- 
 lege, and afterwards principal of Neville 
 Hall, Newcastle. In 1879 he presented to 
 the British Mviseum a collection of urns and 
 pottery, having previously given some skulls 
 from British barrows to the University of 
 Oxford. His principal works relate to the 
 see of Durham, and his services to science 
 were recognised by the degree of D.C.L. 
 and a fellowship of the Royal Society.
 
 Gre 
 
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 Gre 
 
 Greg, William Rathbone (b. 1809, d. 1881), 
 English essayist ; became a commissioner of 
 customs in 1856, and in 1864 was made 
 controller of the stationery office. His 
 chief works were The Creed of Christendom 
 (1851), Essays in Political and Social Science 
 (1853), Jiocks Ahead (1874), and Literary 
 and Social Judgments (1877). His Miscel- 
 laneous Essays were published in 1881 and 
 1882. 
 
 Gregorius Nazianzenus {d. 390), Saint; 
 son of the Bishop of Nazianzus ; preached 
 against the Ariaus ; was appointed by Theo- 
 dosius Patriarch of Constantinople, and 
 delivered a funeral oration over his friend, 
 St. BasU. 
 
 Gregorius Nicephoras (Jl. 1350), Byzan- 
 tine historian ; proposed the reform in the 
 Calendar, which was afterwards carried out 
 by Gregory XIII. 
 
 Gregorius Nyssenus (4th century) , Saint ; 
 brother of Basil the Great, and Bishop of 
 Nyssa ; was banished by the Arians, and 
 wrote against them. At the council of 
 Antioch he made the new draft of the 
 Nicene Creed. 
 
 Gregorius Thaumaturgus [d. circa 270), 
 Saint ; so called because of miracles attri- 
 buted to him ; was converted and baptised by 
 Origen, on whom he wrote an Eulogy, being 
 also author of A Paraphrase of Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Gregory, George, D.D. (6. 1754, d. 1808), 
 Irish essajist ; edited the Annual Register 
 for several years, and wrote a Church 
 Sistory. 
 
 Gregory, James {b. 1638, d. 1675), Scotch 
 mathematician ; inventor of the reflecting 
 telescope, which he came to London in 
 1665 to construct, and afterwards went to 
 Padua. He pubUshed (1667) Verce Circuli 
 Hyp';rbol(e Quadratura, and had contro- 
 versies with Newton and Huyghens. His 
 nephew, David {d. 1713), was SaviUan pro- 
 fessor at Oxford, and wrote Astronomies 
 Physicce Elementa, besides introducing 
 Newton's Principia at the university. 
 
 Gregory, Olinthus Gilbert {b. mi, d. 
 1841), English mathematician ; professor at 
 Woolwich 1802-38 ; was a fellow of the 
 Eoyal Society, and one of the founders of 
 the Astronomical Society. He wrote a 
 Treatise on Astronotny (ISOl), and Mathe- 
 matics for Practical Men (1825). 
 
 Gregory, Robert {b. 1819), English edu- 
 cationalist, was educated at Oxford, and 
 ordained in 1843. After holding several 
 beuetices, he became canon of St. Paul's in 
 1868, and in 1890 dean. From 1873 to 
 1876 he was a member of the London 
 School Board, and amongst other commis- 
 Bions on which he served were that which 
 
 inquired into the London Parochial Chari- 
 ties, and the Education Commission of 1886. 
 Among his works are The Cost of Voluntary 
 Schools and of Board Schools, and Is the 
 Canadian System of Education Mates possible 
 in England ? besides various theological and 
 parochial works. 
 
 Gregory, William {b. 1803, d. 1858), 
 English chemist; pupil and follower of 
 Liebig ; was successively professor of medi- 
 cine and chemistry at Aberdeen, and of 
 chemistry at Edinburgh. He was author 
 of Handbooks of Organic and Inorganic 
 Chemistry, new editions of which appeared 
 in 1856, 
 
 Gregory of Alexandria (4th century), 
 Arian Patriarch of Alexandria; persecutor 
 of Athanasius ; was deposed about 354. 
 
 Gregory of Armenia (4th century). Saint ; 
 evangelist of Armenia ; was Imown as 
 the " lUumiuator. " 
 
 Gregory of Constantinople {d. 1821), 
 was made patriarch in 1795, but opposed 
 the Greek revolution, and was executed 
 with several of his clergy on suspicion. 
 
 Gregory of Tours {b. 544, d. 59.5), French 
 bishop and historian ; opposed the cruelties 
 of Fredegonde ; visited Gregory I. at Rome, 
 and wrote Hlstoria Francorum, which was 
 first printed in 1699. 
 
 Gregory L, Pope, caUed the "Great" 
 (d. 604), was appointed by the Emperor of 
 the East governor of Rome, but, on inherit- 
 ing his father's wealth, resigned it, and 
 became Abbot of St. Andrew's, Rome. 
 After being secretary to Pelagius II., he 
 succeeded him as Bishop of Rome ; re- 
 nounced communion with the Eastern 
 Christians because of the assumption of the 
 title "Universal Bishop" by the patriarch 
 of Constantinople ; composed chants, and 
 established a musical school, in which he 
 taught himself, and collected and arranged 
 fragments of ancient hymns. He was a 
 great opponent of secular learning, but was 
 author of numerous sacred works, of which 
 the chief was his Morals on the Book of 
 Job. 
 
 Gregory II. {d. 731), elected pope in 715 ; 
 held a council against the Iconoclasts, and 
 sent Boniface to preach in Germany. 
 
 Gregory in. {d. 741), elected 731 ; opposed 
 the Iconoclasts, and excommunicated Leo 
 the Isaurian ; sent to Charles Martel the 
 keys of St. Peter's tomb in return for his 
 assistance against the Lombards. 
 
 Gregory IV., Pope {d. 844), elected in 827 ; 
 attempted to reconcile Louis le D^onnaire 
 and Lothaire ; changed the Feast of All 
 Saints to November 1 ; perhaps the first to
 
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 Gre 
 
 assert the supremacy of the ecclesiastical 
 over the civil power. 
 
 Gregory V. (rf. 999), elected by help of 
 the Emperor Otho III., whose nephew he 
 was, and restored by him when expelled 
 from Eome bj' Crescentius. 
 
 Gregory VI. (d. 1047), elected 1044; 
 offended the clergy by his reforms, and was 
 compelled to abdicate by Henry III. in 
 1046. 
 
 Gregory VII., "Hildebrand" (d. 1085), 
 a man of low birth, who became monk of 
 Clugny and archdeacon of Rome ; exercised 
 great influence over Leo IX. and succeeding 
 popes, till he was himself appointed, in 1073, 
 to succeed Alexander II. He attacked 
 simony and concubinage in the Church, and 
 carried the power of the papacy to a high 
 pitch, declining to submit to ratification of 
 election from the emperor, and attempting 
 to enforce spiritual control over the sove- 
 reigns of Europe. He was firmly opposed 
 by William I. of England and Philip I. of 
 France, but he exconuaunicated Henry IV. 
 of Germany, and compelled him to do 
 penance in 1077, although he was eventually 
 deposed by him. He died at Salerno, where 
 he had been taken after his rescue from the 
 Castle of St. Angelo by the Normans of 
 ApuUa. 
 
 Gregory Vm., Alberto di Mora (d. 1187), 
 only held the papacy for a month, when an 
 anti-pope with the same title was set up by 
 Henry V. 
 
 Gregory IX. {d. 1241), elected in 1227; 
 carried on an almost continuous struggle 
 with the Emperor Frederick II., whom 
 he excommimicated, first for not going on 
 crusade, and secondly, on his return, for 
 speeches he was reported to have made. 
 He finally called a coiincU to depose 
 Fi-ederick, who, however, captured the fleet 
 which carried most of the bishops. 
 
 Gregory X. {d. 1276), elected in 1271 when 
 at Acre ; held a council at Lyons for re- 
 unitiag the Greek and Latin churches, and 
 made regulations for future elections to the 
 papacy. 
 
 Gregory XI. {d. 1378), elected 1370; a 
 French pope, who resided at Avignon, but 
 removed to Rome in 1377 ; he denounced 
 Wycliffe. 
 
 Gregory XII. {d. 1417), elected 1406, but 
 resigned ia 1409. The "great schism" was 
 now raging, and there were several anti- 
 popes. 
 
 Gregory Xin. {b. 1502, d. 1585), elected 
 in 1572 ; promulgated the Reform Calendar 
 of Lilio iu 1582 : favoured the Jesuits, 
 foi whom he founded a college at Rome ; 
 
 celebrated the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew, and encouraged the Jesuit mission 
 to England and the Spanish invasion, 
 
 Gregory XIV. {d. 1591), elected 1590, ex- 
 comnmuicated Henri IV., and died the next 
 year. 
 
 Gregory XV. (d. 1623), elected 1621; 
 founded the De FropagandA Fide, anft 
 canonised Ignatius Loyola and Xavier. 
 
 Gregory XVL (h. 1765, d. 1846), elected 
 in 1831 ; opposed all reforms and inventions, 
 and issued encyclical letters against Lamen- 
 nais ; made some concessions w^hen forced 
 by popular outbreaks, but soon retracted 
 them. 
 
 Greig, Alexis (6. 1775, d. 1845), English 
 admiral iu the Russian service, whose father 
 had been commander of the Russian navy ; 
 served as a volunteer for four years in the 
 British navy, but afterwards entered the 
 Russian service, planned the fortifications 
 I of Cronstadt, served against the Turks and 
 I Napoleon, and in 1816 became commander 
 in the Black Sea. He was created a knight 
 of St. Andrew. His funeral was attended 
 by the whole of the imperial family. 
 
 Greig, Samuel Carlo vich (d. 1782), 
 English admiral in the Russian service, 
 father of the preceding, fortified Cronstadt; 
 made many reforms in the navy, and 
 defeated the Swedes in 1788. 
 
 Grenfell, Sir Francis, Major-General (6. 
 1841), sirdar of the Egyptian armies; 
 entered the English army in 1859, and 
 became major-general in 1889. He served 
 in the Transkie in 1877-8, in the Kaffir war ; 
 in the Zulu war, being mentioned in des- 
 patches and promoted ; in the Boer war ; in 
 the Egyptian campaigns of 1882, 1884, and 
 1885, and commanded at Suakim in 1888. 
 
 Grenfell, Colonel Henry (6. 1824), English 
 banker, second son of Pascoe Grenfell ; was 
 in Parliament from 1862 till 1868, when he 
 was the colleague of Mr. Gladstone as 
 liberal candidate for South-west Lancashire, 
 but was not elected ; became director of the 
 Bank of England in 1865, deputy-governor 
 in 1879, and governor in 1881. 
 
 GrenfeU, Pascoe (*. 1762, d. 1838), English 
 philanthropist and member of Parliament, 
 who supported Wilberforce in his agitation 
 against the slave trade. 
 
 Grenier, Jacques Raymond, Vicomte de 
 Giron ({.. 1736, d. 1803), French hydro- 
 grapher; author of V Art de la Guerre sur 
 
 Mer (1787). 
 
 Grenville, George (6. 1712, d. 1770), 
 English statesman, became First Lord of the 
 Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer
 
 Gre 
 
 (397) 
 
 Gre 
 
 in 1763, and signalised his short tenn of 
 office by the Stamp Act, and the first pro- 
 ceedings against Witkea. George III. hated 
 him. 
 
 Grenville, Sir Richard (J. 1540, d. 1591), 
 English admiral, went with Sir W, Raleigh 
 to Virginia, and returned in 1585 to establish 
 a settlement there; was present with the 
 fleet that fought with the Armada, and was 
 killed in an engagement with the Spanish 
 in 1519. 
 
 GrenviUe, Thomas (b. 1755, d. 1846), 
 EngUsh book-coUector and diplomatist, son 
 of last-named, bequeathed his library to the 
 British Museum, a catalogue of it being 
 published in 1842. 
 
 GrenvUle, WilUam, Lord (6. 1759, d. 
 1834), Enghsh statesman; was Speaker of 
 the House of Commons in 1789, and created 
 a baron next year ; Home Secretary under 
 Pitt from 1789 to 1801, and in 1806 became 
 head of the " Ministry of all the Talents," 
 but came into collision with the king on the 
 question of Catholic Emancipation, and 
 resigned shortly after. He afterwards sup- 
 ported the Liverpool ministry, and broke 
 with his old friends, the Whigs. 
 
 Greppi, Giovanni (b. 1751, d. 1811), 
 Italian dramatist, whose chief works were 
 Teresa e Claudio and Teresa Vedova. 
 
 Gresham, Sir Thomas {b. 1519, d. 1579), 
 English merchant, was employed to negoti- 
 ate loans for the Government both at home 
 and abroad, and was knighted by Elizabeth ; 
 founded the Royal Exchange in 1566, and 
 Gresham College in 1575, which was opened 
 in 1596. 
 
 Gresset, Jean Baptiste {h. 1709, d. 1777), 
 French dramatist and poet, his chief work 
 being Vert Vert, which appeared about 
 1733. He left the Society of Jesus because 
 they disapproved his writings. 
 
 Greswell, Edward, D.D. {h. 1797, d. 
 1869), Enghsh theologian; son of Rev. W. 
 Parr Greswell, was educated at Oxford, and 
 became fellow of Corpus Christi. Chief 
 among his works were Harmonia Evangelica, 
 Dissertations on the Gospels, and Origines 
 Kalendarice. He also translated Comiis and 
 Samson Agonistes into Greek verse. 
 
 Gr^try, Andre Modeste {h. 1741, b. 18_13J, 
 French composer ; came to Paris in 1747, 
 and was very successfiU as a composer of 
 operas, the best-known of which is Huron. 
 He also wrote Essais stir la Musique. 
 
 Greuze, Jean Baptiste (b. 1725, d. 1805), 
 
 French painter, left the French Academy of 
 
 . Painting because he was classed with the 
 
 genre painters. Most of his x>icture3 are 
 
 portraits, and are in the Louvre. Among 
 
 them may be mentioned The Little Girl 
 with the Dog, and The Village Bride. 
 
 Greville, Charles Cavendish (6. 1794, d. 
 1865), EugUsh memoir-writer ; educated at 
 Eton and Oxford ; was clerk of the council 
 from 1821 to 1860, His Diary was edited 
 by Mr. Reeve, the first series appearing in 
 1875, the second in 1885, and the third in 
 1837. 
 
 Greville, Fulke, Lord Brooke {b. 1554, d. 
 1628), English statesman and poet, friend of 
 Sir P. Sidney, a favourite of Elizabeth, and 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer under James L, 
 was killed by a servant named Heywood. 
 He was author of Tragedies and Foems, Five 
 Years of King James, and a Life of Sir 
 Fhilip Sidney. His relative, Robert {b. 
 1608), wrote the Nature of Truth, and was 
 Parliamentary commander in the Civil war, 
 being killed at Lichfield in 1643. 
 
 Greville, Henri, non de plume of Madame 
 Durand (6. 1842), French novelist, author 
 of Le Violon Jiusse (1879), Folle Avoine 
 (1884), rFngenue (1885), Cleopdtre (1886), 
 and Nikanor (1887). 
 
 Gr6vy, Fran9ois Paul Jules (J. 1813, d. 
 1891), French statesman, came to the front at 
 Paris as a defender of republicans in politi- 
 cal cases, and in 1848 was elected a member 
 of the Constituent Assembly. He joined 
 the C6t4 Gauche, became vice-president of 
 the Assembly, and opposed the presidency 
 of Louis Napoleon. In 1868 bis native 
 department (the Jura) returned him for the 
 Assembly, and, on resuming pubUc life, he 
 strongly opposed the Second Empire. He 
 became president of the Assembly in 1871, 
 and was re-elected three times. Between 
 1873 and 1876, when he was a private 
 member, he strongly opposed the Mon- 
 archists, and he afterwards vigorously 
 resisted the schemes of MacMahon, ou 
 whose resignation in 1879 he became presi- 
 dent of the republic, in which office he dis- 
 played much tact, and in 1885 made peace 
 \vith China on his own responsibility. In 
 December of that year he was re-elected, 
 but in 1887 was obliged to resign owing to 
 the discovery of his son-in-law's (M. Wilson) 
 implication in the decoration scandals. 
 
 Grew, Nathaniel {b. 1628, d. 1711), 
 English botanist; author of Anatomy of 
 Vegetables, Roots, and Tmnks. 
 
 Grey, Charies, second Earl (6. 1764, d. 
 1845), second son of the first eari, educated 
 at Eton and King's College, entered Parlia- 
 ment in 1786 for Northumberiand. He 
 opposed Pitt's commercial policy, was one 
 of the managers of the Hastings impeach- 
 ment, and was early connected with parlia- 
 mentary reforms. By the death of his 
 elder brother he became Lord Howick, and
 
 Gre 
 
 (398) 
 
 Gri 
 
 was Fii'st Lord of the Admiralty in the 
 Grenville ministry, and on Fox's death 
 Foreign Secretary. As leader in the Com- 
 mons he Ciirried through the Slave-Trade 
 Aholitiou Bill, but was unable to make 
 peace with France. In 1807 he was out of 
 office again, and also no longer in the 
 Lower House, his father having died. He 
 became alienated from the regent, and took 
 the side of Queen Caroline when the regent 
 came to the throne. In 1836 he became 
 head of the ministry of Reform, and suc- 
 cessfully carried after a severe struggle the 
 first Refoi-m Bill. He now effected the pass- 
 ing of the Church Act, and the Bank Charter 
 Act ; but from this time his government 
 began to fall to pieces, and Grey himself 
 resigned in 1834, taking little further part 
 in public life, and being no longer in sym- 
 pathy with the younger members of his 
 party. 
 
 Grey, Henry, third Earl {b. 1802), 
 English statesman, eldest son of preceding ; 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, was 
 returned as Lord Howick for Winchelsea in 
 1826, and subsequently sat for Higham 
 Ferrers and Northumberland. He was 
 under-secretary for the colonies under his 
 father for a short time, and afterwards 
 held the same post in the Home Office ; 
 and in 1835 he became Secretary for War 
 under Melbourne. In 1841 he lost his 
 old seat, but was elected for Sunderland, 
 becoming a prominent opponent of Pro- 
 tection. In 1845 he succeeded to the peer- 
 age, and in the foUowiug year joined the 
 Eut ;;'ll ministry as Colonial Secretary, 
 resigning with them in 1852 ; after this he 
 was never in office, being opposed to the 
 policy of the Coalitionists. He is the author 
 of Colohlal Policy of Lord RusseW s Adminis- 
 tration, and of an Essuy on Parliamentary 
 Government as to Reform, besides many 
 contributions to The Times. 
 
 Grey, Sir Charles (b. 1785, d. 1865), 
 English colonial administrator, son of 
 Ralph Grey, Esq. ; for some time fel- 
 low of Oriel ; was in 1817 appointed com- j 
 missioner La bankruptcy ; in 1820 judge 
 of Madras, and in 1825 chief justice of j 
 Bengal. In 1835 he went to Canada as ! 
 commissioner, and, after having been for a 
 short time in Parliament, was governor of ; 
 Barbadoes from 1841 to 1846, when he . 
 became governor of Jamaica. 
 
 Grey, Sir George, G.C.B. (6. 1799, d. 
 1882), English statesman ; son of Sir G. 
 Grey, and nephew of the second Earl; 
 educated at Oriel ; was called to the bar 
 in 1826. In 1832 he was returned for 
 Devonport, which he represented till 1847. 
 He was twice under-secretary for the 
 colonies, and became in 1839 judge advo- 
 cate, and took great part in colonial affairs, 
 
 especially in defence of the bill for the sus- 
 
 fension of the constitution of Lower Canada, 
 n 1841 he became chancellor of the Duchy 
 of Lancaster, and in 1846 Lord Russell's 
 Home Secretary. In the latter capacity he 
 passed the Government Security Bill, and 
 the Alien Bill, and the other measures 
 (including the suspension of the Habeas 
 Corpus Act), for which the Chartist agita- 
 tion gave occasion. He was defeated for 
 North imiberland in 1852, but was elected 
 for Morpeth next year, becoming in 1854 
 Colonial Secretary in the Coalition ministry. 
 In 1855, however, under Palmerston, he 
 returned to the Home Office, and again in 
 the Russell ministry of 1865-6. He held his 
 seat in Parliament till 1874, but gradually 
 withdrew from affairs. 
 
 Grey, Sir George (6. 1812), colonial states- 
 man ; educated at Sandhui'st ; served in 
 the army for several years, but resigned in 
 1839, and went to Australia as an explorer. 
 In 1841 he was appointed governor of 
 South Australia ; in 1845 of New Zealand ; 
 in 1854 of Cape Colony, and again in 1861 
 of New Zealand. In 1876 he was superin- 
 tendent of the province of West Auckland ; 
 and from 1877 to 1884 premier of New 
 Zealand- 
 Grey, Lady Jane (*. 1537, d. 1554), 
 grand-niece of Heni-y VIII. ; was appointed 
 heir to the throne by Edward VL in con- 
 travention of the previous settlement of 
 the succession, and havi7ig married a son 
 of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, was 
 made queen and reigned ten days ; she was 
 beheaded with Lord Dudley. 
 
 Grey, Sir William, K.C.S.L (b. 1818, d. 
 1878), Indian administrator, son of the 
 Bishop of Hereford ; went to India in 1840 ; 
 was a member of the council from 1862 to 
 1867 ; lieutenant-governor of Bengal from 
 that year till 1871, and from 1874 to 1877 
 governor of Jamaica. 
 
 Grey, Zachary (6. 1697, d. 1766), Eng- 
 lish theologian ; edited Hudibras, wrote 
 a criticism of Neal's History of the Puritans, 
 and was an opponent of Warburton. 
 
 Gribaldi, Matteo, called "Mofa" {d. 
 1564), Itahan jurist and reformer; incurred 
 the wrath of Calvin for not recognising the 
 Trinity, and was author of De Methodo 
 Studendi in Jure Civili. 
 
 Gribeauval, Jean Vaquette de (6. 1715, 
 d. 1789), French military engineer ; entered 
 the Austrian service, and distinguished 
 himself in the Seven Years' war by his 
 defence of Schweidnitz against Frederick 
 the Great ; became field-marshal, but after- 
 wards entered the French service, and 
 greatly reformed its artillery. 
 
 Grieg, Edvard Hagenip {b. 1843),
 
 Gri 
 
 ( 399) 
 
 Gri 
 
 Norwegian ; composer, bom at Bergen ; 
 studied at the Leipzig Conservatoire under 
 Hauptmann andRichter, and in 1863 went to 
 Copenhagen to he taught by Gade. In 
 conjunction with Nordraak he founded a 
 new Scandinavian school, whose teaching he 
 directed in the Christiania musical society. 
 Having visited Italy, he made the acquaint- 
 ance of Liszt at Rome ; but it was in 
 Germany in the Leipzig Gewandhaus con- 
 certs that he brought out his compositions, 
 among which may be named Melodien des 
 Herzens, Romanzen, Xorivegische Volk- 
 slieder iind Tdnze, most of them being 
 written for the pianoforte. 
 
 Griesbach, Johann Jacob {b. 1745, </. 1812), 
 German biblical scholar ; devoted himself 
 from an early age to biblical studies ; was 
 professor of theology at Halle and Jena, 
 and having visited England and most other 
 covmtries for the pui-pose of collecting and 
 comparing MSS., published between 1771 
 and 1775 his Greek New Testament, and 
 subsequently a critical commentary on it, 
 and other works. He is the originator of 
 the term Synoptic Gospels. 
 
 Griflfet, Henri (6. 1698, d. 1771), French 
 Jesuit historian; author of Annee Du 
 Chretien (1747), and Hlstoire de Louis XIII. 
 (1758). 
 
 Griffin, Edmund {b. 1864, d. 1836), Ameri- 
 can scholar and divine ; visited Europe, and 
 on his return gave able lectures on Roman, 
 Italian, and English literature, but died 
 suddenly soon after. His Remains were 
 edited in 1831 by W. C. Bryant. 
 
 Griffin, Gerald (Jb. 1803, d. 1840), Irish 
 novelist ; bom at Limerick, came to London 
 in 1820, and wrote for periodicals and 
 the press, publishing Holland Tide, his first 
 tale, in 1827. Between that year and 1830, 
 when he returned to Ireland and joined the 
 Cork society of Christian Brothers, he pro- 
 duced Tales of the Minster Festivals and 
 The Collegians, which was dramatised as 
 Eily C Connor, and formed the basis of The 
 Colleen Bawn. 
 
 Griffin, John Joseph {b. 1802, d. 1877), 
 English chemist ; author of Chemical Recre- 
 ations and The Radical Theory in Chemistry 
 (18o8). He was one of the founders of the 
 Chemical Society. 
 
 Griffith, Sir Richard J. (*. 1784, d. 1878), 
 English geologist and agriculturist; author 
 of The Irish Land Question and English Pub- 
 lic Opinion : With a Supplement on Griffith's 
 Valuation (1881) ; was appointed professor 
 of geology and mining engineer to the 
 Royal Dublin Society in 1812, and in 1885 
 commissioner for the valuation of lands in 
 Ireland. In 1851 he was named chaiiinan 
 of the Irish Board of Works, for his services 
 
 to agriculture^ in which capacity he waa 
 made a baronet. He also made A Geo- 
 logical Map of Ireland, and retired in 
 1864. 
 
 Griffith, Sir Samuel Walter, K.C.M.G. 
 {b. 1845), colonial statesman; bom at 
 Merthyr Tydvil ; went to Australia in 1854, 
 and was educated at Sydney, where he took 
 high honours. He was called to the Queens- 
 land bar in 1867, and was elected to the 
 Legislative Assembly in 1872. He was at- 
 torney-general of Queensland from 1874 to 
 1878 ; secretary of pubUc instruction from 
 1876 to 1879, from which year till 1883 he 
 led the Opposition, having refused a seat 
 in the supreme court. From 1883 to 1888 
 he was premier of Queensland, holding 
 various offices in conjunction with the head- 
 ship. He was a member of the Federal 
 Council from 1885, became president in 1888, 
 and attended both the London Colonial 
 Conference of 1887, the Federation Confer- 
 ence of Melbourne in 1890, and represented 
 Queensland at the Australian Federal Con- 
 ference of 1891. 
 
 Grignan, Fran9oise, Comtesse de {}>. 1648, 
 d. 1705), daughter of Madame de Sevigne; 
 celebrated for her beauty and accomphsh- 
 ments; the well-known letters were ad- 
 dressed to her. 
 
 Grijalva, Juan de {d. 1527), Spanish navi- 
 gator; was the first European who had a 
 conference with the Mexicans, and entered 
 into relations with the Aztecs. He after- 
 wards went to Nicaragua, where he was 
 murdered by the Indians. 
 
 Grillo, Marquise del. {See Ristori.] 
 
 Grillparzer, Franz (6. 1791, d. 1872), 
 Austrian dramatist and poet ; became director 
 of the archives in 1833, court councillor in 
 1856, and imperial councillor in 1861. His 
 chief works were Konig Ottokar''s Gliick und 
 Ende and }FeJ(e dem der Liigt; dramas, Die 
 Ahnfrau and Des Meeres und der Liehe 
 WelUn, poems ; and the novels, Der Traum 
 Ein Lebeit and Ber Spielmann. 
 
 Grimaldi, Francesco Maria (6. 1618, d. 
 1663), Italian Jesuit philosopher; prepared 
 the way for some of Newton's discoveries, 
 and wrote Ihysico Mathesis de Lumine, 
 Coloribus, et Iride. 
 
 Grimaldi, Geronimo, (6. 1597, d. 1685), 
 Italian cardinal ; member of a celebrated 
 Genoese house; was made Archbishop of Aix 
 in 1645, having two years before been made 
 cardinal by Urban VIII. for diplomatic 
 services. As prelate he was known for his 
 munificence and his reforming measures. 
 
 Grimaldi, Giovanni, "H Bolognese" (6. 
 1606, d. U'lNO), Italian painter, architect and 
 engraver ; brought up by the Carracci, whose
 
 Gri 
 
 (400) 
 
 Gro 
 
 style he followed, was employed by Inno- 
 ceut X. iu the Vaticau, and by Louis XIV. 
 in the Louvre. His pictures were chiefly 
 landscapes. 
 
 Grimaldi, Joseph (b. 1877, d. 1837), 
 Italian clown ; bom in Loudon, where he 
 made his reputation as a low comedian, his 
 greatest hit haviug been as a clown in the 
 Harlequin Amulet produced at Drury Lane 
 in 1799. He retired in 1828. His Memoirs 
 were edited by Dickens (*'Boz "). 
 
 Grimbold, or Grimoald, Nicolas {b. 1519, 
 d. 1563), English scholar and Latin poet; 
 was lecturer in rhetoric at Christ Church, 
 Oxford, and was one of the first Englishmen 
 to make use of blank verse in his poems 
 and plays. He wrote the Praise of Measure- 
 Keeping, and a Latin tragedy on John the 
 Baptist, 
 
 Grimm, Frederic, Baron (6. 1723, d. 1807), 
 German critic, and diplomatist, and at first 
 a friend but afterwards a bitter enemy of 
 Eousseau ; was some time at Paris as secre- 
 tary to the Duke of Orleans and minister of 
 the' Duke of Gotha, and was afterwards the 
 Tsarina Catherine's minister at Hamburg. 
 His correspondence with Diderot (1753-82), 
 and others, was published in 1812-13. As 
 a musical critic he supported the Italians 
 against the French school. 
 
 Grimm, Jacob Ludwig Karl {b. 1785, d. 
 1863), German scholar ; born at Hanau and 
 educated at Cassel and Marburg ; after assist- 
 ing for some time the jurist Savigny, was 
 appointed librarian to Jerome Bouaparte in 
 1S08. which postheheld till 1813. Hisbrother, 
 Wilhelm {h. 1786, d. 1859), was joint libra- 
 rian with him, and together they brought 
 out in 1812 the Kinder-und-Haus-Marchen, 
 Wilhelm having previously published his col- 
 lection of Old JJanish Ballads. In 1815 Jacob 
 was sent to Paris to recover the MSS. 
 taken by the French from Germany, and in 
 the years 1816-18 the brothers published 
 Deutsche Sage. In 1819 the elder brought 
 out the first volume of his Deutsche Gram- 
 matik, and in 1829 Wilhelm published 
 Deutsche Heldensage. They removed to 
 Gottingen soon after, and both obtained 
 professorships, but in 1837, having joined 
 in the protest against the King of Hanover's 
 unconstitutional measures, were banished, 
 but were in 1840 given professorships at 
 BerUn. Here they continued their great 
 work, the Deutsches WUrterbuch , which they 
 did not live to finish. Jacob was for a 
 short time in the Frankfort parliament. 
 
 Grimoard, Phillippe, Comte de {d. 1814), 
 French general and historian : author of 
 Essai Theorique sur des Batailles and Histoire 
 des Dernieres Campagnes de Twenne. 
 
 Grimod de la Reyn^re, Alexandre {b. 
 
 1758, d. 1838), French writer; publisher of 
 Almanack des Gomtnands between 1703 and 
 1812, and Manuel des Amphitryons in 1808. 
 
 Grimston, Mrs. \_See Kendal.] 
 
 Grimston, Sir Harbottle (d. 1683), Eng- 
 lish politician ; a Parliamentarian, but re- 
 fused to subscribe to the Solemn League 
 and Covenant. He supported however, 
 the Presbyterians against the Independents, 
 and was excluded from Cromwell's second 
 Parliament. In 1660 he became Speaker of 
 the Convention Parliament, and was made 
 Master of the Rolls by Charles II. 
 
 Grimthorpe, Edmund Beckett Denison 
 (afterwards Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart.), 
 Lord (b. 1816), English lawyer and writer; 
 educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, was called to the bar in 1841, and be- 
 came Queen's Counsel iu 1854. In 1877 he 
 became chancellor and vicar-general of York. 
 In 1886 was raised to the peerage. "His chief 
 works are Lectures on Church Building (1856), 
 A Book on Building (1880), Treatise on Clocks, 
 Watches, and Bells (1883), and some contro- 
 versial writing. 
 
 Grimus (1103), King of Scotland from 
 995 ; killed by Malcohn. 
 
 Grindal, Edmund (6. 1519, d. 1583), 
 English churchman ; was chaplain to Ridley 
 and fled to Frankfort dirring the Marian 
 persecution ; was successively Bishop of 
 London, Archbishop of York, and Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. Having incurred 
 the anger of Elizabeth for his Puritan lean- 
 ings, he was sequestered for many years. 
 
 Grinfield, Edward {d. 1864), English 
 biblical critic ; published Novum Testa- 
 tnentum GrcBcum (1843-8) and Apology for 
 the Septuagint (1850). 
 
 Gringoire, Pierre {b. circa 1475, d. 1544), 
 French poet and dramatist ; author of Chd- 
 teau de Labour, Chdteau d'Amours, Lea 
 Folles Entreprises. 
 
 Grisi, Giulia (h. 1811, d. 1869), Italian 
 operatic singer ; bom at Milan, and educated 
 at the conservatoire there. She made her 
 first appearance at the age of seventeen in 
 Rossini's Zelmira. She was a great favourite 
 with Bellini, and took the leading part in his 
 o-peia, Norma. After singing in several Italian 
 towns she came to Paris in 1832, and sang the 
 part of Semiramide. In 1 834 she visited Lon- 
 don, which she made her home, and where 
 she was very successful, her best parts being 
 those of Desdemona (Othello), Amina {La 
 Sonnambulaj, Leonora (II Trovatore), and 
 Pamina (IlFlauto Magico) and Norma. She 
 retired from the stage in 1862. Her second 
 husband was Signor Mario. 
 
 Grocyn, William (A. 1442, d. 1519),
 
 Gro 
 
 (401) 
 
 Gro 
 
 English scholar; studied under PoHtian in 
 Italy and became professor of Greek at Ox- 
 ford, where he entertained Erasmus ; was 
 afterwards master of All Hallows' college, 
 Maidstone. 
 
 Grolier, Jean {b. 1479, d. 1565), French 
 bibliophile, left a collection of 3,000 splen- 
 didly bound volum.e8, which are now very 
 rare. 
 
 Grolmann, Karl Wilhelm von (6. 1775, d. 
 1829), German statesman and jurist; as 
 chief minister at Hesse Darmstadt was 
 mainly instrumental iu founding a con- 
 stitutional government there (1820). 
 
 Gronovius, Jacob (b. 1645, d. 1716), 
 German philologist, author of Thesaurus 
 Antiquitatiim Grcecarum ; succeeded his 
 father as professor at Leyden. His sou, 
 Lorenz Theodor id. yill) was a naturalist, 
 and ^xot& Museum Ichthyologiimi (1754-56). 
 
 Gronovius, Johaun Friedrich {b. 1611, d. 
 1671), Gennan philologist ; friend of Vossius 
 and Heinsius ; edited Plautus, Livy, and 
 Tacitus, and published Observationes (i6u9). 
 
 Gronow, Kees Howell (b. 1794, d. 1865), 
 English writer ; captain in the army ; wrote 
 The Camp, the Court, and the Clubs (1861), 
 and his Recollections (1863). 
 
 Groombridge, Stephen {d. 1832), English 
 merchant aud astronomer ; author of 6'«i- 
 versal Tables for the Eeduction of Fixed 
 Stars (1821). 
 
 Greet, Gerard (6. 1340, d. 1384), Dutch 
 theologian ; teacher of philosophy and 
 theology at Cologne, and collector of MSS. ; 
 founded the order of the "Brethren of the 
 Common Life." 
 
 Gro8, Antoine Jean, Baron (6. 1771, d. 
 1835), French painter; his chief pictures 
 dealing with the life of Napoleon, such as 
 his Advance on the Austrian Batteries in 
 1796 and the Plague of Jaffa. He ultimately 
 became imbecile, and was found drowned. 
 
 Grose, Francis (b. 1731, d. 1791), English 
 antiquary ; son of a Swiss jeweller ; became 
 "Richmond Herald," and published Ari- 
 tiquities of England and Wales (1773-6), 
 Militari/ Antiquities (1786-8), and Antiqui- 
 ties of Scotland (1789-91), The Olio (1793), etc. 
 
 Grosseteste, Robert (d. 1253), English 
 bishop and clerical reformer ; resisted the en- 
 croachments and exactions of Innocent IV., 
 by whom he was exoommunicated ; was con- 
 secrated Bishop of Lincoln in 1235. 
 
 Grossi, Tommaso {b. 1791,*:?. 1853), Italian 
 poet ; author of Marco Visconti and several 
 sonnets ; was appointed in 1848 director of 
 public instruction in Lombardy. 
 
 Grosvenor, Thomas, Field-marshal {b. 
 1764, d. 1851), English soldier; son of 
 
 A. A. 
 
 Thomas Grosvenor, M.P., commanded the 
 guard in the riots of 1780 ; in 1793 served in 
 Flanders, and in 1799 with the expedition to 
 the Helder; commanded a brigade in the 
 attack on Copenhagen in 1805, and in 1809 
 joined the Walcheren expedition. He 
 became tield-marshal in 1846, and repre- 
 sented Chester in Parliament for manj' years. 
 
 Grote, George {b. 1794, d. 1871), his- 
 torian and politician ; educated at the 
 Charterhouse ; entered the family banking- 
 house, but devoted his leisure time to literary 
 work. He published many pamphlets on 
 reform, and contributed to the Westminster 
 Review. In 1833 he was elected for the 
 City of London, for which he continued to 
 sit till 1841 as one of the "Philosophical 
 Radicals." His History of Greece appeared 
 between 1846 and 1856, and was followed by 
 Flato and other Companions of Socrates. He 
 was also one of the founders of London 
 University. His Minor Works were edited 
 by Professor Bain in 1873. 
 
 Gretefend, Georg Friedrich {b. 1775, d. 
 1853), German philologist ; author of A 
 Greater Latin Grammar and of some works 
 on the cuneiform inscrii^tions, of which he 
 was the first to discover the key. His 
 brother, Friedrich August {d. 1836), wrote 
 Materials for Latin Style. 
 
 Gretius, Hugo {b. 1583, d. 1645), German 
 statesman aud writer ; bom at Delft ; entered 
 public life &% pensionary (A Rotterdam; came 
 to England in 1615 as a commissioner on the 
 Greenland fisheries' question, and there met 
 Casaubon. As a friend of Bamevelt, and a 
 supporter of Arminius, he was imprisoned 
 by the stadtholder, Maurice (1619), but two 
 years after his wife contrived his escape, and 
 he went to Paris for some years. After a 
 short stay in Holland, and a residence of 
 two years at Hamburg, he returned to 
 Paris in 1635, as Swedish ambassador, where 
 he remained till shortly before his death. 
 Chief among his many works were Foemata 
 Sacra (1601), Be Jure Belli et Facis (1625), 
 and Annotationes in Novum Teitamentum 
 (1644). 
 
 Grotius, Peter (6. 1610, d. 1680), Dutch 
 diplomatist; son of last-named, was pen- 
 sionary of Amsterdam in 1660, and a 
 partisan of the De Witts, on whose fall he 
 fled (1671) ; was afterwards tried for betray- 
 iug state secrets, but acquitted. 
 
 Grouchy, Emmanuel, Marquis de {b. 1766, 
 d. 1847), French soldier; one of Napoleon's 
 marshals ; distinguished himself in the 
 Vendean war, and afterwards in Lombardy 
 and Germany, rendering conspicuous service 
 at Hohenlinden, in Russia, and on the in- 
 vasion of the Allies in 1814. He was sent by 
 Napoleon to pursueBliicherafter thebattloof 
 Ligny, and to his non-arrival was attributed
 
 Gro 
 
 (402) 
 
 Gud 
 
 the defeat of Waterloo. He was banished 
 by the Bourbous, but, aft«r an absence of 
 twelve years, was recalled and restored to 
 his honours by Louis Philippe. 
 
 Grove, Sir George (*. 1820), English 
 engineer and biographer ; was for some years 
 on the staff of Robert Stephenson, and em- 
 ployed on the Chester and Holyhead rail- 
 way ; was afterwards secretary to the 
 Society of Arts and the Crystal Palace 
 Company. He has also contributed to Dr. 
 Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, and edited 
 Macmillan's Magazine and The Dictio)iary 
 of Music, writing many of the chief 
 articles for the latter. In 1882 he was 
 appointed director of the Boyal College of 
 Music, and was knighted in the following 
 year. 
 
 Grove, Sir "WilUam Robert, F.R.S. (*. 181 1) , 
 English judge and man of science ; educated 
 at Brasenose, Oxford; was called to the bar 
 in 1835; became Q.U. in 1853, justice of 
 the Common Pleas 1871, and a judge of the 
 High Court of justice in 1875. On his re- 
 tirement in 1887 he was sworn on the Privy 
 Council. He was also professor of experi- 
 mental philosophy at the London Institution 
 from 1840 to 1847, and president of the 
 British Association in 1866. He took great 
 part in the reorganisation of the Royal 
 ■society, and was the author of several im- 
 portant discoveries in electricity and optics, 
 described in The Proqress of Physical Science 
 since the Opening of the London Institution, 
 and the essay, On the Correlation of Phy- 
 sical Forces. 
 
 Groves, Charles Edward (&. 1841), English 
 chemist ; assisted Dr. Hoffmann in the Royal 
 College of Chemistry, and was afterwards 
 lecturer in practical chemistry at Guy's 
 Hospital, consulting chemist to the Thames 
 Conservators, and sub-editor and editor of 
 the Journal of the Chemical Society. He 
 was elected F.C.S. in 1871, and F.R.S. in 
 1883, and has edited several chemical works. 
 
 Griin. \_See Auersperg. ] 
 
 Grundy, William (6. 1850), English scholar 
 and divine ; educated at Rossall and Ox- 
 ford, being fellow of Worcester College for 
 three years ; was ordained in 1878 ; became 
 head-master of King's school, Warwick, in 
 1881, and of Malvern in 1885. He is the 
 author of The Chief Ancie>it Philosophies 
 (1889), and was gold medallist of the Royal 
 Geographical Society in 1869. 
 
 Grynseus, Johann Jacob (b. 1540, d. 1617), 
 German Protestant theologian ; author of 
 Character Christianorum and editor of the 
 Ecclesiastica Historia of Eusebius. 
 
 Grynasus, Simon Major (6. 1493, d. 1541), 
 German scholar ; fiiend of Erasmus and Sir 
 
 Thomas More, whose acquaintance he made 
 on coming to England to consult about the 
 divorce of Henry VIII. ; pubhshed Norus 
 Orbis Regionum, a collection of voyages, and 
 discovered the last five books of Livy. 
 
 Guadet, Marguerite lllie {b. 1768, d. 
 1794), French revolutionist ; practised as an. 
 advocate, and was elected for Bordeaux a 
 member of the Legislative Assembly. In 
 the Convention he became one of the leading 
 Girondists, and was involved in their fall, 
 and guillotined at Bordeaux in July, 1794. 
 
 Gualdo-Priorato, Galeazzo (fi. 1606, d. 
 1678), Italian soldier and historian ; served 
 Maurice of Nassau, Venice, and other 
 states, and wrote Historia delle Guerre 
 (1630-39), and II Guerriere Prttdente e 
 Politico. 
 
 Guarini, Giovanni Battista (6. 1537, d. 
 1612), Italian poet; friend and imitator of 
 Tasso. His chief work was II Pastor Fido 
 (1590). 
 
 Guarino, or Guarini of Verona (6. 1370, d. 
 1460), Italian scholar, the first Italian who 
 taught Greek after the revival of letters ; 
 edited Plutarch, Strabo, and other authors. 
 
 Guarnieri, Josef "del Gesh" (jb. 1683, d. 
 1745), violin-maker of Cremona, the most 
 famous of his family ; preferred strength and 
 tone to form in his instruments. They have 
 been very valuable since Paganini used one. 
 His sobriquet "del Gesii" came from the 
 I.H.S. which is on his tickets. The founder 
 of the familj' of viohn-makers was Andrea 
 GuAENiKRi (d. 1695), who worked with 
 Stradivari, and whose son, Joseph {d. 1730), 
 developed his father's method, and is known 
 as " Cremonensis." 
 
 Guasco, Octaviano di {b. 1712, d. 1781), 
 Piedmoutese scholar ; friend of Montesquieu, 
 whose Lettres Familidres he published in 
 1767. 
 
 Guazzo, Marco (d. 1556), Italian poet and 
 historian ; author of Historia delle Guerre 
 di Maometto imperatore con la Signoria di 
 Venetia (1545). 
 
 Gubernatis, Angelo de {b. 1840), Italian 
 Orientalist ; born and educated at Turin ; 
 studied at Berlin tmder Bopp and Weber, 
 and became professor of Sanscrit at Florence 
 in 1869. He founded the Bolletino degli 
 Studii Orientali ; was secretary to the Flor- 
 ence Oriental Congress in 1878, and is the 
 author of Piccola Enciclopcedia Indiana, 
 Zoological Mythology, and Mythohgie des 
 Plantes (1878), the Bizionario biografico 
 degli Scrittori Contemporanei (1879-80), etc. 
 In May, 1878, he gave three lectures at 
 Oxford on Manzoni. 
 
 Gudin, Theodore (6. 1802, d. 1880), French
 
 Gud 
 
 (403) 
 
 Gtii 
 
 painter of the romantic school : began to 
 exhibit in 1822, and was from 1838 to 1848 
 employed by Louis Philippe to decorate with 
 sea-pieces the walls of Versailles. Among 
 his best pictures are Jtetour des Picheurs and 
 ISauvetage des Passager de Columbus. In 
 1856 he travelled ia the East, and he spent 
 his last years with his wife's family in Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Gudin de la Brenellerie, Paul Philippe 
 {b. 1738, t?. 1812), French poet; friend of 
 Voltaire and Beaumarchais, and author of 
 Essai sur le Frogres des Arts sous leRegne de 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 Guercino da Cento, Giovanni Francesco 
 Barbieri (6. 1590, d. 1666), Italian painter; 
 bom at Cento, near Bologna, and called 
 " Guercino, " from his habit of squinting; 
 studied under Gremonni and Gennari, and 
 imitated Caravaggio. His finest pictures 
 were St. Petronilla, in the Capitol, Rome, and 
 several frescoes ia. the cupola at Piacenza. 
 His Angels Weeping over the Dead Body of 
 Christ is in the National Gallery. He after- 
 wards imitated Guido, and died at Bologna 
 very rich, although he had been very mu- 
 nificent and charitable. 
 
 Gueret, Gabriel {b. 1641, d. 1688), French 
 jurist and satirical writer ; author of La 
 Parnasse Reforme (1669). 
 
 Guericke, Otto von {h. 1602, d. 1686), 
 German philosopher ; born at Magdeburg, 
 of which he became burgomaster, after 
 travelling in France and Eugliind, and study- 
 ing at Leyden. He invented the air-pump, 
 and made experiments before the diet at 
 Ratisbon in 1654. He also constructed the 
 first electric machine, and described his 
 " Magdeburg hemispheres," in his Xova Ex- 
 perimenta (1672). 
 
 Gu^rln, Georges Maurice de (6. 1810, d. 
 1839), French poet ; was ■\vith Lamennais in 
 Brittany for a year ; married a rich lady in 
 1838, but died soon after of consumption. Le 
 Centaure and La Bacchante were his chief 
 poems, and, with his journals and letters, 
 were published in 1862. Eugenie {b. 1805, d. 
 1848), his sister, was much attached to 'him, 
 and wrote a Journal for him, which was 
 published in 1855. She was a strict Catholic, 
 and was much grieved at the change in her 
 brother's opinions. 
 
 Gu^rin, Jean Baptiste {h. 1783, d. 1855), 
 French painter; his chief pictures being 
 Jesus Mort i\%\'), Anchise et Venus (1822), 
 and Adam et Eve £xiUs (1827). 
 
 Guerin, Pierre Narcisse (b. 1774, d. 1833), 
 French painter ; pupil of Regnault, and 
 teacher of G^ricault and Ary Scheffer, who, 
 however, deserted the classical school for the 
 romantic. Among his chief pictures were 
 A a2 
 
 Marcus Sextus (1799), Clytemnestra, and 
 Dido and .^Eneas. 
 
 GuescUn, Bertrand du (*. circa 1320, d. 
 1380), French soldier; commandedagainstthe 
 Black Prince, but was defeated and made 
 prisoner by Sir John Chandos in 1364 ; after- 
 wards collected all the "free companies" 
 under his command, and led them into Spain 
 against Pedi-o the Cruel, and was defeated 
 at Navarette, but in 1380 defeated Pedro at 
 Montiel, and dethroned him. 
 
 Guest, Edwin, F.R.S. {b. 1800, d. 1880), 
 English historical writer ; graduated at 
 Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1828. 
 He was elected master of Cains College in 
 1852, and was vice-chancellor in 1854. He 
 was author of a History of English Rhythms 
 (1838), and several historical fragments, 
 which were collected and published by Pro- 
 fessor Stubbs and Mr. Seedes under the title 
 of Origines Celtics, and Other Contributions 
 to the History of Britain. 
 
 Guettard, Jean Etienne (6. 1715, d. 1786), 
 French mineralogist and geologist; dis- 
 covered china earth near Aleu^on, which 
 was used in the making of Sevres china. 
 
 Guevara, Antonio di (b. 1490, d. 1544), 
 Spanish historian and moralist ; author of 
 Relax de Principes, Marco Aurelio (1529), 
 Una Decada de los Vidas de los Cesares 
 (1539). 
 
 Guevara, Louis Veles (6. 1570, d. 1644), 
 Spanish dramatist ; author of Diablo Cojuelo 
 
   (1641). 
 
 Guglielmi, Pietro (6. 1727, d. 1804), 
 Italian composer; rival of PaisieUo, at 
 Naples, and afterwards maestro di capella at 
 Rome ; composed many operas, the chief of 
 which were Mort d'Abele and Debora e 
 Si sera. 
 
 Guglielmini, Domenico (b. 1655, d. 1710), 
 Italian mathematician and physician ; pro- 
 fessor of Bologna, the draining of whose 
 territory he superintended. He wrote JJe 
 Cometarum Naturd, and other works. 
 
 Gui de Lusignan {d. 1194), King of 
 Cyprus, and crusader; was defeated by 
 Saladin in 1117, whereupon Jerusalem sur- 
 rendered, and he renounced his title as king 
 of it, which he had gained by marriage with 
 the daughter of Baldwin. 
 
 Guibert {b. 1053, d. 1124), Abbot of No- 
 gcnt; wrote Gesta Dei per Francos, the 
 earliest history of the Crusades. 
 
 Gmbert, Cardinal (h. 1802, d. 188G), French 
 theologian ; celebrated as a controversialist ; 
 was successively Vicar-General of Ajaccio, 
 Bishop of Viviers, Archbishop of Tours, and 
 Archbishop of Paris, and in 1873 Pius IX.
 
 Gui 
 
 (404 ) 
 
 Gui 
 
 made him Cardinal. He opposed the secu- 
 laris;itiou of education, aud addressed a re- 
 moustrauee to Preaideut Grevy on the sub- 
 ject iu 1886. 
 
 Guicciaxdini, Francesco {b. 1483, d. 1540), 
 Italian liistorian aud diplomatist ; employed 
 by Leo X. aud subsequent popes, beiug a 
 faithful adlierent of the Medici. Ou the 
 accession of Cosimo I. he retired into private 
 life, aud composed his Delia Histona deW 
 Anno 1494, fin delP Anno 1626, which was 
 published in 1661. 
 
 Guichenon, Samuel, Comte de {b. 1607, 
 d. llJ64), French genealogist; author of 
 Histoire de la Maison de Savoye. 
 
 Guide, Philibert (6. 1535, d. 1695), French 
 writer ; author of Fables (1583) and La Col- 
 umbiere et la Maison Hustique. 
 
 Guidi, Carlo [b. 1650, d. 1715), ItaUan 
 poet ; wrote Poeste Liriehe (1681), and did 
 much to reform the prevalent style of Italian 
 poetry. 
 
 Guidi, Tommaso, " Masaccio " (6. 1402, d. 
 1443), Florentine painter, all of whose early 
 pictures are lost ; but the crucifix above the 
 door of the sacristy of Sainte- Marie Nou- 
 velle, at Florence, is attributed to him, and 
 there are a few of his works elsewhere. 
 
 Guido, Novello (13th century), Italian 
 statesman ; leader of the Ghibelliues after 
 the battle of the Arbia ; governed Tuscany 
 for Manfred till he was driven, in 1266, 
 from Florence by the Guelfs. 
 
 Guido Aretino, or d'Arezzo (Jl. 1000), 
 Benedictine monk ; supposed to have in- 
 vented counterpoint, and to have been the 
 first who used musical notation. He wrote 
 a treatise, Micrologus de Disiplind Artia 
 Musiece, about 1030. 
 
 Guido dalle Colonne (1 3th century) , Sicil ian 
 judge, poet and historian ; author of Belicgi- 
 bus et Rebus Angloi-um aud Histona Trojana. 
 
 Guido Beni. {See Reni.] 
 
 Guidotti Borghese, Paolo {b. 1669, d. 
 1629), Italian painter and architect; em- 
 ployed by Sixtus V. to paint frescoes of the 
 Vatican bbrary, and patronised by Cardinal 
 Borghese, for whom he executed sculptures, 
 and who allowed him to assume his name. 
 He died from the effects of an accident caused 
 by his attempt to fly with some wings he 
 had made. 
 
 Guignes, Joseph de (b. 1721, d. 1800), 
 French Orientalist ; author of Histoire Gene- 
 rale des Huns, Turcs, Mogols et autres Tar- 
 tares occidentaux. His son, Chretien Louis 
 Joseph {d. 1845), published in 1813 a Dic- 
 tionnaire Chinois-Prangais et Latin. 
 
 GuUbert de Pix^ricouxt, Rene Charles 
 
 (6. 177:^, d. 1844), French dramatist; called 
 " the tjhakspeare of the Boulevards " ; after 
 serving in the army of the Lmigres in 1792, 
 came to Paris, and in thirty years produced 
 a hundred and eleven pieces, the most suc- 
 cessful of which were melodramas. 
 
 Guildford, or GuUford, Lord. {See North, 
 
 Francis. J 
 
 GuUlaume.Jean Baptiste(6, 1822), French 
 sculptor; born at Montpard, Cote ,d' Or, be- 
 came a pupil of Pradier at the Ecole des 
 Beaux- Arts, where, in 1873, he was appointed 
 professor. He was also elected a member 
 of the Institut in 1862, and an honorary 
 R.A. in 1869. At the London Exhibition of 
 1862 he exhibited The Gracchi, aud his 
 statue of Napoleon I. was at the French 
 Exhibition of 1867. Among others of his 
 best works are Anacreon's Guests, a bas- 
 relief ; the statue of UHopital in the new 
 Louvre, and the Monument of Colbert at 
 Rheims. He holds the appointment of head 
 of the Art school at Rome. 
 
 Guillemain, Charles Jacob (6. 1750, d. 
 1799), French dramatist ; author of numerous 
 plays, but perhaps best known as composer 
 of pieces for Seraphin's marionette show. 
 
 Guillemain, Gabriel {b. 1705, d. 1770), 
 French violinist ; patronised by Louis XV. ; 
 composed several sonatas between 1739 and 
 1759, and committed suicide in 1770. 
 
 Guillemeau, Jacques {d. 1613), French 
 surgeon: attended Charles IX., Henri III., 
 and Henri IV., and wrote Traite de l<i 
 Chirurgie Frangaise {\oM). His son, Charles 
 {b. 1588, d. 1656), also court surgeon, was 
 famous for his attack on Courtaud of Mont- 
 pellier, and was author of several works on 
 surgery. 
 
 Guillemeau, Jean Louis (b. 1766, d. 1850), 
 French surgeon and naturalist ; descendant 
 of the above; was surgeon to the revolu- 
 tionary armies, and author of several medical 
 and scientific works. 
 
 GuiUon, Marie Nicolas (6. 1766, d. 1878), 
 French ecclesiastic and writer; Bishop of 
 Beauvais; administered the sacrament to 
 the Abbe Gregorie in 1831, and was censured, 
 but was afterwards reconciled and made a 
 bishop of Morocco. He was author of 
 Xouveaux Contes Arabes and Histoire de 
 Nouvelle Heresie, written in 1835 against 
 Lamennais. 
 
 Guillotin, Joseph (6. 1738, d. 1814), French 
 
 giysician, who exposed the charlatanism of 
 esmer, and suggested to the Assembly the 
 notion of execution by machinery, but did 
 not actually invent the instrument called 
 after his name. 
 
 Guinaud, Pierre (d. 1824), Swiss optician.
 
 Gui 
 
 (405 ) 
 
 Gnl 
 
 ■who is said to have invented flint glass 
 about 1798. 
 
 Guinicelli, Guido (d. 1276), Italian poet, 
 bom at Bologua : founder of a new school 
 on the model of the Proven 9al troubadours. 
 Dante called him his " father," and he was 
 much esteemed by his contemporaries. 
 
 Guiscaxd, Eobert (6. 1015, d. 1085), Nor- 
 man soldier ; son of Tancred d'Hauteville ; 
 defeated Leo IX. at Civitella, and, with his 
 brother Humphrey, was invested by him with 
 the dukedom of Apulia. Subsequently he 
 rescued Gregory VII. from the Emperor 
 Henry IV. , invaded the Greek empire, and 
 died when on another expedition against it, 
 having defeated the fleets of the Eastern 
 empire and Venice. 
 
 Guise, Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine {b. 
 1524, d. 1574), French diplomatist • brother 
 of Fran9ois (second duke) ; formed the alli- 
 ance with Spain at the meeting with Gran- 
 velle in 1558 ; opposed Catherine de Medi- 
 cis, and declared the Council of Trent 
 Buperior to the pope (1562). 
 
 Guise, Charles, Due de (6. 1571, d. 1640), 
 became reconciled to Henri IV., and was 
 appoiuted governor of Provence. He after- 
 wards supported Marie de Medicis against 
 Richelieu, and was compelled to leave 
 France. 
 
 Guise, Claude of Lorraine, first Duke (d. 
 1550), French statesman ; founder of the 
 Guise family ; went with Francis 1. to Italy, 
 and was wounded at Marignano, but died 
 in disgrace, and perhaps by poison. He 
 married Antoinette de Boiurbon. 
 
 Guise, Francois, Due de (b. 1519, d. 1563), 
 French general and statesman ; served with 
 distinction against Charles V. , and surprised 
 Calais in 1553 ; afterwards prominent as a 
 statesman and opponent of the Huguenots, 
 whom he defeated at Dreux, but was soon 
 after assassinated. 
 
 Guise, Henri I., Due de (6. 1553, d. 1588), 
 called " le Balafre " from a wound received 
 at the siege of Boulogne : was the great 
 opponent of Coligny, and planner of the St. 
 Bartholomew massacre. He established the 
 " Holy League," and made war on Henri 
 III. , who had forbidden him the court. After 
 entering Paris in 1588 he was assassinated 
 by contrivance of the king. 
 
 Guise, Henri II., Ducde (ft. 1614, d. 1664), 
 younger son of Charlee ; became duke on 
 the death of his elder brother ; was made 
 king of Naples in 1618, but was captured 
 by the Spaniards. He afterwards tried to 
 recover Naples, but was unsuccessful ; was 
 grand chamberlain to Louis XIV. 
 
 Guise, Jean, Cardinal of Lorraine {b. 
 
 1498, d. 1550), French statesman; brother of 
 Claude, whose schemes he aided ; was sent 
 as ambassador to Charles V. in 1536, and 
 became very rich. 
 
 Guise, Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine (b. 
 1555, d. 1588), brother of Henri (third duke), 
 with whom he was assassinated in 15S8. 
 
 Guiton, Jean {d. 1654), French Huguenot 
 admiral ; three times defended Rochelle 
 against Louis XIII. ; was abandoned on the 
 third occasion by the English fleet under 
 Buckingham, wluch had come to his relief 
 in 1628. 
 
 Guittone d'Arezzo {d. 1294), Italian poet ; 
 a brother of the order which was called 
 "Frati Godenti " ; was chief of the Ttis- 
 can school, and left thirty-five sonnets, 
 which were published in 1838 at Florence, 
 imder the title Revire ; his letters are among 
 the oldest specimens of Italian prose. 
 
 Guizot, Fran9ois Pierre Guillaume (h. 
 1787, d. 1874), French historian and states- 
 man, bom at Nimes, and brought up at 
 Geneva by his mother. In 1805 he went to 
 Paris, where seven years later he obtained 
 the professorship of modem history at the 
 Sorbonne. In 1814 he was secretary- general 
 of the miuistry of the interior, and after 
 the second restoration entered the ministry 
 of justice. He founded the party of the 
 Doctrinaires, who tried to reconcile the 
 revolution and the restoration. In 1830 
 he was elected dejjuty for Lisieux, and 
 after the revolution became minister of the 
 interior. From 1832 to 1836 he was minister 
 of public instruction, but quarrelled with 
 Thiers. In 1839 he agaiu joined him, and 
 next year went to London as ambassador, 
 from whence he was recalled by Louis 
 Philippe, and was chief minister actually, 
 though not nominally, until 1848, during 
 i which time he conducted French foreign 
 policy, at first with success, but after the 
 Spanish marriage intrigue lost the good- will 
 of England. "Sis resistance to all reforms 
 overthrew him in France, and his political 
 career closed with the revolution of 1848, 
 after which he went to London. Chief 
 among his historical works, to the writing 
 of which he henceforth devoted himself 
 while living near Lisieux, are his History of 
 the English Revolution, Histoire de la Civili- 
 sation en France, and Histoire Parlementaire 
 de France ; besides Shakespeare et son Temps, 
 Corneille et son Temps, and some essays. 
 
 Guldenstadt, Anton [b. 1745, d. 1781), 
 Russian physician and natiu^alist ; author of 
 Memoire sur des Produits de la Russie. 
 
 Gull, Sir William Withey (6. 1816, rf. 1890), 
 English physician ; graduated at London 
 University (M.B. 1841, M.D. 1846) ; was pro- 
 fessor of physiology at the Roj'al Institution
 
 Gnl 
 
 (406) 
 
 Gus 
 
 1847-9, aud physician and lecturer at Guy's 
 Hospital 1817-07. He was created a 
 baronet in 1872 for his treatment of the 
 Prince of Wales ; was a fellow of the 
 Royal Society and president of the Clinical 
 Society, aud auihor of Chemical Observcitionn 
 in Relation to Medicine in Modern Times 
 (1869), Akohol as a Medieine and as a Bever- 
 age (1878) ; and, with Dr. Baly, of Reports 
 on Epidemic Cholera (1854). 
 
 Gulliver, George (4. 1804, d. 1882), Eng- 
 Lsh surgeon and physiologist ; was pro- 
 tector to Abernethy and di-esser to Laurence 
 at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and in 1827 
 became hospital assistant to the Forces. He 
 was elected F.R.S. in 1838, and fellow of 
 the College of Surgeons in 1843 ; and m 
 1861 was Huuterian professor of compara- 
 tive anatomy and physiology. He edited 
 Gerber's Anatomy and Hewson's works, and 
 made many important researches. 
 
 GviUy, James Manley {b. 1808,/. 1883), 
 Enghsh physician, born in Jamaica; edu- 
 cated at Liverpool and Paris, and took his 
 M.D. at Edinburgh in 1829. He edited the 
 London Medical Journal and the Liverpool 
 Medical Gazette between 1832 and 1836, and 
 in 1842 came to Malvern, and practised hydro- 
 pathy. His chief works were Symptoms and 
 Treatment of Neuropathy and The Water- 
 Cure in Chronic Disease, 
 
 Gungl, Josef (d. 1810, d. 1889), Hun- 
 garian composer of dance music ; many of 
 his 400 compositions proved very popular. 
 
 Gunner, Johann Ernst (b. 1718, d. 1773), 
 Norwegian bishop and naturalist ; author of 
 Flora Xorweyica (1766-76). 
 
 Gunter, Archibald Clavering {b. 1847), 
 American writer ; wrote and publish, d 
 himself 3Ir. Barnes of New York (1887), 
 Mr. Potter of Texas (1888), That Frenchman, 
 and Miss Nobody of Nowhere, the first two 
 of which were dramatised. 
 
 Gunter, Edmund (b. lbSl,d. 1626), English 
 mathematician ; professor of astronomy at 
 Gresham College, 1614; was the first to 
 observe the variation of the compass ; in- 
 vented the " Gunter scale" as well as the 
 sector and other instruments. 
 
 Giinther, Albert Charles Gotthilf, F.E.S. 
 {b. 1830), zoologist ; born at Esslingen, 
 and educated at Tubingen, Berlin, and 
 Bonn ; received an appointment in the Bri- 
 tish Museum in 1857, and in 1875 became 
 keeper of the department of zoology. Be- 
 sides his catalogues of snakes, reptiles, and 
 fish, he wrote The Fishes of the South Seas 
 (Hamburg, 1873-8), The Gigantic Land 
 Tortoises, Living and Extinct (London, 
 1877), besides numerous contributions to 
 Transactions of societies. He was also the 
 
 founder and for six years editor of the 
 Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 
 
 Gumey, Sir Goldsworthy (6. 1793, d. 
 1875), English chemist ; invented the "oxy- 
 hydrogen blowpipe," the " lime light," and 
 the " magnesium light " ; also the "Bude 
 light," the "oil vapour light," and the 
 "high-pressure steam jet" of the tubular 
 boiler, which he applied to coal mines and 
 railway locomotives. He also introduced a 
 new mode of lighting into the House of 
 Commons in 1839, and arranged the light- 
 ing and ventilating of the new Houses of 
 Parliament. Many of his discoveries 
 are described in A Course of Lectures 
 on Chemical Science, Delivered at the Surrey 
 Jnstitution in 1S2Z, which were pubUshed 
 in 1823. 
 
 Gumey, Joseph John (h. 1788, d. 1847), 
 English banker and philanthropist ; brother 
 of Elizabeth Fry, with whom he visited, in 
 1818, the prisons of Scotland, and afterwards 
 those of Ireland and America (1837-40). 
 In 1841 he visited the Continent with hJis 
 brother, Samuel, and the same year, with 
 Mrs. Fry, went to Holland, Belgiimi, 
 Germany, and Denmark, going again in 
 1843. He acted as a Quaker minister, hold- 
 ing meetings everywhere, and was author 
 of numerous works, among which may be 
 mentioned Notes on Prisons and Prison Dis- 
 cipline, and A Winter in the West Indies. 
 
 Gumey, Russell (6. 1804, d. 1878), English 
 lawyer and politician ; son of Sir John Gur- 
 ney ; educated at Cambridge ; was called to 
 the bar in 1828, became Queen's Counsel in 
 1848, and was from 1856 to 1878 Recorder of 
 London. In 1865 he was one of the com- 
 missioners appointed to inquire into the 
 Jamaica disturbances. Haviug meanwhile 
 entered Parliament, on his return from 
 Jamaica, he was sworn of the Privy Coun- 
 cil, and in 1871 went to America as com- 
 missioner for the settlement of claims under 
 the treaty of Washington. In 1874 he was 
 one of the chief promoters of the Public 
 Worship Regulation Act. 
 
 Gurwood, Colonel John, C.B. (*. 1790, 
 d. 1845), English soldier; entered the 
 army in 1808 ; served in the Penii^ula, 
 in Holland, and at Waterloo, and was pri- 
 vate secretary to the Duke of Wellington, 
 whose chief despatches he edited. He com- 
 mitted suicide. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa (6. 1496, d. 1560), 
 King of Sweden (Gustavus I.) ; made his 
 country independent of Denmark, and was 
 in 1521 elected king. He established 
 Lutheranisra as the national religion, and 
 made treaties with France, England, and 
 the new king, Frederick I. of Denmark. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus (6. 1594, d. 1632),
 
 Gus 
 
 (407) 
 
 Gwy 
 
 Gustavus II. of Sweden, grandson of last- 
 named ; resisted the aggressions of Sigis- 
 mund, King of Poland, and concluded an 
 advantageous peace. In 1630 he invaded 
 Germany as head of the Protestant League, 
 took Colberg, won the battles of Breiten- 
 feldt and the Lech, and in 1632 captured 
 Munich. In 1632 he defeated Wallenstein 
 at Liitzen, but was killed in the battle. 
 
 Gustavus III. (6. 1746, d. 1792), came to 
 the throne in 1771, and next year re- 
 established the despotic power of the crown 
 by a coup d'etat; carried on a war with 
 Russia from 1788 to 1790, and won the 
 battle of Svenskund ; projected a league of 
 sovereigns against the revolution, but was 
 assassinated next year by a noble named 
 Ankarstrom. 
 
 Gustavus rv. Q). 1778, d. 1837), came to 
 the throne in 1792, and assiuned the 
 goveiTiment in 1800 ; refused to join in the 
 Continental system in 18u6, and made an 
 alliance with England ; lost Finland in 
 1808 in a war with Russia, and was deposed 
 by the states next year ; after this he 
 travelled as Count Gottorp, and attempted 
 at the congress of 1814 to obtain the recog- 
 nition of his son's claims. A year before Ms 
 death he settled at St. Gall. 
 
 Gutenberg, Johann (6. circa 1400, d. 1468), 
 German printer : probably the inventor 
 about 1440 of movable types at Strasburg, 
 with which he printed in 1450 his Biblia 
 Latina. His plant was obtained by his 
 
 Eartner Fiist in payment of money lent, but 
 e was afterwards able to print the C'atholi- 
 con, now in the Imperial library at Paris. 
 
 Guthrie, James Cargill (6. 1814), Scotch 
 songwriter and essayist ; was in 1868 librarian 
 of the first free library at Dundee. Among 
 his songs are Adieu to the Good Ship Mars, 
 and a Jubilee Ode, and he also wrote What is 
 Genius, The Genius of Literature, The 
 Genius of Love, etc. , and Eventide, or Fading 
 Aivay (1890). 
 
 Guthrie, Thomas (6. 1803, d. 1873), 
 Scotch divine ; an ardent supporter of the 
 Free Church movement, social reform, and 
 total abstinence ; was author of A Plea for 
 Ragged Schools, A I'lea on Behalf of Lrimk- 
 ards, and The Parables Mead in the Light of 
 the Present Day, with many other works. 
 On his retirement in 1864 he was presented 
 with £3,000. 
 
 Guthrie, Thomas Anstey {h. 1856), 
 English novelist ; graduated at Cambridge 
 in 1879, and was called to the bar in 1880. 
 After several contributions to magazines, 
 Vice- Versa appeared in 1882, and was 
 followed by the GianVs Robe (1883), The 
 Tinted Venus (1885), The Pariah (1889), etc. 
 
 Guthrie, William (6. 1835), Scotch lawyer. 
 
 educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh, and 
 called to the Scotch bar in 1861. He was 
 appointed sheriff-substitute of Lanarkshire 
 in 1874, and published a translation of 
 Savigny on Private International Law, an 
 edition of Erskine's Principles of Scots Law, 
 The Law of the Trades Unions in England 
 and Scotland (1873), and other works. 
 
 Gutzkow, Karl Ferdinand (6. 1811, d. 
 1878), German romance writer and dra- 
 matist ; son of an ostler at Berlin ; went 
 to Stuttgardt in 1831 to assist Menzel 
 with the Literaturblatt — a connection 
 which was severed in 1835 by the 
 latter's attack on his first work JVally 
 oder die Zweijlerin, which was confiscated 
 by the government, and its author im- 
 prisoned. In 1837 Gutzkow went to Ham- 
 burg, where he bought a Satire on Gorres, 
 and a Life of Borne. After visiting France, 
 he became director of the Dresden theatre. 
 Between 1839 and 1850 he wrote several 
 plays, the chief of which were Zopf und 
 Schwert, and Das Urbild des Tartuffe. He 
 addressed the people at Berlin during the 
 revolution of 1848 ; and after his return to 
 Dresden wrote the romances Die Ritter vom 
 Geiste (1850), and Der Zauberer von Rom 
 (1858). In 1868 appeared Hohenschwan- 
 gau. In 1861 Gutzkow was appointed 
 secretary to the Schiller memorial at 
 Weimar, but he gradually became insane. 
 Having partially recovered, he travelled in 
 Italy and Switzerland, till one night, when 
 under the influence of chloral, he was burnt 
 to death in his bed at Sachsenhausen. 
 
 Giitzlaflf, Karl Friedrich August (6. 1803, 
 d. 1851), Prussian linguist and missionary ; 
 spent several years in China and Siam, the 
 results of his observations appearing in 
 Journals of the Geographical and Asiatic 
 societies. He also wrote a History of China, 
 and China Reopened, and made a Chinese 
 translation of the New Testament. In 
 1834 he became interpreter to the English 
 commission. 
 
 Guy, Thomas (b. 1644, d. 1724), founder 
 of Guy's Hospital ; was son of a bargeman, 
 and made a large fortune by printing, and 
 speculating in the South Sea scheme. In 
 Parliament he represented Tamworth, and 
 founded an almshouse there. 
 
 Guyot, Arnold (b. 1807, d. 1884), Swiss 
 geographer and geologist ; went to America 
 in 1849, and devoted liis life to science ; was 
 professor of geology and physical geography 
 at Princeton college ; formed an intimacy 
 with Agassiz, and made numerous maps, 
 mathematical tables and text-books. His 
 greatest works were The Meteorological and 
 Physical Tables, issued bv the Smithsonian 
 Institution, and his Earth and Man. 
 
 Gwynne, Eleanor or Nell {b. 1650, dL
 
 Gyl 
 
 (408) 
 
 Had 
 
 1691), mistress of Charles 11. : an actress at 
 Drury Laue, aud mother of the first Duke 
 of St. Albans. 
 
 GyUenborg, Karl {h. 1679. d. 1746), 
 Swedish statesman; when ambassador in 
 England was engaged in an intrigue with 
 the Stewarts for the invasion of Scotland. 
 After leaving the country, he became high 
 chancellor of Sweden, and leader of the 
 "Hat" party. 
 
 Gzowski, Colonel Casimir Stanislaus (6. 
 1813), a I'ole in the English service. After 
 serving in the Russian army, being con- 
 cerned in the Polish movement of 1830-2, 
 aud living some time in America, he was 
 employed by the Canadian government in 
 engineering and railway construction, and 
 took an active part in the formation of 
 the Dominion Rifle Association. In 1879 
 he was appointed aide-de-camp to the 
 Queen. 
 
 Haaff, Karl (6. 1820), Bavarian painter, 
 came to England in 1847, and, having 
 settled there, was elected three years later 
 a member of the Royal Society of Painters 
 in Water-Colours, to whose exliibitions he 
 became a frequent contributor. In 18-53 he 
 was named hofmaler by the Duke of Saxe- 
 Coburg aud Gotha, and having been intro- 
 duced at the court of St. James, painted 
 several pictures for the Queen. He has made 
 Bedouin life his special study. 
 
 Haak, Theodor (6. 1605, d. 1690), German 
 scholar, studied at Oxford for three years, 
 and translated for the Westminster As- 
 sembly of Divines The Butch Annotations 
 upon the Bible, ordered by the Synod of 
 Dort. He was one of the founders and 
 original members of the Royal Society. 
 
 Haansbergen, Joannes van (&. 1642, d. 
 170o), Dutch portrait -painter, pupil and 
 follower of Poelemburg. 
 
 Haas, Wilhelm (6. 1741, d. 1800), Swiss 
 type-founder, inventor of a new press, in 
 which he first used movable tj'pes for geo- 
 graphical charts. 
 
 Habakloilc, one of the minor prophets. 
 
 Habberton, John (6. 1842), American 
 writer, bom at Brooklyn, is chiefly known 
 as the author of Helen'' s Babies. 
 
 Habeneck, Antoine (6. 1781, d. 1849), 
 French violinist aud composer, who intro- 
 duced Beethoven's music into France ; was 
 patronised by the Empress Josephine, and 
 from 1821 to 1846 was chef-d^orchestre at 
 the opera. 
 
 _Haberlin, Franz Dominic (6. 1720, d. 
 1787), Geiman historian aud jurist, author 
 of numerous works, of which the chief were 
 Entwurf der politischen Historie des 18^" 
 Jahrhunderts bis zu Ende des Jahres 1745, 
 and I^eueate detitscke Reichsgeschichte vom 
 Anfange des Schmalkaldischen Krieges. 
 
 Habert, rrantjois {d. circa 1562), French 
 poet, patronised by Henri II., author of 
 Jeunesse du Banny de Liesse, Jardin de la 
 Felicite, and Temple de Chastete ; called 
 himself " Le Banny de Liesse." 
 
 Hachette, Jean Nicolas (6. 1769, d. 1834), 
 French mathematician, professor witii 
 Monge at the Ecole Polytechnique ; was 
 deprived by Louis XVIII. in 1816, but 
 patronised by Louis Philippe. He carried 
 on the work of Monge, producing several 
 treatises on geometrical science. 
 
 Hackert.PhiUpp (b. 1737, d. 1807), German 
 painter, whose early works are the best, the 
 chief being six pictures of the battle of 
 Tchesme between the Russian and Turkish 
 fleets, painted for Catherine II. 
 
 Hacket or Hackett, John (6. 1592, d. 
 1670), English theologian, a staunch Royal- 
 ist ; made rector of St. Andrew's, Holbom, 
 which he designed to rebuild ; became 
 Bishop of Lichfield after the Restoration, 
 and wrote the Life of Archbishop Williams 
 (1693). 
 
 Hacket, William {d. 1591), a fanatic, who 
 proclaimed himself as the Messiah, and was 
 hanged for his insults to Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Hacklander, Friedrich Wilhelm (fi. 1816, 
 d. 1877), German novelist, bom at Aachen; 
 contributed to a Stuttgart paper in 1840 
 Pictures from a Soldier'' s Life in Time of 
 Peace, and accompanied the Crovra Prince 
 of Wiirtemburg as his secretary in the 
 Italian campaign of 1849, which he after- 
 wards described. Among his other works 
 are Handel und Wandel (1850), Die Dunkle 
 Stiinde (1863), and an unfinished autobio- 
 graphy, published in 1878 {Ber Roman 
 meines Lebens). 
 
 Haden, Francis Seymour, F.R.C.S. (*. 
 
 1818), English surgeon and artist, president 
 of the Society of Painter-Etchers, educated
 
 Had 
 
 (409) 
 
 Hah 
 
 at University College and the Sorbonne ; 
 drew up the Inter nationalj ury Report on Sur- 
 gical Instruments (1857). He also initiated 
 burial reforms by his letters to the Tunes 
 in 1875, caUed Earth to Earth. His artistic 
 works consist of Etudes d I'Eau Forte (Lon- 
 don and Paris, 1865 and 1866), and numerous 
 other etchings, distinguished for their vigour. 
 
 Eadik, or Haddik, Graf Andreas von 
 (J). 1710, (/. 1790), Hungarian general, who 
 served with distinction against the Turks, 
 and won for the Austrians the victory of 
 Gorlitz in the Seven Years' war. 
 
 Hadji-Khalfa (d. 1058), Turkish historian 
 [Mustafa-Ben- Abdallali], wrote several 
 works in Turkish, Arabic, and Persian, 
 chief among which was EedzUkeh, a history 
 of the world from the creation to 1656. 
 
 Hadley, John (d. 1744), English mathe- 
 matician and friend of Newton ; the reputed 
 inventor of the sextant, and a feUow of the 
 Royal Society, to whose Transactions he 
 contributed several papers. 
 
 Hadrian (6. 76, d. 138), Emperor of Eome, 
 proclaimed 117, visited all parts of the 
 empire ; built the wall between England 
 and Scotland in 121, and^lia Capitohna on 
 the ruins of Jerusalem in 131 ; subdued the 
 Jews iQ 136 ; built a villa at Tibur, and his 
 tomb at Rome (137). 
 
 Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich {b. 1834) , German 
 naturahst, bom at Potsdam, w^as appoiated 
 in 1861 professor of zoology at Jena. He 
 afterwards travelled in all parts of Europe, 
 and visited Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. 
 In 1881 he went to India. His chief works 
 are Natural History of Creation, The Origin 
 of the Human Race, Popular Lectures on 
 Evolution (1878), contributions to the Voy- 
 age of H. M.S. Challeyiger, etc. 
 
 Haedo, Diego da (17th century), Spanish 
 historian, author of a History of Algiers. 
 
 Haen, Anton van (6. 1704, d. 1776), Dutch 
 physician, pupil of Boerhaave ; besides 
 several medical works, wrote a book in 
 defence of magic. 
 
 Haering, Wilhelm {b. 1798, d. 1871), 
 German novelist, who wrote under the name 
 "Willibad Alexis"; published in 1823 
 Walladmor, which he pretended was an 
 unpublished work of Sir Walter Scott. It 
 was translated into English, and read by 
 the latter, who praised its skill. In Schloss 
 Avallen (1827) the same conceit was made 
 use of. Subsequently, however, the author 
 wrote several works in his own name, the 
 chief of which were Cabanis (1832), Ber 
 Falsche TFaldemar (1842), and Die Hoscn des 
 Herrn von Bredau (1846-8). He also wrote 
 some plays, and a collection of stories of 
 celebrated crimes (Ber Neue Titaral). 
 
 Hae-Wang (J. 1750), Chinese mandarin, 
 minister for European afEairs ; protected the 
 missionaries in the reign of Klaen-loimg. 
 
 Haflz, Mohammed, " Shemsed - Din " 
 (d. 1388), Persian poet, author of The 
 Bivan. 
 
 Hagar, concubine of Abraham and mother 
 of Ishmael. 
 
 Hagenbach, Pieter von (d. 1474), landvogt 
 of Elsass, which he governed with great 
 cruelty : served under Charles the Bold ; 
 was ultimately taken and beheaded by the 
 Swiss. 
 
 Hager, Josef (i. 1757, d. 1819), German 
 linguist, mastered all the languages of 
 Europe and many of those of Asia, 
 travelled much in pursuit of books and 
 MSS., and was entrusted by Xapoleon with 
 the compilation of a Chinese-Latin-French 
 dictionary. The scheme was never carried 
 out, but Hager was afterwards professor of 
 German at Oxford, and of orientad languages 
 at Pavia and Paris. 
 
 Haggai, one of the minor prophets, who 
 urged the Jews to rebuild the Temple about 
 520 B.C. 
 
 Haggard, Henry Rider {b. 1856), EngHsh 
 noveHst, bom at Bradenham, Norfolk ; 
 went to Natal in 1875 as secretaryto Sir H. 
 Bulwer, and was afterwards master of the 
 High Court of the Transvaal. In 1879 he 
 returned to England, and published in 1882 
 Cetewayo and his White Neighbours. This 
 was followed by several novels, the chief of 
 which were Bawn (1884). The Witch'' s Head 
 (1885), King Solomon's Mines (1886), and 
 She, Jess, Cleopatra, Beatrice, and Eric 
 Brighteyes (1890), etc. 
 
 I Haghe, Louis {b. 1802, d. 1885), English 
 lithographer and painter, bom in Belgium ; 
 helped De Jonghe with his Vues Biitorvsqnes 
 de la Belgique, and, having come to England, 
 became partner of William Day of Lincoln's 
 Inn Fields, and with him produced many 
 works, the best known of which is the 
 lithograph of David Roberts's Sketches in 
 the Holy Land and Egypt. From 1852 he 
 abandoned lithography for painting, and 
 was president of the Institute of Painters in 
 Water-Colours from 1873-84. His Council 
 of War at Courtrai is in the National 
 GaUery. His brother Charles {d. 1888) 
 was also a skilful Uthographer. 
 
 Halin, Karl August (*. 1807, d. 1857), 
 German philologist, author of grammars 
 of German dialects, and eilitor of the 
 Niebelungenlicd (1851). 
 
 Halm-Hahn, Ida Griifin von (5. 1805, d. 
 1880), German novelist, bom in Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin, travelled widely, and wrote
 
 Hah 
 
 (410) 
 
 Hal 
 
 accounts of her adventures; was divorced 
 from her husband in IS'29, and in 1850, 
 under the influence of Cardinal Wiseman, 
 became a Koman Catholic. Her reputation 
 rests upon her novels, the chief of which 
 ■were Ai<s der GeseUschaft (1838), Sigismiind 
 Forster (1840), Endoxia die Kaiserin (1866), 
 and Xiricana (187'5). 
 
 Hahnemann, Christian Samuel Friedrich 
 {b. Yiob, d. 1843), German physician, the 
 founder of liomoeopathy, to which he was 
 led by experiments made on himself with 
 Peruvian bark. He practised at Leipzig, but 
 was obliged to retire on account of the hos- 
 tility of the apothecaries there. He was in- 
 vited to Kothen by the Duke of Anhalt, and 
 afterwards spent eight years in Paris. He 
 expounded his system in Organon of the 
 Meali)ig Art (1810), and other works. 
 
 Hailes, Lord (Sir David Dalrymple), (b. 
 1726, d. 1792), Scotch judge and historical 
 antiquary ; was in 1766 made one of the 
 judges of the Court of Session, and 1776 a 
 justiciary lord. He was a voluminous 
 writer, his Annals of Scotland being par- 
 ticularly valuable. 
 
 Haines, Sir Frederick Paul, G.C.B. (h, 
 1819), English soldier, entered the army 
 in 1839, and attained the rank of field- 
 mai-shal in 1890. He served in the Sikh 
 wars, being military secretary to Sir Hugh 
 Gough, and was severely wounded at 
 Ferozeshah In the same capacity he went 
 through the Punjab campaign of 1848-9, 
 being present at all the important engage- 
 ments. He served in the Crimea up to the 
 siege of Sebastopol, was commander-in- 
 chief of the Madras army from 1871-4, and 
 in 1876 became commander-in-chief in India. 
 
 Hakluyt, Richard (*. 1553, d. 1616), 
 English geographer and historian, chaplain 
 to Sir E. Stafford, EngUsh ambassador in 
 France. He was assisted by Sir Francis 
 Walsingham and Sir Walter Raleigh to 
 publish his Frincipal Navigations, Voyages, 
 and Discoveries made by the English Nation 
 (1589), and he also collected and translated 
 some narratives of voyages by foreigners. 
 
 Haldeman, Samuel Stedman {b. 1812, d. 
 1880), American naturalist and philologist ; 
 he began his monograph on Fresh JVater 
 Univalve MoUusca of the United States in 
 1840, and in 1851 became professor of 
 natural science in Pennsylvania university. 
 He was in 1869 named first professor of 
 comparative philology in Pennsylvania, and 
 was an eager advocate for spelling reform. 
 Among his works were Outlines of Etymology 
 and Word Building (1881). 
 
 Hale, Edward Everett, D.D. (J). 1822), 
 American writer, bom at Boston, was 
 till 1856 a Unitarian minister, after which 
 
 he became a CongregationaUst. Among his 
 numerous works are Furitan Folitics in 
 Engla ndand New England, What is the Ameri- 
 can Feople ? (1885), 3Iy Friend the Boss, 
 Naval History of the Ameiican Revolution 
 (1888), and an edition of the Arabian Nights. 
 
 Hale, Sir Matthew {b. 1609, d. 1676), 
 English judge, was called to the bar in 1636. 
 Though a Royalist, he was appointed head 
 of the committee for prevention of delays 
 and expenses of law in 1652 ; became a judge 
 of Common Pleas in 1655, and sat in ParUa- 
 meut till the Restoration, when he was 
 made Lord Chief Baron. In 1671 he be- 
 came Lord Chief Justice, and resigned just 
 before his death. He wrote a History of the 
 Fleas of the Grown, Ihjfciles Nugce, and an 
 essay on Gravitation of Fluids. 
 
 Hale, Sarah Josepha {b. 1788, d. 1879), 
 American writer ; wrote Northwood (a 
 novel), Sketches of American Character, 
 Woman's Record, and A Complete Dictionary 
 of Poetical Quotations, and was also founder 
 of the Ladies' Magazine of Boston. 
 
 Hales, John (b. 1584, d. 1656), "the ever- 
 memorable," theologian, whose Golden Re- 
 maines were jjublished in 1659, attended the 
 Synod of Dort as chaplain to the British 
 ambassador, and afterwards became an 
 Armuiian ; was persecuted by the Puritans 
 as a " malignant," and died in great distress. 
 He was a Fellow of Eton. 
 
 Hales, John Wesley (b. 1836), English 
 writer, son of a nonconformist minister, edu- 
 cated at Glasgow and Cambridge, was 
 elected fellow of Christ's College in 1860, 
 called to the bar in 1867, and in 1877 became 
 professor of English literature at King's 
 College, London. He wrote The Teaching 
 of EngUsh (1867), edited Areopugitica, and 
 assisted in editing The Fercy Folio Manu- 
 script (1867-88), the London Series of English 
 Classics, etc. 
 
 Hales, Stephen, D.D. Ok 1677, d. 1761), 
 physicist, patronised by Frederick, Prince 
 of Wales, discovered the flow of the sap, 
 and wrote Vegetable Statlcks, and Electrical 
 Experiments. A monument was erected to 
 him in Westminster Abbey by the Princess 
 of Wales. 
 
 Hal^vy, Jacques Francois Fromental filie 
 {h. 1799, d. 1862), French composer of Jewish 
 extraction, pupil of Cherubini, gained the first 
 prize of the Paris Conservatoire in 1819 with 
 his Herminie, and next year composed for 
 the funeral of the Due de Berry a funeral 
 march and De Profimdis in Hebrew, which 
 he dedicated to his master. He reached the 
 height of his fame in 1835, during which year 
 he produced La Juive and L' Eclair. These 
 were followed by numerous other operas, and 
 he acted as a teacher at the same time, having
 
 Hal 
 
 (411) 
 
 Hal 
 
 Gounod as one of his pupils. In 1854 Halevy 
 became secretary of the Academie des Beaux- 
 Ai-ts, and in 1861 published Souvenirs et 
 Portraits. 
 
 Halevy, Leon {b. 1802, d. 1883), French 
 historical and dramatic writer, son of the 
 composer, wrote tragedies and a drama 
 entitled Luther. 
 
 Halevy, Ludovic {b. 1834), French 
 dramatist, son of the last-named, born at 
 Paris, was from 1852 to 1858 in the secre- 
 tary's oiRce of the minister of state, and 
 became chief of the department for Algiers 
 and the colonies. He resigned the position 
 of redacteur to the Corps Lkjislatif in order 
 to write for the stage. He wrote librettos 
 for Offenbach, and collaborated with Henri 
 Meilhac {La Belle Helene, Frou-frou, etc.). 
 
 Haliburton, Thomas Chandler {b. 1796, 
 d. 18(35), colonial judge and writer, born at 
 Windsor, Nova Scotia, became a member of 
 the Assembly of the colony, and in 1829 
 chief justice of the Common Pleas. In 1840 
 he was appointed judge of the Supreme 
 Court, but came to England soon after- 
 wards, and sat in Parliament till 1856. As 
 a writer he is chiefly known as the author 
 of The Lucubrations of Sam Slick : Clock- 
 maker (1837-40), The Attache: or, Sam Slick 
 in England; and The Old Judge : or. Life in 
 a Cohny, etc. 
 
 Halifax. {See Wood, Sir Charles.] 
 
 Halifax, Earl of, Charles Montague (6. 
 1661, d. 1715), Whig statesman, was at first 
 a writer of parodies and light pieces, such as 
 The Town and Country Mouse, and received 
 £500 for his Epistle on the Battle of the 
 Boyne. After entering Parliament, he soon 
 rose to be Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 (1695), in which office he distinguished him- 
 self by his recoinage of silver, and the first 
 issue of exchequer bills. He also founded 
 the public library which was the germ of 
 the British Museum. In 1697 he became 
 First Lord of the Treasury, but was removed 
 two years later. In 1 700 he was created a 
 peer, but was impeached next year for 
 appropriation of public money ; but the 
 charge was dismissed both then and when 
 it was revived, and Halifax was again in 
 1714 First Lord of the Treasury, being also 
 created earl. 
 
 Halifkx, Marquis of, George Savile {b. 
 1630, d. 1695), statesman, is known as "The 
 Trimmer " from his leaning always to the 
 weaker side in political aftairs. Thus he 
 opposed the Exclusion Bill, but on the ac- 
 cession of James II. opposed his arbitrary 
 mea.sures, and was dismissed. He was Lord 
 Privy Seal under Charles II. from 1682 till 
 the end of the reign, having previously been 
 created successively viscount, earl, and mar- 
 quis. Under James II. he was lord president 
 
 a few months, and after the Revolution was 
 again for a short time Privy SeaL He took 
 a leading part in offering the crown to 
 William of Orange. 
 
 Hall, Anna Maria, nee Fielding (b. 
 1802, d. 1881), Irish novelist, born at 
 Wexford, came to London at au early age, 
 and married in 1824 Mr. S. C. Hall. Among 
 her works were Sketches of Irish Character 
 (1828), The Buccaneer (1832), The Groves of 
 Blarney and the French Refugee (dramatised 
 and produced at the Adeli^hi and St. James's) 
 Marian; or, « Young Maid's Fortunes, which 
 was translated into German and Dutch, as 
 well as several other novels, Irish stories, 
 and books for children. 
 
 HaU, Captain Basil (b. 1788, d. 1844), Eng- 
 lish traveller and writer, entered the navy 
 in 18o2, and in 1816 accompanied the expe- 
 dition under Lord Amherst to China, of 
 which he wrote an account in his Voyage of 
 Discovery to the Western Coast of Corea and 
 the Great Loo-Choo Island in the Japan Sea. 
 In 1824 he published Extracts from a Jownal 
 written on the Coasts of CJnli, Peru, and 
 Mexico. He died insane in Portsmouth 
 Hospital. 
 
 HaU, Sir Charies {b. 1814, d. 1883), Eng- 
 lish judge, distinguished himself in the 
 Bridgewater case (1853), and in "Allgood 
 V. Blake." Among his pupils were several 
 of the present judges and Mr. R. H. Hutton. 
 He was vice-chancellor for many years. 
 
 Hall, Sir Charles, Q.C. {b. 1843), was edu- 
 cated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. Was called to the bar in 1866, 
 appointed Attorney-General to the Prince 
 of Wales 1887, was British delegate to the 
 Maritime Conference at Washington 1889, 
 and Recorder of the City of Loudon, 1892. 
 
 HaU, Charies Francis (i. 1821, d. 1871), 
 Arctic explorer, a native of New Hampshire, 
 after having been blacksmith and journal- 
 ist, went to Greenland in search of Frank- 
 lin's remains. Again from 1864 to 1869 he 
 lived among the Esquimaux, and when in 
 command of an expedition fitted out by the 
 United States, died suddenly. 
 
 HaU, Christopher Newman, LL.B. {b. 
 1816), Nonconformist preacher, educated 
 at Highbury and London University, where 
 he gained the law fellowship. He was a 
 minister (Congregatioualist) at Hull from 
 1842 to 185^4, when he was transferred to 
 Christ Church, Lambeth, then called Surrey 
 Chapel. Among his works are Come to 
 Jesus, Prayer: its lieasonahleness and Efficacy, 
 and The Dangers of Negative Theology. 
 
 HaU, Edward {b. 1499, d. 1547), chronicler, 
 fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and a 
 member of Parliament for some years. He 
 wrote The Union of the Two Noble and Illus- 
 trious Families of Lancaster and York, which 
 was dedicated to Henry VIII.
 
 Hal 
 
 (412) 
 
 Hal 
 
 HaU, Granville Stanley, Ph.D. (b. 1845), 
 American writer, was professor of psychology 
 in Antioch college, Ohio, 1872-6 ; 1881-2, 
 lecturer at Harviird; 1882, professor at 
 John Hopkins university, Baltimore. In 
 1888 he became president of Clark univer- 
 sity, Worcester, Massachusetts. He is 
 author of Aspects of German Culture (1881), 
 and Hints Towards a Select and Descriptive 
 Bibliography of Education (1886). 
 
 Hall, James (*. 1793, d. 1868), American 
 Judge and writer, served in the war of 1813 ; 
 in 1820 went to practise at Illinois, where 
 he became public prosecutor, judge of 
 circuit, and state treasurer. In 1833 he 
 removed to Cincinnati, and wrote a number 
 of tales, as well as collaborating with 
 Colonel M'Kenney Ln the production of A 
 Sistory and Biography oj the Indians of 
 North America. 
 
 Hall, James (Jb. 1811), American palaeont- 
 ologist, became professor of geology at 
 Troy in 1836, and assisted in the New York 
 survey. His work is described in the 
 Palaontology of New York (1847-79). He 
 was also state-geologist of Iowa and Wis- 
 consin, and in 1866 became director of the 
 New York Museum. In 1876 he was one of 
 the founders of the International Congress 
 of Geologists, and in 1884 gained the quin- 
 quennial prize of the Boston Society of 
 Natural History. 
 
 Hall, Joseph, D.D. {b. 1574, d. 1656), 
 English prelate and writer. Bishop succes- 
 sively of Exeter and Norwich, became 
 known as a satirist by his Virgidemiarwn 
 Liber (1597-8), and afterwards wrote Con- 
 templations on Principal Passages of Scrip- 
 ture, Episcopacy by Divine Right asserted, 
 and many other works. In 1641 he was 
 sent to the Tower by the Long Parliament 
 for protesting against its proceedings, and 
 on his release was driven by the Puritans 
 from his palace. 
 
 EaU, Marshall {b. 1790, d. 1857), English 
 physiologist, son of Robert Hall, whose chief 
 works were a Treatise on the Circulation of 
 the Blood (1832j, The Nervous System (1837), 
 Apoplexy and Paralysis (1851), and Theory 
 and Practice of Medicine (3rd edition, 1837). 
 He discovered a method of restoring asphyx- 
 iated persons, which is known by his name. 
 
 HaU, Robert {b. 1764. d. 1831), Baptist 
 preacher, ministered chiefly at Bristol and 
 Cambridge, where he published his sermon 
 On Modern Infidelity, in 1801. He had 
 previously written an Apology for the Free- 
 dom of the Press. In 1802 and the following 
 year appeared Peflertions on the War, and 
 Sentiments Proper to the Present Crisis. 
 After this he had an attack of insanity, but 
 in 1808 went to Leicester, where in 181u he 
 published his Terms of Communion. He re- 
 turned to Bristol in 1825. 
 
 HaU, Samuel Carter {b. .1800, d. 1889) 
 Irish writer and art critic, founded in 182i 
 and edited the Amulet, and after the deatL 
 of Campbell became editor of the New 
 Month hi. In 1839 he established the Ari 
 Union Journal, afterwards known as the ^ri 
 Journal. He also edited the Book of British 
 Ballads and other works, and wrote, in con- 
 junction with his wife, Ireland : its Scenery 
 and Character. In 1880 he was granted a 
 Civil List pension of £150 a year. 
 
 HaUam, Arthur Henry {h. 1811, d. 1833), 
 son of the historian, and friend of Tenny- 
 son, who celebrated his death and early 
 promise in In Memoriam. 
 
 HaUam, Henry {b. 1777, d. 1859), his- 
 torian, son of the Dean of Bristol, was 
 bom at Windsor and educated at Eton and 
 Christ Church. He was called to the bar, 
 but gave himself up to literary work, writ- 
 ing at first for the Edinburgh Review. He 
 obtained through his Whig connection an 
 office in the stamp department, which made 
 him independent. In 1818 he published his 
 Vieiu of the State of Europe during the 
 Middle Ages, and in 1827 finished his Con- 
 stitutional History of England, 1485-1760, 
 His last great work was the Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, 
 and 17th Centuries (1838), which was after- 
 wards supplemented by Notes. 
 
 Hall6, Sir Charles {b. 1819), German 
 pianist, resident in England since 1848, when 
 he left Paris, was born at Hagen in West- 
 phalia, and went to Paris in 1836. He 
 made his first appearance in London at 
 Covent Garden, where he played Beet- 
 hoven's concerto in ^ ^a<. He afterwards 
 lived a great deal at Manchester, where he 
 founded the Halle band. He played fre- 
 quently at the Popular and Philharmonic 
 Concerts, and made a speciality of Beet- 
 hoven's sonatas. In 1888 he was knighted, 
 and in that year also married Madame 
 Norman -Neruda. His son, Mr. C. E. Halle, 
 is a well-known artist, and his daughter 
 has become known as a sculptor. 
 
 HaUeck, Fitz-Greene {b. 1790, d. 1867), 
 American poet, bom at Guildford, Connecti- 
 cut, came to New York in 1811, and entered 
 a counting-house. In 1819 he wrote, with 
 J. R. Drake, the Croaker Papers in the Even- 
 ing Post. In 1 822 he came to Europe, and in 
 1827 wrote verses on Alnwick Castle and 
 Burns. From 1832 to 1849 he was employed 
 in the office of J. J. Astor, who left him a 
 very small annuity. His last composition, 
 written in 1864, was Young America. In 
 1870 a granite obelisk was erected in his 
 honour at Guildford by LongfeUow, Whit- 
 tier, Bryant, and others. 
 
 HaUeck, Henry Wager {h. 1815, d. 1872), 
 American genera*, entered the army in 1839,
 
 Ual 
 
 (4ia) 
 
 Ham 
 
 and, as commander of the Missouri depart- 
 ment in 1861, compelled the Confederates to 
 evacuate Corinth. From that year till 1S64 
 he was commander-in-chief, and afterwards 
 served under Grant as chief of the staff. 
 Several charges were made against him, but 
 aU have been disproved. 
 
 Hallenberg, Jonas (b. 1748, d. 1834), 
 Swedish historian, author of a History of 
 Gustacus Adolphm (1790-6). 
 
 Haller, Albrecht von (i. 1708, d. 1777), 
 Swiss physician and writer, for eighteen 
 years professor of anatomy and botany at 
 Gijttingen, previously and subsequently 
 lived at Berne. He was author of numer- 
 ous medical treatises, the chief of which 
 was Elcmenta Flujsiologia; Humani Corporis. 
 He also wrote poems, notably an elegy on 
 his wife, who was killed by a carriage acci- 
 dent as they entered Gottiugen. His sou, 
 Amadeus {d. 1786), was an eminent botanist. 
 
 HaUett, Holt Samuel (b. 1841), English 
 engineer, was in the service of the Indian 
 Government for eleven years, during which 
 time he projected, with Archibald Colqu- 
 houn, the construction of a railway to con- 
 nect India with China. He gave an account 
 of his survey in A Thousand Miles on an 
 Elephant in the Shan States, and in 1887 re- 
 ceived the silver medal of the Society of 
 Arts for his paper on Neiv Markets and the 
 Extension of Mailways in India and Burmah. 
 
 Halley, Edmund {b. 1656, d. 1742), 
 English astronomer, sou of a London soap- 
 boiler, was educated at St. Paul's school 
 and at Oxford, and in 1676 went to St. 
 Helena, where he stopped two years, and 
 published, as a result of his observations 
 there, his Catalogtie of Southern Stars. In 
 1680 he made the acquaintance of Newton, 
 the printing of whose Principia he superin- 
 tended. Charles II. gave him a sliip, with 
 the help of which he was able to investigate 
 the variations of the magnetic needle. On 
 his return from the voyage he was made 
 Savilian professor at Oxford, and in 1720 
 became astronomer royal. During his last 
 years he was chiefly occupied in lunar 
 observations, and he also predicted the re- 
 currence of the comet which is named after 
 him. 
 
 Halliday, Sir Andrew, M.D. {d. 1839), 
 English physician, author of Annals of 
 the House of Brunswick and the House of 
 Hanover (1826). 
 
 Halliday, Sir Frederick James, K.C.B. 
 {b. 1806), English administrator in India; 
 entered the service of the East India Com- 
 pany in 1825, and became in 1853 a member 
 of the Supreme Council. During the Mutiny 
 he was heutenant-governor of Bengal, and 
 was thanked by Parliament for his services. 
 
 In 1868 he was made a member of the 
 Council of India, but retired in 1886. 
 
 HaUiwell-FMllips, James Orchard {b. 
 1820, d. 1889), Shakespearian scholar, 
 wrote a Life of Shakespeare (1848), and 
 Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare (1818), 
 besides editing an edition of his works 
 (1853-65), and being chiefly instrumental in 
 the formation of the Shakespeare Museum 
 and the purchase by the Stratford cor- 
 poration of that poet's estates. He also 
 edited other plays, and published the Dic- 
 tionary of Archuic and Provincial Words and 
 the Dictionary of Old English Plays. 
 
 Hals, Franz van {b. 1580 or 1581, d. 1666), 
 Flemish portrait-painter, a fine specimen of 
 whose work is in the hall of the Company of 
 Archers, at Delft, but most of his works are 
 in private galleries. His brother, Dirk {d. 
 16oG), was a painter of interiors and of 
 animals. 
 
 Halsbury, Lord, Hardinge Giffard (6. 
 1825), was educated at Merton College, Ox- 
 ford, and called to the bar in 1850. He be- 
 came Queen's Counsel in 1865, and was in 
 1875 made Solicitor-General by Lord Beacons- 
 field, though as yet he had been unable to 
 find a seat. He was returned for Laimcestou 
 in 1877, and held ofiice till 1880. In 1885 he 
 became Lord Chancellor, with the title of 
 Lord Halsbury, and held the same office in 
 Lord Salisbury's second ministry. 
 
 Halswelle, Keeley {b. 1832, d. 1891), Eng- 
 lish painter, bom at Richmond, Surrey ; after 
 sketching for the Illustrated London News, 
 went to Edinburgh. He first exhibited at 
 the Scottish Academy in 1857, and became an 
 associate in 1866. After a visit to Italy, his 
 picture Roba di lioma was exliibited at the 
 Koyal Academy (1869), and from that time 
 he painted many pictures, among which were 
 Contadini in St. Peter''s, Home (1871), Le 
 Sposalizio bringing Home the Bride, etc. 
 His later works were landscapes, the chief of 
 which were exhibited in 1884 as a series 
 called Six Years in a Houseboat. 
 
 Haman, Persian minister, enemy of tb 
 Jews ; plotted the fall of Mordecai, but was 
 himself executed by order of Ahasuerus. 
 
 Hambrock, Anton (d. 1661), Dutch mis- 
 siouaiy, went to Formosa, where he made 
 many converts, but was taken prisoner by 
 a Chinese pirate named Coxinga, who sent 
 him to advise his countrymen to sunender, 
 instead of which he played the part of 
 Regulus, and met with the same fate. 
 
 Hamd-Allah-Mostawfl (d. 1349), Persian 
 historian, author of a history from the 
 creation downwards, with biographies 
 of poets, philosophers, and Mahometan 
 saints.
 
 Haxa 
 
 (414) 
 
 Ham 
 
 Hamel, Joseph, M.D. (d. 1862), Russian 
 ecieutific \vTiter, lived much in England as 
 scientific correspondent of the Tsar ; in- 
 vented an electrical machine, and in 1820 
 made an ascent of Mont Blanc, when three 
 of his guides perished. He obtained the 
 introduction into Russia of the Lancasterian 
 system, and was a promoter of the first 
 Moscow exhibition. 
 
 Hamerton, Philip Gilbert (b. 1834), English 
 art writer, having determined to study land- 
 scape-painting, settled on au island in Loch 
 Awe, and in 1861 went to Paris. In 1855 he 
 published The Isles of Loch Awe and other 
 I'oems, with illustrations by himself, and later 
 Etclnng and Etchers (1868), a Life of Turner 
 (in the Fortfolio), Modern Frenchmen (1878), 
 and Imagination in Landscape-Painting 
 (1888), reprinted from the Fortfolio. He 
 also wrote some novels {Marmorne, etc.), 
 and French and English : a Comparison, 
 published in 1889 ; Round My House, The 
 Intellectual Life, etc. 
 
 Hamilcar, son of Hanno {d. 480 B.C.), 
 
 Carthaginian general, invaded Sicily, but was 
 defeated and slain by Gelon at the Himera. 
 
 Hamilcar Barca {d. 228b. a), Carthaginian 
 leader, father of Hannibal, and head of a 
 faction at Carthage ; commanded in Sicily in 
 the first Punic war, at the close of whicli he 
 defeated the mercenaries, who had rebelled; 
 was killed iu battle with the Vettones when 
 meditating a fresh attack upon the Romans. 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander (6. 1757, d. 1804), 
 American general and statesman, bom at 
 St. Kitts; published, when 17, some papers 
 on the rights of the colonies, and before he 
 was 19 was captain of artillery. In 1777 
 he was "Washington's aide-de-camp, in 1782 
 a member of Congress, and in 1787 a dele- 
 gate to the convention which drew up the 
 American Constitution. Washington ap- 
 pointed him secretary to the Treasury, and 
 in 1798 he became second-in-command of 
 the army, of which he became afterwards 
 commander-in-chief. He was killed in a 
 duel with Colonel Burr, vice-president of 
 the United States. 
 
 Hamilton, Anthony, Count (6. 1646, d. 
 1720), Irish soldier and writer; served in 
 the army of Louis XIV., and in Ireland 
 xmder James II. ; wrote the Memoires du 
 Comte de Gramont, his brother-in-law. 
 
 Hamilton, Charles (6. 1753, d. 1792), 
 Orientalist ; while in the employ of the East 
 India Company translated from the Persian 
 the Hedaya, or code of Mahometan laws. 
 
 Hamilton, David {b. 1768, d. 1843), 
 Scotch architect, designed the Exchange 
 and many other buildings at Glasgow, and 
 also many private houses. 
 
 Hamilton, Elizabeth (6. 1768, d. 1816), 
 Scotteh writer, daughter of a merchant, 
 published, when in London, Letters of a 
 Hindoo liajah, and other works, and 
 received a royal pension. She afterwards 
 removed to Edinburgh, where she wrote 
 The Cottagers of Glenburnie, which was 
 highly praised by Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 Hamilton, Emma, Lady {b. 1761, d. 
 1815), wife of Sir W. Hamilton, was 
 the daughter of a Welsh labourer named 
 Lyon, and attracted the affections of several 
 gentlemen, one of whom, Mr. Greville, 
 educated, and introduced her at court. She 
 subsequently became known as the mistress 
 of Lord Nelson, who met her at Naples, 
 where she was staying with her husband. 
 After his death she was left in good circum- 
 stances, but died in extreme poverty. 
 
 Hajnilton, Gavin {d. 1797), Scottish painter, 
 lived chiefly at Rome, where he died ; in his 
 later years devoted himself to the discovery 
 of antiquities, and published Schola Italica 
 Ficturce. 
 
 Hamilton, Lord George {h. 1845), Eng- 
 lish statesman, third son of the Duke of 
 Abercom, was educated at Harrow, and 
 served in the Rifle Brigade and the Cold- 
 stream Guards. In 1808 he entered Par- 
 liament for Middlesex, winning the seat 
 from the Liberals, and was appointed by 
 Mr. Disraeli, in 1874, under- secretary for 
 India. In 1878 he succeeded Lord Sandon 
 as vice-president of the Committee of 
 Council on Education, and was also sworn of 
 the Privy Council. In both of Lord Salis- 
 bury's cabinets he held the office of Pirst 
 Lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 Hamilton, Hugh (J>. 1729, d. 1805). Irish 
 mathematician, Bishop successively of Ossory 
 and Clonfert, and agaia of Ossory (1799) ; 
 wrote a work on Conic Sections, and was 
 professor of natural philosophy at Trinity 
 College, Dublin. 
 
 Hamilton, James (b. 1769, d. 1831), Eng- 
 lish educationist; after a tour in the 
 United States, published, in 1824, his System 
 of Teaching Languages. 
 
 Hamilton, Janet (6. 1795, d. 1873), Scot- 
 tish verse-writer, called the "Coatbridge 
 poetess," was daughter of a Lanarkshire 
 shoemaker, and entirely self-educated. She 
 published Poems and Sh'etches (1863), Sketches 
 (1865), and Ballads (1868). 
 
 Hamilton, John {d. llbT), Scotch poli- 
 tician, natural son of the first Earl of Arxan ; 
 became Archbishop of St. Andrews in 1546 ; 
 supported the French party in Scotland, and 
 persecuted the Protestants, by whom, in 
 1563, he was imprisoned. In 1566 he became 
 a member of Mary Stuart's privy council^
 
 Ham 
 
 (415) 
 
 Ham 
 
 and was thenceforth one of her chief advisers, 
 pronouncing the divorce between Bothwell 
 and his wife, and marrying the queen to the 
 former. He assisted Mary to escape from 
 Lochleven, was present at Langside, and, 
 having been declared traitor by the regent, 
 took refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he 
 was hanged in 1571, having been an accom- 
 plice in the assassination of Murray and 
 possibly also in that of Damley. While 
 Archbishop he promulgated Hamilton'' s 
 Catechism. 
 
 HamUton, Patrick {d. 1528), Scotch re- 
 former, became a Protestant when on the 
 Continent preparing for Catholic orders, 
 and zealously denounced Romanism on 
 his return, the result being that he was 
 enticed to a coirference at St. Andrews, and, 
 having been tried by the Archbishop, was 
 condemned and burnt as a heretic. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir Robert George Crookshank, 
 K.C.B. (6. 1830), English civil servant, was 
 educated at Aberdeen University, and in 1855 
 entered the War Office, in which year he was 
 sent to the Crimea. On his return he was 
 employed in the Office of Works, the Edu- 
 cation Department, and the Board of Trade, 
 and in 187-1 became secretary to the Civil 
 Service Inquiry Commission. In 1882 he 
 was made permanent under-secretary to the 
 Admiralty, but was in that year sent to 
 succeed Mr. Burke in Ireland as under- 
 secretary. He was knighted in 1884, and 
 was appointed governor of Tasmania in 
 1886. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir Robert N. C, K..C.B. (*. 
 
 1802, d. 1887), Indian official, son of Sir P. 
 Hamilton; entered the Indian service, and 
 was for ten years resident with Holkar at 
 Indore. In 1854 he became in addition 
 Governor-General's agent for Central India, 
 and as such drew up a plan for the restoration 
 of order there in 1857. He accompanied as 
 polijtical officer the army of Sir Hugh Rose, 
 and materially assisted him. He was for a 
 short time member of the Supreme Council 
 of India, but ill-health obliged him to retire 
 and live in England. 
 
 Hamilton, Thomas (6. 1789, d. 1842), 
 English officer, served in the Peninsular and 
 American campaigns, and wrote Cyril 
 Thornton (1827), and other works. 
 
 Hamilton, William, of Bangour(*. 1704, d. 
 1754), Jacobite poet, joined the Young Pre- 
 tender in 1745, but afterwards received a 
 pardon, and retired to France. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William (6. 1730 d. 1803), 
 diplomatist and antiquary, son of Lord 
 Archibald Hamilton ; in 1764 was sent to 
 Naples as envoy-extraordinary, and while 
 there made several ascents of Vesuvius, and 
 investigations at Pompeii, collecting many 
 
 Etruscan and Grecian vases, which he sold 
 to the British Museum. He wrote Antiquites 
 Etrusques and Campi PMlegraei, and was 
 elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1766. 
 In 1784, when on leave in London, he met 
 Emma Lyon, who returned with him to 
 Naples, and whom he married in 1791. In 
 that year he became privy councillor, but 
 remained at Naj.les till 1800, though com- 
 pelled for a time to retire with the royal 
 family to Palermo. Both Nelson and his 
 wife were present at his death, which took 
 place in Loudon. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir WilHam, Bart. {b. 1788, d. 
 1856), Scottish metaphysician, became, in 
 1821, professor of moral philosophy at Edin- 
 burgh, and subsequently of universal his- 
 tory. From 1836, when he became professor 
 of logic and metaphysics, he was widely 
 known as a philosophical writer. His chief 
 books were an edition of Reid's works, JDis- 
 cussions on Philosophif, Literatttre, and Edu- 
 cation (1852), and his Lectures, published 
 after his death. He left his Hbrary to the 
 University of Glasgow. 
 
 Hamilton, William Gerard (6. 1729, d. 
 1796), English politician, friend of Dr. 
 Johnson ; entered Parliament in 1754, and 
 in the next year gained his sobriquet of 
 " Single-Speech Hamilton," from a powerful 
 speech, which was the only one he ever de- 
 livered. In 1761 he went to Ireland as 
 secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant, and was 
 afterwards for many years Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer in that country. 
 
 Hamilton, William Richard (h. nil, d. 
 1859), antiquary and diplomatist, cousin of 
 last-named, accompanied Lord Elgin to Con- 
 stantinople in 1799, and, having been sent 
 by him on a mission to Egypt in 1801, com- 
 pelled the French to give up the Rosetta 
 stone, now with the Elgin marbles in the 
 British Museum. At the Peace of Paris he 
 rendered a similar service to Italy. He 
 published a work called ^gi/ptiaca, was 
 one of the founders of the Geographical 
 Society, and from 1809 till 1822 under- 
 secretary for Foreign Affairs, after which, in 
 1825, he was ambassador at Naples. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William Rowan (i'^ 1805, d. 
 1865), astronomer-royal of Ireland, entered 
 Trinity College, and was in 182" appointed 
 professor of astronomy. In addition to his 
 mathematical attainments, he was a remark- 
 able linguist, and a great lover of literature, 
 being the friend of Coleridge, Wordsworth, 
 Sou they, and others. In 1837 he was 
 elected president of the Royal Irish 
 Academy. 
 
 Hamilton, James, first Duke of (6. 1606, 
 d. 1049), Scotch statesman and general, dis- 
 tinguished himself in the Thirty Years' war 
 in the service of Gustavus Adolphus ; was
 
 Haiu 
 
 (416) 
 
 Ham 
 
 made royal commissioner in Scotland, and 
 took the king's side in the Great Rebellion. 
 He endeavoured to prevent the surrender of 
 the king to the Parliament, and afterwards 
 raised an army for him, but was defeated 
 at Preston, and beheaded (1649). His brother 
 William, who succeeded to the title, was 
 killed at Worcester. 
 
 Hamilton, George, son of third Duke of 
 {l>. 1666, d. 1737), was Earl of Orkney, and 
 distinguished himself as a soldier at the 
 BojTie and in Flanders, and at Blenheim 
 made many prisoners. 
 
 Hamilton, James, fourth Duke of (6. 1668, 
 d. 1712), statesman and soldier, ambassador 
 for Charles II. at the French court ; was 
 sent to the Tower under William III. for 
 supporting James II. Subsequently in 
 Scotland he headed the opposition to the 
 Union, and was killed in a duel by Lord 
 Mohim. 
 
 Hamilton, James, second Earl of Arran 
 {d. 161b), was regent of Scotland from the 
 death of James V. (1542) till 1554, and was 
 created Duke of Chatelherault as a reward 
 for his desertion of the EngUsh alliance. 
 
 Hamilton, James, third earl (b. 1530, d. 
 1609), was a suitor for the hand of Queen 
 Elizabeth, his candidature being favoured 
 by all those who desired a union between 
 England and Scotland ; he afterwards be- 
 came insane. 
 
 Hamley, Sir Edward Bruce, K.C.B. 
 
 {b. 1824), English soldier; son of Ad- 
 miral Hamley ; entered the army in 
 1843; served in the Crimea, being men- 
 tioned in despatches, and was commaudaut 
 of the Staff College from 1870 to 1877. He 
 was employed as delimitation commissioner 
 in Turkey (1879), Armenia (1880), and for 
 the Turkish evacuation of Thessaly and 
 Epirus in the next year, and in the Egyptian 
 war of 1882 he commanded the second divi- 
 sion at Tel-el-Kebir, receiving decoration 
 from the Khedive as well as the home 
 Government. In 1885 he entered Parlia- 
 ment for Birkenhead as Conservative, and 
 was re-elected in 1886. Among his works 
 are The Campaign of Sebastopol, written in 
 the Camp ; The Operations of the War ; Our 
 I'oor Eelations : a Fhilozoic Essay; Voltaire 
 {m.th.& Foreign Classics series, 1879); Welling- 
 ton's Career (republished from ISlackwood'' s 
 Magazine), a collection of speeches and 
 writings entitled National Defence, etc. 
 
 Hamlin, Hannibal {b. 1809, d. 1891), 
 American statesman, bom at Paris, Maine ; 
 practised as a lawyer, and became a mem- 
 ber of the state legislature. In 1842 he was 
 elected as a Democrat to Congress, was 
 United States senator from 1848 to 1857, 
 when he was elected governor on the 
 
 Republican ticket, but resigned immediately 
 on again being elected senator. In 1861 he 
 became vice-president imder Lincoln, whose 
 views he shared. He was again senator 
 from 1869 to 1881, when he was named 
 minister in Spain. He was chiefly instru- 
 mental in passing the "Wilmot proviso" 
 through the House of Representatives. 
 
 Hammarskaeld, Lorenzo (Jj. 1787, d. 
 1827), Swedish poet, historian, and critic; 
 founder of the school of Phosphorists, and 
 author of Svenska Vitterheten. 
 
 Hammer-Furgstall, Josef, Baron von {b. 
 
 1774, d. 1856), German Orientalist; corrected 
 MSS. for the imperial library at Vienna, 
 bringing back several from Paris in 1815. 
 His chief works were Geschichte des Os- 
 ■manischen Reichs and Litter atur- geschichte 
 der Araber. He was decorated by twenty 
 sovereigns, and constructed a tomb for him- 
 self with inscriptions in the ten languages of 
 which he was master. 
 
 Hammericli, Frederick Peter Adolf {b. 
 1809, d. 1877), Danish poet and historian; 
 lived some time in Sweden, and in 1840, by 
 the publication of his Scandinavian Voyage- 
 Songs, excited a reaction in favour of the old 
 national tongue. Among his other works 
 were The Awakening of Denmark, and Gus- 
 tanis Adolphiis in Germany (poems) and Ben- 
 mark at the Time of the Union of Calmar. 
 He was chaplain to the Danish troops ia 
 the Schleswig-Holstein campaign, and pub- 
 lished an account of this and the earlier 
 wars in that country. 
 
 Hammond, Anthony {b. 1668, «?. 1738), 
 English poet, friend of Pope and his con- 
 temporaries, and member of Parliament ; 
 published in 1720 A Miscellany of Original 
 Poems. He died in a debtor's prison. His 
 son, James (d. 1742), was author of Love 
 Elegies. 
 
 Hammond, William Alexander {b. 1828), 
 American physician ; entered the army, and 
 served as surgeon till 1860, when he became 
 professor of anatomy in the Marjiand uni- 
 versity. On the outbreak of the Civil war, 
 however, he re-entered the army, and in 
 1862 was made surgeon-general. Two years 
 later he was tried by court-martial and dis- 
 missed the service for irregularities in the 
 award of liquor contracts, after which he 
 practised in New York, making a speciality 
 of nervous diseases. In 1878 a bill passed 
 Congress reviewing the sentence of the 
 court-martial, and he was reinstated as 
 surgeon -general and brigadier. He is author 
 of On Sleep and its iJeranqements, Diseases of 
 the Nervous System, and insanity in its Re- 
 lation to Crime, and of Mr. Oldmixon ; A 
 Strong-minded Woman, and other novels. 
 
 Hampden, John {b. 1594, d. 1643), English
 
 Ham 
 
 (417) 
 
 Han 
 
 politician ; though a member of the second 
 Parliament of Charles I., he took little 
 part in affairs till his refusal to pay ship- 
 money in 1635. The case was decided 
 against >'iTn three years later, but the story 
 01 his attempting to leave England soon 
 after is without foundation. He was a 
 member of the Short Parliament, and in the 
 Long Parliament took an active though not 
 prominent part. He was one of the com- 
 missioners sent to Scotland to attend the 
 king, and was impeached as one of the five 
 members. He was very active during the 
 •war, and was killed at Chalgrove Field. 
 
 Haanpden, Reun Dickson, D.D. (b. 1793, 
 d. 1668), divine, descendant of the last- 
 named, was bom in Barbadoes, and took 
 high honoui's at Oxford, where he be- 
 came fellow of Oriel, principal of St. Mary 
 Hall, Bampton lecturer (1832), Whyte's 
 professor of moral philosophy, and Regius 
 professor of divinity (1836). His Bampton 
 lectures were attacked by Newman, and 
 he was censured by a combination of the 
 HighandLowChurch parties in Convocation. 
 In 184:7 he became Bishop of Hereford in 
 spite of violent opposition. He wrote a 
 work on The Fltilosophieal Evidence of 
 Christianity. 
 
 Hampden, Viscount, G.C.B. (4. 1814, 
 d. 1892), politician, second son of Lord 
 Dacre, was (as Henry Brand) private 
 secretary to Sir George Grey, and repre- 
 sented Lewes as a Liberal from 1852 to 
 1868, from which year till 1884 he sat for 
 Cambridgeshire. From 1859 to 1866 he was 
 parliamentary secretary to the Treasury, 
 and was unanimously elected Speaker. In 
 the Parliament of 1880 he firmly opposed 
 obstruction, and in 1884 was raised to the 
 peerage, becoming a privy coimcillor two 
 years later. 
 
 Hampton, Wade (b. 1818), American 
 Boldier (whose grandfather of the same 
 name was a wealthy planter, and took part 
 in the war of Independence, and whose 
 father, also named Wade, was aide-de- 
 camp to Jackson in 1815), was bom at Co- 
 lumbia, South Carolina, and was distin- 
 guished in the Civil war as chief of 
 "Hampton's legion." After the war he 
 adopted a conciliatory policy on the negro 
 question, and engaged in cotton planting. 
 In 1876 he became state governor, and in 
 1878 United States senator. 
 
 Hancock, John {h. 1737, d. 1793), Ameri- 
 can politician, was one of the leaders in the 
 revolt in Massachusetts, the seizure of his 
 sloop, 7%« Liberty, being the occasion of a 
 riot in Boston. He was very active in de- 
 noimcing the "Boston massacre," and 
 was one of the persons whose seizure was 
 attempted by the expedition which led to 
 
 B B 
 
 the Lexington affair. He was president of 
 the Continental Congress from 1775-77, and 
 governor of Massachusetts from 1780 till hia 
 death. 
 
 Hancock, Winfield Scott {b. 1824, d. 
 1886), soldier, practised forty years as a 
 lawyer, but served in the Mexican war and 
 other expeditions, and during the Civil war 
 under McLellan. He especially distin- 
 guished himself at Fredericksburg in De- 
 cember, 1862, where nearly half of his men 
 were killed. He was dangerously wounded 
 at Gettysburg, where he commanded the 
 second army corps, and was thanked by 
 Congress for his services. After his recovery 
 he was again engaged, and met with a 
 severe defeat at Ream's station in August, 
 1864. After the death of Lincoln he was 
 given the command at Washington. He 
 was nominated in 1880 as Democrat candi- 
 date for the presidency, but was defeated 
 by Garfield. 
 
 Handel, George Frederick [Handel] (6. 
 1685, d. 1759), English composer of German 
 birth, was born at Halle, and, at the instance 
 of the Duke of Saxe-Weinfels, allowed to 
 follow his musical tastes, his education being 
 entrusted to the local organist. He com- 
 posed services before he was twelve, and at 
 fourteen went to Berlin, where he came 
 under the notice of the king. He then went 
 to Hamburg, where he was employed in the 
 orchestra, and in 1705 composed Almit-a, 
 his first opera. He afterwards went to 
 Italy, where he visited Rome, Naples, 
 and Venice ; while at Florence his Rodengo 
 was performed in 1706. He next became 
 kapellmeister to the Elector of Hanover, 
 and in 1710 paid his first visit to London, 
 where he composed Rinaldo for the Hay- 
 market. Two years later he again went to 
 England, and was so well received that he 
 stayed there instead of returning to his 
 duties. In 1713 a Te Beimi by him to cele- 
 brate the peace of Utrecht was heard at St. 
 Paul's. When the Elector of Hanover be- 
 came George I. of England he at first 
 showed no favour to the composer, but the 
 latter made his peace by his Water Music. 
 Handel was also appointed director of the 
 new Royal Academy of Music, but the 
 rivalry of Bononcini and the Italians caused 
 it to be closed in 1737. Meanwhile, how- 
 ever, he had composed Esther, Acis and 
 Galatea, Athaliah, Alexander's Feast, and 
 many anthems. After going to Aachen to 
 recruit his health, he retui'ned and composed 
 Saul and larael in Egypt, but met with 
 much opposition, and in 1741 went to Ire- 
 land, where the Messiah was performed at 
 Dublin (1742), and Samson in the following 
 year. On his return to London he resumed 
 the production of operas at Covent Garden, 
 and, though still meeting with opposition, 
 was successful. Among his later works thi^
 
 Han 
 
 (418) 
 
 Han 
 
 chief were Joseph (1743), Belshazzar (1744), 
 Judas Maccabaus, in celebration of CuUoden 
 (174(3), Alexandei- Halms (1747), Solomon and 
 Susannah (1748), TJie Choice of Hercules 
 (1750), andJephthah (17o'2). Although blind 
 in his later years, he played the organ at 
 the performance of the Messiah eight days 
 before his death. 
 
 Hamner, Sir Thomas (*. 1676, d. 1746), 
 English pohticiau, became Speaker in 1713, 
 and published an edition of Shakespeare 
 with engravings by Gravelot, 
 
 Hanna, Wilham, D.D. (b. 1808, d. 1882), 
 Scotch Presbyterian divine, son of Dr. 
 Samuel Hauua ; took part with his father- 
 in-law. Dr. Chalmers, in the Free Church 
 movement of 1850. He wrote Memoirs of 
 Dr. Chalmers, The Letters of Thomas Erskine 
 of Linlathen, and Our Zoi'd's Life on Earth. 
 
 Hannay, James (*. 1827, d. 1873), Scotch 
 novelist and joumaUst, served in the navy 
 for five years, and wrote Singleton Fontenoy, 
 Eustace Conyers, A Course of English Litera- 
 ture, and Three Hundred lears of a Norman 
 House. 
 
 Hanneman, Adriaan (5, 1610), Dutch 
 painter of the school of Van Dyck, chief 
 among whose pictures were portraits of 
 William II. of Nassau and of himself. He 
 also excelled in allegorical subjects. 
 
 Hannen, Lord {b. 1821), English judge, 
 educated at St. Paul's school and Heidel- 
 berg, was called to the bar in 1848. In 
 1853 he was British agent on the commission 
 for the settlement of the claims of the 
 United States, and in 1868 was made judge 
 of the Queen's Bench. From 1872 till 1891 
 he was judge of the probate, divorce, and 
 admiralty division, and became in the latter 
 year a lord of appeal. In 1888 he was 
 named president of the Special Commission 
 to examine into the charge brought by 
 the Times against Mr. Parnell and his 
 party. 
 
 Hannibal (*. 247 b.c, d. 183 B.C.), Car- 
 thaginian general, son of Hamilcar Barca, 
 who devoted him from an early age to war 
 with the Romans. After attacking the 
 allies of the latter in Spain he marched into 
 Italy, over the Pyrenees and Alps, and 
 arriving in 218, won the battles of the 
 Ticinus and the Trebia, and next year de- 
 feated Flaminius on Lake Thrasymene. 
 After his great victory at Cannae in 216 he 
 wintered at Capua, but was unable to take 
 Rome. In 203 he returned to Africa, and 
 was defeated at Zama in the following year 
 by Scipio Africanus. He became chief 
 magistrate at Carthage, but was compelled 
 by the hostility of rivals to flee to the court 
 of Antiochus. When his surrender was de- 
 manded by the Romans, he took refuge in 
 
 Bithynia, but took poison from apprehension 
 of being given up. 
 
 Hanno, Carthaginian commander, de- 
 feated at the .Agates by Lutatius Catulus 
 in the Punic war. 
 
 Hanno, "the Great," rival of Hamilcar 
 Barca, and afterwards an opponent of his 
 
 son. 
 
 Hanno, Carthaginian navigator, by whom 
 there is extant a fragment printed with 
 Arrian, describing a voyage round Libya 
 {temp, uncertain). 
 
 Hanno {d. 1075), Archbishop of Cologne, 
 appointed in 1055 ; opposed Pope Nicholas 
 IL in Germany, carried off the young Em- 
 peror Henry IV. in 1062 to Cologne, and 
 became aU-powerf ul as his guardian, though 
 twice superseded by a rival prelate, Adal- 
 bert. His tyranny at Cologne brought 
 about an insiurrection, in which he nearly 
 lost his Uf e, but which he quelled with great 
 severity. He was a zealous supporter of 
 the reforms of Hildebrand, and was canon- 
 ised after his death. 
 
 Hansard, Luke {b. 1752, d. 1828), English 
 printer, bom at Norwich ; came to London 
 in 1779, and worked as compositor for Mr. 
 Hughs, printer to the House of Conunons, 
 whom he succeeded, and became founder of 
 the house. His son, Luke James {d. 1851), 
 was author of Proposition for a National 
 Printing OMce (1848) and the Fertilisation 
 of Waste Lands. 
 
 Hansen, Peder Andreas (*. 1793, d. 1874), 
 German astronomer, native of Schleswig, 
 was employed in the triangulation of Hol- 
 stein, and afterwards as director of the ob- 
 servatory at Seeberg. His Tables of the 
 Moon were printed by the British Govern- 
 ment in 1857. 
 
 Hanslick, Dr. Eduard (b. 1825), Austrian 
 musical critic, became professor of aesthetics 
 and musical history at Vienna, and was 
 juror of the musical department in the 
 Paris Exhibition of 1867 and in 1878, and 
 that at Vienna in 1873. Besides being 
 musical critic to the Neue Freie Presse and 
 other journals, lectured on music in Vienna, 
 Prague, and Cologne as an opponent of 
 Wagner and Liszt. In 1876 he became a 
 member of the Imperial CounciL Among 
 his works are Die Moderns Oper (1875) and 
 Aus dem Opernleben der Gegenwart (1884). 
 
 Hansteen, Christoffer (6. 1784, d. 1873), 
 Norwegian astronomer, bom at Christiania, 
 published in \%\%\a%Researches on Terrestrial 
 Magnetism, and, after visiting London, Paris, 
 Berlin, and other places, was sent by his 
 government on a voyage of exploration in 
 Siberia (1828). After his return to Norway 
 he constructed an observatory at Christiania,
 
 Han 
 
 (419) 
 
 Har 
 
 directed the triangulation of the coimtry, 
 and held several professorships. His Sou- 
 venirs of a Journey in Siberia was translated 
 into French in 1857. 
 
 Hanway, Jonas (b. 1712, d. 1786), English 
 philanthropist and traveller, founded the 
 Marine Society and the Magdalen Charity, 
 and promoted the establishment of Sunday 
 schools. He went to Persia as a trader, and 
 wrote an account of his travels in the Ac- 
 count of British Trade over the Caspian Sea 
 (1754). He also introduced umbrellas. 
 
 Harald (Blaatand), King of Denmark 
 (jb. 910, d. 985), being conquered by the 
 Emperor Otto the Great, was compelled to 
 be baptised, and afterwards laboured to 
 establish Christianity iu his country. 
 
 Harald I., King of Norway {b. 850, d. 
 933), consolidated his kingdom out of petty 
 sovereignties, and abdicated in 930. 
 
 Harald II., his grandson, came to the 
 throne in 950, and was killed in battle (977). 
 
 Harald III. (Hardrada), came to the throne 
 in 1047, having previously taken Athens, 
 and been head of the Varangian guard at 
 Constantinople. With Tostig he invaded 
 England in 1066, and took York, but was 
 defeated and slain at Stamford Bridge. 
 
 Harald IV. usurped the throne from 
 Magnus IV., and was assassinated in 1134 
 by Sigurd Slembidiakr. 
 
 Harcourt, Simon, Viscount (h. 1660, d. 
 172®, English lawyer, entered Parliament 
 as a Tory ia 1690, and as Solicitor- General 
 drew up the bill for the union with Scotland. 
 He afterwards became Attorney- General 
 and Lord-Keeper, and defended Sacheverell. 
 He was for a short time (1713-14) Lord 
 Chancellor, and, having joined the Whigs, 
 was created a viscount. 
 
 Harcourt, Sir William Vernon {b. 1827), 
 English statesman, second son of the Rev. 
 W. V. Harcourt, was educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, where he graduated 
 in 1S51. He was called to the bar in ISoi, 
 became Queen's Coimsel in 1866, and was 
 from 1869 to 1887 professor of inter- 
 national law at Cambridge. He contri- 
 buted to the Times articles under the signa- 
 ture of "Historicus" (which were re- 
 published in 1863), and was returned Liberal 
 member for Oxford in 186!'. He took up at 
 first an independent position, but in 1873 was 
 appointed Solicitor-General. While in Op- 
 position he supported the Public Worship 
 Regulation Bill, and opposed the foreign 
 policy of Lord Btaconsfield. In ISSO he 
 became Home Secretary, but failed to obtain 
 re-election at Oxford after taking office, 
 and had to take Mr. PlimsoU's seat at 
 Derby. During his term of office he 
 BB 2 
 
 introduced the Arms Bill, and was an active 
 
 I supporter of other coercionist measures, and 
 
 in 1883 passed the Explosives Act against 
 
 the dynamiters. In Mr. Gladstone's Home 
 
 I Rule cabinet he was Chancellor of the Ex- 
 
 ' chequer, and again in 1892. 
 
 ' Hardee, WilUam J. [h. 1819, d. 1873), 
 American soldier and military vrriter ; after 
 serving in the Florida war, went to study 
 at St. Maur in France. In 1846, while with 
 \ Taylor's Rio Grande expedition, he was 
 made prisoner, but was soon exchanged 
 I and was rapidly promoted. He after- 
 j wards drew up the United States Rifle and 
 Light Infantr;/ Tactics (1856), and became 
 j commander of cadets at West Point. In 
 ' the Civil war he distinguished himself as a 
 Confederate officer, commanding the 3rd 
 corps at Shiloh, serving under Bragg at 
 Chattanooga, and finally commanding in 
 South Carolina. He surrendered at Dur- 
 ham in April, 1865, and, at the close of the 
 war, retired to his estates in Alabama. 
 
 Hardenberg'. {See Novalis.] 
 
 ; Hardenberg, Karl August FUrst von (J. 
 j 1750, d. 18'i2), Prussian statesman, was previ- 
 j ously in the service of Hanover and of Bruns- 
 I wick. In 1790, when Ausbach-Baireuth, of 
 which he was premier, was united to Prussia, 
 ! he entered the service of the latter, and as 
 such superintended the campaign of 1791-4, 
 and concluded the treaty of Basle. In 
 1803 he became foreign minister, and held 
 that position for three years, becoming 
 known as the enemy of Napoleon, at whose 
 command he was banished from court after 
 the peace of Tilsit. WTieu chancellor in 
 1810 he supported Scharnhorst's secret re- 
 organisation of the army, though unable to 
 refuse co-operation with France in the in- 
 vasion of Russia ; but afterwards took up an 
 open position, making treaties with Russia 
 and Austria. He signed the first treaty of 
 Paris, and in 1815 endeavoured to obtain 
 the restoration of Alsace. He was after- 
 wards minister of the interior, and supported 
 the reactionist attitude of Mettemich. 
 
 Hardicanute, King of England and Den- 
 mark {d. 1042), son of Canute and Emma, 
 succeeded his half-brother, Harold, in 1040, 
 and was last of the Danish kings. 
 
 Harding, James Duffield (6. 1798, d. 
 1863), EngUsh painter, gained the medal of 
 the Society of Arts in 1818, and soon after 
 became a member. He also engaged in art 
 teaching, and was author of Principles and 
 Practice of Art and other works. His best 
 known pictures are Anglers on the Loire, 
 and views of Fribourg and of the Alps at 
 Como. 
 
 Harding, or Hardyng, John (h. 1378, d. 
 1470), old English historian, served in the
 
 Har 
 
 (420) 
 
 Har 
 
 wars of Henry V., and wrote Chronicle of 
 England to the lielgn of Edward IV., of 
 which there are two widely-differing edi- 
 tions. 
 
 Harding, Karl {b. 1775, d. 1834), German 
 astronomer, professor of astronomy and 
 director at Gottiugen ; received the Lalande 
 medal in 1803 for hia discovery of Juno. 
 
 Harding, Wyndham (6. 1817, d. 1855), 
 English civil engineer, employed in the 
 construction of the earliest railways, advo- 
 cated the narrow gauge and read a paper 
 on the Statistics of the Railway Si/ntem of 
 Great Britain before the British Association 
 in 1848. ILe defrayed the expenses of the 
 first ship which carried emigrants to Aus- 
 tralia. 
 
 Hardinge, Henry, Viscount {b. 1785, d. 
 1856), soldier and statesman ; entered the 
 army at fifteen, served with distinction in 
 the Peninsular campaign, being with Sir 
 John Moore at his death, but was not 
 present at Waterloo on account of a wound 
 received at Liguy. In 1828 he became 
 Secretary for War, and was afterwards Chief 
 Secretai-y for Ireland. In 1844 he was 
 named Governor- General of India, and, as 
 second in command to Sir Hugh Gough 
 helped him to defeat the Sikhs, for which 
 services he was created viscount, and re- 
 ceived pensions both from the Government 
 and the India Company. Having returned 
 home, he was appointed master-general of 
 the ordnance in 1852, and succeeded Wel- 
 lington as commander-in-chief. 
 
 Hardinge, General the Hon. Sir Arthur, 
 K.C.B. (6. 1828), English soldier, second 
 son of Viscount Hardinge, joined the army 
 in 1844, and served as staff oificer in the 
 Sikh war, and was distinguished in the 
 Crimea. After being assistant - quarter- 
 master-general in Ireland, he became 
 equerry to the Prince Consort, and subse- 
 quently colonel of the Coldstream Guards. 
 He went again to India in 1868, returning 
 just before the Afghan war, and in 1881 
 was made commander-in-chief at Bombay. 
 
 Hardinge, Charles, Viscount (6. 1822), 
 elder brother of the last-named, was private 
 secretary to his father in India. He sat in 
 Parhament from 1851 till 1856, and was 
 under-secretary of War under Lord Derby 
 in 1858-9. 
 
 Hardinge, Nicholas (ft. 1700, d. 1758), 
 English writer and antiquary, became chief 
 clerk of the House of Commons, and, having 
 entered Parliament for Eye, was secretary 
 tp t^e Treasury in 1752. He wrote Denhill 
 Iliad and some Latin verse, and was a 
 patron of nntiquaries. 
 
 Haxdinge, George (6. 1744, d. 1816), 
 
 English writer, sou of last-named, was 
 successively solicitor-general to the queen, 
 counsel to the East India Company, and 
 attorney -general to the queen. He wrote 
 letters to Hurke on the Impeachment oj 
 Hastings and the Essence of Malone, an 
 attack on that writer. 
 
 Hardouin, Jean {b. 1646, d. 1729), French 
 Jesuit, whose works — in which he tried to 
 prove from medals that the greater part of 
 the classics were mediaeval forgeries, were 
 censured by his Society ; afterwards edited 
 Pling^s Natural History and The Councils, 
 the latter being suppressed. 
 
 Hardwick, Philip (6. 1793, d. 1870), Eng- 
 lish architect, son and father of an archi- 
 tect, built a new hall for the Goldsmiths' 
 Company in 1835, also the hall and library 
 of Lmcolu's Inn, opened in 1845. He was 
 elected F.E.S. in 1828, A.R.A. 1839, and 
 R.A. 1841, and was subsequently vice- 
 president of the Eoyal Institute of British 
 Artists. 
 
 Hardwicke, Philip Yorke, Earl of (J>. 
 1692, d. 1764), lawyer, entered Parliament 
 in 1717, and next year became Solicitor- 
 General. After being Attorney-General 
 for ten years, he became, in 1730, chief jus- 
 tice of the King's Bench, and was made a 
 peer. In 1737 he was given in addition the 
 office of Lord Chancellor, which he held till 
 1756, his tenure of office being marked by 
 the passing of the Marriage Act He did 
 not take office again, but his advice was 
 much valued. 
 
 Hardwicke, Philip, 2nd Earl of (ft. 1720, 
 d. 1790), author of Athenian Letters, Walpo- 
 liana, etc. , and editor of the Hardwicke State 
 Fapers. 
 
 Hardy, Lady Mary DufFus, novelist, 
 widow of Sir Thomas DufFus Hardy, wrote 
 descriptions of her travels in America, called 
 Through Cities and Prairie Lands and Down 
 South. Her most successful novels were 
 Paul Wynter's Sacrifice and Daisy Nichol. 
 
 Hardy, Iza DufFus, daughter of last- 
 named, author of Glencairn, Only a Lovt 
 Story, Lore, Honour, and Obey, Lore in Idle- 
 ness, and other tales ; she received in 1891 a 
 Civil List pension. 
 
 Hardy, Thomas (ft, 1840), novelist, edu- 
 cated as an architect, was bom in Dorset- 
 shire, the scene of his novels being laid 
 in the south of England, the early Wessex. 
 His chief works are Desperate Remedies 
 (1871), Undei- the Greenwood Tree (1872), 
 Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), The 
 Trumpet Major (1880), TJje TTondlanders, 
 TTte Mayor of Casterhridqe (1886), and 
 Wessex Tales (1888), Test of the D' Urber- 
 villes, etc.
 
 Har 
 
 ( 421 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 Hardy, Thomas {b. 1752, d. 1832), poli- 
 ticiau, set up a bootmaker's shop in Pic- 
 cadilly, but soon plunged into politics, 
 beiag the chief founder of the London 
 Corresponding Society in 1792. In 1794 
 he was prosecuted with Home Tooke and 
 others for high treason, but was defended 
 by Erskine, and acquitted. He continued 
 in business till 1815, and in his last years 
 was supported by Sir Francis Burdett and 
 his friends. 
 
 Haxdy, Sir Thomas Duffus (6. 1804, d. 
 1878), antiquarian, entered the Record Oilice 
 in 1819, and ia 1861 became deputy keeper. 
 He edited Close Molls, Horman Rolls, and 
 Charter Molls ; William of Malmesbury, and 
 Modus Tenendi Farliamenti (1846). His 
 brother, Sir Wiluam Hardy (a. 1887), suc- 
 ceeded him as deputy keeper. 
 
 Hardy, Sir Thomas Masterman, Bart. 
 (h. 1769, d. 1839), English admiral, friend 
 of Nelson, with whom he served at St. 
 Viacent, the NUe and Trafalgar ; was created 
 baronet ia 1806, and was subsequently a 
 lord of the Admiralty and governor of Green- 
 wich Hospital. 
 
 Hare, Augustus John Cuthbert (6. 1834), 
 English writer, nephew of Archdeacon Hare, 
 educated at Harrow and University College, 
 Oxford; wrote Memorials of a Quiet Life 
 (18th edition, 1884), Epitaphs from Country 
 Churchyards, Walks in Rome, Wanderings 
 in Spain, and many books of travel. 
 
 Haxe, Francis, D.D. (b. 1665, d. 1740), 
 theologian, successively Dean of Worcester 
 and St. Paul's, and Bishop of St. Asaph 
 and Chichester, opposed Hoadley ia the 
 Bangorian controversy. His J)ijficulties 
 and Discouragement which attend the Study 
 of Scriptures in the Way of Private Judg- 
 ment was censured by Convocation. 
 
 Haxe, John (Fairs) {h. 1844), actor, made his 
 first appearance at the Prince of Wales' 
 theatre in 1865. After playing under the 
 Bancrofts for several years, he became, in 
 1875, manager of the Court theatre ; and 
 in 1879 he joined Mr. Kendal in the manage- 
 ment of the St. James's theatre. In 1889 
 he opened the Garrick theatre with Mr. 
 Pinero's Profligate. 
 
 Hare, Julius Charles {b. 1795, d. 1855), 
 English writer and theologian, educated at 
 the Charterhouse and Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, of which he became fellow in 1818, 
 took orders in 1826, and in 1832 was ap- 
 pointed to the living of Hurstmonceux. He 
 travelled much in Italy and Germany, some- 
 times having Landor as companion. In 
 1840 he became Archdeacon of Lewes, and 
 in 1853 chaplain to the Queen, and was a 
 Btrong supporter of the Broad Church move- 
 meut. In 1820 he translated Sintram, and 
 
 four years later published Guesses at Truth, 
 which was written in collaboration with his 
 brother, Augustus William, who died at 
 Rome in 1833. In conjunction with Thirl- 
 waU, Julius translated Niebuhr's Rome, and 
 in 1848 edited Stirling's Essays and Tales, 
 with a life of the author, who had been his 
 curate at Hurstmonceux. 
 
 Hare, Robert {b. 1781, d. 1858), American 
 chemist, professor in the Pennsylvania 
 University, and inventor of the " Drum- 
 mond Lamp," the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, 
 the calorimotor, and improved the voltaic 
 pile. 
 
 Hargrave, Francis (ft. 1741, d. 1821), 
 English barrister, recorder of Liverpool, 
 established in the case of the negro Somerset 
 the freedom "of slaves upon entering British 
 territory, and published State Trials and 
 Law Trials. His collection of MSS. is now 
 in the British Museum. 
 
 Hargraves, Edmund Hammond (b. 1815), 
 English traveller, in 1834 went to Australia 
 as a farmer, and in 1849 discovered gold in 
 California. On his return to Australia he 
 made similar discoveries there (in 1851), and, 
 having informed the Grovemment, was made 
 crown lands commissioner, and received a 
 reward of £10,000. In 1854 he returned to 
 England, and published Australia and her 
 Gold Mines. 
 
 Hargreaves, James {d. 1778), English 
 mechanician, invented the stock-cards, and 
 a hand- worked spinning- jenny. In conse- 
 quence of the hostiHty of his fellow-work- 
 men he had to remove from Stanhill to 
 Nottingham, and he afterwards set up a 
 spinning factory at Hockley. A grant from 
 the Royal Bounty Fund was made to his 
 daughter by Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 Harlay, AchiUe d' {h. 1536, d. 1619), 
 French magistrate, opposed the Due de 
 Guise in 1585, and quelled the sedition in 
 Paris in 1589. 
 
 Harley. [See Oxford, Earl of.] 
 
 Harley, George, F.R.S. (6. 1829), English 
 medical writer, graduated at Edinburgh in 
 1850, and while on the Continent published 
 La Physiologic du Diabite Suere and other 
 works. On his return he became professor 
 of medical jurisprudence at University Col- 
 lege, and physician to the Hospital. In 1861 
 he gained the triennial prize of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons, and as a fellow of the 
 Royal Society contributed many papers to 
 the Transactions. Besides numerous medical 
 works, of which the chief is one on Liver 
 Diseases, he published in 1877 The Simplif ca- 
 tion of English Spelling, and in 1878 printed 
 a letter to Lord Beaconsfield on the same 
 subject.
 
 Har 
 
 (422) 
 
 Har 
 
 Harley, Robert, F.R.S. {b. 1828), mathe- 
 maticiau, became in ISGS ^)astor of a Con- 
 gregatioual church at Leicester, in which 
 town he was prominent as an educationist. 
 In 1872 he became vice-master at Mill Hill 
 school ; in 1882 principal of Huddersfield 
 College ; and in 1886 went to Oxford, where 
 the degree of M.A. was conferred on him. 
 He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society 
 at the age of thirty-five, and has written 
 many works and papers on mathematical 
 subjects. 
 
 Harlow, George Henry (i. 1787, d. 1819), 
 English portrait-painter, pupil of Drum- 
 mond and Sir T. Lawrence, his best-known 
 picture being that of the Trial of Queen 
 Kathe^-ine, into which portraits of the 
 Kembles were introduced. 
 
 Haxmodius, an Athenian who, with 
 Aristogeiton, killed Hippias, and was put 
 to death by his brother, Hipparchus, 
 (514 B.C.). 
 
 Haro, Don Luis Mendez de {b. 1599, 
 d. 1661), Spanish statesman, nephew of 
 Olivarez, whom he succeeded as minister in 
 1643 ; was chiefly instrumental ia bringing 
 about the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1657. 
 
 Harold L, King of England [d. 1040), 
 son of Canute (Knut), who left the suc- 
 cession to him, with his brother, in 1035. 
 He usurped the whole kingdom in 1037, 
 having previously banished Queen Emma, 
 and murdered her sons by JEthelred. 
 
 Harold IL (d. 1066), son of Godwine, 
 succeeded Edward the Confessor, defeated 
 the invasion of Harald Hardrada of Norway 
 at Stamford Bridge, September, 1066, but 
 was himself defeated and slain by William 
 of Normandy at Senlac, near Hastings, on 
 October 14. Previous to his accession he 
 had commanded an expedition against the 
 Welsh. 
 
 Haroun Al Easchid {b. 763, <?. 809), 
 Khalif of Bagdad, organised his dominions 
 against the attacks of the Eastern empire ; 
 massacred the Barmecides ; compelled Nice- 
 phorus to resume payment of his tribute, 
 and ravaged his dominions when the peace 
 was not kept ; sent an embassy to Charles 
 the Great. He died when on an expedition 
 against Khorassan. 
 
 Harpsfleld, Nicholas (d. 1583), Roman 
 Catholic theologian. Archdeacon of Canter- 
 bury under Queen Mary, but imprisoned by 
 Elizabeth ; wrote, with the assistance of 
 Archbishop Parker, who had the custody of 
 him, Historia Anglicana Ecclesiastica. His 
 brother John (d. 1578) was made Dean of 
 Norwich by Queen Mary, and was chaplain 
 to Bonner and a great persecutor. 
 
 Harrington. {See Stenhope.] 
 
 Harrington, James (b. 1611, d. 1677), 
 English writer, served in Holland as a 
 soldier, and travelled much on the Con- 
 tinent. He attempted to mediate between 
 the Parliament and King Charles, and was 
 with the latter from 1646 until his death. 
 After the Restoration he was imprisoned on 
 a charge of treason, but when his mind 
 gave way was released. Besides the Oceana, 
 he wrote other political works, and an essay 
 on Virgil. 
 
 Harrington, Sir John (6. 1561, d. 1612), 
 Enghsh writer, godchild of Queen Eliza- 
 beth, translated Ariosto's Orlando Furioso 
 into English verse, and wrote Nugce An- 
 tiquce and the other works which appear in 
 his Remains. 
 
 Harriot, Thomas (b. 1560, d. 1621), 
 English mathematician, taught in the 
 family of Sir Walter Raleigh, and accom- 
 panied the expedition of Grenville to Vir- 
 ginia as geographer, giving an account of 
 that country in A Brief and True Account 
 of the New-Found Land of Virginia. He 
 invented a method of algebraic calculation 
 which was afterwards adopted by Des- 
 cartes. 
 
 Harris, James (*. 1709, d. 1780), English 
 philosopher, a native of Malmesbury, was 
 appointed in 1744 secretary to comptroller 
 to Queen Caroline. His chief work was 
 Hermes ; or, a Philosophical Inquiry Con- 
 cerning Language and Universal Grammar. 
 
 Harris, James (son). [See Malmesbury, 
 Earl of.] 
 
 Harris, Joel Chandler (b. 1848), Ameri- 
 can writer, almost entirely seK- educated, 
 was apprenticed to a printer at the age of 
 twelve, but afterwards became a journalist. 
 In the Constitution, of which he became 
 editor, appeared in 1880 Uncle Remus : his 
 Songs and Sayings, which was followed by 
 other similar works. 
 
 Harris, Lord (b. 1746, d. 1829), British 
 soldier, served in the American war of 
 Independence, and afterwards in India 
 under Cornwallis. In 1799, as commander- 
 in-chief, he conducted the expedition 
 against Tippoo Sahib, when Seringapatam 
 was taken, from which he derived the title 
 of baron awarded him. 
 
 Harris, Lord (h. 1851), statesman, fourth 
 baron, bom in Trinidad, and educated at 
 Eton and Christ Church. In Lord Salis- 
 bury's first government he was under-sec- 
 retary for India, and in 1866 went to the 
 War Office in a similar capacity. In 1889 
 he became governor of Bombay, 
 
 Harris, Sir William Snow {b. 1792, d. 
 1867), English physicist, a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and winner of the Copley
 
 Ear 
 
 (423) 
 
 Har 
 
 medal iu 1835 ; was knighted in 1847, and 
 received in 1854 a parliamentary grant of 
 £5,000 for his system of lightning-con- 
 ductors, which were generally adopted for 
 public buildings. 
 
 Harrison, Benjamin {d. 1791), American 
 statesman, was one of the committee of 
 correspondence to unite the colonies in 
 1773, and one of the Vii-ginian delegates in 
 Congress. As chairman of the committee 
 he, in 1776, introduced the resolution de- 
 claring independence. Subsequently he was 
 governor of Virginia. In 1788 he opposed 
 the ratification of the Federal Constitution, 
 but afterwards accepted it. 
 
 Harrison, Benjamin, LL.D. [b. 1833), 
 President (twenty-third) of the United 
 States, grandson of President Harrison, 
 was born at North Bend, Ohio, and began 
 to practise as a lawyer in Indianapolis in 
 1854. In 1860 he was elected reporter of 
 the Indiana supreme court, and in the CivU 
 war he raised and commanded a regiment 
 for the Federal aimy. He resumed his 
 civil duties in 1865, and practised as a 
 lawyer tiU, in 1876, he was nominated by 
 the Republicans for the state governorship, 
 but was not elected. In 1879 he was a 
 member of the Mississippi Commission, and 
 next year was chairman of the Indiana 
 Delegation to the Chicago Convention. He 
 was a strong supporter of General Garfield, 
 who, on his election, offered him oifice, 
 which he declined. In 1881 he became 
 United States senator, and in 1888 was 
 victorious as the Republican candidate for 
 the presidency. His term of office was 
 marked by the International Copyright 
 Bill of 1891, the Behring Sea dispute, the 
 trouble with Chili, and a diplomatic quarrel 
 with Italy. 
 
 Harrison, Frederic {b. 1831), English 
 philosopher, educated at King's College 
 school and Wadham College, Oxford, of 
 which he became fellow ; was called to the 
 bar in 1858, and practised as a conveyancer. 
 He was a member of the Royal Commission 
 on Trades Unions, 1867-9, and secretary to 
 the Commission for the Digest of the Laws, 
 1809-70. In 1877 he was named professor 
 of jurisprudence and international law by 
 the Council of Legal Educatioru He was 
 Home Rule candidate for London University 
 in 1886, and in 1889 was elected alderman on 
 the County Council. He adopted tlie doc- 
 trines of Comte, and became the Positivist 
 leader in England. He is author of Order 
 and I'roaress (1875), The Choice of Books 
 (1886), Oliver Vromirdl {''Statesman Series " 
 1888), etc., and translated vox. ii. of Comte's 
 Positive Polity. 
 
 Harrison, John {b. 1693, d. 1776), Eng- 
 lish mechanician, made chronometers for 
 
 determining longitude at sea between 1735 
 and 1749, and was rewarded by Govern- 
 ment on condition that the inventions 
 should be made public. The Principles of 
 Mr, Harrison's Time-keeper was published 
 in 1767. 
 
 Harrison, Thomas {b. 1606, d. 1660), 
 soldier, prominent in the Great Rebellion, 
 lost the favour of Cromwell on account of 
 his fanaticism as a Fifth Monarchy man; 
 was tried and executed after the Restoration 
 as a regicide. 
 
 Harrison, William Henry {b. 1773, d. 
 1841), ninth President of the United States, 
 distinguished himself in wars with the 
 Indians, and in that of 1812-15 with Great 
 Britain. He was for some time governor of 
 the newly-formed territory of Indiana, and 
 was made in 1828 minister to Columbia. 
 After his recall he was an unsuccessful 
 candidate for the presidency, but was 
 elected in 1839 in opposition to the Demo- 
 crat, Van Buren. He died suddenly soon 
 afterwards. 
 
 Harrowby, Francis, Earl of (b. 1831), 
 Enghsh statesman, educated at Harrow 
 and Christ Church ; he entered Parliament 
 (as Viscount Sandon) for Lichfield in 1856, 
 and represented Livei-pool from 1868 till 
 j his accession to the peerage in 1882. He 
 was at first a Whig, but developed into 
 a Conservative, and in 1874 was appointed 
 vice-president of the Committee of Council 
 on Education, having previously served on 
 many committees and carried the Parochial 
 Councils Bill. He was twice offered the 
 chief secretaryship to the Lord-Lieutenant 
 by Lord Beacousfield, but in 1878 entered 
 the cabinet as president of the Board of 
 Trade. In Lord Salisbury's first adminis- 
 tration he was Lord Privy Seal, but did 
 not again take office. He was a member 
 of the Royal Commission on Education in 
 1886. 
 
 Harry, "Blind" (15th century), Scottish 
 minstrel, author of Acts and Deeds of 
 Wallace, written about 1475. 
 
 Hart, Ernest (6. 1836), English sanitary 
 reformer, practised for some years as a sur- 
 geon, and was co-editor of the Lancet and 
 editor of the British Medical Journal. 
 Subsequently he edited the Sanitari/ Record, 
 and became chairman of the National 
 Health Society and the Smoke Abatement 
 Committee. In the MetropoUtan Asylums 
 Act (1867) his suggt-stions, made in a con- 
 tribution to the Fdrtn'iglttly Review, were 
 embodied, and as chairman of the Parlia- 
 mentary Bills Committee of the British 
 Medical Association he exercised great 
 influence over sanitary legislation. Hia 
 proposals for the creation of a peasant pro- 
 prietary and the reclamation of^ waste landa
 
 Har 
 
 ( 424 ) 
 
 Eax 
 
 in Ireland were adopted by the Government 
 in the Migration clauses of the Ti-amways 
 Act. By his wife the Donegal Industrial 
 Fund was set on foot. 
 
 Hart, James McDougal (b. 1828), Ameri- 
 can painter of Scottish bii'th ; born at Kil- 
 marnock, but lived chiefly in America, 
 gained a bronze medal at the Paris Exhi- 
 bition of 1889 with In the Autumn Jl'ooda 
 and Jf^/ien the Main is Over. 
 
 Haxt, Joel T. {b. 1810, d. 1877), American 
 sculptor ; after being apprentice to a stone- 
 cutter, went to Italy to study, and lived at 
 Florence for thirty years. The best 
 examples of his work were Charity, Woman 
 Triumphant, and Penserosa. He invented 
 an apparatus for obtaining mechanically 
 the outline of a head from life. 
 
 Hart, Solomon Alexander (J. 1806, d. 
 1881), English painter of Jewish extraction, 
 was elected R.A. in 1840. His speciality 
 was historical subjects. Among his best 
 pictures are Wolseij and Buckingham (1834), 
 Michard and Saladin (1835), The Polish 
 Synagogue (1840), and Milton visiting Galilei 
 in Prison (1847). 
 
 Hart, William (6. 1823), American land- 
 scape-painter, brother of J. M. (q.v.), was 
 born at Paisley, Scotland, but emigrated with 
 his family in 1831. He became a coach- 
 painter at Albany, but afterwards exhibited 
 frequently at the New York Academy of 
 Design, of which he became a member in 
 1858. He spent three years in Scotland 
 (1850-3), and subsequently set up a studio 
 in New York, and became president of the 
 Water-Colour Society (1870-3). Among his 
 pictures may be named The Last Gleam, 
 Landscape with Jersey Cattle, Morning in 
 the Clouds, and A Brook Study. 
 
 Harte, Francis Bret (6. 1839), American 
 writer, born at Albany, was at different 
 times a miner, school-teacher, printer, and 
 editor. From 1864 to 1870 he was at San 
 Francisco as secretary of the United States 
 Mint, where, in 1869, he published The 
 Heathen Chinee. He was named American 
 consul at Crefeld iu 1878, and at Glasgow 
 in 1880, and after leaving the latter in 1885, 
 came to live in London. Chief among his 
 works are Condensed Novels (1867), TJie Luck 
 of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches (1870), 
 Poetical Works (1871), Tales of the Argo- 
 nauts (1875), I7ie Twins of Table Mountain 
 and Other Stories (1879), By Shore and Sedge 
 (1885), A Millionaire of Bough and Beady 
 and Devil's Ford (1887), A Ward of the 
 Golden Gate (1890), etc. 
 
 Harting, James Edmund (6. 1841). Eng- 
 lish zoologist, active in promoting bills for 
 the protection of birds, was in 1882 awarded 
 a medal by the Societe d'Acclimatation for 
 
 ! scientific publications, chief among which 
 I were 'The Ornithology of Shakespeare criti- 
 cally Examined, etc. (1871), A Handbook of 
 British Birds (1872), Our Summer Migrants 
 
 il875), several editions of White's Natural 
 {istory of Selborne, Ostriches and Ostrich 
 Farming, British Animals Fxtinct within 
 Historic Times, etc. 
 
 Hartington. {See Devonshire.] 
 
 Hartley, Sir Charles Augustus, K.C.M.G. 
 {b. 1825), English engineer; served in the 
 Crimea as captain iu the Turkish contingent 
 engineers, and iu 1856 was named engineer- 
 in-chief to the European Commission of the 
 Danube. In 1862 he was knighted. In 
 1867 he gained the Tsar's " Grand Compe- 
 tition prize " for his plan for enlarging 
 Odessa harbour. He was employed at 
 various times by the Russian, Austrian, 
 Turkish, Indian, and Roumanian govern- 
 ments, and was much consulted iu the 
 1 improvements made at the mouths of the 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Hartley, David {b. 1705, d. 1757), English 
 philosopher, educated at Jesus College, 
 Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. 
 Abandoning the idea of entering the Church, 
 he devoted himself to the profession of 
 medicine, practising at Newark, Bury St. 
 Edmunds, London, and Bath, at whicli last 
 place he died. He is chiefly remembered by 
 his Observations on Man (1749). 
 
 Hartllb, Samuel {b. circa 1600, d. after 
 1662), born at Elbin m Prussia, and came to 
 England in 1628. having lost his property 
 in trade and agricultural experiments, pro- 
 poimded a scheme for a school on novel 
 lines. Cromwell granted him a pension ; 
 Milton addressed his Tmrtate on Education 
 Q644) to him, as did Sir vVilliam Petty 
 Two Letters. 
 
 Hartmann, Albrecht (J>. 1814), Swiss 
 writer, whose chief works are Meister 
 Putsch und seine Gesellen (1858), Galerie 
 beruhmter Schiveizer (1863-71), Mnker und 
 Burger (1865), Schweizernovellen (1877), 
 and Forlunat (1879). 
 
 Hartmann, Alfred (A. 1814), Swiss author, 
 born near LaiigoTithal. Berne, and educated 
 at Munich. Heidelberg, and Berlin. He 
 finally settled at Solothurm. He wrote 
 Meister Eitsch und seine Gesellen (1858), 
 KUfabendsgeschichten (1853-55), etc. 
 
 Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard von (J. 
 1842), German philosopher, was obliged to 
 leave the army through lameness in 1865, 
 and published in 1869 his Philosophie des 
 Unbeivussten, which went through many 
 editions, and was translated into Engli'^h 
 in Triibner's Philosophical Library. Ha 
 also wrote Phanoinenologie des sittlichen
 
 Har 
 
 (425) 
 
 Has 
 
 Bewusstseins (1878), and Bas religiose Be- 
 wusstein der Mensckseit im Stufengange seiner 
 £ntwickelimg (1882). 
 
 Hartmann, Moritz (*. 1821, d. 1872), 
 poet, bom in Bohemia ; published at Leip- 
 zig in 1845 Kelch utid Schwert, which was 
 vei-y popular, but brought on its author 
 the wrath of the Austrian government. 
 After the revolution of 1848 he took an 
 active part in poHtics, representing Bohemia 
 at Frankfort, and was a zealous supporter 
 of the revolution in Vienna. In 1849 he 
 published at Frankfort the satirical poem 
 Meim-chronik des Ffaffen Mauritius. He 
 now wandered in Switzerland, England, 
 and Ireland, but in 1850 settled at Paris, 
 from whence he went to the Crimea as 
 correspondent of the Cologne Gazette. He 
 died at Vienna after further wanderings. 
 Besides the works mentioned, he was author 
 of Ber Krieg um dem Wald, a romance. Die 
 Schatten and Novellen (Hamburg, 1863), and 
 Brief e aus Jrland (1851). 
 
 Hartsoeker, Nicolas {b. 1656, d. 1725), 
 Dutch physicist, friend of Huyghens and 
 Leibnitz, was mathematical tutor to the 
 Tsar Peter when on his travels; made 
 several microscopic discoveries, and was 
 author of Cotyectures Fhysiques (1707), Re- 
 eueil des Bieces de Bhysique, and other 
 works. 
 
 Hartt, Charles Frederick (Jb. 1840, d. 
 1878), American naturalist, bom at Fred- 
 ericton, New Brunswick, while a student at 
 Acadia College made geological researches 
 in Nova Scotia and afterwards in New 
 Brunswick. He accompanied the Thayer 
 expedition to Brazil in 1865, and from mate- 
 rials collected there wrote his Geology and 
 Bhysical Geography of Brazil (1870). After 
 holding several professorships in America, 
 he was, in 1875, appointed cliief of the geo- 
 logical survey by the BraziHan government. 
 
 Hartzenbusch, Juan Eugenio {b. 1806, d. 
 1880), Spanish dramatist of German origin ; 
 was employed as a shorthand writer till he 
 obtained a position in the royal library at 
 Madrid, which enabled him to devote his 
 talents to dramatic writings. Besides 
 adapting many Ereuch plays, he was author 
 of Los Amantes de Teruel (1836), Bonna 
 Mencia (1838), Alfonso el Casta (1841), and 
 several comedies, besides Ensayos poeticos y 
 articulos en prosa. 
 
 Harvard, John (d. 1638), son of a butcher 
 in Southwark, was educated at Emmanuel 
 College, Cambridge, and in 1637 married 
 and went to New Enp^land, but died next 
 year, and left one half of his estate to be 
 devoted to the foundation of a college at 
 Cambridge, Massachusetts. 
 
 Harvey, Sir Eliab (*. 1769, d. 1830), 
 
 English naval officer, served in the Napo- 
 leonic wars, and was made rear-adnural 
 after Trafalgar, in which he was captain of 
 the Temeraire. He afterwards had a dis- 
 pute with Lord Gambler and was dismissed 
 for insubordination, but ultimately became 
 admiral and G.C.B. 
 
 Harvey, Gabriel {p. 1545, d. 1630), Eng- 
 lish writer, friend of Spenser, contributed 
 imder the name " Hobbinol " ; the verses 
 mefixed to the Faery Queene, and published 
 Three Wittie Familiar Letters (1580), as 
 well as prophetic almanacks. 
 
 Harvey, Sir George (i. 1806, d. 1876), 
 Scotch painter, exhibited Covenanters Freach- 
 ing in 1830, The Battle of Brumclog (1836), 
 The Covenanters' Communion (1840), and 
 First Beading of the Bible in Old St. FauVs 
 (1847). He became a Scottish Academician 
 in 1829, was elected President in 1864, and 
 was knighted in 1867. In 1870 he published 
 Notes of the Early History of the Scottish 
 Academy. 
 
 Harvey, William {b. 1578, d. 1667) Eng- 
 lish physiologist, discovered the circula- 
 tion of the blood. He studied at Cam- 
 bridge and at Padua, and, on his return 
 to England, became physician at St. Bar- 
 tholomew's hospital and delivered the 
 Lumleian lectures. His great discovei-y 
 was described in Exercitatio Anatomica de 
 Motu Cordis et Sanguinis, published in 
 1628. He was afterwards physician to 
 Charles I. and warden of Merton College, 
 Oxford. 
 
 Hasaa ben Sabbali {b. 1056, d. 1124), 
 Persian fanatic, was disgraced by the sultan 
 and retired to the mountains of Kiu'distan, 
 where he f oimded a sect called ' ' Haschischin " 
 (Assassins), from the drugs which he gave 
 them. He is known as the "Old Man of 
 the Mountains," or Sheik el Djebel. 
 
 Hasdrubal {d. 207 B.C.), brother of Han- 
 nibal, commanded in Spain with some 
 success, but having invaded Italy was de- 
 feated and slain by Livius and Nero at tlie 
 
 Metaiirus. 
 
 Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general during 
 the third Punic war; defended Carthage, 
 but surrendered when it was captured (146 
 B.C.), and died in Italy some time after. 
 
 Hase. Charies Benoit (6. 1780, d. 1864), 
 French Hellenist of German extraction; was 
 in early life tutor to Louis Napoleon, and 
 afterwards momber of the Academies of In- 
 scriptions and Belles-Lettres, professor of 
 German at the I^cole Polytechnique, and of 
 ancient and modem Greek in the Royal 
 School of Oriental Languagfis, as well as 
 librarian in the Bibliotheque Eoyale. 
 
 Hasebig, Sir Arthur, Parliamentary
 
 Has 
 
 ( 426 ) 
 
 Hat 
 
 soldier, was one of the "Five Members." 
 He aiilod Monk in the Restoration. 
 
 Hassan {b. 625, d. 669), grandson of 
 Mahomet and son of Ali, the fifth caliph, 
 was opposed by Moavviah and compelled to 
 abdicate in 660. 
 
 Hassan, Prince {b. 1854, d. 1888), Egyptian 
 soldier and statesman, third son of Ismail ; 
 was educated partly in England, and, after 
 serving in the Prussian army, was appointed 
 ia 1876 commander-in-chief of the Egyptian 
 army. After serving in the Russo-Turkish 
 war, he became Egyptian war minister, and 
 was again commander-in-chief. In 1885 he 
 was with Lord Wolseley in the Soudan. 
 
 Hassan -Ali -Khan (b. 1821), Persian 
 statesman and soldier, rendered distin- 
 guished services to the shah in the Khorasan 
 in 1848, and later during the rising of the 
 Babis, after which event he was employed 
 as a diplomatist in England, France, and 
 Italy. 
 
 Hassan ben Ali, foimder of the dynasty 
 of the Beys of Tunis ; put to death Ibrahim 
 Bey in 1706 and assumed the title, but was 
 himself deposed and beheaded by his nephew 
 in 1735. 
 
 Hasse, Johann Adolph (i. 1699, d. 1783), 
 German musical composer, called in Italy 
 "II bassone," went to Naples, where he 
 met Scarlatti and composed the music of 
 Sesostrate. At Venice he composed a 
 Miserere, and married Faustina Bordoui. 
 He was invited to London as a rival to 
 Handel, but soon returned to Dresden, 
 where he was patronised by Frederick the 
 Great. At Milan, when composing for the 
 marriage of the Archduke Ferdinand, he 
 met Mozart, and predicted his success. 
 
 Hassein Ali {d. 1720), Indian statesman, a 
 descendant of Mahomet; with his brother 
 Abdoola, assisted Ferokshere to seize the 
 imperial power at Delhi, but, when the 
 latter plotted against him, made an alliance 
 with the Mahrattas and put the usurper to 
 death. He now became all-powerful, but 
 was assassinated when on the march against 
 Nizam-ool-Moolk, Soubadar of the Dec- 
 can. 
 
 Hasselquist, Friedrich (6. 1722, d. 1752), 
 Swedish naturalist, pupil of Linnaus, who 
 made use of the materials collected by him ; 
 studied botany in Palestine and Egypt, but 
 died when about to return. 
 
 Hassen Shah Gungoo (d. 1358), Indian 
 king, was declared king on the deposition 
 of Mahomet Toghluk, and consolidated the 
 Mahometan possessions in western India 
 into one great kingdom. 
 
 Hastings, Sir Charles, M.D. (6. 1794, d. 
 
 1866), English physician, graduated at 
 Edinburgh and practised at Worcester; 
 founded the British Medical Association, 
 and wrote Illustrations of the Natural Sis- 
 tort/ of Worcestershire. 
 
 Hastings, Francis, Marquess (b. 1764, d. 
 1826), English general and statesman, served 
 in the American war, and was created Lord 
 Moira, opposed the Irish union, and was in 
 1813 made Governor- General of India. He 
 subdued the Mahrattas and Pindarees, ad- 
 vocated the education of the natives, and 
 carried out many public works at Calcutta 
 and Delhi. He was opposed, however, by 
 a strong party among the directors, and 
 was accused of partiality and corruption. 
 He was recalled and censured in 1822, and 
 died as governor of Malta. 
 
 Hastings, Warren {b. 1732, d. 1818), Eng- 
 lish administrator in India ; went to Bengal 
 as a writer in 1750, but was seven years 
 later appointed agent of the East India 
 Company at the court of the Nabob of 
 Bengal. In 1764 he returned to England, 
 where he remained four years studying 
 Eastern literature. On his retxim to India 
 he became a member of the council of 
 Madras, and in 1772 governor of Bengal, a 
 position which in 1774 became that of 
 Governor-General of India. He was now 
 involved in quarrels with his Council, and 
 sent in his resignation, which, however, 
 when accepted, he disavowed. The Sup- 
 reme Court decided in his favour, and he 
 was reappointed. During his first term of 
 office he sold the vale of Rohilcund to Sujah 
 Dowlah and obtained the execution of 
 Nuncomar, his enemy. During his second 
 term, in order to obtain money, he took 
 those measures against the Rajah of Benares 
 and the Nabob of Oude which were after- 
 wards charged against him, but left the 
 affairs of the Company in a very prosperous 
 condition. Three years after his return he 
 was impeached before the Lords for high 
 crimes and misdemeanours, but, after a trial 
 which proceeded at intervals for seven years, 
 and in spite of the eloquence of Burke and 
 Sheridan, he was acquitted in 1795. He 
 was ruined by the expense, but was granted 
 an annuity by the Court of Directors. 
 
 Hatfield, Thomas {d. 1381), Bishop of 
 Durham ; appointed when a layman at the 
 instance of Edward III., to whom he had 
 been secretary; led the English at the 
 battle of Neville's Cross, and founded 
 Hatfield Hall and Trinity (originally Dur- 
 ham) College, Oxford. 
 
 Hatherley, Lord, William Page Wood 
 {b. 1801, d. 1881), English lawyer, called 
 to the bar in 1827, and in 1845 took silk. 
 He was Liberal member for Oxford from 
 1847 to 1852, and was Solicitor-General
 
 Hat 
 
 (427) 
 
 Han 
 
 in 1851-2. After serving on the chancery 
 commission he became Vice-Chancellor, 
 and in 1868 was named lord justice of the 
 Court of Appeal in Chancery, being also 
 Bwom of the Privy Council. In the same 
 year he became Lord Chancellor and re- 
 ceived a peerage, but his health obliged 
 him to resign in 1872. 
 
 Hatsell, John (d. 1820), jurist, clerk of the 
 House of Commons, and author of Cases of 
 Frivileges of Farliament to 1628 (1776), and 
 Precedents of Froceedings. 
 
 HattO {d. 970), Archbishop of Mainz, sub- 
 ject of the "Rat Tower" legend founded 
 on the Chronicles of Magdeburg. 
 
 Hatton, Sir Christopher {b. 1540, d. 1591), 
 English courtier and judge, a great favourite 
 with Queen Elizabeth, who called him her 
 *' Liddes," and made him captain of her 
 guard, vice-chamberlain, and (1587) Lord 
 Chancellor. He was one of the commis- 
 sioners for the trial of Mary Stuart. 
 
 Hatton, John Liptrot (p. 1809, d. 1886), 
 English composer, bom in Liverpool, and 
 almost entirely self-taught, produced in 
 1844 at Drury Lane the operetta The Queen 
 of the Thames. After a visit to Vienna, he 
 published several songs under the pseudonym 
 "Czapek," and in 1838 went to America. 
 As director of music during Charles Kean's 
 management of the Princess's theatre, he 
 cova.T^o5QdiTa.Ma\ciovMacbetha,uA.Sardaiiapalus 
 (185.'3), Faust and Marguerite (1854), Henrg 
 VIII. (1855), Richard II. (1857), Xmg lear, 
 The Merchant of Venice, and Much Ado 
 About Nothing (1858). Besides cathedral ser- 
 vices and anthems, he composed Robin Hood, 
 a cantata (1856), Hezekiah, an oratorio 
 (1877), and a great number of songs and 
 part songs, To Anthea, Simon the Cellarer, 
 etc. 
 
 Hatton, Joseph (6. 1839), novelist and 
 journalist, came to London in 1868 and 
 edited the Geiitleman^s Magazine, collabo- 
 rated with Mr. Harvey in a History of 
 Newfoundland, and also wrote a book on 
 Borneo, Bg Order of the Tsar, The Old House 
 at Sandicich, and other novels, as well as 
 Irring's Impressions of America, Old Lamps 
 and New, and some plays. 
 
 Hatzfeldt, Graf von {b. 1831), German 
 diplomatist, was secretary to Prince Bis- 
 marck at Paris in 186'i, and one of his 
 diplomatic suite at the time of the French 
 war. In 1874 he became imperial minister 
 at Madrid, and was subsequently ambas- 
 sador at Constantinople, foreign secretary, 
 and (1885) German ambassador in London. 
 
 Hauff, Wilhelm (J). 1802, d. 1827), German 
 poet and novelist, author of Lichtenstein 
 (1826), Die Bettlerin vom Font des Arts, and 
 
 Bas Bild des Kaisers, as well as Marchen. 
 Uhland wrote an elegy on his death. 
 
 Haughton, Sir Graves Champney (4. 1789, 
 d. 1849), Irish OrientaUst, left the army to 
 become professor of Sanscrit at Haileybury 
 (1817', and compiled a Bengal Grammar and 
 a Bengali- Sanscrit- English iJictionarg. 
 
 Haughton, William (16th century), Eng- 
 lish dramatist, author of Ferrcx and Forrex, 
 licensed in 1600 ; also collaborated with 
 Dekker and others. 
 
 Haugwitz, Christian, Graf von (h. 1752, 
 d. 1832), Prussian statesman ; as ambassador 
 at Vienna, negotiated the convention of 
 Eeicheubach and the treaty of Pilnitz ; was 
 foreign secretary from 1792 till the invasion 
 of Hanover in 1803, when he retired. He 
 was recalled in 1805, and after Austerlitz 
 ceded Anspach, Cleves, and Neufchatel to 
 France in exchange for Hanover. He soon 
 retired from office, having embroiled Prussia 
 with England without ha\iug gained the 
 real friendship of Napoleon. He left Frag- 
 me>its of Memoirs, in which he endeavoured 
 to justify himself. 
 
 Haukal, Abul Kasem Mohammed Ibn 
 (10th century), Arabian traveller, author of 
 a Book of Roads and Kingdoms, descriptive 
 of Mahometan countries. 
 
 Haubsbee, Francis (b. 1650, d. circa 1713), 
 Englisli physician, one of the earliest writers 
 on electricity, on which subject he con- 
 tributed papers to the Transactions of the 
 Royal Society, and also pubhshed Fhysico- 
 Mcchanical Fxperimcnts on various Subjects 
 touching Light and Electricity. 
 
 Hauptmann, Moritz (*. 1792, d. 1868), 
 German music composer and music-teacher, 
 pupil of Spohr ; was appointed in 1842 
 cantor at the Thomas-schule, Leipzig, and 
 had von Biilow and Joachim as pupils. 
 His works include an opera, Matlulde (1824). 
 
 Haureau, Barthelemy {b. 1812), French 
 historian and publicist ; edited for seven 
 years the Courrier de la Sarthe, and having 
 bocome librarian at Le Mans wrote a History 
 of Roland. He left the town in 1845 and 
 rejoined the staff of the National, and was 
 also for a short time a member of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly. He afterwards became 
 keeper of manuscripts at the National 
 Library and director of the Imprimerie 
 National. Among his historical works are 
 Fran<;ois F^ et sa Cour, Charlemagne et sa 
 Cour, Singularites Hisioriqucs et Litteraires, 
 and Hi.stoire de la Fhilosophie Scolastiqiie. 
 
 Haussman, George Eugfene, Baron (!>. 
 1809), French administrator ; began his 
 career as an advocate, but after 1830 took 
 part in politics, and was made by Napoleon 
 III. prefect of the Seine. In tliis capacity
 
 Han 
 
 (428) 
 
 Haw 
 
 he set about the embellishment of Paris 
 with great recklessness, and in 1870, having 
 declined to resign, was dismissed by imperial 
 decree. After a short; absence, he returned, 
 entered into large speculations, and was in 
 1877 elected deputy for Ajaccio. 
 
 Haussonvllle, Joseph de Mion, Comte d' 
 (h. 1809), French politician and writer, an 
 active member of the Assembly between 
 1842 and 1848; was elected academician in 
 1869, but had previously been obliged to 
 leave France on account of his opposition to 
 the Bonaparte regime. In 1870 he published 
 La France et la Frusse devant V Europe, and 
 subsequently established farms in Algeria 
 for refugees from Alsace, and wrote Ristoire 
 de la Reimion de la Lorraine a la France, etc. 
 
 Hauterive, Alessandre, Comte d' {b. 1754, 
 d. 1830), French diplomatist ; gained the 
 favour of Napoleon by his manifesto, Etat 
 de la France, an. viii., and as his secretary 
 was engaged in all his diplomatic afEairs, 
 enjoying the confidence also of Talleyrand. 
 After the peace he devoted himself to 
 literature, his chief work being Elements de 
 VEconomie Folitique. 
 
 Haiiy, Bene Just (b. 1743, d. 1822), 
 miaeralogist, was elected member of the 
 Academie des Sciences for his discovery of 
 the laws of crystallisation. During the 
 revolution he was protected by his pupU, 
 Geoffrey St. Hilaire, and afterwards enjoyed 
 the favour of Napoleon. His collection 
 ■was purchased by the Duke of Buckingham, 
 but redeemed by the National Assembly. 
 
 Haiiy, Valentine (b. 1745, d. 1822), edu- 
 cationist, brother of last-named ; wrote 
 Essai sur V Education des Aveugles, invented 
 the method of teaching the blind by raised 
 letters, and established schools for them at 
 Paris, Berlin, and St. Petersburg. 
 
 Havelock, Sir Arthur Elibank, K.C.M.G. 
 (h. 1844), colonial administrator, was suc- 
 cessively president of Nevis, chief commis- 
 sioner of the Seychelles, governor of the west 
 African settlements, of Trinidad, Natal 
 (1885), and Ceylon (1890). 
 
 Havelock, Sir Henry {b. 1795, d. 1857), 
 English soldier ; was entered at the Temple 
 in 1813, but two years later joined the army, 
 and in 1823 went to India, where he served 
 tu the first Burmese war, of which he wrote 
 an account (Campaigns in A rva). He held 
 a command in the first Afghan war, and 
 afterwards served in the Mahratta and Sikh 
 wars. After a short absence on leave, he 
 returned to India in 1854 as adjutant- 
 general, and, after commanding a division in 
 the Persian campaign, distinguished himself 
 in the Mutiny by the relief of Cawnpore and 
 Lucknow, but was then besieged there, and 
 died before the second relief by Sir Colin 
 
 Campbell. A baronetcy and a pension had 
 been awarded him. 
 
 Havergal, Wilham Henry (b. 1793, d. 
 1870), English divine and composer, was 
 educated at Oxford, and composed A 
 Hundred Fsalm and Hymn Tunes, Summer 
 Tid^ is Coming, and other works, besides 
 editing chants, and publishing some ser- 
 mons. Feanoes Kidlet {b. 1836, d. 1879), 
 his daughter by his first wife, published 
 The Ministry of Song and some poems. Her 
 brother Henry (d. 1875) built an organ with 
 his own bauds, and pubHshed chants and 
 hymn tunes. 
 
 Hawes, Stephen (15th century), English 
 poet, groom of the chamber to Henry VIL, 
 wrote The Temple of Glasse, The Fassetyme 
 of Fleasure, and other works. 
 
 Hawes, WilUam (6. 1736, d. 1808), physi- 
 cian, the first to maintain the possibility of 
 resuscitation of those apparently drowned, 
 founded the Royal Humane Society (1774) ; 
 also wrote An Account of Dr. Goldsmith't 
 Last Illness. 
 
 Hawke, Edward, Lord (J. 1705, d. 1781), 
 admiral, gained several victories over French 
 fleets, notably that of Quiberon ia 1759 ; was 
 First Lord of the Admiralty from 1766 to 
 1771. 
 
 Hawker, Robert Stephen (b. 1803, d. 1875), 
 divine and poet, educated at Oxford, where 
 he gained the Newdigate prize, obtained in 
 1834 the vicarage of Morwenstow in Corn- 
 wall, and, under the influence of his sur- 
 roundings, wrote Tendrils by Reuben, Corn- 
 ish Ballads {1869), Echoes from Old Cornwall 
 (1845), The Song of the Western Men, and 
 The Quest of the Sangreal (1864). 
 
 Hawkesworth, John, LL.D. (d. 1773), 
 
 essayist and novelist, editor of The Adven- 
 turer, The Voyages of Cook, and others. 
 
 Hawkins, Benjamin Waterhouse {b. 1807, 
 d. 1889), geologist, constructed the models 
 of extinct animals in the Crystal Palace 
 gardens, afterwards went to America on a 
 lecturing tour, and was there employed in 
 similar work. He wrote Elements of Form, 
 Co7}iparative Views of the Human and 
 Animal Frame (1860), etc. 
 
 Hawkins, Csesar (6. 1798, d. 1884), 
 surgeon, brother of the provost of Oriel, 
 was a pupil of Sir Benjamin Brodie at St. 
 George's hospital, and was surgeon to it 
 from 1829 till 1861, when he became con- 
 sulting-surgeon. He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and was the first surgeon 
 who practised ovariotomy with success. 
 
 Hawkins, Edward, F.R.S., F.L.S., etc. 
 
 {b. 1780, d. 1867), archaeologist and numis- 
 matist, became keeper of antiquities at the
 
 Haw 
 
 (429) 
 
 Hay 
 
 British Museum in 1824, made an immense 
 collection of political caricatures and 
 Cheshire views, and was author of The 
 Silver Coins of England (1841) and Descrip- 
 tions of the Anglo-Gallic Corns and Ancient 
 Marbles in the British Museum. 
 
 Hawkins, Edward, D.D. {b. 1789, d. 
 1882), theologian and scholar, educated at 
 Merchant Taylors and St. John's, Oxford, 
 was elected fellow of Oriel in 1813, and 
 succeeded Copleston as provost in 1828, 
 Keble and Newman being also candidates. 
 In 1840 Dr. Hawkins was Bampton lecturer, 
 and in 1847 became Ireland professor of 
 exegesis. He was an intimate friend of 
 Dr. Arnold, and one of Burgon's Twelve 
 Good Men. 
 
 Hawkiiis, Frederick (*. 1849), dramatic 
 critic, author of A Biography of Edmund 
 Kean (1869), Annals of the French Stage 
 (1884) and The French Stage in the 18th 
 Century (1888), 
 
 Hawkins, Sir Henry {b. 1816), judge, was 
 called to the bar in 1843, became Queen's 
 Counsel in 1858, and had a very large 
 practice on the home circuit. He was re- 
 tained for the defence in the Saurin v. Starr 
 case (1869), and for the prosecution in the 
 Tichbome case, and was engaged in Lord St. 
 Leonard's will case. In 1876 hewasappointed 
 judge in the Queen's Bench Division. 
 
 Hawkins, Sir John {d. 1595), navigator; 
 made three voyages for the purpose of pro- 
 curing African slaves, but in the last was 
 attacked and severely defeated by the 
 Spaniards (1568) ; did much to re-organise 
 the English fleet, the results of his work 
 being seen at the Armada invasion, when 
 he was rear-admiral ; afterwards made 
 further attacks on the Spaniards, and died 
 after his repulse from Porto Rico. 
 
 Hawkins, Sir John (*. 1719, d. 1789), 
 musical writer, a descendant of the above ; 
 wrote The General Sistory of the Science and 
 Practice of Music (1776), and also, having 
 been an original member of the Literary 
 Club in Ivy Lane, The Life and Works of 
 Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Hawkins. William {d. 1613), navigator, 
 went to India with Finch in 1607, and was 
 authorised to trade by the Mogul, quarrelled 
 with the Portuguese, but married and settled 
 at Agra, which, however, he was compelled 
 to leave by the intriftues of the Omrahs, and 
 died on his way back to England. 
 
 Hawkshaw, Sir John (*. 1811, rf. 1891), 
 civil engineer, assisted Alexander Nimmo m 
 the construction of government works in 
 Ireland, and at the age of twenty was 
 manager of the Bolivar copper mines : also 
 constructed greater part of the Lancashire 
 
 and Yorkshire railway ; became president 
 of the Institution of Civil Engineers. He 
 proposed in 1870 the scheme for a Channel 
 tunnel, was knighted in 1873, and was iu 
 1875 president of the British Association, 
 Besides technical papers, he wrote Reminis- 
 cences of South Atnerica (1838). 
 
 Hawksmoor, Nicholas {b. 1666, d. 1736"), 
 architect, pupil of Wren, designed several 
 of the fifty churches erected in the reign of 
 Anne, and rebuilt part of All Souls', Oxford. 
 
 Hawkwood, Sir John {d. 1394), English 
 soldier of fortune, employed by Edward 
 III., and by Florence, Pisa, and other 
 Italian cities ; founded an English hospital 
 at Home about 1390. 
 
 Hawtbame, JuUan (b. 1846), American 
 writer, son of Nathaniel, bom at Boston ; 
 went to Germany in 1868, and studied 
 engineering at Dresden, and on his return 
 served on the staff of hydrographic engineers 
 under McLellan, after which, having had 
 some literary successes, he returned to 
 Dresden, where he stayed till 1874; whUe 
 living in England wrote Idolatry, Saxon 
 Studies, Garth (1877), Sebastian Strane 
 (1880), and several collections of short 
 stories. After his return to America he also 
 published Fortune's Fool, Dust, and several 
 short stories, as well as a biography of his 
 father. He visited Europe in 1889 in con- 
 nection with a delegation of working men 
 sent to make industrial investigations. 
 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel (*. 1804, d. 1864), 
 novelist, bom at Salem, Massachusetts, 
 graduated at Bowdoin College, where 
 Longfellow and Franklin Pierce were his 
 friends, and after a residence at home 
 (during which he wrote his Twice Told Tales) , 
 was appointed in 1838 weigher and ganger 
 at Boston by Bancroft, who was then 
 collector of the customs there. In 1841, 
 being a Democrat, he lost this office, and 
 went to live with the Brook Farm Com- 
 munity. In 1843 he married, and went to 
 Concord, and from 1846 to 1849 he was 
 surveyor at Salem. In 1863 President Pierce 
 named him consul at Liverpool, but he re- 
 signed in 1857, and travelled three years in 
 France and Italy, writing The Marble Faun 
 when at Rome. On his return to America 
 he wrote a book on England, Our Old Home. 
 Besides the works mentioned, he was the 
 author of Mosses from an Old Manse (1846), 
 The Scarlet Letter (1850), The House of the 
 Seven Gables (1851), and The Blithdale 
 Romance. 
 
 Hay, John {b. 1838), American diplomatist 
 and writer, bom at Salem, Indiana, was 
 aide-de-camp and adjutant to President 
 Lincoln, and employfd diplomatically at 
 Paris, Vienna, and Madrid. In 1870 he 
 joined the staff of the Neva York Tribune,
 
 Hay 
 
 (430) 
 
 Hay 
 
 and became editor in 1881. His chief 
 writings are Fike County Ballads (1871), and 
 A Life of President Lincoln, in collaboration 
 with John Nicolay. 
 
 Hay, Eight Hon. Sir John C. Dalrymple, 
 K.C.B., etc. {b. 1821), English admiral, 
 entered the navy in 1834, served ia the first 
 KaiJir war, and in the operations on the 
 Syrian coast, being specially gazetted for 
 gallantry at Tortosa, and subsequently in 
 the East ludies and China, destroying the 
 pirate fleet of Ohinapoo in 1849, and that 
 of Shap'ng'tzar. He also took part in the 
 capture of Kertch and Kinburn^ and the 
 bombardment of Sebastopol. He entered 
 Parliament for Wakefield as a Conservative 
 in 1862, lost his seat in 1865, but represented 
 Stamford from 1866 to 1880, and Wigtown 
 from 1880 to 1885. He was a lord of the 
 Admiralty from 1866 to 1868, and author of 
 Our Naval Defences and several other works. 
 
 Haydn, Josef (J. 1732, d. 1809), Austrian 
 composer, son of a coach-builder at Rohrau 
 in Lower Austria, who had musical tastes. 
 He was sent to Vienna at an early a^e, 
 where his first opera, Ber Krumme Teufcl, 
 was produced in 1753, his first quartette in 
 1754, and his first Symphony in B in 1760. 
 He .-ifterwards became kapellmeister to 
 Prince Esterhazy, for whose new theatre he 
 composed La Fedeltd, Premiata (1780), Or- 
 lando Palatine (1782), and Arinida (1784). 
 He visited London in 1791, and gave 
 successful concerts, continuing ia England 
 two years on his return visit in 1794. In 
 England, too, he conceived his Schopfung 
 {Creation), which was published in 1798, 
 and produced at Vienna in the following 
 year. Li 1800 he composed the Seasons 
 (Jahreszeiten), and his other works include 
 a Hymn to the Emperor, several quartettes, 
 sonatas, etc. 
 
 Haydon, Benjamin Robert {b. 1786, d. 
 1846), English painter, son of a Plymouth 
 stationer; exhibited in 1807 The Repose of the 
 Holy Family in Egypt. A dispute arose as 
 to the hanging of his picture Bentatus, and 
 he became involved ia debt in consequence 
 of his quarrels with the Academy and his 
 patrons. Though a public subscription was 
 raised, his circumstances improved but 
 slowly, though his lectures in Scotland were 
 well received, and he committed suicide on 
 the failure of the exhibition of his Banish- 
 ment of Aristides and Nero Playing. Besides 
 these, his chief works were Lazarus, The 
 Mock Election, The Reform Banquet, and 
 Xenophon and the Ten Thousand seeing the 
 Sea, 
 
 Hayes, Augustus Allen (*. 1806, d. 1882), 
 American chemist, discovered the organic 
 alkaloid sanguinaria, investigated the gene- 
 ration of steam, and conducted researches 
 
 on the action of alcohol, the formation of 
 guano, and other subjects. 
 
 Hayes, Catherine (b. 1825, d. 1861), 
 English vocalist, daughter of a dressmaker 
 at Limerick, was taught singing under Sapio 
 in Dublin, and afterwards studied in Paris. 
 She made her debut at Marseilles, in / Pun- 
 tani, was prima donna at La Scala, Milan, 
 and afterwards sang at Vienna, Venice, 
 London, and in America. 
 
 Hayes, Rutherford Birchard {b. 1822), 
 American president (nineteenth), was bom at 
 Delaware, Ohio ; practised as an attorney in 
 the Ohio courts, and after 1849 at Cincinnati. 
 In the Civil war he greatly distinguished 
 himself, more particularly at the battles of 
 Fisher's Hill and Cedar Creek, Virginia. 
 At the end of 1865 he took his seat in 
 Congress as a Republican, denounced repu- 
 diation of the debt, and opposed increased 
 pay to members. In 1867 he was elected 
 governor of Ohio, and was re-elected two 
 years later, but was an unsuccessful can- 
 didate for Congress in 1872. With con- 
 siderable reluctance he agaia, in 1873, came 
 forward for the governorship, and carried 
 the election on secular education and 
 " honest money. " In 1876 he was elected 
 president, in opposition to Tilden, his plat- 
 form being civil service reform, the currency, 
 and pacification of the South. He was 
 successful in carrying out the last, but on 
 the other points met with much opposition. 
 In 1879 he vetoed the Chinese Immigration 
 Bill, and also that to prohibit military inter- 
 ference (so-called) at elections. 
 
 Hayley, William (b. 1745, d. 1820), 
 English writer, friend of Gibbon and 
 Cowper, was educated at Eton and Cam- 
 bridge, and wrote poems, two of which 
 were attacked in English Bards and Scotch 
 Reviewers. His Life of Cowper appeared in 
 1803. 
 
 Haymerle, Baron Heinrich von (4. 1828, 
 d. 1881), Austrian statesman, began his 
 career as sub-intcpreter at Constantinople 
 in 1850, and, after having been chargi 
 d''a.ffaires at Athens, Frankfort, and 
 Dresden, re-established relations between 
 Austria and Denmark ; was engaged ia the 
 negotiations which resulted in the treaty of 
 Prague ia 1866, was created baron, and sent 
 to Berlin. After representing Austria at 
 Constantinople, and agaia at Athens and 
 Rome, he took part in the Berlin Congress, 
 and having succeeded Coiint Andrassy aa 
 foreign minister in 1879, promoted the 
 Triple Alliance. 
 
 Hajmau, Julius Jakob Baron von (J. 1786, 
 d. 1853), Austrian general, natural son of the 
 Elector of Hesse-Cassel ; entered the army 
 in 1801, and attained the rank of field - 
 marshal in 1844. In the Italian campaigns
 
 Hay 
 
 (431) 
 
 Hea 
 
 of 1848-9 his severity was notorious, as also 
 in Hungary, where, in 1849, he gained the 
 battles on the Theiss, stormed Raab, and 
 executed some very rapid marches. In 
 1850 he was dismissed for intractability, and 
 in the course of his travels came to London, 
 and was severely assaulted at the brewery 
 of Barclay and Perkins. 
 
 Hayter, Sir George (6. 1792, d. 1871), 
 English painter, was awarded by the British 
 Institution in 1815 a prize of 200 guineas for 
 his picture of the prophet Ezra, and was 
 soon after appointed portrait- and miniature- 
 painter to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg 
 and the Princess Charlotte. His Trial of 
 Lord Russell, exhibited in 1825, made his 
 reputation, and he afterwards painted The 
 Trial of Queen Caroline, The Meeting of the 
 First Reformed Farliament, and many por- 
 traits of the Royal Family. 
 
 Hayter, Right Hon. Sir W. Goodenough, 
 Bart (b. 1792, d. 1878), statesman, was 
 called to the bar in 1819, and practised 
 till 1839. He was a member of Parliament 
 from 1837 to 1865, and held the offices of 
 Judge-Advocate-Geueral, 1847-9, and Secre- 
 tary to the Treasury from the latter year, 
 with a short interval, till 1858, when he 
 received a baronetcy. In 1861 his services 
 as Liberal " whip " were acknowledged by a 
 public dinner, at which Lord Palmerston 
 presided. He retired from affairs in 1865, 
 and was accidentally drowned neax his 
 house in Berkshire in 1878. 
 
 Hayward, Abraham (6. 1802, d. 1884), 
 English writer, was called to the bar in 
 1832, but gave himself to writing. In 1833 
 he brought out a prose translation of Faust, 
 and became a correspondent of Tieck, Fouque, 
 Hitzig, and other eminent Germans. He 
 founded and edited the Law Magazine, wrote 
 f or the .3/orwtw^ Chronicle, and in 1861 edited 
 the Letters and Literary Remains of Mrs. 
 Fiozzi. His essays and articles contributed 
 to the Edinburgh and Quarterly were, many 
 of them, republished, and he had a wide 
 acquaintance among leading contempo- 
 raries. He was a brilliant talker. 
 
 Hayward, Sir John {b. 1500, d. 1627), 
 English historical writer, author of The Life 
 and Raiqne of Henrie TV. (for the dedication 
 of which he was imprisoned by Elizabeth), 
 Life and Raigne of Edward VI. , and other 
 works. 
 
 Hazael, Syrian, who killed Ben-hadad, 
 usurped the throne (885 B.O.), and made war 
 on Israel soon after. 
 
 Hazlitt, William {h. 1778, d. 1830) critic 
 and essayist, son of a Nonconformist 
 Minister: as an artist became acquainted 
 with Leigh Hunt and Lamb, and published 
 his Essay on the Frinciples of Human Action, 
 
 after which he contributed to the Examiner 
 many essays, including The Round Table 
 (1817), Table Talk (1821), criticisms on The 
 Spirit of the Age (1825), and lectured on 
 Elizabethan dramatists at the Surrey Insti- 
 tution. He also wrote Characters of Shake- 
 speare's Flays (1817), View of the Content- 
 porary English Stage, and a Life of Napoleon. 
 He married a daughter of Dr. Stoddart, 
 editor of the Times, but separated from her 
 in 1822. 
 
 Hazlitt, William Carew {b. 1834), grand- 
 son of the last-named, author of his Life 
 (1867), of a History of the Venetian Re- 
 public, and A Bibliographical Handbook to 
 the Early Literature of Great Britain. 
 
 Head, Barclay Vincent, Ph.D. (i. 1844), 
 numismatist, entered the British Museum 
 in 18G4, and became assistant-keeper of coins 
 in 1871. His chief works are Historia 
 Nmnorum (1887), and works on the coinage 
 of Syracuse, Persia, and Boeotia. 
 
 Head. Sir Edmund Walker, Bart. {h. 1805, 
 d. 186S), administrator and writer. After 
 being poor-law commissioner, he was ap- 
 pointed, in 1847, governor of New Bruns- 
 wick, and was from 1854-61 Governor- 
 General of Canada. On his return he became 
 Civil Service Commissioner, and in 1857 
 Privy Councillor. He was author of a Hand- 
 book of the Spanish and French Schools of 
 Painting (1847), and of a similar work on 
 the German and Flemish schools (1854). 
 
 Head, Sir Francis Bond, Bart. (b. 1793, 
 d. 1875), administrator and writer, served 
 in the Engiueers at Waterloo, and in 1825 
 headed a mining expedition to Rio de 
 la Plata, of which he gave an account in 
 Rough Notes of a Jwirney across the Pampas. 
 In 1835 he was named by Lord Glenelg 
 governor of Upper Canada, and succeeded 
 m putting down the rebellion. He was 
 created baronet in 1838, and sworn of the 
 Privy Council in 1867. He also received a 
 pension for his contributions to Uterature, 
 among which were A Life of Bruce, the 
 Traveller (1830), and The Defenceless State 
 of Great Britain (1850). 
 
 Head, Richard {d. 1678 or 1686), English 
 writer, author of The English Rogue, and a 
 play entitled ^ic e< JJbique; or, the Humours 
 of bublin. 
 
 Headley, Joel Tyler (*. 1814), American 
 writer, author of Napoleon and his Marshals, 
 Washington and his Generals, A History of 
 the Second War between England and the 
 United States (1853), and biographies of 
 American statesmen. His brother, Phineas 
 (6. 1819), wrote a Life of Kossuth and othei- 
 works. 
 
 Healy, Timothy Michael {b. 1865), Irish
 
 Hea 
 
 (432) 
 
 H^b 
 
 politician ; after being clerk in a telegraph 
 office, became in 1879 secretary to Mr. 
 Paruell, and in 1880 entered Parliament for 
 Wexford. He was author of the " Healy 
 clause" in the Land Act of 1881; was 
 imprisoned in 1882 for using inflammatory 
 language, and next year was returned for 
 Mouaghan county. At the general election 
 he was returned both for the latter and 
 for South Londonderry, but sat for Lon- 
 donderry. Meanwhile, he had been called 
 to the Irish bar. In 1886 he opposed the 
 nomination of Captain O'Shea, Mr. Parnell's 
 candidate for Clare. He lost his seat at the 
 general election, but was returned for 
 North Longford in 1887. In 1890 he became 
 one of the leading opponents of Mr. Parnell's 
 leadership. 
 
 Heapy, Thomas (6. 1775, d. 1835), English 
 painter, one of the earliest members of the 
 Water- Colour Society, and first president of 
 the Society of British Artists. 
 
 Heaxne, Samuel {b. 1745, d. 1792), tra- 
 veller; served in the navy for some years, 
 but afterwards entered the service of the 
 Hudson Bay Company (whose territories he 
 explored between 1769 and 1772), by whom 
 he was sent to discover a North -West 
 Passage. 
 
 Hearne, Thomas (*. 1678, d. 1735), 
 antiquary, held the post of sub -librarian at 
 the Bodleian, but resigned rather than take 
 the oaths to George I. ; published Leland''s 
 Collectanea, Leland''s Itinerary, and several 
 mediaeval works, and left a valuable collec- 
 tion of MSS. to the Bodleian Library. 
 
 Heath, James {b. 1756, d. 1834), engraver, 
 the best examples of his work being West's 
 Death of Nelson, and Wright's Bead Soldier. 
 
 Heath, Christopher, F.R.C.S. (3. 1835), 
 surgeon ; became Holme professor of clini- 
 cal surgery, and surgeon to University 
 College Hospital, 1875 ; fellow of King's 
 College, and member of the coimcil of the 
 College of Surgeons in 1881, and was presi- 
 dent of the Clinical Society of London, 
 1889-91. He wrote A Course of Operative 
 Surgery, illustrated (2nd edition, 1884), 
 Injuries and Diseases of the Jaws (3rd edition, 
 1884), and Student's Guide to Surgical D lay - 
 nosis (2nd edition, 1883), and edited A 
 Dictionary of Practical Surgery (1886). 
 
 Heath, Nicholas {d. 1579), divine, suc- 
 cessively Bishop of Rochester and of Wor- 
 cester. As, however, he refused under 
 Edward VI. to sign the form for the ordi- 
 nation of bishops, he was imprisoned, but 
 was released by Mary, and made Archbishop 
 of York, President of Wales, and in 1556 
 Lord Chancellor. He was deprived by 
 Elizabeth for refusing the oath of su- 
 premacy, and imprLsoned for some years. 
 
 Heathcoat, John {b. 1785, d. 1861), 
 machinist, invented a machine for making 
 Buckingham lace, which was patented in 
 1808. His factory at Loughborough was 
 attacked by the Luddites in 1816, and ho 
 then removed to Tiverton, where he re- 
 vived the .woollen trade; and he repre- 
 sented the town in Parliament from 1831 to 
 1854. 
 
 Heathcote, Sir Gilbert, Bart. {b. 1774, 
 d. 1851), sportsman, one of the best-known 
 
 Eatrons of the turf in his day ; represented 
 dncoln from 1796 to 1806, and Rutland 
 fi-om 1812 to 1841. 
 
 Heathcote, Sir William {b. 1801, d. 
 1881), politician, represented Hampshire 
 from 1826 to 1831, and after the Reform 
 was member for the northern division 
 from 1837 to 1849. In 1854 he was col- 
 league of Mr. Gladstone as member for 
 Oxford University, retaining the seat till 
 1868, when he retired and was made Privy 
 Councillor. 
 
 Heathfleld. {See EUiot.] 
 
 Heaton, John Henniker (6. 1850), Anglo- 
 Australian writer, sou of Colonel Heaton, 
 R.E. ; emigrated at the age of sixteen, and 
 after farming, joined the New South Wales 
 press. He represented that colony at the 
 Amsterdam Exhibition of 1883, and acted 
 for Tasmania at the Berlin Telegraphic 
 Conference in 1885, in which year he came 
 to England and obtained a seat in Parlia- 
 ment as a Conservative, and advocated 
 postal reforms with some success. He is 
 author of The Australian Dictionary oj 
 Dates and Men of the Time, A Short 
 Account of a Canonisation at Rome, and The 
 Manners, Customs, etc., of the Australian 
 Aborigines. 
 
 Heber, Reginald, D.D. (b. 1783, d. 
 1826), poet and hymn-writer» educated at 
 Brasenose College, Oxford, where he gained 
 the Newdigate, the EngUsh essay, and the 
 Latin poem, and became fellow of All Souls'. 
 He took orders in 1807, was Bampton 
 lecturer in 1817, and in 1823 went to India 
 as Bishop of Calcutta. 
 
 Heberden, WilUam {b. 1710, d. 1801), 
 physician, practised ten years at Cambridge, 
 and contributed to Athenian Letters, but 
 afterwards removed to London ; became a 
 fellow of the Royal Society, and founded 
 t Medical Transactions of the College of Physi- 
 cians. He left at his death Comynentarii de 
 Morborum Sistoria et Curatione, a record of 
 his experiences. 
 
 Hubert, Antoine Auguste (*. 1817), French 
 painter, exhibited at ttie Louvre in 1839 his 
 Le Tasse en Prison, which was purchased 
 by Qovemment for the Grenoble museum.
 
 Heb 
 
 (433) 
 
 Hei 
 
 Among his other works were La Malaria 
 (1850), a portrait of Priuce Napoleon (1853), 
 and Les I'illes d^Aiito, which were shown at 
 the exhibition of 1855 ; La Jeune Fille au 
 Jfaits (1863), David d'' Angers, exhibited at 
 the exhibition of 1867, and La Hultaue 
 (1879). He was director of the French 
 academy at Rome from 1866 to 1873. 
 
 Hebert, Jacques Rene (J). 1755, d. 1794), 
 French revolutionist ; edited the iufamous 
 Fere Diwhesne, was liberated by the mob 
 when arrested in 1793 for plots against the 
 lives of the Girondists, but was next year 
 guillotined at the desire of Robespierre. 
 
 Heck, Jan van (17th century), Dutch 
 painter, studied at Rome, and met with 
 much patronage there ; returned to Ant- 
 werp, and painted flowers and fruit and 
 some landscapes. 
 
 Heck, Nicolas van der {d. 1608), painter, 
 pupil of Nseghel, chose landscapes and 
 historical scenes as subjects; three of the 
 latter are in the town house of Alkmaar, 
 where he died. His son, Maetin, painted 
 ruins in the style of Roghmann. 
 
 Hecker, Justus Friedrich Karl {b. 1795, d. 
 1850), German physician, son of Augustus 
 Hecker, who wrote a General History of the 
 Natural Sciences and Medicine ; wrote many 
 medical treatises, the chief of which were 
 History of Medicine (1822-9), Histori/ of 
 Modern Medicine (1839), The Black l)eaih 
 (1832), and On Visions (1848), etc. 
 
 Hecquet, Philippe (i. 1661, d. 1737), 
 French physician, called "the French 
 Hippocrates," advocated bleeding, and is 
 said to have been the original of "San- 
 grado " in Gil Bias. 
 
 Hedlinger, Jean Charles (b. 1691, d. 1771), 
 Swiss engraver of medals, was some time 
 director of the Swedish mint, and executed 
 dies for the Pope, the Tsarina, and the King 
 of Denmark. 
 
 Hedwig, Johann (*. 1730, d. 1799), 
 German botanist, author of Stirpes Crypto- 
 gamicm ; was the first to distinguish between 
 the sexes in mosses. 
 
 Hedwlga, St. (*. 1731, d. 1399), Queen 
 of Pol'ind, converted her husband Jagellon, 
 and caused the Bible to be translated into 
 Polish. 
 
 Heem, Jan Davitze van {b. 1600, d. 1674), 
 Dutch painter of fruit and flowers, whose 
 works were in much request. His father 
 and his sou were also artists. 
 
 Heemskerk, or Hemskerk, Egbert {b. 1645, 
 
 d. 1704), Dutch painter of the school of 
 
 Brouwer, his subjects beiutt chosen from 
 
 the wild and grotesque ; he died in London. 
 
 00 
 
 He is to be distinguished from another of 
 the same name, called Egbert "the Old." 
 
 Heera Sing {d. 1844), a Sikh rajah, 
 succeeded his father as minister, and 
 proclaimed Dhuleep Sing, sou of the late 
 rajah, but was obliged by his enemies to 
 flee from Lahore, and was pursued and 
 killed. 
 
 Heere, Lucas van {b. 1534, d. 1584), 
 Flemish painter and poet, executed altar- 
 pieces for St. Peter's chuich, Ghent, and 
 v>bcu in England painted ijortraits of Queen 
 Elizabeth, Lord Darnley, and the Duchess 
 of Suffolk. 
 
 _Heeren, Arnold Hei-mann Ludwig (6. 
 1760, d. 1842), German historian, professor 
 of philosophy, and subsequently of history, 
 at Gcittiugeu. His historical works include 
 Ideen iiber Tolitik, der Alten Welt, ti-ans- 
 lated into English in 1833 ; Geschiclite 
 der Staaten des Alterthiims, and Geschichte 
 der europa%schen Staatensystems, translated 
 in 1834. He also wrote a Life of Heyne, 
 whose daughter he married. 
 
 Hefner-Alteneck, Jacob von {b. 1811), 
 German writer on mediaeval art, director of 
 the Munich museum since 1868, wrote 
 Kimstwerke und GerathscJinften des Mittel- 
 alters und der lienaissance (1848), Eisenwerke 
 oder Ornaniente der Schmicdekimst des Mitt, 
 und der Ren (1864), translated into French 
 by Ram^e (1869), and Ornaniente alter Meis- 
 ter (1871), etc. 
 
 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (6. 1770, 
 d. 1831), idealist philosopher, studied philo- 
 sophy and theology at Tubingen with 
 Schelling, whom he joined in 1801 at Jena 
 as extraordinary jDrofessor, and published 
 with him a philosophical journal. In 1807 
 he published Plicenomenologie des Geistes. 
 He was rector of the Niiruberg gymnasium 
 from 1808 to 1816, when he obtained a 
 professorship at Heidelberg, removing two 
 years later to Berlin. His chief works 
 were Wissenschaft der Logik (1812-16), 
 Encyklopddie der philosophischen Wissen- 
 schaften (1817), and Fhilosophie des Fechts 
 (1821). 
 
 Hegesippus (2nd century), ecclesiastical 
 historian, author of Fraf/ineiit.s of the Freach- 
 ing of the Apostles, which ai'e contained in 
 the Spicilegium of Grabe. 
 
 Heidegger, Johann Jacob (6. 1660, d. 
 1749), Swiss adventurer, came to England 
 in 1710 and enlisted in the Guards, gained 
 many acquaintances, and ni)])ears in the 
 Tatler as "the Swiss Count"; was asso- 
 ciated in 1729 with Handel in his attempt to 
 establish an Italian opera-house. 
 
 Heil, Daniel van {h. 1604, d. 1662), Dutch 
 landscape-painter, bom at Brussels, the
 
 Hei 
 
 (434) 
 
 Hel 
 
 best of whose pictures were the Burning of 
 Sodom and the T/te Destruction of Troy. 
 His brother, Jan Baptist {b. 1609), was a 
 portrait -painter ; aud another, Leonabd 
 {b. 1603), painted flowers and insects. 
 
 Helm, Francjois Joseph (6. 1787, d. 1865), 
 Fi-ench painter, pupil of Vincent ; first ex- 
 liibited at Paris in 1812, was employed to 
 decorate the Louvre galleries. His chief 
 pictures are The Taking of Jerusalem btj 
 Titus, Victory of Jtidas Alaccabceus, and 
 Louis FhiUppe receiving the Deputies at the 
 Palais Royal. 
 
 Heine, Heiurich (*. 1799, d. 1856), Ger- 
 man poet, was born at Diisseldorf of Jewish 
 parents, and sent to Hamburg to prepare 
 for a commercial life, but preferred studying 
 law. At Bonn he was pupil of Schlegel, 
 and at BerUn made the acquaiutance of 
 Vamhagen von Ense. In 1825 he renounced 
 Judaism, and after 1830 lived at Paris, where 
 he married Mathilde Mirat. He travelled 
 much, but in 1847 had an attack of paralysis, 
 and soon after became blind. His chief 
 works are Biich der Lieder (1827), followed 
 by other poems ; Reisebilder {\9i2b-^l)\ Der 
 Salon (1834-40) ; Ueber Borne, a satire ; 
 Deutschland ein Winter indrchen, and Atta 
 Troll. 
 
 Heineccius, Johaun Gottlieb {h. 1681, d. 
 1 741 ) , German j urist ; invented a new method 
 of teaching law, and wrote Uleinenta Juris 
 Gerinanici and other works. 
 
 Heinecken, Christian {b. 1721, d. 1725), 
 German child, bom at Liibeck; lived only 
 four years, but within that time passed an 
 examination ia German, Latin, French and 
 Low Dutch, and delivered twelve speeches 
 before the King of Denmark. 
 
 Heinsius, Anton (Jb. 1641, d. 1720), Dutch 
 statesman, friend of William of Orange, for 
 whom when in England he governed as 
 Grand Pensionai-y ; was the chief founder 
 and one of the directors of the Grand AlU- 
 ance against Louis XIV. , and opposed the 
 peace of Utrecht as inadequate ; was dis- 
 graced for the expenses he had incurred 
 during the war. 
 
 Heinsius, Daniel (b. 1580, d. 1655), Dutch 
 scholar, pupil aud friend of ScaUger, and 
 professor and librarian at Leyden, where he 
 published treatises, De Satird Horatiand, 
 some poems, a tragedy, and many editions 
 of the classics. 
 
 Heinsius, Nikolaas (b. 1620, d. 1681), 
 scholar and diplomatist, son of the last- 
 named and friend of Gronovius and Voss ; 
 visited Paris, Oxford, and Italy for the 
 purpose of collecting MSS., and having 
 dedicated some Latin poems to Christina of 
 Sweden, was invited to her court, and sent 
 
 to Italy by her ; was afterwards Dutch 
 ambassador in Sweden, France, and Russia. 
 
 Heinzelmann, Samuel P. {b. 1822, d. 1880), 
 American general; served against the In- 
 dians of Cfuif omia and in the Mexican war, 
 aud was appointed in 1861 inspector-general 
 of the forces ; was wounded at Bull Run, 
 aud distinguished himself in command of a 
 division at Williamsburg and Fair Oaks, 
 aud, after serving in the Virginian campaign, 
 held the command at Washington, and 
 headed the 22ud corps at Chancellorsville 
 aud Gettysburg. In 1869 he retired. 
 
 Helen, wife of Menelaus. 
 
 Helena, Princess [Princess Christian] , (*. 
 1846), third daughter of Queen Victoria, 
 married in 1866 Priuce Christian of Schles- 
 wig Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg. 
 
 Helena, St. {d. circa 328), wife of Con- 
 stantius Chlorus, Emperor of Rome, and 
 mother of Constantiue, was divorced in 
 292, when he assumed the purple, aud in 
 311 became a Christian. She made a pil- 
 grimage to the Holy Land in 305, and built 
 churches in Bethlehem and on the Mount of 
 Olives. 
 
 Hellodorus (Jl.circ. 400),Bishopof Tricca, 
 wrote, iu Greek, the romance JEthiopica, 
 which has been frequently translated. 
 
 Heliogabalus {b. 204, d. 222), Roman 
 "Emperor, elected when fourteen, became 
 notoiious for his eccentricity and cruelty, 
 making himself a god and his horse consul ; 
 was properly Varius Airtus Bassianus. 
 
 Hell, Maximilian {b. 1720, d. 1792), Hun- 
 garian Jesuit astronomer ; became professor 
 at Vienna, where an observatory was built 
 for him, and was sent by the Danish govern- 
 ment iu 1769 to Lapland to observe the 
 transit of Venus. 
 
 Heller, Karl {d. 1880), German naturalist 
 and traveller, traversed in 1845 the greater 
 part of South America for the Vienng, Hor- 
 ticultural Society, and in 1848 travelled in 
 North America. On his return he was made 
 professor at Gratz, and published Reise- 
 berichte aus Mexico, Beitrdge zur Ndhern 
 Kenntniss Mittelamerikas, etc. 
 
 Heller, Stephan {b. 1813), Hungarian 
 pianist and composer, boi-n at Pesth ; 
 made his first appearance at the age of 
 nine, and spent three years under Hahn at 
 Vienna, after which he undertook a tour 
 with his father in Poland and Germany, 
 and then remained at Augsburg for six 
 years. In 1838 he went to Paris, and 
 composed many works. Studies for the 
 Piano, etc. 
 
 Helpers, Jan Frederik {b. 1767, d. 1813),
 
 Hel 
 
 (435) 
 
 Hen 
 
 Dutch poet, author of The Dutch Nation 
 (1812-13) and some earlier poems. 
 
 Helmersen, Gregory de {b. 1803, d. 1885), 
 Russian naturalist and traveller, studied at 
 Doi-pat, and accompanied his master, En- 
 gelhardt, in 1828 in a scientific voyage to the 
 Volga ; afterwards entering the service of 
 the government, was employed to supervise 
 an exploration of the Southern Ural moun- 
 tains. Having made the acquaintance of 
 Humboldt he visited Germany and Italy, 
 and on his return was engaged in further 
 exploration for the government in Asia, the 
 results of which he published. He after- 
 wards went to Sweden and Norway, and 
 was director of the St. Petersburg Institute 
 of Mines from 1865 to 1872. 
 
 Helmholtz, Hermann von {h. 1821), 
 German physiologist, bom at Potsdam, 
 studied medicine at Berlin, and held pro- 
 fessorships of physiology at Konigsberg, 
 Bonn, Heidelberg, and Berlin (1871) suc- 
 cessively, during the occupation of which he 
 invented a mirror for studying the retina of 
 the living eye, and produced, among others, 
 the foUowiug works : Ueher die Erhaltung 
 der Kraft (1847), Uandhnchder Physiologische 
 Optik (1856-66), Populdre wissenschaftVichen 
 Vortrdge (1865-76), etc. 
 
 Helmont, Jean Baptists van (b. 1577, d. 
 1644), Belgian chemist and metaphysician; 
 in the course of thirty years of investigation 
 discovered the spirit of hartshorn, and the 
 aerial part of spa- waters, which he called 
 " gas " (from geist), etc. 
 
 Helmont, Segres Jacob van (6. 1683, d. 
 1726), Flemish painter, bom at Antwerp, 
 went to Brussels, where are many of his 
 pictures, as Za Profanation du Saint Sacre- 
 ment in Ste. Gudule, and Le Sacrifice d'Elie 
 in the Hotel de ViUe. There are also some 
 of his works at Antwerp, Ghent, and in 
 private galleries. 
 
 Helolse. [See Abelard.] 
 
 Helps, Sir Arthur (jb. 1813, d. 1875), Eng- 
 lish writer, son of a London merchant, 
 was educated at Eton and Trinity, Cam- 
 bridge, where he met Tennyson, Monckton 
 Milnes and others ; was private secretary 
 to Mr. Spring Rice, and afterwards to Lord 
 Morpeth : and in 1859 became clerk of the 
 Privy Council. He edited the speeches of 
 the Prince Consort, and was made K.C.B. 
 in 1872 ; his chief works were Essays 
 (1841), Friends in Council (1847-51), and The 
 Spanish Conquest in America (1855-61). 
 
 Heist, Bartolomeus van der {d. circa 
 1670), Dutch painter, whose portraits were 
 of peculiar excellence, notably the Muster 
 of the Burgher Guard at Amsterdam. 
 
 HelT^tlus, Claude Adrien {h. 1716, d. 
 cc2 
 
 1771), French philosopher, son of Jean 
 Claude {d. 1755), physician to Louis XIV. 
 and Louis XV. , obtained through the queen 
 the appointment of farmer-general, but re- 
 signed it after some years ; married Made- 
 moiselle de Ligneville, and studied philo- 
 sophy. His chief work, I)e VEsprit (1750), 
 was condemned to be burnt by the Par- 
 lement de Paris. He visited England in 
 1764. 
 
 Hely-Hutchinson, John {b. 1715, d. 1794), 
 Irish educationist and politician, provost 
 of Trinity College, Dublin, into the curri- 
 culum of which he tried to introduce athletic 
 exercises ; was a member of the Irish Par- 
 liament, and secretary for Ireland in 1777. 
 
 Hely-HutcMnson, Hon. Sir Walter Fran- 
 cis, K.C.M.G. {b. 1849), colonial adminis- 
 trator, second son of the fourth Earl of 
 Donoughmore ; educated at Harrow and 
 Trinity College, Cambridge ; called to the 
 bar in 1877 ; private secretary to Sir Her- 
 cules Robinson ; colonial secretary of Bar- 
 badoes (1877), chief secretary at Malta 
 (1883) and lieutenant-governor (1884) ; 
 governor of the Windward Islands 1886. 
 
 Hemans, Felicia Dorothea, nee Browne {b. 
 1794, d. 1835), English verse-writer, wrote 
 Early Blossoms before she was fifteen, and 
 afterwards Domestic Affections, Hymns for 
 Children, etc. She died in Dublin, where 
 she lived after Captain Hemans left her. 
 
 Hemling, or Memling, Hans {d. circa 
 1500), Flemish painter, a collection of whoso 
 pictures are at Bruges. 
 
 Hemmingford, or Hemmingburgh, Wal- 
 ter de {d. area 1347), Canon of Guisborough, 
 and writer of a Chronicle of Enaland from 
 1066 to 1308. 
 
 Hemoo <fi. 1564), Hindoo statesman, min- 
 ister of Adil Shah Soor, Emperor of Delhi, 
 after some years of government was de- 
 feated and put to death, by order of Hoo- 
 mayen, rival of the reigning emperor. 
 
 Hemsley, William Botting, F.R.S. (6. 
 1843\ English botanist, son of a gardener 
 in Su.'isex, received an appointment at Kew 
 in 1863, and became in 1890 principal 
 assistant at the herbarium. His principal 
 works are the botany of the " ChalUrujer " 
 Expedition, and editions of Salvin and of 
 Godman's Biologia Centrali-Americana. 
 
 H6nault, Charles Jean (b. 1685, d. 1770), 
 French historian, educated at the Jesuits' 
 college, Paris, became in 1710 president of 
 the Chambre des Enquctes, and_ in 1723 
 director of the Acad^mie Fran^aise. He 
 wrote an Alrege Chronologigue de VHistoWe 
 de France. 
 
 Henderson, Alexander (-6. 1683, d. 1640),
 
 Hen 
 
 (436 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 Scotch niiiiister, author of the "Solenm 
 League aud Covenant," afterwards one of 
 the commissioners appointed to treat with 
 Charles I., whom he endeavoured to per- 
 suade to renounce Episcopacy. 
 
 Henderson, Sir Edmund, Lieutenant- 
 Colonel. K.C.B. {h. circa 1820), soldier 
 and administrator ; entered the army 
 in 1S38. was made surveyor- general of 
 prisons and chairman of the Directors of 
 Convict Prisons in 1863, and was chief com- 
 missioner of the Metropolitan Police from 
 1869 till 1886. 
 
 Henderson, John (6. 1747, d. 1785), actor, 
 made his appearance at Bath as Hamlet in 
 1772 under the name of Courtney, and after- 
 wards played Shylock, Fulstaff, and other 
 characters at the Haymarket and Drury 
 Lane. 
 
 Henderson, John {b. 1757, d. 1788), Eng- 
 lish scholar, bom at Ballagarance in Ireland ; 
 taught Latin at the age of eight in Kings- 
 wood school, Bath, and Greek when he was 
 twelve at Lady Huntingdon's Welsh col- 
 lege. He was sent to Oxford by Dean 
 Tucker, and was at Pembroke College with 
 Dr. Johnson, but devoted himself chiefly to 
 alchemy. 
 
 Henderson, Thomas {b. 1798, d. 1844), 
 Scottish astronomer, assisted Dr. Young in 
 his Nautical Almanack, and was sent by the 
 Admiralty in 1331 to take charge of the 
 Cape observatory. During his two years' 
 residence he made many observations, and 
 became on his return first astronomer royal 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Hengist [d. 488), Saxon leader, with his 
 brother, Horsa, in 449 landed in the Isle of 
 Thauet, and at first supported the Britons 
 against the Picts and Scots, but afterwards 
 quarrelled with his allies. Horsa was 
 killed at Aylesford, but his brother con- 
 quered Kent and founded a kingdom. 
 
 Henkel, Johann Friedrich (6. 1679, d. 
 1744), G-erman naturalist, author of Flora 
 Saturnizaus, laid the foundation of a sys- 
 tematic arrangement of minerals. 
 
 Henley, Anthony (6. 1660, d. 1711), Eng- 
 lish poUtieian and patron, a strong Whig, 
 and contributor to the Tatler and Medley ; 
 was a great amateur in m.usic, and patron of 
 actors. 
 
 Henley, John (6. 1692, d. 1756), clergy- 
 man, known as "Orator Henley" on 
 account of his preaching. Being unable to 
 obtain preferment in the Church, he gave 
 lectures or orations, to which admission 
 was not free, and in which he attacked the 
 authorities. He was ridiculed by Pope in 
 the Dimciad, and in two of Hogarth's cari- 
 catures. 
 
 Henley, Joseph Warner (6. 1793, d. 
 1884), politician, educated at Oxford, 
 entered Parliament for Oxfordshire as a 
 Conservative in 1841, and supported Peel 
 till his adoption of Free Trade. In 1852 
 Lord Derby appointed him President of 
 the Board of Trade, and he was sworn 
 of the Piivy Council in the same year. 
 He resumed ofiice in 1858, but resigned 
 soon after, being opposed to the Eeform 
 Bill, but did not retire from public life till 
 1878. 
 
 Henley, Robert. [See Northington.] 
 
 Hennequin, Antoine Louis (b. 1786, d. 
 1840), French jurist, while serving with the 
 artillery in Germany in 1806 pleaded for 
 some peasants at a court-martial, and after 
 the peace devoted himself to legal pursuits, 
 and became a distinguished advocate, giving 
 a fine exhibition of his powers in the defence 
 of Berard in 1826. He entered the Chamber 
 of Deputies in 1830, and made a reputation 
 there as an orator. 
 
 Henner, Jean Jacques (b. 1829), French 
 painter, bom in Alsace, whose chief pictures 
 are Jemie Baigneur Endormi (1863), La 
 Chaste Suzanne (1865), purchased by the 
 government and placed in the Luxembourg ; 
 Alsacienne (1870), presented by Gambetta to 
 the ladies of Alsace, and more recently Le 
 Christ Mort (1873), St. Jerome (1881), and 
 Rerodiade (1887). 
 
 Hennessy, Professor Henry, F.E.S. (6. 
 1826), Irish mathematicia'Q and physicist ; 
 born at Cork, pubUshed in 1851, in the 
 Transactions of the Royal Society, Researches 
 in Terrestrial Physics. In 1855 he was made 
 professor of physics in the Roman Catholic 
 University of Ireland, and in 1374 became 
 professor of applied mechanics in the Royal 
 College of Science. He proposed the polar 
 decimal system in regard to weights and 
 measures. 
 
 Hennessy, Sir John Pope, K.C.M.G. (6. 
 133i, d. 1891), colonial administrator, bom 
 at Cork ; was called to the bar in 1861, 
 entered Parliament (as Conservative) for 
 King's County in 1859 and took great part 
 in Irish questions, supporting concurrent 
 endowment and amendment of the land 
 laws. In 1867 he was appointed governor 
 of Labuan, of the West African settle- 
 ments Ln 1872, and the Bahamas in the fol- 
 lowing year ; of the Windward Islands, 
 1875 ; Hongkong, 1877, and the Mauritius, 
 1882. In the latter he disagreed -wath Mr. 
 Clifford Lloyd, but was restored to office. 
 In 1890 he was elected for North Kilkenny 
 as a Home Ruler, in opposition to Mr. 
 Parnell's nominee. He wrote Raleigh in 
 Ireland, and contributed at various times to 
 the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and 
 the Reports of the British Association.
 
 Hen 
 
 (437) 
 
 Hen 
 
 Heurici, Olaus, Ph.D., F.R.S., etc. (4. 
 1840), German matheinaticiaii, born in Hol- 
 Btein ; in 1865 came to London, where four 
 years after he was made professor of pure 
 mathematics at University College, and in 
 lb84 of mechanics and mathematics at the 
 London Institute. In 1883 he became 
 president of the Mathematical Society. He 
 wrote several papers on mathematics and 
 physics in CrtUt'' n Journal and the Frocead- 
 ingti of the Mathematical Society. 
 
 Henrietta Anne (6. 1644, d. 1670), English 
 priucess, daughter of Charles I., married 
 the Duke of Orleans, by whom she was pro- 
 bably poisoned. She was the chief agent 
 between Charles II. and Louis XIV., being 
 especially concerned iu the treaty of Dover. 
 
 Henrietta Maria (". ItiOU, d. 1669), Queen 
 of England, wile of Charles I. aud daughter 
 of Henry IV. of France ; was married in 
 1625, and withdrew from England in 1644, 
 having been very unpopular as a Romanist ; 
 she only revisited it once (at the Restoration). 
 
 Henriot, Franc^ois (6. 1761, d. 1794), 
 French revolutionist ; after having been a 
 police spy, was iu 1792 one of the leaders of 
 the September "massacres," and next year, 
 as chief of the Sansculottes, marched to the 
 Convention, and demanded the surrender of 
 the Girondins. Afterwards he became one 
 of Robespierre's chief supporters, and, as 
 vice-president of the revolutionary tribunal, 
 tried to rescue him when arrested, but 
 failed, and was tlwnwn out of the window 
 of the Hotel de VUle by his colleague, 
 Coffinhal, and was next day guillotined. 
 
 Henry, Emperor of the East {d. 1216), 
 son of Baldwin VIII. of Flanders, suc- 
 ceeded the Emperor Baldwin in 1206, 
 having recently defeated Theodore Lascaris. 
 He caused a mock union between the 
 Eastern and Western churches in 1215. 
 
 Henry, Prince of Battenberg {b. 1858), 
 married H.R.H. Princess Beatrice, and was 
 appointed governor of Carisbrooke Castle, 
 with the title of Royal Highness. 
 
 Henry, Prince of Prussia {h. 172fi. d. 1802), 
 Prussian general, brother of Frederick the 
 Great, and his chief assistant in the Seven 
 Years' war : jrained especial distinction at 
 the relief of Breslau and the battle of Frei- 
 berg. He was offered the crown of Poland, 
 but declined it. 
 
 Henry, Prince of Wales (6. 1594. d. 1612), 
 eldest son of James I. , friend of Sir Walter 
 Raleigh and other men of note. 
 
 Henry, Joseph {h. 1797, d. 1878). Ameri- 
 can physicist, to whom has been attributed 
 the first electro-magnetic machine. A 
 Mp:norinl of Joseph JTenry was issued by 
 order of Congress (1880). 
 
 Henry, Matthew (fc. 1662, d. 1714), 
 Nonconformist minister ; is best known by 
 his Commentary on the Bible (1710). 
 
 Henry, Patrick {b. 1736, d. 1799), Ameri- 
 can politician, nephew of Robertson and 
 cousin of Lord Brougham ; practised as an 
 advocate in Vii-giuia, where he first came 
 into prominence in 1763 by his pleading in 
 the case of clerical incomes ; was an active 
 opponent of the Stamp Act, and the chief 
 leader of the revolution in Virginia, being 
 more extreme in his views than Washing- 
 ton. He was for some years governor of 
 his state, during which he opposed the 
 Federal constitution as not democratic 
 enough. He was an eloquent but reckless 
 speaker, and was obliged to resume his pro- 
 fession in order to cover his heavy debts. 
 
 Henry, William, M.D. (6. 1775, d. 1836), 
 English chemist and physician, made F.R.S. 
 and won the Copley prize for his papers on 
 the absorption of water by gas, and on 
 muriatic acid gas. 
 
 Henry, Hon. William Alexander (6. 1816), 
 Canadian statesman, bom at Halifax, Nova 
 Scotia, in the Assembly of which colony he 
 eat for many years. He took a prominent 
 part in the union of the British American 
 provinces, and came to London in 1866, 
 together with delegates from Canada, Nova 
 Scotia, and New Brunswick, and presented 
 a scheme which was adopted. He wa« 
 appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of 
 Canada in 1875. 
 
 Henry of Blois, or of Winchester {d. 
 
 1171), English statesman, to whose influ- 
 ence as Bishop of Winchester his brother 
 Stephen was chiefly indebted for his crown. 
 Caring more, however, for the interests of 
 the Church than for secular affairs, he gave 
 him but a lukewarm support, and even 
 joined Matilda when she lirst invaded the 
 coimtry, though he afterwards turned 
 against her. 
 
 Henry of Huntingdon (12th century), 
 early English historian, whose Chronicle 
 extends from the earliest times to 1154. 
 
 Henry of Portugal (b. 1394, d. 1460), 
 "the Navigator," Duke of Viseu and 
 fourth son of King John of Portugal ; 
 directed the voyages which discovered 
 Madeira and the mouths of the Senegal ; 
 made an expedition against Tangiers, and 
 invented the astrolabe. 
 
 Henry I., King of Castile (6. 1204, d. 
 1217). succeeded Alfonso IX. in 1216, but 
 was accidentarlly killed by a tile the next 
 year. 
 
 Henry II. {b. 1333, d. 1379), natural son 
 of Alfonso XI., was legirimatised by the 
 Pope, and assisted against his brother,
 
 Hen 
 
 (438) 
 
 Hen 
 
 Pedro the Cruel, by Du Guesclin, but was 
 defeated at Navarette by the Black Priuce. 
 Wlieu the brothers met afterwards, Pedro 
 was killed, aud Heury of Trastamare ob- 
 taiued the throne. 
 
 Henry III. {b. 1379, d. 1406), surnamed 
 "the lutinu," put aa end to the regeucy 
 when only fourteen ; tried to mediate 
 between the rival popes, Benedict XIII. 
 aud Boniface III. ; defeated the Portuguese 
 aud the African corsairs, and rebuilt the 
 palace at Madrid. 
 
 Henry IV. {b. 1425, d. 1474), "the Im- 
 potent," produced a civil war by the way in 
 which he treated his queen, and was 
 obliged to acknowledge as heir his sister 
 Isabella (q.v.), soon after which he died. 
 
 Henry I., King of England (b. 1068, d. 
 113-5), youngest son of William I., seized 
 the throne on the death of William II. 
 (1100), and forced Robert to be content 
 with Normandy, but deprived him of this 
 also after the battle of Tenchebrai ; married 
 Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. and 
 descendant of the Saxon kings ; established 
 " Justices in Byre," the court of exchequer, 
 and a standard of weights and measures, 
 abolished the curfew, and compromised the 
 Investiture question by an agreement with 
 Pasclial II. His charter was the foundation 
 of the Great Charter. 
 
 Henry IL (*. 1133, d. 1189), grandson of 
 last-named, and son of Maud aud Geoffrey 
 Plantagenet ; came to the throne in 1154, 
 married Eleanor of Aquitaine (divorced 
 wife of Louis VII.), and acquired by the 
 marriage Guienne aud Poitou ; put down 
 private war and jurisdictions, and subdued 
 the last great feudal rising, which was 
 aided by William the Lion, of Scotland, 
 whom he compelled to do homage ; was 
 engaged in a long quarrel with Becket aa 
 reijreseutative of the immunity of clerks 
 from civQ jurisdiction, and sanctioned the 
 first expedition agaiast Irelaud, afterwards 
 accepting the kingdom. His last years 
 were much troubled by wars with his sons. 
 The most important enactments of his reign 
 were the Assizes of Clarendon and North- 
 ampton, and the Assize of arms, besides the 
 grant of charters to towns. He was the 
 most powerful prince of his time, was 
 offered the imperial throne, and possessed 
 by various titles the greater part of France. 
 
 Henry m. (b. 1206, d. 1272), son of John 
 by Isabella of Angouleme ; came to the 
 throne in 1216 when a minor, and in the 
 course of a long reign provoked much 
 hostility by his foreign favourites and his 
 submission to papal exactions, discontent 
 culminating in the Barons' war (1262-5), 
 in which he was defeated at Lewes and 
 compelled to submit to control of the 
 
 Government by De Montf ort and his friends. 
 These, however, quarrelled among them- 
 selves, aud at Evesham De Montfort waa 
 defeated and slain. During this reign the 
 Great Charter (with importaut clauses 
 omitted) was frequently renewed, and 
 Westminster Abbey was almost entirely 
 built. 
 
 Henry IV. (b. 1366, d. 1413), son of John, 
 Duke of Lancaster, and grandson of 
 Edward III., with the help of the Percies 
 aud Nevilles deposed Richard II. (1399), by 
 whom he had been banished, and after- 
 wards defeated at Shrewsbury a com- 
 bination between the former and the Scots 
 aud Welsh. In his reign the statute " De 
 Hseretico Combureudo " was passed, aud 
 Parliament exercised a firm control over 
 the Government. 
 
 Henry V. {b. 1388, d. 1422), son of 
 Henry IV., whom he succeeded in 1413; 
 twice invaded France, and won the battle 
 of Agincourt in 1415, and by the treaty of 
 Troyes married Katherine of France, aud 
 secured the succession to the throne. 
 
 Henry VI. {b. 1421), son of Henry V., 
 married Margaret of Anjou, and was 
 crowned in 142D at London, and at Paris in 
 1431. During his reign all the English 
 dominions in France except Calais were 
 lost, the rising of Cade took place, and the 
 wars of the Roses raged. The king was de- 
 posed, imprisoned, and probably murdered. 
 
 Henry VII. (J. about 1456, d. 1509), first 
 of the Tudor dynasty, son of Edmund 
 Tudor and Margaret Beaufort, a des- 
 cendant of John of Gaunt ; invaded Eng- 
 land in 1485, and defeated Richard III. at 
 Bosworth, after which he mairied Elizabeth, 
 daughter of Ed'.vard IV. His reign was 
 marked by three Yorkist risings, which he 
 defeated, by the measures he enforced 
 agaiast the nobles, by his system of mar- 
 riages with foreign princes, and the enact- 
 ment of Poyning's law. 
 
 Henry VIII. {b. 1491, d. 1547), son of 
 Henry VII., whom he succeeded in 1509, 
 married Katherine of Aragon, wife of his 
 deceased brotlier, his divorce from whom 
 was the proximate cause of the Reformation. 
 Papal jurisdiction was renounced, more 
 especially by the Acts of Supremacy and of 
 Appeals, but the king was strongly averse 
 to doctrinal changes. The early years of 
 the reign were marked by a war with 
 France, in which Henry took part in person; 
 attempts at uuion with Scotland were made, 
 but defeated by French and papal influence ; 
 a system of balance was maintained in 
 foreign relations ; a large amount of eccle- 
 siastical property was annexed to the Crown, 
 which gained complete control over the 
 Chiirch ; the rising called the Pilgrimage of
 
 Hen 
 
 (439) 
 
 Hen 
 
 Grace was suppressed; and the kin^ 
 became practically absolute, being granted 
 by Parliament the right of making laws by 
 proclamation, and of settling the succession 
 in bis wHl. 
 
 Henry I., King of France {b. 1011, d. 
 1060), succeeded his father, Eobert I., in 
 1031, and was engaged in constant war, 
 more particularly with "William, Duke of 
 Normandy, whom he had at first aided and 
 replaced in his dukedom. 
 
 Henry II. (6. 1519, d. 1559), son of 
 Francis I., whom he succeeded in 1547. By 
 his alliance with the German Protestants 
 acquired Metz, Toul, aud Verdun, while he 
 also regained Calais from the English. He 
 carried on his father's war with ISpaiu with 
 some success until the disaster at St. 
 Queutiu, and died of a wound inflicted in 
 a tournament held to celebrate its con- 
 clusion by the marriage of hia daughter and 
 PhiUp n. 
 
 Henry III. {b. 1551, d. 1589), son of 
 Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, suc- 
 ceeded his brother, Charles IX., as king of 
 France in 1574. He at first took part 
 against the Huguenots, but the tyranny of 
 the League at length forced him to resist. 
 He was obliged to leave Paris, but soon 
 obtained the assassination of the Due de 
 Guise, after which he was besieging Paris, 
 in alliance with Henry of Navarre, when 
 he was assassinated by Clement. 
 
 Henry IV. (*. 1553, d. 1610), as son of 
 Anthony of Navarre, a descendant of 
 Louis IX., was founder of the Bourbon 
 dynasty, succeeding Henry III. iu 1589. 
 His marriage with Marguerite de Valois, 
 in 1572, was the occasion of the Bartholomew 
 massacres. In 1576 he quitted the court 
 and became leader of the Huguenots and 
 opponent of tlie League, being the rival of 
 the Guises for the succession. He defeated 
 them at Arques and Ivry, but was unable 
 to conquer Paris without becoming a Roman 
 Catholic, which he did in 1593. He con- 
 cluded peace with Philip II. at Vervius, and 
 issued the Edict of Nantes. The rest of his 
 reign was occupied by domestic reforms. 
 He was assassinated by Ravaillac. 
 
 Henry, King of Portugal (d. 1114), son 
 of the Duke of Burgundy, assisted Alfonso 
 VI. in his wars with the Moors, and man-ied 
 his daughter, aud in 1109 assumed the title 
 of count and lord of all Portugal. He was 
 killed in the siege of Astorga. 
 
 Henry II., " the Cardinal" [b. 1580), took 
 orders and became Archbishop of Evora. 
 Having named no successor, there was a 
 contest for the throne of Portugal, and the 
 Spaniards became possessod of the country 
 tiU1640. 
 
 Henry I., Emperor of Gennany (b. 876, 
 d. 936), "Henry the Fowler," granted the 
 first municipal charters, and repulsed the 
 Danes, Hungarians, and Huns. 
 
 Henry IL (6. 972, d. 1024), "Henry the 
 Saint" or "the Lame;" after having been 
 Duke of Bavaria, succeeded Otho as em- 
 peror, and was the last of the House of 
 Saxony. He put down his vassals with & 
 firm hand, but was docile to the popes. 
 
 Henry III. {b. 1017, d. 1056), "the 
 Black," became emperor in 1039; nominated 
 three Germans to the papacy, and invested 
 the Normans with the duchy of Calabria ; 
 also carried on successful wars with the 
 Hungarians and Bohemians. 
 
 Henry rv. (b. 1050, d. 1106), son of 
 Henry III. , began the Investiture disputes 
 with the papacy, in the course of which he 
 deposed Gregory VII., but was himself 
 excommunicated and deposed, and was 
 obliged to submit at Canossa in 1076, but 
 iu 1084 again invaded Italy, and captured 
 Eome. In Germany he had enemies in 
 Rudolf of Swabia (whom he defeated 
 finally atWolksheim in 1080), in the Saxons, 
 and in his sons, Conrad and Henry, by the 
 latter of whom he was dethroned. 
 
 Henry V. {b. 1081, d. 112.5), son of last- 
 named ; was associated with his father in 
 1098, and afterwards dethroned him, car- 
 ried on the Investiture quarrel, which was 
 settled in 1122, and was the first husband 
 of Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of 
 England. 
 
 Henry VI. (b. 1165. d. 1197), "the 
 Severe," son of Frederic I. (Barbarossa), 
 whom he succeeded in 1190 ; imprisoned 
 Richard I. of England, and conquered 
 Apulia and Sicily. His wife conspired 
 against and poisoned him. 
 
 Henry VII. {b. 1262, d. 1313), son of the 
 Count of Luxembourg ; elected to the empire 
 in 1308 by the six electors, invaded Italy, 
 subdued the LoniLards, and restored the 
 Visconti at Milan. He acquired Bohemia 
 through his marriage with the daughter of 
 Wenceslaus. 
 
 Henry I., Duke of Bavaria and Saxony 
 (d. 1126), "the Black," united the Guelf 
 estates, but ruled feebly and abdicated. 
 
 Henry II. (6. 1102, d. 1139), "the Proud," 
 successor of last-named; man-ied the heiress 
 of the Emperor Lothaire, and acquired 
 Brunswipk ; was regent of the empire in 
 1132, aud was elected emperor in opposition 
 to Conrad III., but yielded after being put 
 to the ban of the empire. 
 
 Henry HI. (h 1129, d. IW). "the Lion," 
 son and successor of Henry II. , renounced
 
 Hen 
 
 (440) 
 
 Her 
 
 but afterwards recovered Bavaria, and 
 founded Munich (1157) ; married Matilda, 
 daughter of Henry II. of England ; was 
 deprived of Bavaria and Saxouy for re- 
 fusing to accompany the emperor to Italy, 
 and banished twice, spending a short time in 
 England (1183-.')). 
 
 Henryson, Robert (loth century) Scotch 
 poet, a Benedictine monk, whose Fabils 
 appeared at Edinburgh in 1621, and his 
 Testament of Faire Cresseide in 1593. 
 
 Hensel, Fanny Cecile {b. 1805, d. 1847), 
 German composer, sister of Mendelssohn, 
 was bom at Hamburg, and married W. 
 Hensel, a painter. She composed songs and 
 melodies. 
 
 Henselt, Adolph {b. 1814), German pianist 
 and teacher, a pupil of Hummel, went 
 to St. Petersburg in 1838, and was ap- 
 pointed court pianist. He also visited 
 England (1867). His chief compositions 
 are Etudes and a Concerto in F Minor. 
 
 Henslow, John Stevens (b. 1796, d. 1861), 
 English naturalist ; was elected professor 
 of mineralogy at Cambridge in 1S22, took 
 orders two years later, and in 1827 became 
 professor of botany. From 1839 he lived 
 at Hitchin, where he introduced allot- 
 ments. His chief works were Principles 
 of Descriptire and Physiological Botany 
 (1850), Dictionary of Botanical Terms (1846), 
 and essays on The Diseases of Wheat in the 
 Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society. 
 
 Henslowe, Philip {d. 1616), was in 1584 
 lessee of the Rose Theatre, Bankside, and 
 for many years was partner with Edward 
 AlIejTi. His Diary (1593-1609) is preserved 
 at Duhvich College, 
 
 Hephsestion (d. 325 B.C.), friend of Alex- 
 ander the Great, was wounded at Arbela, 
 ajid married a daughter of Darius. 
 
 Heraclitus (5th century B.C.), Greek 
 philosopher, wliose system was based on 
 that of Pythagoras ; lived at Ephesus, where 
 his writings were deposited in the Temple of 
 Diana. 
 
 Heraclius (*. 575, d. 641), Emperor of the 
 East ; was crowned in 610, having dethroned 
 Phocas ; after twelve years' fighting, de- 
 feated Chosroes, King of Persia, and drove 
 back the barbarians from Constantinople, 
 but was unable, in his later years, to resist 
 the inroads of the Syrians. 
 
 H^raultde Sechelles, Marie Jean {b. 1760, 
 rf. 1794), French advocate and revolutionist, 
 friend of Buffon and Mirabeau ; was elected 
 president of the Convention in November, 
 1792, and acted vrith " the Mountain," but 
 was guillotined as a Dantonist in April, 1794, 
 being accused of favouring the emigres. 
 
 Herbart, Johann Friedrich (A. 1776. d. 
 1841), German realist philosopher; born at 
 Oldenburg, studied under Fichte, at Jena, 
 but opposed his system as well as those of 
 Hegel and Schelling. He was professor at 
 Gottingen in 1805, and again in 1S33, the 
 intervening time being spent in a similar 
 chair at Konigsberg. He met Pestalozzi in 
 his earlier years, and embodied his method 
 in his own Padagogik. 
 
 Herbert. \See Carnarvon and Pembroke.] 
 
 Herbert, George {b. 1593, d. 1632), English 
 poet, brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury ; 
 was fellow of Trinity, and pubHe orator at 
 Cambridge, and a gi'eat fa\ouiite vrith 
 James I., Bacon, and Bishop Audrewes, 
 but gave up his secular ambitions and be- 
 came a country parson at Bemerton, near 
 Salisbury, where he wrote The Temple^ and 
 The Country Parson, a prose work. 
 
 Herbert, John Rogers [b. 1810, d. 1890), 
 painter, began to exhibit at the Academy 
 in 1830. After attracting attentiou by The 
 Appointed Hour (British Institution, 1834), 
 he went to Italy, and chose Italian subjects, 
 but afterwards became known as a painter 
 of religious pictures, his best works being 
 the series of nine pictures which decorate 
 the peers' robing-room at Westminster, 
 and King Lear Disinheriting Cordelia. He 
 became A.R.A. in 1841, and R.A. in 1848, 
 but retired in 1886, his later works being 
 little esteemed. 
 
 Herbert, Sir Thomas (d. 1682), English 
 traveller ; author of Some Tears'" Travel in 
 Africa and Asia the Great, the result of his 
 experiences with Sir D. Cotton on an em- 
 bassy to Persia and other countries. He 
 also wrote Threnodia Carolina, an account 
 of the last days of Charles I., whom he 
 attended as representative of the Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Herbert of Cherbury, Edward, Lord {b. 
 circa 1583, d. 1648), English philosopher and 
 statesman ; served under the Prince of 
 Orange, and was afterwards sent by James 
 I. as ambassador to Paris. He was the first 
 English Deist, his opinions being set forth 
 in De Veritate (1624), and other works. He 
 also wrote a History of the Life and Reign of 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Herbert of Lea, Sidney, Lord {b. 1810, d. 
 1861), English statesman, second son of the 
 Earl of Pembroke : represented Wiltshire as 
 a Conservative from 1832 to 1860 ; was 
 named secretary to the Admiralty in 1841, 
 and in 1845 became a cabinet minister as 
 Secretary at War. He at first supporied 
 the Corn Laws against Cobden, but was after- 
 wards one of the leading Peelites or Liberal- 
 Conservatives. In 1852 he was again Sec- 
 retary at War, but retired on the passing
 
 Her 
 
 (441) 
 
 Her 
 
 of the Sebastopol resolutions. He returned, 
 however, to the same post under Lord 
 Pahnerston in 1859, and his last term of 
 office was marked by the organisation of the 
 Volunteer force. He was created a peer a 
 few months before his death. 
 
 Herbst, Johann Friedrich (*. 1743, d. 1807), 
 German naturaUst ; wrote The Natural 
 History of Crabs (1702-1S04), Worms and 
 Insects. 
 
 Herder, Johann Gottfried {b. 1744, d. 
 1803), Gennan philosopher and poet ; born 
 of poor parents at Mohruugen ; afterwards 
 went to Konigsberg to learn surgery, but 
 became acquainted with Kant, and turned 
 to philosophy. When at Strasbui-g he met 
 Goethe, and soon became court-preacher 
 and councillor at Weimar. His chief works 
 were Sttmmeii der Tolker (1778), Ideen Zur 
 Geschichte der Menschheit (1784-91), and 
 Alteste Urkunde des Menschen geschlechts 
 (1774). 
 
 Herewaxd, The Wake, an English squire 
 who held the Isle of Ely against William 
 the Conqueror 1070-71. He probably be- 
 came reconciled to William, but much of 
 his history is legendary. 
 
 Heribert I. ((I. 943), Gomte de Cham- 
 pagne, took prisoner Charles the Simple, 
 and shut tim up till death at Peronne. His 
 son married the widow of the latter. 
 
 Hericart de Thury {b. 1776, d. 1854), 
 French geologist and engineer ; directed the 
 operations for the consolidation of the cata- 
 combs (1830), and was author oi Mineralogie 
 Synoptique and Description des Catacombes 
 de Paris (1815). 
 
 Heriot, George (b. 1653), founder of 
 Heriot's hospital at Edinburgh ; was gold- 
 smith to James I., who called him "Jingling 
 Geordie." 
 
 Herkomer, Hubert, R.A. {b. 1849), Eng- 
 lish artist of German extraction, son of a 
 wood-carver at Waal, Bavaria, who settled 
 at Southampton when his son was thirteen. 
 He first e^bited in the Dudley Gallery, 
 and in 1875 exhibited at the Academy The 
 Last Muster. Missing (1881) was his next 
 great picture, and in 1885 his portraits of 
 Mr. V. Stanford and Miss Grant were much 
 admired. The Chapel of the Charterhouse 
 (1889) was purchased for the Chantrey 
 bequest, and the artist became Slade pro- 
 fessor of fine art at Orford in 1885, 
 
 Hermann. [See Arminius.] 
 
 Hermann, Armand {b. 1759. d. 1795), 
 French revolutionist, friend of Robespierre, 
 through whom he became Minister of the 
 Interior and Foreign Minister, and whose 
 fall he shared. 
 
 Hermann, Johann Gottfried Jakob (6. 
 1772, d. 1S48), German philologist, author 
 of I)e Metris Gracorum et Jtomanontm Toct- 
 arum (1796), and De Mythologid Grcecorum 
 Antiquissimd (1807). 
 
 Hennas, early Christian writer, author of 
 The Shep]ierd ; is identified by some with 
 the disciple mentioned by St. Paul (Romans 
 xvi. 14), and by others with Hermes, brother 
 of Pius, Bishop of Rome (/, 141). 
 
 Hermes Trismegistus, a mythical per- 
 souage of the Egj-ptians, supposed to have 
 lived 2000 B.C. 
 
 Hermogenes (2nd century), African Stoic 
 philosopher, against whom TertulUan wrote. 
 
 Hermogenes of Tarsus (2nd century), 
 Greek rhetorician; author of the Art of 
 Rhetoric, taught at Rome, is said to have 
 lost his memory and power of speech in his 
 twenty-fifth year. 
 
 Herod Agrippa. [See Agrippa.] 
 
 Herod Antipas (/. 1st century), son of 
 Herod the Great, became Tetrarch of Galilee 
 (4 B.C.), beheaded John the Baptist in 31, 
 was deposed and exiled in 39. 
 
 Herod the Great (6. 73 b.c, d. 3 b.c), 
 King of Judaea ; put to death his wife 
 Mariamne and two sons ; massacred the 
 children of Bethlehem, and rebuilt the 
 Temple. 
 
 Herodianus (3rd century), Greek historian, 
 bom at Halicarnassus, whose History of 
 Rome was translated into Latin by Poli- 
 tian. 
 
 Herodotus {b. circa 480 B.C., d. circa 408), 
 Greek historian ; travelled in Egypt, Pales- 
 tine, and Babylon ; composed his History in 
 Samos. 
 
 Herold, Louis Joseph Ferdinand {b. 1791, 
 d. 1833), Fi'ench composer, chief among 
 whose productions were Zes Rosieres (1817) ; 
 Le Muletier (1823) ; Marie (1826) : La Son-^ 
 namhde, a ballet ; Zampa (1831) ; and Lc Pre 
 aux Clercs (1832). 
 
 Herophilus {circa 300 B.C.), Greek physi- 
 cian, disciple of Praxagoras, some of whose 
 writings are preserved with those of Galen ; 
 is said to have practised vivisection at 
 Alexandria. 
 
 Herrera, Fernando de {b. 1634, d. 1597), 
 Spanish poet, called "el Divino" by his 
 contemporaries; wrote an ode on the battle 
 of Lepanto, and some prose works. 
 
 Herrera, Francisno de {b. 1576, d. 1656), 
 Spanish painter, called "el Viejo," to dis- 
 tinguish him from his son (q.v.) ; fotinded a 
 new school, and was master of Velasquez 
 Being suspected of coining, he took
 
 Her 
 
 (442) 
 
 Her 
 
 sanctuary, aud painted a fine altar-piece at 
 Seville, in consideratioii of which he waa 
 pardoned. 
 
 Herrera, Francisco do (5. 1622, d. 1686, 
 sou of preceding, called " el Mozo," fled to 
 Rome, and studied architecture, but returned 
 to Seville on his father's death. He was 
 associated with Murillo in founding the 
 academy there, and was afterwards made 
 court-painter by Philip IV. He painted 
 portraits, tavern-scenes, aud fish. 
 
 Herrera y Tordesillas, Antonio (6. 1549, 
 d. 1625), Spanish historian, whose chief work 
 was Sistoria General de los Hechos de los 
 Castellanos. 
 
 Herrick, Robert <6. 1591, ci. 1674), EngUsh 
 poet, son of a London goldsmith ; studied 
 law at Cambridge, but afterwards took or- 
 ders, and obtained a crown living in Devon- 
 shire, from which he was ejected in 1648, 
 but was reinstated at the Restoration. His 
 chief work is Hesperides (1648). 
 
 Herries. John Charles {b. 1778, d. 1855), 
 statesman; was commissary-general from 
 1811 to 1816, and auditor of the Civil List 
 from that year to 1823, when he entered 
 Parliament, aud was made secretary to the 
 Treasury. In 1827 he was for a short time 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer ; was master of 
 the Mint and president of the Board of 
 Trade under the Duke of Wellington, and 
 Secretary at War in Peel's first ministry, and 
 was president of the board of control under 
 Lord Derby in 1852. 
 
 Herring', John Frederick {b. 1795, d. I860), 
 painter, for some time drove a coach on 
 the Xorth-road ; his subjects were chiefiy 
 animals, and especially race-horses. 
 
 Herring, Thomas, D.D. (J). 1671, d. 1757), 
 divine, successively Bishop of Bangor and 
 Archbishop of York and Canterbury; was 
 called the" Red Herring," from his zeal in 
 roasing the country in favour of the Hano- 
 verian dynasty. 
 
 Herschell, Sir William {b. 1738, d. 1822), 
 English astronomer of German birth, son 
 of a hautboy-player in the Hanoverian 
 Guards ; having obtained in 1766 the post of 
 organist at the Octagon Chapel, Bath, be- 
 came an active musician, but also studied 
 astronomy, and, with the aid of his sister, 
 constructed the Newtonian telescope. In 
 1780 he sent his first paper to the Royal 
 Society, and next year discovered Uranus, 
 and was appointed private astronomer to the 
 king. At Slough he constructed another 
 telescope ; was knighted in 1788, in 1789 
 gained the Copley medal, and in 1820 became 
 first president of the Astronomical Society. 
 His sister, Caeoline {d. 1848), waa of great 
 assistance to him, and received the gold 
 medal of the Astronomical Society. 
 
 Herscliell, Sir John Frederick, Bart. (4. 
 1792, d. 1871), astronomer, son of last- 
 named ; was senior wrangler at Cambridge ; 
 devoted himself at first to law and chemistry, 
 but soon adopted his father's pursuits. He 
 received the gold medal and the Lalande 
 medal, and the Copley medal for his mathe- 
 matical researches. After having been 
 knighted, and made president of the Royal 
 Astronomical Society, he, in 1833, went to 
 the Cape to survey the southern heavens, 
 and was created a baronet at the Queen's 
 coronation. He was author of a Discourse 
 on the iStudy of Natural Philosophy, Outlines 
 of Astronomy, aud treatises on meteorology, 
 physical geography, and the telescope. He 
 was master of the Mint from I80O to 1855, 
 and made some important chemical dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 Herschell, Right Hon. Lord (*. 1837), 
 English lawyer aud statesman, educated at 
 Bonn and University College, Loudon ; was 
 called to the bar in 1860, became Queen's 
 Counsel in 1872, and entered Parliament as a 
 Liberal in 1874. He was recorder of Car- 
 lisle from 1873 to 1880, in which year he be- 
 came Solicitor- General. In 1886 he was 
 defeated for North Lancashire, but was made 
 Lord Chancellor. In 1888 he was president 
 of the Royal Commission to inquire into the 
 proceedings of the Metropolitan Board of 
 Works. He was again Lord Chancellor 
 in 1892. 
 
 Hersent, or Hersan, Charles (d. circa 1670), 
 French preacher, attacked the monks, and 
 wrote Optatus Gallus ; the book was burnt, 
 and the author excommunicated (1650). 
 
 Hertslet, Sir Edward (6. 1824), English 
 administrator ; entered the Foreign Office in 
 1840, became sub-librarian in 1855, and 
 librarian two years later. In 1878 he went 
 to Berlin with the embassy as secretary, and 
 was knighted for his services. He is author 
 of HertskVs Cmnmercial Treatise, begun by 
 his father, The Map of Europe by Treaty, 
 and many similar works. 
 
 Hertz, Heurik (6. 1798, d. 1870), Danish 
 dramatist, whose chief work, Kong Rene's 
 Batter, waa translated into English and 
 German. 
 
 Hertzberg, Ewald Graf von (6. 1725, d. 
 1795), Prussian statesman ; foreign minister 
 for thirty years ; negotiated the peace of 
 Hubertsburg, that between Russia and 
 Sweden in 1762, and the treaty of Reichen- 
 bach, besides taking part in the first par- 
 tition of Poland and the pacification of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Herv6, Florimond Rouger (6. 1825), 
 French composer, bom at Foudoin, near 
 Arros, has been musical director at several 
 Paris theatres. Z'(Eil Creve, ChiipSrie, Lt
 
 Her 
 
 (443) 
 
 Hey 
 
 Fetit Faust, are some of his most successful 
 light operas. 
 
 Hervey, Hon. andEight Rev. Lord Arthur, 
 D.D. {b. 1S08). English divine, fourth son 
 of the first Marquis of Bristol ; educated at 
 Eton and Trinity College, Camhridge ; be- 
 came Archdeacon of Sudbury in 1862, and 
 was nominated to the see of Bath and Wells 
 in 1859. 
 
 Hervey, James {h. 1714, d. 1758), English 
 poet, author of Meditations among the Tombs, 
 etc. 
 
 Hervey, Lord John {b. 1696, d. 1743), 
 Whig statesman, the*'Sporus" of Pope's 
 satires ; was lord privy seal under Walpole 
 (1740-2), and \eii Memoirs oj tue Court of 
 George II. 
 
 Hesiod {fl. circa 800 B.C.), Greek poet, 
 author of Works and Bays and Theogony. 
 
 Hess, Peter von (^i. 1792, d. 1871). Ger- 
 man painter, executed for Maximilian of 
 Bavaria The Battle of Leipsic, and accom- 
 panied Otto to Greece to paint his entry 
 into Athens. His brother, Heinrich {d. 
 1863), was also employed by the King of 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Hesse, Alexander (*. 1806, d. 1879), French 
 painter, membre de I'lustitut, and first-class 
 medallist, whose chief pictures were Les 
 Sonneurs funebres rendus au Titien (1833), 
 Une RepuoUque (1848), and portrait of Pre- 
 sident Barthe (1861). 
 
 Hessels or Estius, Wilhelm (6. 1542, d. 
 1613), Flemish theologian, author_ of Ilis- 
 toria Marti/rittm Gorcomienslum, in which 
 he eulogised Balthasar Gerard, assassin of 
 William of Orange. 
 
 Heurtley, Charles Abel, D.D. (6. circa 
 1806), English theologian, Bampton lecturer 
 in 1845, and in 1853 Margaret professor of 
 divinity and canon of Christ Church. He 
 is author of Harmonia Symbolica, a col- 
 lection of creeds belonging to the Western 
 Church (1858), and editor of Be Fide et 
 Symbole. 
 
 Hewett, Sir Prescott Gardner, Bart., 
 F.R.S. [d. 1891), surgeon, educated at St. 
 George's Hospital and at Paris : became 
 president of the Royal College of Surgeons 
 in 1876, and received a baronetcy in 1883. 
 He was also surgeon -in -ordinary to the 
 Prince of Wales, and one of the serjeant- 
 surgeons. 
 
 Hewett, Sir William Nathan Wrighte, 
 K.C.B. («. 1834. d. 1888), English admiral, 
 served in the Burmese war (1851), in China 
 (1857), and during the Crimean campaign. 
 He was made K.C.B. for his services in the 
 Ashantee war, and commanded against the 
 Congo pirates in 1875, and in Egj^t (1382). 
 
 In 1886 he was appointed to the command 
 of the Channel fleet. 
 
 Hewitson, Wi.liam Chapman {b. 1806, d. 
 1878), English uatui-aUst ; author of British 
 Oology (1833-42), Illustrations of Biumal 
 Lepidoptera (1863), and other works. 
 
 Hewson, William, F.R.S. (6. 1739, d. 
 1774), English physiologist, friend of Dr. 
 Franklin, was awarded the Copley medal 
 in 1770 for his researches in connection with 
 the lymphatic system and the thymus gland. 
 He also exposed the errors of Leuwenhoek 
 in relation to blood corpuscles. 
 
 Heyden, Jan van der (6. 1637, d. 1712), 
 Dutch painter, his subjects being chiefly 
 architectural, and especially dealing with 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Heylin, Peter (b. 1599, d. 1662), English 
 theologian, author of Life of Archbishop 
 Laud, and histories of Episcopacy, the 
 Presbyterians, and the lieformation. 
 
 Heyne, Christian Gottlob (6. 1729, d. 
 1812), German scholar, bom in great poverty 
 at Chemnitz ; was invited by Count Briihl 
 to Dresden, and made copyist in the library ; 
 and after becoming sub -librarian, and losing 
 all his property at the siege of Dresden, was 
 appointed in 'l763 to a professorship at 
 Gottingen, during the tenure of which he 
 edited several classics, notably Virgil and 
 Homer. His daughter, Therese (d. 1829), 
 married Forster, and then Huber, and wrote 
 JS'otes on Holland (1811) and Flkn Fercy 
 (1822). 
 
 Heyse, Paul Johann Ludwig (b. 1830), 
 poet and novelist, son of a professor at Ber- 
 lin ; in 1852 went to Italy to examine MSS., 
 and in 1854 to Munich, where he married the 
 daughter of Franz Kugler. He is author of 
 Francesca di Mtmim (1850), Bie Pfalzer in 
 Irland (1855), Elizabeth Charlotte (I860), 
 tragedies; Thekla.a. poem (1858); Gesam- 
 melte Kovellen in Versen (1863), Troubadour 
 Novellen (1882), etc. 
 
 Heytesbury, William a' Court, Lord (A. 
 1779, d. I860), English diplomatist; was 
 ambassador at Madrid (1820), at Lisbon 
 (1824), at St. Petersburg (1828-32), and Lord- 
 lieutenaut of Ireland from 1844 to 1846. 
 
 Heywood, James, F.R.S. {b. 1810), poli- 
 ticiau and writer, bom at Manchester, and 
 educated at Trinity, Cambridge ; _ entere_d 
 Parliament for North Lancashire in 1847, 
 and in 1850 moved an address for a com- 
 mission of inquiry into the English and Irish 
 universities. He obtained the removal of 
 religious tests (1854-6), and was able to take 
 his own degree in 1857. He wrote a History 
 of University Subscription Tests, and trans- 
 lated Huber's English Universities, and 
 other works.
 
 Hey 
 
 ( 444 ) 
 
 Hig 
 
 Heywood, Jolm (d. 1565), English poet, 
 "the Epigiammatist," iu great favour with 
 Heury VIII. and Mary, ou whose death he 
 weut to Mechliu. His chief work was Tlie 
 Spider and the Fly. Some poems by his sou, 
 Jaspee (d. 1598), are priuted iu The Faradlne 
 of Dainty Devices. 
 
 Hejrwood, Thomas (6. circa 1570), drama- 
 tist and actor, a native of Liucolushire, 
 and fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. He 
 began to write plays iu 1596; the chief of 
 them being, A Woman Killed with Kindnens 
 hdO?), The Enylish Traveller (1633), aud 
 The Captives. 
 
 Hezekiah, King of Judah, succeeded Ahaa 
 about 726 B.C., and defeated the invasion of 
 the Assjiians. 
 
 Hiao-King-Ti, Emperor of China (*. 188 
 B.C., d. 141 B.C.), made au immense hospital 
 for old men, widows, aud orphans. 
 
 Hiao-Tsoung {b. 1469, d. 1505), Emperor 
 of China, of the Ming dj-nasty ; numbered 
 his people, and set ou foot a revision of laws 
 and customs. 
 
 Hiao-Wen-Ti (b. 202 e.g., d. 157 b.c), 
 Emperor of China, revoked the laws by 
 which parents were made responsible for 
 the crimes of their children, and introduced 
 mutilation as a punishment. 
 
 Hickes, George {b. 1642, d. 1715), English 
 clergyman and Saxon scholar, deprived of 
 his living as a non- juror 1689 ; was author 
 at Institutiones Grammaticce Anylo-Saxonica 
 et Mceso-Gothicce. 
 
 Hicks, EUas (6. 1748, d. 1830), Ameri- 
 can preacher and Quaker controversialist; 
 bom in Long Island, strongly discoun- 
 tenanced slavery, and caused a schism among 
 the Society of Friends by the breadth of his 
 views. 
 
 Hicks, Henry, M.D., F.R.S. {b. 1837),Eng- 
 lish geologist ; graduated at St. Andrew's in 
 1878,_and practised at St. David's from 1862 
 to 1871, when he came to London, and pub- 
 lished the results of his geological researches 
 in Wales aud Scotland. He was president 
 of the London Geologists' Association, 
 1883-85. 
 
 Hicks, William, " Hicks Pasha " (b. 1830, 
 a. 1883), English soldier; entered the Bom- 
 bay army in 1849, served in Bengal, 1857-9, 
 m the Rnhilcund campaign, the Mutiny, and 
 tiie Abyssiman war, and was gazetted 
 colone in 1880. In 1883 he was appointed 
 by Baker Pasha chief of the staff in the 
 bouaan, and in September of that year was 
 surrounded and destroyed while on the 
 march through the desert to Khartoum. 
 
 Hicks, William Mitchinson, F.R.S. (fc. 
 I860), mathematician ; was fellow of St. 
 
 John's College, Cambridge, from 1876 to 
 1887, and became principal of Firth College, 
 Sheffield, 1883. At the British Association 
 of 1881-2 he read a liepwt on Recent Fro- 
 yrens in Hydro-Dynamics, and is the author 
 of many mathematical works. 
 
 Hicks-Beach, Eight Hon. Sir Michael 
 Edward, Bart. {b. 1837), statesman, educated 
 at Eton and Christ Church, entered Parha- 
 ment in 1864 as Conservative member for 
 East Gloucestershire. He was parhamentary 
 secretary to the Poor Law BoaTd in 1868, 
 Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1874, and 
 entered the cabinet in 1877, becoming Secre- 
 tary for the Colonies next year. After a 
 period of opposition, during which he made 
 at least one powerful speech, he became 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, aud leader of 
 the House of Commons in May, 1885. On 
 the return of Lord Salisbury to power he 
 was at first Irish Secretary, but was obUged 
 to resign owing to ill-health, and, after a 
 short retirement, became President of the 
 Board of Trade (1888). 
 
 Hien-Foung {b. 1831, d. 1861), Emperor 
 of China ; cume to the throne in ISoO, and 
 had infmediately to encounter a rebellion. 
 Nankin was taken by the rebels in 1853, 
 and after his defeat at Pali-Kao in 1860 the 
 emperor submitted to conditions dictated by 
 the English and French. 
 
 Hiero I., ruler of Syracuse {d. 467 B.C.), 
 succeeded Gelon in 478 B.C., and defeated 
 the Etruscan fleet at Cumse four years after; 
 was the patron of ^schylus and Pindar. 
 
 Hiero II. {d. 215 B.C.), served under 
 Pyrrhus, and was made King of Sji'acuse 
 in 270 B.C. : allied'himself with Eome against 
 the Mamertines, aud afterwards with Car- 
 thage ; after making peace with Eome in 
 263 he remained her ally. 
 
 Hieronymus. [See Jerome.] 
 
 Hiffeman, Paul {h. 1719, d. 1777), Irish 
 writer, befriended by Garrick and Gold- 
 smith, wrote The Ticklers and Tlie Tuners. 
 
 Higden, Ralph {d. 1363), Benedictine 
 chronicler, author oi Poh/ehronicon, a trans- 
 lation of which was printed by Caxton. 
 
 Higgins, Matthew James (b. 1810, d. 
 1868), Irish critic and contributor (under 
 the _ pseudonyms of "Paterfamilias." "A 
 Civilian," and especially of "Jacob Om- 
 nium ") to the Times. A collection of his 
 works, called Social Sketches, was printed in 
 1857. As husband of a daughter of Sir 
 Henry Tichborne, he was active in opposing 
 the fraudulent claims of Arthur Orton. 
 
 Higginson, Thomas Wentworth {h. 1823), 
 American writer, bom at Cambridge, Massa- 
 chusetts, at first a Unitarian minister, entered
 
 Hig 
 
 (445) 
 
 Hil 
 
 keenly into the movement against slavery, 
 and was severely woimded during the Civil 
 war. Among his works are Malhone : an Old- 
 port Ho/nance (1869) and Oldport Bays (1874), 
 Sarvard Memonal Biographies (1866), Brief 
 Biographies of European Statesmen (1875), 
 Common-sense about Women (1881), and 
 Women and Men (1888). 
 
 Highmore, Joseph {b. 1692, d. 1780), 
 English portrait-painter ; executed the por- 
 traits of members of the Order of the Bath 
 on its revival, and wrote Principles of Per- 
 spective. 
 
 Hilary, Bishop of Aries (h. 401, d. 449), 
 devoted his riches to charity, withstood the 
 Pope's claims, and perhaps drew up the 
 Athanasian creed. 
 
 Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers (d. 367), wrote 
 A Treatise on the Trinitg, and opposed the 
 Arians at Constantinople and Milan. 
 
 Hilary, Bishop of Rome {d. 467), suc- 
 ceeded Leo I. , and opposed the Eutychians 
 and Nestorians. 
 
 Hildebrand. [See Gregory "VII. ] 
 
 HUdebrant, Eduard (6. 1818, d. 1868), 
 German painter, bom at Dantzig ; was for 
 some time an assistant of Elrause, the marine 
 painter, and aft«rwards travelled for two 
 years in Egypt, India, China, and America, 
 and foiinded his landscapes on the scenery 
 of those countries. 
 
 HUdebrant, Ferdinand Gottlieb (h. 1804, 
 d. 1874), painter of the Diisseldorf school, 
 bom at Stettin ; studied under Schadow, 
 and went with him to Italy in 1830. His 
 chief pictures were Judith and Holophernes, 
 The Brigand, The Murder of the Young 
 Princes, Othello and Desde)nona, and many 
 Shakespearian scenes. 
 
 Hildegarde, Samt {b. 1100, d. 1178), Ab- 
 bess of St. Rupert on the Rhine, wrote many 
 works of a mystical character, and letters. 
 
 Hildreth, _ Richard {b. 1807, d. 1865), 
 American historian, author of a History of 
 the United States (1849-52), Japan as it Was 
 (1855) ; Tlie White Slaue, a novel ; was for 
 some time consul at Trieste. 
 
 Hiles, Henry, Mus.Doc. {b. 1826), English 
 writer on music, bom at Shrewsbury ; after 
 being organist in London and Manchester, 
 was appointed in 1880 lecturer on harmony 
 at Owens College. His chief works are The 
 Grammar of Music and Part-writing : or. 
 Modern Counterpoint, and he composed The 
 Crusaders, a cantata, and several songs and 
 anthems. 
 
 Hilgenfeld, Adolf Bernard (1823), Ger- 
 man theologian of the Tubingen school, 
 professor at Jena from 1850 to 1869. HLs 
 
 chief works are Bas Evangelium und die 
 Brief e Johanms (1849), Ueber die Evangelien 
 (1854), Ber Kanon und die Kritik des "Neuen 
 Testament (1863), and Novum Testamentum 
 Extra Canonum Receptum. 
 
 Hill, Aaron (b. 1685, d. 1750), English poet, 
 mentioned in IVieBunciad, author of Camillus 
 and Laj'a, also wrote words for Handel, and 
 a History of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 Hill, David Octavius {h. 1812, d. 1870), 
 Scotch painter ; at the age of eighteen a 
 foundation member of the Royal Scottish 
 Academy, painted the Establishment of the 
 Free Hirk, many scenes from Scottish pea- 
 sant-life, and afterwards landscapes. 
 
 HiU, Frank Harrison {b. 1830), English 
 joumaUst'; was called to the bar, went to 
 Ireland to edit the Northern Whig in 1860, 
 and edited the Baily Neivs from 1870 to 
 1886. He published in 1873 Political Por- 
 traits and The Political Adventures of Lord 
 Beaconsjield, and also wrote the life of 
 Canning in the " English Worthies " Series, 
 and of Grey in the " Statesmen " Series. 
 
 Hill, Matthew Davenport (6. 1792, d. 
 1872), reformer of the criminal law, brother 
 of Sir Rowland Hill ; was called to the 
 bar in 1819, and defended Cartwright and 
 Carlile, the Nottingham rioters of 1831, 
 and the Rebeccaites in 1843. He became 
 Queen's Counsel in 1834, and recorder 
 of Bii-mingham in 1839, and was also a 
 member of Parliament from 1S32 to 1835. 
 In 1843 he aided in the foundation of 
 the Society for the Amendment of the 
 Criminal Law, and in 1857 published his 
 Suggestions for the Repression of Crime, and 
 was active in the establishment of reforma- 
 tories. His daughter, Joanna, and her 
 sisters assisted him in his work, and carried 
 it on after his death. 
 
 Hill, Octavia {b. circa 1838), English social 
 reformer ; with the help of Mr. Ruskin pur- 
 chased and managed poor property in Mary- 
 lebone and Drury Lane, and took an active 
 part in the foundation and growth of the 
 Charity Organisation Society. 
 
 HiU, Sir Richard {b. 1733, d. 1808), 
 English Methodist controversialist ; attacked 
 Oxford University in Pietas Oxoniensis 
 (1768) for the expulsion of six under- 
 graduates as Methodists ; entered Parliament 
 in 1781, and sat till 1806, being a telling 
 spea ker. 
 
 Hill, Rowland (b. 1744, d. 1833), English 
 Dissenter, brother of preceding, took orders 
 in the Church, but opened an Independent 
 chapel in Blackfriars-road in 1783; pub- 
 lished Village Bialogues in 1801. 
 
 Hill, Sir Rowland, K.C.B. (A. 1795, i. 
 1874), founder of the peony post, son of
 
 Hil 
 
 (446 ) 
 
 Hiu 
 
 T. W. Hill, of Birmingham, and named after 
 tlie preaclier, issued iu 1837 his pamphlet ou 
 Fost Ojfice lU'form, the suggestions of which 
 were carried into effect iu 184U. He held a 
 position in the Treasury for two years, but 
 lost it on the change of government. He 
 received, however, a public testimonial in 
 184G, when he became secretary to the Post 
 Office. He retired iu 1864 on his full salary, 
 having also been knighted in 1860. As 
 chairman of the Brighton railway, he started 
 the first express. 
 
 HiU, Rowland, Viscount {b. 1772, d. 1842), 
 English general, son of Sir John Hill, dis- 
 tinguished himself under Abercromby in 
 Egypt, and in 1808 went to Spain. In 1809 
 he became lieutenant-general, and com- 
 manded the 2nd army corps in Portugal. 
 In 1814 he was created Baron Hill of 
 Almarez, for the capture of the forts of that 
 name, and at Waterloo headed the brigade 
 which repulsed the Old Guard. He was 
 made commander-in-chief in 1828, and 
 viscount in 1842. 
 
 Hillel the Elder {b. 112 b.c, d. 8 b.c), 
 Jewish rabbi, father of a school of oral 
 tradition, much of which is contained in the 
 
 Mishna. 
 
 Hillel the Younger (4th century), director 
 of the Jewish school at Tiberias, descendant 
 of preceding, reformed Jewish chronology, 
 aud was author of the Gemara. 
 
 HiUer, Ferdinand {b. 1811, d. 1885), 
 German pianist and composer, born of 
 Jewish parents at Frankf ort-on-Main, played 
 in public at ten, and began to compose at 
 twelve. He was placed with Hummel at 
 Weimar, and accompanied him to Vieuua, 
 where he saw Beethoven ou his death-bed. 
 He stayed at Paris from 1828 to 1835, where 
 he made known the works of the German 
 masters. He afterwards went to Milan, 
 where he met Liszt and Rossini, and pro- 
 duced Eomilda. In 1839 he produced at 
 Leipzig, under the superinteudence of Men- 
 delssohn, his I)ie Zerstbrung Jerusaleins, 
 As kapellmeister at Cologne he organised 
 the Conservatoire there, and from 1850 he 
 conducted the Lower Rhine festivals. He 
 visited England in 1871 and 1872. 
 
 HiUer, or Hiiller, Johann Adam (b. 1728, 
 d. 1804), German composer, bom near 
 Gorlitz, studied law and music at Leipzig, 
 and vras appointed tutor by Coimt Briihl 
 in 1758. He was made director of con- 
 certs, and founded a school for perform- 
 ing the oratorios of Handel and other 
 masters. His concerts spirituels were the 
 piogenitors of the Geivandhaus concerts. 
 He also composed for the theatre Sing- 
 spiele. 
 
 H i lli a r d, Nicholas (6. 1547, d. 1619), 
 
 English portrait-painter of the school of 
 Holbein ; was also a carver and embosser of 
 gold. 
 
 Hilton, John {d. 1655), English Royalist 
 composer ; author of A yres : or. Fa Las, Catch 
 That Catch Can, and many madrigals and 
 catches. 
 
 HUton, Walter {d. 1396), English Car- 
 thusian monk, wrote The 8cak : or. Ladder 
 of Perfection, a poem, about 1440. 
 
 Hilton, William {b. 1786, d. 1839), painter, 
 began to exhibit at the Academy in 1803, 
 and gained several prizes at the British In- 
 stitution. In 1813 he became A.R.A., in 
 1818 R.A., and in 1827 keeper of the 
 Academy. His Christ Crowned with Thorns 
 is now at South Kensington, and Edith Dis- 
 covering the Dead Body of Harold, with 
 several others, is in the National Gallery. 
 
 Hincmar {d. 882), Archbishop of Rheims, 
 favourite of Louis le Debonuaire and a great 
 persecutor. 
 
 Hincks, Edward, D.D. {b. 1792, d. 1866), 
 Irish archaeologist, author of Monograms 
 from Assyrian Monuments discovered the 
 Persian cuneiform vowel system. 
 
 Hincks, Sir Francis (b. 1807, d. 1885), 
 Canadian statesman, grandson of last named, 
 was born at Cork, and went to Canada in 
 1831. In the rebellion he took the Liberal 
 side, and in 1841 became member of the first 
 Parliament held after the Union and ia- 
 spector-geueral of public accounts, which 
 office he agam held in 1848. In 1851 he 
 became premier, and developed greatly the 
 economic resources of the country, holding 
 office till 1854. He then visited England, 
 was governor of Barbadoes from 1855 to 
 1862, and from that year till 1869 of British 
 Guiana. After this he returned to Canada, 
 and was finance minister under Sir John 
 Macdonald till 1873. He was author of 
 The Folitical History of Canada, 1840-55. 
 
 Hind, John Russell {b. 1823), English 
 astronomer, born at Nottingham, came to 
 London ia 1840 as a civil engineer's assistant, 
 but obtained a post iu the Royal Obser- 
 vatory. In 1844 he became F.R.A.S., and 
 two years later published The Solar System. 
 In 1847 he received a gold medal from the 
 King of Denmark for the discovery of a 
 planet, in 1850 discovered Victoria, and in 
 the years 1851-4 several others. In 1852 he 
 was granted a pension, and received the gold 
 medal of the Astronomical Society, and the 
 Lalande medal. In 1880 he became jjresi- 
 dent of the Astronomical Society. His chief 
 works are Expected Return of the Great 
 Comet of 1266 and 1556 (1848), Astronomical 
 Vocabulary (1852), and Descriptive Treatise 
 on Comets (1857).
 
 Hin 
 
 (447) 
 
 Hoa 
 
 Hingeston-Randolph, Francis Charles 
 {b. 1833), antiquary and divine, became 
 prebendary of Exeter in 1885. His chief 
 works are Specimens of Ancient Cornish 
 Crosses, etc., and a collection of Royal and 
 Historical Letters in the Hetgn of Henry 
 IV. 
 
 Hiouen-Thsang (6. 603, d. 664), Buddhist 
 traveller and philosopher; traversed Asia, 
 and collected many books in India, which he 
 translated into Chinese. A French trans- 
 lation of his account of his travels has been 
 made. 
 
 Hippaxchus [Jl. circa 150 B.C.), Greek 
 philosopher ; established the theory of the 
 sun, compiled a catalogue of stars, and in- 
 vented a planisphere. 
 
 Hipparchus and Hippias, Peisistratidae, 
 succeeded Peisistratus in 628 B.C. as 
 "tyrants" at Athens, but the former was 
 slain by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, and 
 Hippias was expelled by the Alcmaionidae, 
 and fled to Persia. He was killed at Mara- 
 thon. 
 
 Hippocrates {b. 460 B.C., d. 357), Greek 
 physician, practised at Athens and Pella, 
 and laid the foundation of a science of 
 medicine. He wrote The Nature of Man, 
 Epidemics, Aphorisms, and other works. 
 
 Hire. \_Sce La Hire.] 
 
 Hirst, Thomas Archer, Ph.D., F.E.S. 
 
 {b. 1830), English mathematician, bom 
 at Heckmondwike, iorksliire, met Tyndall 
 at Halifax, and afterwards joined him at 
 Marburg (Hesse-Cassel). After studying at 
 Gottingen and Berlin, he became professor 
 of natural philosophy at the Eoyal Institu- 
 tion. In 1857 he ascended Mont Blanc with 
 TjTidall. On his return in 1860 became 
 mathematical master at University College 
 school. He was one of the original mem- 
 bers of the Mathematical Society and 
 president 1872-4, and was subsequently 
 professor of physics and of mathematics in 
 University College, Loudon, general' secre- 
 tary to the British Association, assistant- 
 registrar of London University, and director 
 of studies at the Royal Xaval School. 
 
 Histiseus {d. circa 494), tyrant of Miletus, 
 saved the army of Darius at the Danube 
 (513 B.C.) ; was made ruler of Mitylene, but 
 subsequently instituted the Ionian revolt, 
 and was put to death. 
 
 Hitchcock, Edward, D.D. (*. 1793, d. 
 1864), American geologist, sometime pro- 
 fessor of chemistry and natural history in 
 Amherst College, of which he became 
 president in 1844. He was appointed head 
 of the Massachusetts geological survey in 
 1830, and came to Eiirope in 1850 to visit 
 the agricultural schools. His chief work 
 
 was The Religion of Geology and its Connected 
 Sciences (1851). 
 
 Hittorf, Jacob Ignatius (b. 1793, d. 1867), 
 Gennan architect and archaeologist, em- 
 ployed by Louis Philippe, Napoleon III., 
 and the Republic ; was author of V Archi- 
 tecture Folychrome ch-ez les Grecs, and some 
 works on Sicilian architecture. 
 
 Hitzig, Ferdinand (6. 1807, d. 1875), 
 German biblical critic, professor at Zurich 
 and Heidelberg, wrote Bcgriff der Xritik 
 am altcn Testament praktisch erortert (critical 
 works on the minor prophets), Geschichte des 
 Volkes Israel (1869-70), and many other 
 works. 
 
 Hoadley, Benjamin, D.D. {b. 1676, d. 
 1761) , English theologian. Bishop successively 
 of Bangor (1715), Hereford, Salisbury, and 
 Winchester, whose sennon before George I. 
 on March 31, 1717, occasioned the Ban- 
 gorian controversy. 
 
 Hoadley, Benjamin (6. 1706, d. 1757), 
 physician, sou of preceding ; attended George 
 II. and Frederick, Prince of Wales, and 
 wrote The Suspicious Husband, a comedy 
 (1747). 
 
 Hoadley, John (i. 1711, d. 1776), English 
 writer and divine, brother of the preceding, 
 friend of Garrick and Hogarth ; published 
 his father's works, and wrote several 
 di'amas, The Contrast, etc., and the oratorio 
 Jephthah. 
 
 Hoar, Ebenezer {b. 1816), American 
 la-vvj^er, bom at Concord, was admitted to 
 the bar in 1839, and was successively member 
 of the Massachusetts senate, judge of Com- 
 mon Pleas, and justice of the Supreme 
 Court. In 1870 his nomination as tJuited 
 States senator was not confirmed. He had 
 previously been United States attorney- 
 general, and in 1872 entered Congress. He 
 was a member of the Washington Treaty 
 Commission in 1871. 
 
 Hoar, George Frisbie (b. 1826), politician, 
 brother of last-named, after having been 
 member of the State House of Represent- 
 atives and Senate, was elected member of 
 Congress in 1868, and three times re-elected. 
 He was elected United States senator in 
 1877, was re-elected in 1883 and 1889. He 
 presided over the Republican Convention of 
 1880, and served on the Electoral Commis- 
 sion of 1876. 
 
 Hoare, Prince {b. 1755, d. 1834), painter 
 and dramatist, was secretary to the Royal 
 Academy, and wrote Xo Song — Xo Supper, 
 and other pieces. His father, William {d. 
 1792), was one of the first Royal Acade- 
 micians. 
 
 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt (b. 1758, d. 1838),
 
 Hob 
 
 (443) 
 
 Hoe 
 
 English antiquary, translated and annotated 
 The Itinerari/ of Giraldus Canibreusis, and 
 began histories of ancient and modern Wilt- 
 shire, besides giving, in his Classical Tour 
 through Italy, an account of his ti-avels. 
 
 Hobart-Hampden, Hon. Augustus Charles 
 {b. 1S22, '/. 1SS6), English sailor, known as 
 Hobart Pasha, was a son of the Earl of 
 Buckinghamshire, and entered the royal 
 navy iu 1836. He did good service in South 
 America in the suppression of the slave 
 trade, served in the Crimea, being present 
 at Bomarsund aud Sweaborg, and retired on 
 half pay in 1860. He nest took service as a 
 blockade runner in the American Civil war, 
 and afterwards, having entered the Turkish 
 navy, suppressed the revolt in Crete in 1867, 
 and was created admiral and pasha. His 
 name was struck off the British Navy List 
 when he commanded against the Greeks, 
 but it was restored iu 1874. He was again 
 struck off for commanding the Turkish fleet 
 in the war of 1877-8, in which England was 
 neutral, but was reinstated with the rank 
 of vice-admiral in 1885. 
 
 Hobbema, Meindert or Minderhert {b. 
 1638, d. 1709), Dutch landscape-painter, 
 pupil of Ruysdael ; several of his pictures 
 are in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Hobbes, Thomas {b. 1588, d. 1679), 
 philosopher, bom at Malmesbury and 
 educated at Oxford ; met Descartes aud 
 Gasseudi at Paris when tutor to members 
 of the Devonshire family ; was afterwards 
 mathematical tutor to Prince Charles 
 (Charles II.). He received a pension at 
 the Restoration, but his chief works were 
 censured by Parliament ; these were The 
 Leviathan and De C'ire. He also wrote 
 Behemoth, a history of the Civil war. 
 
 Hobhouse, Right Hon. Baron {b. 1819), 
 English lawyer, became a member of the 
 Chancery bar in 1845, and practised subse- 
 quently in the Rolls court. He was obliged 
 to retire on account of ill-health iu 1866, but 
 was appointed Cliarity Commissioner in 1869, 
 and member of the Council of India in 1872, 
 being knighted on his retirement from that 
 post five years later. In 1881 he became 
 Privy Councillor and member of the Judicial 
 Committee, and in 1885 received a peerage. 
 
 Hobhouse, John Cam (b. 1786, d. 1869), 
 Lord Broughton, chiefly remembered as the 
 friend of Byron. As a Liberal he repre- 
 sented Westminster, Nottingham, and Har- 
 wich, and was Irish Secretary and President 
 of the Board of Control. In 1831 he suc- 
 ceeded his father as baronet, and was made 
 a peer in 1851. 
 
 Hoche, Lazare (b. 1763, d. 1797), French ' Hoefer, J. C. Ferdinand (b. 1811, d. 1878), 
 republican general, rose from the ranks, German chemist and writer ; after fighting 
 and at twenty-five commanded the army of La the Greek war of independence and 
 
 the Moselle ; was imprisoned owing to the 
 spite of St Just, but sent to La Vendee on 
 his release, which country he succeeded in 
 pacifying. Afterwards he commanded an 
 expedition which was intended to make a 
 descent on Ireland, and distinguished him- 
 self in Germany against the Austrians. He 
 died in camp under suspicious circumstances. 
 
 Hodges, William, R.A. (i. 1744, d. 1797), 
 artist, painted scenes from the countries 
 visited by him in Captain Cook's second 
 voyage ; made a fortune iu India, and, after 
 living iu London, went to Russia. 
 
 Hodgkinson, Eaton (b. 1789, d. 1861), 
 eugiueer, co-operated with Fairbaim in his 
 inventions, and obtained the gold medal of 
 the Royal Society aud liis election as fellow 
 for his ExyeriineHtal Researches on tihe 
 Strength of TMars of Cast-iron and Other 
 Materials. 
 
 Hodgson, Brian Houghton {b. 1800), 
 Orientalist ; entered the Indian civil ser- 
 vice iu 1818, was secretary to the embassy in 
 Nepaul from 1820 to 1829, and resident there 
 from 1833 to 1843, when he retired. In 
 1824 he discovered the Sanscrit Buddhist 
 scriptures, and four years later wrote an 
 article on Buddhism in the Asiatic Re- 
 searches. Copies of this aud others of his 
 woi'ks were distributed throughout Europe 
 at the author's expense, and in 1835 the 
 Grand Lama entered into correspondence 
 with him, and sent him valuable Tibetan 
 works. He spent most of his time in India 
 till 1858, and was elected fellow of the 
 Royal Society in 1877, besides receiving 
 numberless distinctions from foreign socie- 
 ties. His chief publications are Literature 
 and Religion of the Buddhists of the North 
 (1841), Aborigines of India (1847), and 
 various essays on Tibetan and Indian 
 subjects. 
 
 Hodgson, John Evan, R.A. (5. 1831), 
 painter, spent most of his early years in 
 Russia in his father's business, but in 1853 
 returned to England, aud three years later 
 exhibited his first picture. He painted at 
 first historical pictures, but after his visit to 
 Africa made a speciality of African subjects. 
 Among his works may be mentioned The 
 Patriot Wife (1857), First Sight of the 
 Armada (1863), several Arabian studies 
 (1868-71), A Tunisian Bird-Seller (1873), 
 I A Shipwrecked Sailor Waiting for a Sail 
 {\SSl), Ragasselma: the Water-Dance (188S), 
 aud Robert Burns at the Plough (1887). 
 
 Hody, Humphrey {b. 1659, d. 1706), 
 i scholar, professor of Greek at Oxford, and 
 j patron of Wadham College.
 
 Hoe 
 
 (449^ 
 
 Hoh 
 
 travelling, became secretary to Cousin, and 
 translated Kant's Kritik into French. He 
 was appointed by the French Government 
 to report on German medical schools, edited 
 the NouveUe Biographie Generate, and wrote 
 a Histoire du Chimie. 
 
 Hoey, Frances Sarah (6. 1830), English 
 writer, author of A House of Cards, A 
 Stern Chase (1886), and other novels, and 
 translator of Memoires de Madame de 
 Reinusat, Frederic le Grande et Marie 
 Therese, etc. 
 
 Hofer, Andreas (6. 1767, d. 1810), Tyrolese 
 patriot and innkeeper, headed the revolt by 
 which the Bavarians were driven from the 
 Tyrol in 1809, and recaptured Innsbruck 
 from them and their French allies. Austria 
 having been compelled to abandon the pro- 
 vince by the peace of Vienna, the French 
 again made an invasion and were defeated 
 by Hofer, who was at last betrayed and 
 shot at Mantua. His family was afterwards 
 ennobled by the emperor. 
 
 Hoftoan, Charles Fenno (b. 1806, d. 1884), 
 American writer, friend of Bryant, esta- 
 blished in 1833 The Knickerbocker Magazine, 
 and afterwards wrote A Winter in the West, 
 Wild Scenes in Forest and Prairie, and some 
 novels and poems. The last thirty-five 
 years of his life he passed in a lunatic 
 asylum at Harrisburg. 
 
 Hoffman, David {b. 1784, d. 1854), Ameri- 
 can lawyer and writer, professor of law in 
 the Marj^land University (1817-1836), was in 
 England from 1847 to 1853, when he contri- 
 buted American articles to the Times, and 
 was engaged in writing his Chronicles 
 selected from the Originals of Cartapahilm, 
 the Wandering Jew, which he left unfinished. 
 
 Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor [b. 1776, d. 
 1822), German novelist and musician, 
 director of the theatre at Leipzig and 
 Dresden. His Contes appeared in 1830 ; the 
 opera Undine was the best of his musical 
 works. He also drew caricatures against 
 Napoleon and the French. 
 
 Hoffmann, Friedrich (6. 1660, d. 1742), 
 chemist and physician, professor at Halle ; 
 was the first to point out the value of the 
 Seidlitz springs. 
 
 Hofftaiann von Fallersleben, August 
 Heinrich (6. 1798, d. 1874), Hanoverian 
 potit and philologist, friend of the Grimms ; 
 lost his professorship at Breslau on account 
 of his Unpolitische Lieder, but was, after 
 many wanderings, allowed to settle in 
 Prussia in 1848. Among his philological 
 publications were Fimdgruben fur Geschichte 
 deutsche Sprache und Literatur (1830-37), 
 Reineke Vos (1834), and Monument- Eluo- 
 nensia (containing the Ludwigslied), and 
 D S 
 
 among his verses the chief were Deutsche 
 Liederbuch and Rhsinleben. 
 
 Hofmann, August Wilhelm, F.R.S. (4. 
 1818), German chemist, born at Giessen, 
 where he entered the laboratory of Liebig ; 
 lived in England from 1845 to 1864, was 
 director of the London College of Chemistrj', 
 and edited Fownes' Manual of Chemistry . He 
 then obtained a chair at Berlin, and foimded 
 the German Chemical Society. He dis- 
 covered aniline, and wrote Einleitung in die 
 Moderne Chimie (1865). 
 
 Hogan, John (6. 1800, d. 1857), Irish 
 sculptor, entirely self-taught, the best 
 specimens of whose work were Fve after 
 her Expulsion contemplating a Dead Dove, 
 the Dead Christ, and Drunken Faun. 
 
 Hogartb, William (6. 1697, d. 1764), 
 English artist, at first engraved for book- 
 sellers, while also painting portraits; 
 married clandestinely a daughter of Sir 
 James Thomhill, whom he conciliated by 
 his Harlofs Progress. It was followed by 
 the Rake's Progress (1735), Marriage a la 
 Mode (1745), Industry and Idleness (1747), 
 and numerous caricatures. Though quite 
 uneducated, he wrote a theoretic work, The 
 A?ialysis of Beauty (1754). In a contro- 
 versy with Wilkes he replied by caricatures 
 instead of by writing. 
 
 Hogg, Jabez, M.R.C.S. (b. 1817), EngUsh 
 surgeon, was at school with Dickens ; wrote 
 The Illustrated Lotidon SpeUing-Book, Ele- 
 ments of Natural and Experimental Philo- 
 sophy, and The History, Construction, and 
 Application of the Microscope. He also be- 
 came surgeon to the Westminster Ophthal- 
 mic Hospital and similar institutions, and 
 published A Manual of Ophthalmoscopic 
 Surgery, and The Cure o/ Cataract. 
 
 Hogg, James {b. 1770, d. 1835), Scottish 
 poet, called the "Ettrick Shepherd;" was 
 a cowherd, and for ten years a shepherd. 
 His poems and ballads attracted the atten- 
 tion of Scott, whom he helped with The 
 Border Minstrelsy, the chief of his own 
 works being The Mountain Bard (1803), 
 The Queen's Wake (1813), and a collection 
 of poems published in 1822. 
 
 Hogg, Thomas Jefferson {b. 1792, d. 1862), 
 English writer; made the acquaintance of 
 Shelley at Oxford, and began a life of him, 
 two volumes of which appeared in 1858. He 
 was called to the bar in 1817, and in 1833 
 became a municipal corporation commis- 
 sioner. 
 
 Hohenlolie-Schmingsfiirst, Prinz Clod- 
 wig Victor von (J>. 1819), German states- 
 man, was in the Prussian service till 1845, 
 when he settled in Bavaria. He was sent 
 by the Frankfort ministry to Athens,
 
 Hoh 
 
 (450) 
 
 Hol 
 
 Florence, and Rome as ambassador, and, 
 after a period of retirement, began to take 
 an active part in Bavarian aflfairs, becoming 
 minister in 1867 and advocating an imperial 
 policy. In 1870 he resigned on accoimt of 
 opposition to his auti-papal policy, but, as a 
 member of the House of Peers, obtained the 
 participation of Bavaria in the Franco- 
 Prussian war. In 1871 he entered the 
 German parliament, of which he soon 
 became vice-president ; was ambassador at 
 Paris in 1874, plenipotentiary at Berlin at 
 the congress, and afterwards governor of 
 Elsass-Lothringen. 
 
 Hohenzollem, H.R.H. Leopold fitienne, 
 Hereditary Prince of (6. 183o), succeeded 
 his father in 1885, having previously become 
 known in Europe on account of his candida- 
 ture for the Spanish throne, which was the 
 proximate cause of the Franco -Prussian 
 war. 
 
 Holanda, Francisco de (6. 1515, d. 1584), 
 Portuguese painter, friend of Michael Angelo, 
 was patronised by John III. of Portugal, 
 whose sous he taught; composed treatises 
 on ancient painting and the art of drawing, 
 and discovered a new way of laying on 
 colour. 
 
 Holbach, Paul Heinrich Dietrich, Baron d' 
 {b. 1723, d. 1789), French philosopher, wrote 
 Le Christianisme Divoile, U Esprit du Clerge, 
 which was condenmed to be burnt, Le Si/s- 
 tetne de la Nature, Moralite Universelle, etc. 
 
 Holbein, Hans (6. 1494 or 5, d. 1543), Swiss 
 painter, architect, and carver, painted the 
 portrait of Erasmus at Basel, and went to 
 England with an introduction from him to 
 Sir Thomas More. He was given a large 
 salary by Henry VIII., besides payment for 
 his pictures, among which were portraits of 
 Henry and some of his queens. In the 
 Surgeons' Hall there is also a work of his 
 representing Henry VIII. granting a charter 
 to the company. BeatKs Dance, engraved 
 from his own designs, is the best example 
 of his work of this kind, 
 
 Holberg, Ludwig, Baron (J. 1684, d. 
 1754), Danish poet and historian, travelled 
 much on foot, studied two years at Oxford, 
 and obtained a professorship at Copenhagen. 
 He made a large fortune by his writings, 
 which include Feder Faars, a mock-heroic 
 poem, Niels Klims Underjordiske Seise, a 
 satire, with some comedies and historical 
 works. 
 
 Holboume, Sir Robert {d. 1647), English 
 lawyer and member of the Long Parliament ; 
 opposed ship-money, but afterwards joined 
 the king, and was made privy coimcillor ; 
 endeavoured to mediate between king and 
 Parliament. 
 
 Holcroft, Thomas {b. 1746, d. 1809), 
 
 dramatic writer, son of a shoemaker; was 
 at first a groom aud then an actor, and 
 wrote besides his memoirs, which were con- 
 tinued by Hazlitt, several comedies, of 
 which I'/ie Road to Ruin is the only one now 
 ever seen, 
 
 Holden, Hubert Ashton, LL.D. (6. 1822), 
 English scholar, educated at King Edward's 
 school, Birmingham, aud at Trinity, Cam- 
 bridge, of which he became a fellow in 1847, 
 having been senior classic in 1845. After 
 being vice-priucipal of Cheltenham and 
 head-master of Ipswich, he was made in 
 1SS)0 fellow of the University of London. 
 He is author of the compilations Foliar utn 
 Silvula, and F'oliorum Centuries, several 
 editions of the classics (Aristophanes, etc.), 
 aud lives of the Gracchi, Sulla, Nicias, etc. 
 
 Hole, Samuel Reynolds, D.D. (b. 1819), 
 Dean of Rochester, educated at Newark 
 and Brasenose College, Oxford; was pre- 
 bendary of Lincoln m 1875, and chaplain, 
 to the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1885, 
 and wrote A Little Tour in Lreland (1858), 
 illustrated by Leech, and A. £ook about 
 Roses (1859), 
 
 Hole, William (b. 1846), Scotch painter, 
 educated at Edinburgh ; was apprenticed as 
 a civil engineer, but, after his return from 
 Italy, adopted art as his profession, and be- 
 came an associate of the Scottish Academy in 
 1878, and an academician in 1889. Among 
 his etchings are Quasi Cursores (1884), the 
 Canterbury Filgrims (1888), and others 
 after Crome, Millet, and Constable. His 
 paintings include The Evening of Cidloden 
 and Prince Charlie's Parliament, etc. 
 
 Holinshed, Raphael (d. circa 1580), 
 English historian, published Chronicles oj 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland 
 
 Holkar, Mulhar Rao {b. 1693, d. 1769), 
 founder of the Mahratta dynasty of that 
 name, was a shepherd until employed by 
 Peshwa Bajee Rao, who in 1759 made him 
 soubadar. His armies ravaged the whole of 
 Northern India, and were not checked until 
 the defeat by the Afghans at Paniput. 
 
 Holkar, Tukajee Rao {b. 1727, d. 1797), 
 was practically the ruler of the Mahrattas 
 under Ahlia Bye, and largely extended 
 their power in Northern India, while also 
 defeating Tippoo Sultan in the south. 
 
 Holkar, Jeswunt Rao {d. 1811), natural 
 son of Tukajee, on whose death he fled, but, 
 having obtained command of a predatory 
 band, assumed the title of " Servant of 
 Khundi Rao" (son of the late Holkar and 
 rival of Kasi Rao, the reigning one), and 
 invaded his native state. He won a great 
 battle in 1798, after which the troops of 
 Kasi Rao deserted, and Jeswunt became all 
 but nominal ruler. In 1803 he joined Sindia
 
 Hoi 
 
 (451) 
 
 Hol 
 
 agaiust the British, and was at first suc- 
 cessful, but after his defeat by Lake his 
 troops mutioied. Soon after this Khuudi 
 Udo died suspiciously, and Kasi R^o was 
 murdered. After obtaining power, how- 
 ever, Jeswunt became gradually insane. 
 
 Holker, Sir John (6. 1828. d. 1882), Eng- 
 lish lawyer ; was called to the bar in 1854, 
 practised at Manchester and in Loudon, and 
 became Queen's Counsel in 18(i8, and a 
 leader on the northern circuit. Having 
 entered Parliament in 1872 as Conservative 
 member for Preston, he was appointed 
 Solicitor- General by Mr. Disraeli, and in 
 1875 became Attorney - General. He 
 was appointed Lord Justice by Mr. Glad- 
 stone. 
 
 HoU, Frank (b. 1845, d. 1888), painter, 
 son of Francis Holl, the engraver, was 
 elected A.R.A. in 1878, and E.A. in 188:J. 
 Among his pictures are The Gifts of i/ie 
 Fairies (1879), Ordered to the Front (1880), 
 Home Again (1881), and portraits of Lord 
 Wolseley, the Duke of Cambridge, and Mr. 
 Bright, etc. 
 
 Holl, William {b. 1807, d. 1871), en- 
 graver, sou of the portrait engraver of 
 the same name, illustrated Moore's works. 
 An English Merry-making, after Frith, 
 and several portraits after Richmond. His 
 brother, Francis, also eminent as an en- 
 graver, especially for his chalk heads after 
 Richmond, was elected A.R.A. in 1883. 
 
 Holland, Sir Henry. M.D. (6. 1788, d. 
 1873), physician-in-ordinary to the Queen 
 and Prince Consort ; wrote Travels in the 
 Ionian Islands, Chapters on Mental Physi- 
 ology, and several medical and philosophical 
 essays. 
 
 Holland, Henry Richard, third Lord (6. 
 1773, d. 1840), Whig statesman, son of 
 Stephen, Lord Holland, and nephew of 
 Charles James Fox, by whom his education 
 was superintended ; travelled much on the 
 Continent, and, having entered Parliament 
 in 1798, became Chancellor of the Duchy of 
 Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet, in 
 1830. He left Memoirs of the Whig Tarty 
 and other works. 
 
 Holland, Henry Scott (6, 1847), theo- 
 logian, educated at Eton and Balliol, be- 
 came senior student of Christ Church in 
 1870, and in 1884 was made canon of St. 
 Paul's. He has written Logic and Life 
 (1SS2), Creed and Character (1886), and 
 contributed to Lux Mundi. 
 
 Holland, Lord. {See Henry Fox.] 
 
 HoUand, Philemon (6. 1551, d. 163G), 
 
 Engli'-li scholar, fellow of Trinity College, 
 
 Cambridge, and head-master of Coventry ; 
 
 was called, from his numerous translations 
 
 dd2 
 
 of the classics, etc., the " Translator- general 
 of his age." 
 
 HoUand, Thomas Erskine, LL.D., D.C.L. 
 
 (6. 1835), jurist, was called to the bar in 
 1863, and practised on the home circuit, but 
 was elected Chichele professor of inter- 
 national law at Oxford in 1874. Chief 
 among his works are Sekct Titles from the 
 Digest (1874-81), in collaboration with C. L. 
 Shadwell, A Manual of Naval Prize Law 
 (1888), and Elements of Jurisprudence. 
 
 HoUar, Wenceslaus (6. 1607, d. 1677), 
 Bohemian engraver, patronised by Charles I. 
 and the Earl of Arundel ; fled to Holland 
 after the war, but returaed at the Res- 
 toration. His engravings are said to have 
 numbered 2,000. 
 
 Holies or Hollis, Denzil, Lord (6. 1597, 
 d. 1681), English politician, a leading mem- 
 ber of the opposition under James I. ; was 
 sent to the Tower by Charles I., and was 
 one of the "five members." Being a Pres- 
 byterian, however, he was opposed to the 
 power of the army, and was obliged to 
 remain in France till the death of Cromwell. 
 He received a peerage from Charles II., and 
 went as ambassador to France, but refused 
 to connive at the transactions between 
 Charles and Louis XIV. 
 
 Holman, James (6. eirea 1787, d. 1857), 
 English naval officer, who lost his sight, and 
 afterwards became known as "the Blind 
 Traveller " ; wrote accounts of his Voyage 
 Round the World (1827-34), and his Tr'avelt 
 in Russia. 
 
 Holmes, Abiel (6. 1763, d. 1837), Ameri- 
 can historian, born in Connecticut ; author 
 of Annals of America. 
 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell (&. 1809), son of 
 Abiel Holmes by his second wife, was bom 
 at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and graduated 
 at Harvard in 1829. Next year he be- 
 came known as the author of the verses 
 agaiust breaking up the frigate Constitution. 
 He studied law at Cambridge (Massa- 
 chusetts), and then passed three years at 
 Paris, where he took a medical degree in 
 1836. On his return he became an active 
 practitioner in his native state, and wrote 
 several treatises on medical subjects. The 
 Autocrat of the Breakfast- table. The Pro- 
 fessor at the Breakfast-table, and The Poet 
 at the Breakfast-table first appeared in 
 the Atlantic Monthly. Besides some early 
 volumes of verse, he is author of Elsie 
 Venner (1861), and The Guardian Angel 
 (1869), novels ; memoirs of J. L. Motley 
 and R. W. Emerson ; of several essays and 
 later verse, and of One Hundred Pays in 
 Europe (1887). In 1886 he visited England. 
 
 Holroyd. [See Sheffield.]
 
 Hoi 
 
 ( 452 ) 
 
 Hon 
 
 Holste, or Holstenius, Lucas (6. 1596, d. 
 1661), Gennau theologian, abjured Protest- 
 Butisiu under Jesuit iutiueuce at Paris, aud 
 weut to Rome, where he was patronised by 
 the pope aud Cardinal Barberiui. In ItioG 
 he received Christina, Queen of Sweden, 
 into the Roman communion. 
 
 Holt, Sir John (6. 1642, d. 1710), English 
 judge, was removed from the recordership 
 of Loudon under James II. for opposition 
 to the repeal of the Test Act ; was elected 
 to the Convention Parliament, and after 
 the Revolution made Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench and a Privy Councillor. He 
 was offered the chancellorship in 1700, and 
 left Report of Divers Cases in Fleas of the 
 Crouii under Charles II. 
 
 Holte, John (/. circa 1500), English school- 
 master, fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford ; 
 published the first Latin grammar in Eng- 
 land, which he called Lac Fiierorum ; or, 
 Mylke for Chyldren. It was printed by 
 Wynken de Worde in 1497. 
 
 Holtzapffel, Charles {d. 1847). German 
 mechanician, settled in England ; wrote 
 Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, and 
 introduced improvements in lathes aud 
 mathematical instruments. 
 
 HolweU, John Zephauiah {b. 1711, d. 
 1798), English administrator and writer, 
 bom in Dublin ; entered the service of the 
 East India Company in 1732, and when 
 member of the Bengal Council in 1756, 
 defended Fort William against Surajah 
 Dowlah, aud was one of the survivors from 
 the "Black Hole." In 1759 he was ap- 
 pointed governor of BengaL 
 
 Holzer, Johanu (6. 1708, d. 1740), German 
 engraver and painter, some of whose work 
 is to be found at Augsbui-g. 
 
 Holyoake, George Jacob {b. 1817), a well 
 known supporter of Co-operation, on which, 
 as well as on Atheism, etc., he has produced 
 several works. 
 
 Homtoerg, William (6. 1652, d. 1715), 
 German chemist, bom at Batavia ; while m 
 Italy discovered the method of making 
 luminous the Bologna stone, and weut 
 thence to England, where he worked with 
 Boyle. After working at Stockholm for 
 some years, he came to France, was patron- 
 ised by Colbert, aud became physician to the 
 Duke of Orleans. 
 
 Home, Daniel Dunglas (6. 1833, d 1886), 
 spiritualist, boni near Edinburgh ; went to 
 the United States in 1840, and became 
 known as a " medium " from the age of 
 seventeen. He came to London about 
 1853, but made many visits to other coun- 
 tries, and was received into the Roman 
 Church in 1856, but expelled some years 
 after. He visited Russia with Dumas pire. 
 
 and in 1858 married a Russian lady, who 
 died in 1862. In 1863 he went to Italy, aud 
 was befriended by Mrs. Browning and 
 others. He received a large gift of money 
 from a Mrs. Lyons, which, however, he 
 lost some j^ears after as the result of a law- 
 suit. He married another Russian in 1871, 
 and died msane. 
 
 Home, Sir Everard (6. 1756, d. 1832), 
 Burgeon, brother-in-law of John Hunter, 
 whose MSS. he destroyed ; practised in 
 Loudon for forty years, wrote many medical 
 treatises, and was for some years president 
 of the Royal College of Surgeons. He was 
 made a baronet by George IV. 
 
 Home, Henry. \_See Karnes, Lord.] 
 
 Home, John (*. 1722, d. 1808), Scottish 
 minister, fought for the Hanoverian cause 
 during the " Forty-tive," and obtained a 
 living. His Itonglas was rejected by Garrick 
 in 1749, but produced at Edinburgh seven 
 years after with great success. He also 
 wrote a History of the RebeUwn of 1745, 
 and obtained a sinecure from Lord Bute. 
 
 Homer, held by some to be the author of 
 the Iliad aud Odyssey ; by others only of 
 one of these ; by others, again, to be a mere 
 name. 
 
 Hommaire de Hell, Iguace Xavier {h. 
 1812, d. 1848), French geologist and travel- 
 ler, was employed by the Russian govern- 
 ment in several scientific missions, and 
 discovered the Dnieper iron mines. He was 
 I also employed by the French government 
 in similar work, and just before his death 
 entered the service of the Shah. 
 
 Hompescli, Baron Ferd3J.and von (b. 
 1744, d. 1803), last grand-master of the 
 Knights of St. John, abdicated in favour of 
 the Tsar Paul I. 
 
 Honaiu, Abou-Yezid (9th century), 
 Arabian physician, translated the works 
 of Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Galen, and 
 also the Elements of Euclid. 
 
 Hondecoeter, Melchior de (6. 1636, d. 
 1695), Dutch painter, born at Utrecht, his 
 subjects being chiefly game and wild fowl. 
 
 Hondt, Abraham, or Hondius (6. 1638, d. 
 1695), Dutch painter of animals, came to 
 England in the reign of Charles II., and 
 died there. A Bog Market and The Siege 
 of Troy are specimens of his work. 
 
 Hondt, Henry (Jj. 1576), engraver, called 
 "the Elder" to distinguish him from a son 
 of Jost ; engraved portraits of the reformers 
 and some landscapes. 
 
 Hondt, Jost or Jodocus (6. 1563, d. 1611), 
 Flemish engraver, employed by Alexander 
 of Parma ; came to England, and pubUshed
 
 Hon 
 
 (453) 
 
 Hoo 
 
 several works, besides engraving the maps 
 for Drake's Voyaffen a.nd Speed's collection. 
 
 Hone, Nathaniel {d. 1784), Irish painter, 
 settled in Loudon, and was a foundation 
 member of the Academy, but resigned 
 owing to the rejection of a picture by him 
 which was a satire on Reynolds. 
 
 Hone, William {b. 1780, d. 1842), English 
 writer, bom at Bath, unsuccessful as a pub- 
 lislier and in an attempt to establish a 
 savings bank; wrote political squibs, and 
 was several times tried for blasphemy, but 
 always acquitted. He wrote The Apocry- 
 phal New Testament, Ancient Mysteries, the 
 Eveiy-Bay Book, the Table-book, etc. 
 
 Honorius, Flavins (5. 384, d. 423), last 
 Emperor of the West, sustained, by the help 
 of Stilicho, invasions by the Goths and 
 Vandals, but on the death of the latter was 
 obliged to retire to Ravenna, Rome having 
 been sacked by Alaric. 
 
 Honorius I., Pope of Rome {d. 638), suc- 
 ceeded Boniface V. iu 62,3 ; was accused of 
 favouring the Monothelites, and resisted by 
 the Welsh clergy. 
 
 Honorius IL [d. 1130), elected in 1124 ; 
 unsuccessfully opposed the Noimans in 
 Southern Italy. The title had been pre- 
 viously assumed by the anti-pope Cadalous 
 in 1061. 
 
 Honorius III. (d. 1227), succeeded Inno- 
 cent III. in 1216; supported the crusade 
 against the Albigenses, and was engaged 
 in repeated contests with the people of 
 Rome. 
 
 Honorius IV. {d. 1287), succeeded Mar- 
 tin IV. in 1285, and supported the house of 
 Aujou against that of Aragon ; issued a 
 bull against the Apostolicals. 
 
 Honthorst, Gerard van (*. 1590, d. 1656), 
 Dutch painter (called Gerardo della Notte) 
 of the school of Caravaggio ; was patronised 
 by Charles I., and taught the Queen of Bo- 
 hemia and her children. His Christ Before 
 Pilate, in the Justiuiaui Gallery, was one of 
 his best works. 
 
 Hood, Alexander. [See Bridport.] 
 
 Hood, Robin, a celebrated outlaw, sup- 
 posed to have lived in Sherwood Forest in 
 the time of Richard I. 
 
 Hood, Sir Samuel {d. 1814), admiral, 
 served under his cousin (qv.) in the 
 Mediterranean, was present at the battle 
 of the Nile, and iu an action off Rochefort 
 lost an arm ; afterwards held the naval 
 command in the East Indies. 
 
 Hood, Samuel, Viscount {h. 1724, d. 
 1816), admiial ; after service under Rodney 
 
 and Saunders, became commander of the 
 West Indian squadron, and received a 
 peerage for his share in Rodney's victory 
 over Grasse. He had previously success- 
 fully opposed Fox as candidate for West- 
 minster. As commander of the Mediter- 
 ranean fleet he captured Toulon and drove 
 the French from Corsica. After his resig- 
 nation he was created viscount. 
 
 Hood, Thomas (6. 1799, d. 1845), poet, 
 son of a publisher ; as sub-editor of the 
 London Magazine in 1821, became connected 
 with Lamb and others. A Cinl List pension 
 was granted in 1844 to his wife, his own 
 health having broken down. Among his 
 chief works were IFhims and Oddities, The 
 Comic Annual, Miss Eilmansegg, and various 
 pieces, of which the Song of the Shirt and 
 the Bridge of Sighs are the best known. 
 
 Hood, Tom {b. 1835, d. 1874), son of pre- 
 ceding, wrote several novels, RuUs of 
 lihyme, and books for children, and was 
 editor of Fan for several years. 
 
 Hoofdt, Pieter Cornelis (6. 1581, d. 1647), 
 Dutch historian, author of a History of 
 the Netherlands, and other historical and 
 poetical works. 
 
 Hoogeveen, Hendrik {b. 1712, d. 1791), 
 Dutch philologist, rector of the college of 
 DeHt, author of JJoctrina Farticularum Lin- 
 guce Gracce, long considered a standard 
 authority. 
 
 Hoogstraaten, Dirck van (6. 1596, d. 
 1640), Flemish painter, whose works are 
 very rare. 
 
 Hoogstraaten, Samuel van {h. 1627, d. 
 1678), painter and writer, son of Diick, was 
 placed in the studio of Rembrandt. He was 
 patronised by the Emperor Ferdinand III., 
 and lived some time iu England, and especi- 
 ally excelled in the rendering of inanimate 
 obj ccts. 
 
 Hook, James (6. 1746, d. 1827), English 
 composer, born at Norwich, studied under 
 Garland, and composed The Ascension, an 
 oratorio; The Soldier^ s Return, and other 
 operas, and some two thousand songs. 
 
 Hook, James Clarke (b. 1819), painter, 
 in 1840 obtained the travelling pension 
 of the Royal Academy, and. after spending 
 more than a year in Italy, returned to 
 London, and was elected A.R.A. iu 1850, 
 and R.A. in 1860. During his first period 
 his subjects were drawn from French and 
 Italian history, Pampilus relating his Story, 
 A Dream of Venice, Othello's Description of 
 Desdemonn, etc. After this he painted 
 several pastorals— 2%e Ship-Boy's Letter, 
 The Fisherman's Good-night, etc. His more 
 recent pictures deal with marine subjects — 
 The Trawlers (18G2), Caller Merrin' (1882),
 
 Hoo 
 
 (454) 
 
 Ho^ 
 
 Tho Sea-weed Raker (1889), A Jib for the 
 New Smack (1890), etc. 
 
 Hook, Theodore Edward (*. 1788, d. 
 1841), novelist aud wit, sou of James Hook, 
 wrote Faid Pry oud other light dramatic 
 pieces. Through the iuflueuce of the Re- 
 gent lie became accouiitaut-general of the 
 Mauritius, but his carelessness led to liis 
 arrest and return home in 1818. While in 
 prison from 1823 to 1825 he edited Jb/i« Bull, 
 aud in 1836 imdertook the New Monthly. 
 Among his novels. Jack Brag, Gilbert Gur- 
 ney, and Sayings and Doings were the most 
 popular. 
 
 Hook, "Walter Farquhar (b. 1798, d. 1875), 
 di%Tne, nephew of last-named, was for 
 twenty-two years vicar of Leeds, during 
 which he set on foot the re-building of the 
 parish church, aud built many others. In 
 1859 he was appointed Dean of Chichester 
 He wrote Lives of the Archbishops of Cantei 
 bury, and several other works. 
 
 Hooke, Robert {b. 1635, d. 1703), mathe- 
 maticiau, assisted Boyle, the chemist, and 
 made several astronomical instruments ; and 
 after the Great Fire superintended the re- 
 building of the city. He also claimed to 
 have discovered before Newton the law of 
 gravitation. 
 
 Hooker, or Vowell, John (b. 1524, d. 
 IGOl), historian, a member, first of the 
 Irish, and then of the English, Parliament ; 
 edited and added to Holinshed's Chronicle. 
 
 Hooker, Joseph {b. 1814, d. 1879), 
 American soldier, bom in Massachusetts ; 
 resigned his commission to go to California 
 in 1853, but returned to the army at the 
 outbreak of the Civil war, aud particularly 
 distinguished himself at Williamsburg, aud 
 afterwards at Fair Oaks, Glendale, aud 
 Malvern. He compelled Jackson to evacuate 
 Manassas, took a promiuent part in the 
 Maryland campaign, aud was iu 1863 given 
 the command of the anny of the Potomac. 
 In the ensuing campaign Jackson was 
 mortally wounded, but the Confederates 
 were successful, and Hooker resigned his 
 command. He was more successful in the 
 relief of Chattanooga, but was disappointed 
 in not succeeding to the command of the 
 army of the Tennessee. 
 
 Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, M.D. {b. 
 1817), EngUsh botanist, son of Sir W. J. 
 Hooker, was bom in Suffolk, and 
 educated at Glasgow, and at the age of 
 twenty-one accompanied the expedition of 
 Sir .James Ross to the southern seas. In 
 1846 he was made botanist to the Geological 
 Survey, aud uext year went to India. 
 While investigating the flora of th Hima- 
 layas he was made prisoner by the Rajah 
 of Sikkim. After his return he became 
 
 assistant-director aud then director of Kew 
 Gardens. In 1860 he went to Syria, aud 
 made a study of its oaks ; and in 1868, as 
 president of the British Association, gave 
 his assent to the theory of evolution. In 
 1871 he went to Morocco, and brought back 
 a large collection of plants. In 1873 he 
 became President of the Royal Society, and 
 was knighted in 1877. His chief works are 
 Botany of the Antarctic Voyage, Himalayan 
 Journals, The Student's Flora of the British 
 Islands, Journal of a Tour in Morocco, etc. 
 
 Hooker, Richard (5. 1554, d. 1600), 
 theologian, of humble parentage ; was 
 born near Exeter, and sent to Oxford at 
 the expense of Bishop Jewell ; became fellow 
 of Corpus, and, in 1585, master of the 
 Temple. While here he was charged with 
 heresy, but befriended by Archbishop Wliit- 
 gift. He soon retired, however, for the 
 purpose of study, aud in the livings of Bos- 
 combe and Bishopsbounie wrote his Eccle- 
 siastical Polity, which he had just time to 
 finish. James I. called him the " learned 
 and judicious Mr. Hooker," 
 
 Hooker, Sir WiUiam Jackson (5, 1785, d. 
 I860), botanist, professor at Glasgow, and 
 afterwards curator of Kew Gardens ; was 
 knighted in 1835, aud wrote A Century of 
 Ferns and Journal of a Tour in Iceland. 
 
 Hoole, John {b. \T11, d. 1803), English 
 scholar in the service of the East India 
 Company; translated Tasso's Gerusalemme 
 Liberata, Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, and 
 some pieces of Metastasio. 
 
 Hoomayoon {b. 1505, d. 1556), Emperor of 
 Delhi, succeeded Baber in 1530, conquered 
 Goojerat, but was compelled to quit his 
 dominions and take refuge in Afghanistan 
 by Khan Soor, Kiug of Bengal. After 
 thirteen years he collected an army, won the 
 battlb of Paniput, aud was again emperor. 
 Soon after this, however, he fell over a 
 parapet, and died from his injuries. 
 
 Hooper, John {b. U%, d. 1555), English 
 divine ; after being a Cistercian monk, joined 
 the reformers, and was obliged to go abroad. 
 On the accession of Edward VI. he returned, 
 and was made Bishop of Gloucester, but 
 was at first unwilling to take the oath of 
 supremacy or to go through the necessary 
 ceremonies. During the Marian persecu- 
 tion he was arrested, examined, aud burnt 
 at Gloucester, enduring great sufferings. 
 
 Hoosliung, Sooltan {d. 1432), King of 
 Malwah, was defeated aud made prisoner 
 two years after his accession by Mozaffir 
 Shah, King of Goojerat, but escaped and 
 enjoyed a prosperous reign, during which he 
 founded the mountain city of Maudoo, and 
 erected a mausoleum for himself. 
 
 Hope, Alexander James Beresford (4.
 
 Hop 
 
 (455) 
 
 Hor 
 
 1820, d. 1887), Euglish politician, educated 
 at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge ; 
 was member of Parliament for Maidstone 
 from 1841 to 18',2, and from 1857 to 1859. 
 He represented Cambridge University from 
 1868 to 1887, was president of the Royal 
 Institute of British Architects from 1855 to 
 1867. He wrote Strictly Tied Up (1880) and 
 The Brandreths (1882), etc. 
 
 Hope, Frederick W., F.E.S. {h. 1797, 
 d. 1872), entomologist, author of The 
 ColcopterisV s Manual, founded a professor- 
 ship of zoology at Oxford in 1861, and pre- 
 sented to the University Museum a fine 
 entomological collection, a library, and 
 many portraits. 
 
 Hope, Sir James (*. 1808, d. 1881), ad- 
 miral, entered the navy in 1822, served, in 
 the Plate expedition and during the Russian 
 war, and was knighted for his skill in con- 
 ducting the operations on the Chinese coast 
 in 1859-60. 
 
 Hope, Sir John {h. 1766, d. 1823), general, 
 served in the West Indies, at the Helder, 
 and in Egj'pt ; and when in Spain con- 
 ducted the embarkation of the troops 
 after the death of Sir John Moore. After 
 heading a division in the Walcheren expedi- 
 tion, he again went to the Peninsula, and 
 was taken prisoner at Bayonne. He was 
 created Baron Nidry, and afterwards suc- 
 ceeded to the earldom of Hopetoun. 
 
 Hope, Thomas {b. 1774, d. 1831), traveller 
 and author, made an eight years' tour in 
 Europe and the East, and wrote Anastasius 
 (1819), a novel, Moxsthold Furniture and 
 JDecorations (1805), Modern Costumes (1812), 
 and some essays. 
 
 Hopetoun, John Hope, Earl of (*. 1860), 
 English administrator, after being Conserva- 
 tive " whip " in the Lords, a lord-in-waiting, 
 and lord high commissioner to the Church of 
 Scotland (1887-8-9), was made governor of 
 Victoria in the latter year. 
 
 Hdpital. [See L'H6pital.] 
 
 Hopkins, Edward John, Mus.Doc. {b. 1818), 
 organist and composer, pupil of Walmisley ; 
 was a choiister in the Cha2)el Royal, St. 
 James's, and, after being organist at several 
 London churches, was appointed to the 
 Temple in 1843, and, besides publishing 
 several organ arrangements and anthems, 
 was author (vrith Dr. Rimbault) of The 
 Organ : its History and Constutction. 
 
 Hopkins, John Henry (*. 1792, d. 1868), 
 American Bishop of Vermon*;, bom in 
 Dublin ; emigiated in 1800, and was engaged 
 in commerce, and practised as a barrister 
 before taking orders. He wrote works on 
 The Distinctive Principle of Episcopacy , The 
 Primitive Church, etc. 
 
 Hopkins, Lemuel (*. 1750, d. 1801), 
 American poet, practised as a doctor, and 
 served in the Ajnerican army during the 
 revolutionary war ; established and took 
 chief part in The Anarchiad. 
 
 Hopkins, Mark {b. 1802, d. 1887), 
 American educationist, principal of Wil- 
 liams College from 1836 to 1872, and pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy, wrote The Law 
 of Love and Love as a Law and An Outliiie 
 Study of Man. Among his pupils was 
 President Garfield. 
 
 Hopkins, Matthew (17th century), witch- 
 finder, very active in the eastern counties 
 between 1645 and 1647 ; published The Dis- 
 covery of Witches in the latter year. 
 
 Hopkins, Samuel (4. 1721, d. 1803), Ameri- 
 can divine, founder of a Calviuistic school 
 of theology called after him ; was one of the 
 earliest advocates of emancipation, and freed 
 his own slaves. 
 
 HopMnson, Francis (b. 1737, d. 1791), 
 American writer, one of the signers of the 
 Declaration of Independence ; wrote The 
 Battle of the Kegs (1778), The Pretty Story 
 (1774), The Political Catechism (1777), and 
 other works in prose and verse. His son, 
 Joseph {d. 1842), judge of the United States 
 Distiict Court, wrote Mail Columbia .' 
 
 Hopkinson, John, D.Sc. {b. 1849), English 
 mathematician, educated at Owens College 
 and Cambridge, where, in 1871, he was 
 senior wrangler and first Smith's piizeman ; 
 practised as an engineer in Birmingham and 
 London, and introduced many improvements 
 in lighthouse apparatus. He was elected 
 F.R.S. in 1878, and in 1890 president of the 
 Institution of Electrical Engineers. 
 
 Hopper, Thomas (d. 1856), English archi- 
 tect, patronised by the Regent, from whom 
 he refused knighthood, introduced the 
 "cottage oruee" style, and designed niai\y' 
 buildings in London. 
 
 Hoppner, Henry Parkins (b. 1795, d. 
 1833), navigator, was rewarded by Parlia- 
 ment for his services with Parry and Ross 
 in the arctic regions, but never recovered 
 from the results of exposure. 
 
 Hoppner, John, R.A. (b. 1759, d. 1810), 
 artist, self-tauglit, father of the preceding ; 
 painted portraits ; also translated Tales from 
 the Tooti Nameh. 
 
 Hopton, Arthur {b. 1588, d. 1614), mathe- 
 matician, friend of Selden, wrote On the 
 Geodetic Staff for Surveying and other works. 
 
 Horatius Coccles, mythical Roman hero, 
 supposed to have defended, single-handed 
 (507 B.C.), the Pons Sublicius against the 
 army of Porsenna.
 
 Hor 
 
 (456) 
 
 Eor 
 
 Horatius Flaccus, Quintus (b. 65 B.C., d. 
 
 8 B.C.), Latin poet, sou of a freednian, 
 fought at Pliilippi on the republican side ; 
 was introduced by Virgil to the notice of 
 Augustus and Mteceuas, and regained his 
 confiscated property, besides receiving the 
 gift of a villa at Tibur from the latter. His 
 chief works were Odes and Epodes, Epistles, 
 Satires, and the Ars Foetica. 
 
 Hore, Edward Coode, F.R.G.S. (*. 1848), 
 English explorer ; after visiting all parts of 
 the world as a merchant sailor, was sent by 
 the London Missionary Society in 1877 to 
 Central Africa, where he lived for several 
 yeai-s, and discovered the outlet of Lake 
 Tanganyika. He wrote A Boat Journey 
 Across Africa and A Ray of Light in the 
 Dark Continent. His wife was the first 
 ■white woman to reach the shores of Lake 
 Tanganyika, and wrote To Lake Tanganyika 
 in a Bath Chair. 
 
 Honoisdas (6th century), Roman pontiff, 
 made peace between the Eastern and 
 Western churches. 
 
 Hormisdas IV., King of Persia (6th 
 century), last of the Sassanides, favoured 
 the Chjristians, but, having been defeated by 
 Tiberius, Emperor of the East, was de- 
 throned and miudered by his subjects. 
 
 Horn, Arvid Bernard, Count (b. 1664, d. 
 1742), Swedish statesman, chief of the 
 " Hats ; " was the chief instrument in the 
 revolution of 1719, when Prince Frederick 
 of Hesse-Cassel was elected king. 
 
 Horn, Charles Edward {d. 1849), English 
 vocalist and composer; son of a German 
 musician, took tenor parts at the English 
 opera-house and elsewhere, and composed 
 Cherry Ripe, Pve been Roaming, and other 
 songs, as well as the score of / Know a 
 Bank. 
 
 Horn, Clas Christersson (*. 1520, d. 1558), 
 Swedish admiral, served in the amiy against 
 the Russians and Danes, and won the battle 
 of ffiland and other victories. 
 
 Horn, Justef Carlsson {b. 1592, d. 1657), 
 Swedish general, served under Gustavus 
 Adolphus, and was made prisoner at Nord- 
 lingen ; was afterwards minister of war. 
 
 Horn, Philippe de Montmorency, Comte de 
 (b. 1522, d. 1568), Flemish noble and patriot ; 
 served with distinction under Charles V. 
 and Philip II., but was arrested and executed 
 on account of his opposition to some of the 
 Spanish measures in the Netherlands. 
 
 Hornby, Sir Geoffrey Phipps, K.C.B. (h. 
 1825), English admiral ; entered the service 
 in 1837, was at the bombardment of Acre, 
 and afterwards served under Percy at the 
 Cape, and under his father in the Pacific. 
 
 He commanded the Mediterranean fleet in 
 1878, became president of the Naval College 
 in 1881, and was a lord of the Admiralty 
 imder Lord Beaconsfleld. 
 
 Hornby, James John, D.D. (*. 1826), 
 scholar and divine, brother of preceding, 
 educated at Eton and Balliol ; was fellow 
 of Brasenose (1849-54), principal of Cosiu's 
 Hall, Durham (1854-64), and head-master 
 of Eton (1808-84), in which latter year he 
 became provost. 
 
 Home, George (*. 1730, d. 1772), Bishop 
 of Norwich, author of a Commentary on the 
 Psalms, etc.; vehemently opposed Newton. 
 
 Home, Richard Henry "Hengist" (J. 1803, 
 d. 1884), poet and dramatist, served in the 
 Mexican navy throughout the war with 
 Spain, and, after some adventures among 
 the American Indians, came back to Eng- 
 land, and vnrote Orion, The Death of Marlowe, 
 Cosmo de Medici, and edited Spirits of the 
 Age. From 1852 to 1869 he lived in Aus- 
 tralia, where he became a great swimmer. 
 In 1874 he received a Civil List pension. 
 
 Home-Tooke. [See Tooke.] 
 
 Homemann, Friedrich (p. 1772), German 
 traveller ; went to Africa in 1797, and was 
 last heard of in 1800. His Journal waa 
 published in 1882. 
 
 Homer, Francis (6. 1778, d. 1817), poli- 
 tician, bom at Edinburgh, entered Parlia- 
 ment in 1806, was named president of the 
 Bullion Committee in 1810, and moved next 
 year the resimiption of cash payments. He 
 declined office, and died in Italy. He joined 
 Brougham, Mackintosh, and the leading 
 "Whigs in founding the Edinburgh Review. 
 
 Homer, Leonard (6. 1785, d. 1864), geolo- 
 gist, brother of preceding, took part in the 
 foundation of the Edinburgh School of Arts, 
 and the Academy ; was warden of London 
 University for some years, and inspector of 
 factories. He was a fellow of the Royal 
 Society and president of the Geological 
 Society in 1847. Besides popular works on 
 geology, he was author of a Treatise on the 
 Employment of Children in Factories, and of 
 a translation of Villari's Life and Times of 
 Savonarola. 
 
 Horrebov, Peder (*. 1679, d. 1764), Danish 
 astronomer, son of a fisherman ; became pro- 
 fessor at Copenhagen, and was visited by 
 Peter the Great, and invited to Russia. He 
 invented a method for computing the height 
 of the Pole, and vsTote several works. His 
 sons, Christian and Peder {d. 1812), were 
 also eminent astronomers. 
 
 Horrocks, Jeremiah {b. probably 1619, d. 
 1641), English astronomer, bom atToxteth, 
 and educated at Cambridge ; was the first to
 
 Hor 
 
 (457) 
 
 Hou 
 
 observe the transit of Venus, and formed a 
 theory of lunarmotion, which was afterwards 
 adopted by Newton. Hediedvery young, and 
 bis posthumous works were published iu 1673. 
 
 Horsley, John Callcott, R.A. {b. 1817), 
 painter, son of W. Horsley ; exhibited at the 
 British Institution The Chess Players aud 
 other pictures, and at the Roj'al Academy 
 The Fride of ike Village, The Contrast, A 
 Merry Ch ase in Haddon Hall ( 1 882) , etc. His 
 St. Augustine Preaching gained a prize of 
 £200 at Westminster Hall, and he was one 
 of the six artists selected to decorate West- 
 minster Palace, while his Religion was ap- 
 proved for the House of Lords. In 1882 he 
 was elected treasurer of the Academy. 
 
 Horsley, Samuel (b. 1733, d. 1806), theo- 
 logian, successively Bishop of St. David's, 
 Bochester, and St. Asaph ; edited Newton's 
 works (1779-85), and held a controversy 
 with Priestley on the subject of his History 
 of the Corruptions of Christianity. 
 
 Horsley, WUliam [b. 1774, d. 1858), mu- 
 sician, organist of Ely chapel aud the 
 Charterhouse, friend of Mendelssohn, com- 
 posed By Cello's Arbour and other glees. 
 
 Horsman, Right Hon. Edward (6. 1807, 
 d. 1876), statesman, nephew of the Earl of 
 Stair, represented Cockermouth from 1836 
 to 1852, Stroud from /853 to 1868, and Lis- 
 keard from 1869 to 1876. He was a lord of 
 the Treasury in 1841, and Chief Secretary for 
 Ireland from 1854 to 1857. In 1866 he was 
 numbered among the AduUamites. 
 
 Hort, Fenton John Anthony, D.D. (*. 
 1828), theologian, bom in Dublin, and edu- 
 cated at Cambridge, where he was thud 
 classic, and fellow of Trinity from 1852 to 
 1857. After holding a cure in Hertfordshire, 
 he returned to Cambridge in 1872 as fellow 
 of Emmanuel, and was elected in 1878 Hul- 
 sean professor of divinity. He was one of 
 the revisers of the New Testament, and, 
 with Dr. Westcott, edited the revised Greek 
 text. 
 
 Hortense, Queen of Holland Q>. 1783, d. 
 1837), daughter of Josephine Beauhamais ; 
 married Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, 
 but lived unhappily with him, and was 
 separated in 1810. Obliged to leave Paris, 
 she went to live in Switzerland. Her 
 youngest son was Napoleon III. 
 
 Hortensius, Quintus (6. 114 b.c, d. 50 
 B.O.), Roman orator ; was colleague of Cicero 
 as augur, and consul iu 69 B.C. Hia daugh- 
 ter, Hortensia, obtained the diminution of 
 a tax on women by her eloquence. 
 
 Hosea (J. circa 800), Jewish prophet. 
 
 Hosbea, last King of Israel, became tribu- 
 tary to Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, but 
 
 having allied himself with So, King of 
 Egypt, against him, was dethroned about 
 731 B.C. 
 
 Hosius, Bishop of Cordova (d. 361), is 
 said to have converted Constantine, and 
 became his chief ecclesiastical adviser ; pre- 
 sided over the Councils of Nice (325) and 
 Sardica (347) , but was afterwards banished 
 by the Arians. 
 
 Hosmer, Harriet (b. 1830), American 
 sculptor, bom at Watertoim, Massachusetts, 
 was a pupil of Gibson at Rome, and exe- 
 cuted busts of Daphne, ^none (1855), 
 Beatrice Cenci (1857), and Zenobia in 
 Chains. She also devised a method for 
 converting ItaUan limestone into marble. 
 
 Hossein {b. 625, d. 680), second son of 
 Ali, and grandson of Mohammed, distin- 
 guished himself in the siege of Constanti- 
 nople, but perished in an attempt to wrest 
 from Yezid the sovereignty. 
 
 Hotman, Ffan9ois {b. 1524, d. 1590), 
 French jurist; obhged as a Huguenot to 
 leave France after St. Bartholomew, went 
 to Switzerland, where he taught law. He 
 is the supposed author of VtndicicB contra 
 Tyrannos, which appeared under the name 
 " Junius Brutus." 
 
 Hottinger, Jean Henri (b. 1620, d. 1667), 
 Swiss Orientalist; professor of theology at 
 Zurich, aud of oriental languages at Hei- 
 delberg, compiled a Historia Orientalis and 
 a lexicon of seven eastern languages ; was 
 drowned when about to go to Leyden. His 
 son, who wrote An Ecclesiastical Uistory of 
 Sivitzerland, is not to be confounded with 
 another of the same name, also professor at 
 Zurich, who died in 1819, aud wrote an 
 Essay towards a Comparison of the German 
 with the Greek and Roman Poets. 
 
 Houbraken, Arnold {b. 1660, d. 1719), 
 Dutch writer, author of The Great Theatre 
 of the Butch and Flemish Painters. 
 
 Houbraken, Jacob (*. 1698, d. 1780), 
 engraver, sou of last-named, executed the 
 etchings for his father's book, and the fine 
 engravings which appeared in Heads of 
 Illustrious Persons in Great Britain (1748). 
 
 Houcbard, Jean (6. 1740, d. 1793), French 
 revolutionary general ; won the victory of 
 Hocdschoote over the allied troops, and 
 compelled the English to evacuate Dunkirk, 
 but was soon after guillotined for not follow- 
 ing up his success. 
 
 Houdin, Jean Eugene Robert (6. 1805, d. 
 1871), French conjurer, was employed by 
 the emperor to confound the Algerian 
 wizards in 1856, and wrote Confidences d'un 
 Prestidigitateur and Trickeries des Greet 
 DcvoiUes.
 
 Hoa 
 
 ( 458 ) 
 
 How 
 
 Houdon, Jeau Autoiue {b. 17-11, d. 1828), 
 French sculptor, produced busts of Cathe- 
 riue II., Fraukliu aud Moliere, etc., besides 
 statues of St. Bruno aud St. John Lateran 
 executed at Eome. 
 
 Hougn, John {b. 1651, d. 1743), Euglish 
 divine ; having been elected president of 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, in opposition to 
 the nominee of James II., was expelled ; was 
 restored after the Revolution, and became 
 Bishop of Oxford, Lichfield, aud Worcester. 
 
 Houghton, Richard Monckton Milues, 
 Lord (6. 1809, d. 1885), English wi-iter; 
 after leaving Cambridge, where he had 
 been with Tennyson aud others, tra- 
 velled for several years, and wrote 
 verses descriptive of the places he visited, 
 Buch as Memorials of Many Seasons and 
 Poetry for the People (1840) ; Poems, Legend- 
 ary and Sistorical, smdi Palm Leaves (1844). 
 His chief prose work was Monographs, Per- 
 sonal and Social (1873) ; and he also edited 
 Keats' Life and Literary Remains (1848) 
 Monckton Milues sat for Pontefract as a 
 Liberal from 1837 to 1863, but had been at 
 first a follower of Peel. He wrote several 
 pamphlets, especially that called The Meal 
 union of England and Ireland, advocating 
 concurrent endowment. He was a fellow 
 of the Royal Society, and a patron of men of 
 letters. 
 
 Houssaye, or Housset, Arsene (6, 1815), 
 French romance- writer aud critic ; having 
 come early to Paris and made the acquaiut- 
 auce of Gautier and Jules Jauin, fia-st 
 attracted attention by his art-criticisms aud 
 his Galerie de Portraits du 18^ne Steele (1844). 
 His reputation was made by his Histoire de 
 Peinture Flamande et HoUandaise (1846). 
 lu 1849 he obtained throUj-^h Mile. Rachel 
 the direction of the Theatre Fran(;ais. 
 On resigning this he wrote romances aud 
 historical studies, of which Mile, de la Val- 
 liere et Mdme. de Montespan, Les Parisiennes, 
 and Les Grandes Bames were the chief. 
 
 Houston, Samuel (6. 1793, d. 1863), 
 American general, passed his youth among 
 the Cherokees, and, after serving with Jack- 
 son against the Creeks, and having been 
 governor of Tennessee, returned to Arkansas, 
 and did his best to redi'ess the wrongs of the 
 Indians. Subsequently he took part in the 
 framing of the Texas constitution, and 
 succeeded in freeing it from Mexico aud 
 incorijorating it with the Union. 
 
 Houtman, Cornelius (6. 1560), Dutch 
 sailor, who founded the East Indian trade 
 of Holland : was made prisoner in his second 
 voyage by the King of Sumatra, aud never 
 heard of again. 
 
 Hoveden, Roger de (12th century), chap- 
 lain to Heury II., and author of a chronicle 
 Bxtending from 7.32 to 1202. 
 
 How, William Walsham, D.D. (*. 1828), 
 English divine, educated at Shrewsbary and 
 Oxford, became prebendary of St. Paul's and 
 suffragan Bishop of Bedford in 1879, and 
 in 1888 the first Bishop of Wakefield. He 
 wrote Plain Words, Practical Sermons, etc. 
 
 \See Catherine, 
 
 Howard, Catherine. 
 
 Queen.] 
 
 Howard, Edward, Cardinal {b. 1829), son 
 of I'^lward Gyles Howard ; was bom 
 at Nottingham, aud, after serving in the 
 Life Guai-ds, entered the Church of Rome 
 at the age of twenty-six, aud was employed 
 by Pius IX. in the Goa schism, aud after- 
 wards in Italy. He was made cardinal in 
 1877, and archpriest of the basilica of St. 
 Peter in 1881. 
 
 Howard, Edward (<f. 1841), novelist, 
 lieutenant in the navy, wrote The Ola 
 Conunodore, Mattlin the Reefer, etc. 
 
 Howard, Henry (6. 1757, d. 1842), Eng- 
 lish writer, author of Memorials of the 
 Howard Family. He assisted Liugard and 
 Tytler in their historical works. 
 
 Howard, Heury, R.A. (*. 1769, d. 1847), 
 historical painter, whose chief pictures were 
 JEneas and Anchises (1796), and The Birth 
 of Venus (1829). 
 
 Howard, Sir Henry Francis, G.C.B. (6. 
 
 1809), diplomatist, minister-plenipotentiary 
 to Brazil in 1853, at Lisbon 1855, Hanover 
 18.59, aud Bavaria 1866. Whilst charge 
 d'affaires at Berlin he negotiated in 1852 
 the treaty made in that year. 
 
 Howard, John (6. 1726, d. 1790), philan- 
 thropist: acquired a knowledge of prisons 
 when detained in France in his youth, and 
 devoted his wealth to their reform, visiting 
 all the English and many of the Continental 
 prisons. He afterwards took up the cause 
 of infectious diseases aud their preventives, 
 aud visited the chief lazarettos of the Medi- 
 terranean. While settiug out for the East 
 ■with a similar object he died of fever in the 
 Crimea. 
 
 Howard, Luke (6. 1772, d. 1864), chemist, 
 auihor of The Climate of London (1818-20), 
 and an Essay on Clouds (1802), in which he 
 first distinguished their various kinds. 
 
 Howard, Oliver Otis (b. 1830), American 
 general, commanded a brigade at Bull Run, 
 lost an arm at Fairoaks, and commanded a 
 division at Fredericksburg. He was de- 
 feated at Chaucellorsville, but took Gettys- 
 burg, and afterwards commanded Sher- 
 man's right wing. In 1872 he went to New 
 Mexico and Arizona as special conunissioner. 
 
 Howard of Eflangham, Lord {b. 1536, d. 
 1624), admiral, commanded the English
 
 How 
 
 (459) 
 
 Hua 
 
 fleet which opposed the Armada, and in 
 1594 captured Cadiz, and was made Earl of 
 Nottingham. He was afterwards employed 
 by James I. 
 
 Howard de Walden, Lord (6. 1799, d. 
 1868), diplomatist ; was under-secretary for 
 Foreign affairs under Canning, and after- 
 wards represented England at Stockholm, 
 Lisbon, and Brussels. 
 
 Howe, Elias (A. 1819, d. 1867), American 
 mechauician, bom at Spencer, Massa- 
 chusetts, the son of a miller ; invented the 
 first sewing-machine in 1846. 
 
 Howe, Jack {d. 1721), English politician ; 
 sat in the Convention Parliament, and after- 
 wards as member for Gloucester ; became 
 notorious for his virulent Toryism, by which 
 he incurred the personal displeasure of 
 William III. Under Anne he became a 
 Privy Councillor and paymaster-general. 
 
 Howe, Joseph (6. 1804, d. 1873), colonial 
 statesman, bom at Halifax, Nova Scotia ; 
 obtained municipal privileges for cities 
 in the British colonies ; was colonial agent 
 in England on several occasions, and was 
 one of the originators of the idea of re- 
 sponsible government in the colonies. In 
 1870 he was made secretary of state for the 
 provinces in the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 Howe, Eichard, Earl (6. 1725, d. 1799), 
 admiral, called by his men " Black Dick ; " 
 took part in the Seven Years' war, the 
 American war, and the Revolutionary war, 
 winning a great victory over the French 
 off Ushant on June 1st, 1794. He became 
 First Lord of the Admiralty in 1783, and 
 was created an earl in 1788. 
 
 Howe, William, Lord (6. 1725, d. 1814), 
 general ; succeeded Clinton as commander 
 of the English troops in the American war, 
 won the battle of Long Island in 1776, and 
 took New York ; defeated Washington at 
 Brandywine in the following year, and re- 
 pulsed him at Germanstown. He was re- 
 called in May, 1778. 
 
 HowelDha (d. 948), Prince of South 
 Wales, united the whole country under him 
 in 939 ; made a journey to Rome with the 
 object of preparing a code, and owned the 
 suzerainty of Athelstan in 926. 
 
 Howell, James (b. 1594, d. 1666), traveller 
 and author, employed abroad in 1626, secre- 
 taiy to liOrd Scroop, represented Richmond 
 in 1627, with Leicester in Denmark in 1632, 
 and clerk to the Privy Council in 1642. He 
 was imprisoned in the Fleet for several 
 years, but at the Restoration was made His- 
 toriographer - royal. Author of Epistolce 
 B.o-Elian(e, etc. 
 
 Howell, Laurence (b. 16G0, a. 1720), 
 English nonjuror, author of Synopsis 
 Canonuin, and The Case of Sc/iisiii in the 
 Church of England Stated, for which last he 
 was fined, imprisoned, and degraded. 
 
 Howells, William Dean {b. 1837), American 
 novelist, bom at Martinsville, Ohio ; was 
 United States consul at Venice from 1861 
 to 1865. From 1871 to 1880 he edited the 
 Atlantic Monthly, but soon began to devote 
 his time to novel-writing. Chief among 
 his novels are The Lady of the Aroostook 
 (1879), A Modern Instance (1882), A Fearful 
 Responsibility , etc. (1881), and The Shadow 
 of a Dream (1820). He also wrote lives of 
 Lincoln and Hayes, Modern Italian Poets 
 (1888), and some poems. 
 
 Howick, Lord. \_See Grey, Charles.] 
 
 Howitt, William (6. 1792, d. 1879), English 
 writer (a Quaker) ; married Mary Bothamin 
 1819, and with her wrote The Forest Minstrel 
 (1823) and The Desolation of Eyam (1827), 
 poems. In 1831 he produced The Book of the 
 Seasons, in 1838 Rural Life in England, and 
 Homes and Haunts of the British Poets 
 (1847). In 1851 he visited the Australian 
 goldflelds. Mary Howitt joined him in 
 writing Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain, and 
 herself wrote Tales of Eiiylish Life (1881). 
 She died in 1888, having entered the Roman 
 church. 
 
 Howland, Sir WilUam, K.C.M.G. (6. 
 
 1811), Canadian statesman; born in New 
 York State, removed to Canada in 1830, 
 and became a large mill-owner. Having 
 entered the Legislature, he became a member 
 of the Executive Council in 1862, minister of 
 finance 1862-3, receiver-general 1863-4, 
 and again in 1866 ; postmaster-general 
 1864-6, and minister of inland revenue in 
 1867. From 1868 to 1873 he was lieutenant- 
 governor of Ontario. 
 
 Howley, William (J>. 1765, d. 1848), Bishop 
 of London 1813-28; Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury 1828-48. 
 
 Howorth, Henry Hoyle U>. 1842), his- 
 torian ; bom in Lisbon, and educated at 
 Rossall ; was called to the bar in 1867, and 
 entered Parliament for Salford as a Con- 
 servative in 1886. He is the author of a 
 History of Chingiz {Genghis) Khan and his 
 Ancestors, The Mammoth and the Flood, and 
 A History of the Mongols. 
 
 Howson, John Saul (6. 1816, d. 1885), 
 theologian, became principal of Liverpool 
 College in 1849, and Dean of Chester in 
 1867. He was the author, with Rev. W. J. 
 Conybeare, of The Life and Epistles of St. 
 Paul (1852), and Horce Petrince (1883). 
 
 Hozier, Pierre d' (6. 1592, d. 1660), French 
 genealogist, patronised by Louis XIV., 
 compiled Genealogie des Families de la France 
 (150 vols, in Ms.). His son, Louis (d. 
 1767), published Armorial General de la 
 France. 
 
 Huarte Navarro, Juan de Dios (16th 
 century), Spanish philosopher and physician; 
 author of Exaitien de Ingenios.
 
 Eua 
 
 ( 460) 
 
 Hug 
 
 Huayna-Capac (d. 1525), Emperor of 
 Peru, reigned tor fifty years ; conquered aud 
 civilised Quito, and died of despair soou atter 
 the arrival of the first Spaniards. 
 
 Huber, Francois (d. 1750, d. 1830), blind 
 Swiss naturalist, son of Jean, born at (je- 
 neva ; made many discoveries about bees, 
 aud published them in his Nouvelles Obser- 
 vations sur Ics Abeilles. His son, Pieeee 
 (d. 1841), was author of Recherches sur les 
 Fourmis. 
 
 Huber, Jean (i. 1722, d. 1790), painter 
 and silhouettist ; also studied aeronautics, 
 and wrote Note sur la Maniere de Biriger les 
 Ballons fondee sur le vol des Oiseattx (1784). 
 
 Huber, Johann Rudolf {b. 1658, d. 1748), 
 painter, called "the Tiutoret of Switzer- 
 land "; passed some time in Italy aud at the 
 court of Wiirtemberg, aud painted portraits 
 and historical pieces. 
 
 Hubert, St. {d. 121), apostle of the Ar- 
 dennes, and patron saint of huntsmen. 
 
 Hubert de Burgh {d. 1243), English states- 
 man and soldier ; served Richard I. and 
 John, having charge of Prince Arthur at 
 Falaise. On the accession of Henry III. 
 he defended Dover against the dauphin, and 
 defeated the French fleet, and was regent 
 for some years. In 1227 he was made Earl 
 of Kent, and justiciary for life, but was re- 
 moved in 1232, aud, taken from sanctuary, 
 was committed to the Tower. In 1234 he 
 was reconciled to Henry, but never took 
 office again. 
 
 Hiibner, Baron Josef (b. 1811, d. 1892), 
 Austrian diplomatist ; entered the service 
 tmder Mettemich, and became consul at 
 Leipzig about 1844. In 1848 he was detained 
 
 Erisoner at Milan by the Italians ; next year 
 e became ambassador at Paris , and signed the 
 treaty of 1856. He was recalled in 1859, and 
 subsequently became minister of poUce at 
 Vicuna. After his retirement he wrote Life 
 and Times of Sixtits V. and Through the 
 British Empire, which have been translated. 
 
 Hiibner, Rudolf Julius Benno (b. 1806, d. 
 1882),(iermau painter, a native of Silesia ; -pvo- 
 fessor and afterwards director of the royal 
 gallery at Dresden ; painted The Departure of 
 Naomi, HappinessandSleep,etc.,ax\Aexh\\>ite(i 
 at the Paris Exhibition of 1867 The Dispute 
 hetueen Luther and Eck, and other pictures. 
 He also published some sonnets and songs. 
 
 Hucbald (6. 840, d. 930), monk of St. 
 Amand; is believed to have invented a 
 method of musical notation. 
 
 ^Huclitenburgh, Johann van (*. 1646, d. 
 1733), Dutch painter and engraver of battle- 
 pieces in the manner of Wouvermans; ex- 
 amples of his work are in the Louvre. 
 
 Hudson, Charles T. (6. 1848), English 
 naturalist ; discovered Pedalion mirum and 
 several new species of rotifera. He was 
 elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1889, 
 and was president of the Microscopical 
 Society 1888-90. 
 
 Hudson, Henry {d. 1611), English sailor, 
 made several voyages for the East India 
 Company ; discovered Hudson's Bay, but, 
 having been overcome by his men was cast 
 adrift in a boat. 
 
 Hue, Francois {b. 1151, d. 1819), servant 
 of Louis XVI., whose Dernihes Anneea he 
 published in 1806. 
 
 Huerta, Vincente de la {h. 1730, d. 1787), 
 Spanish writer, author of La Raquel, a 
 tragedy, and of Theatro Uispanol, a collection 
 of the best Spanish plays. 
 
 Huet, Pierre (fi. 1630, d. 1721), French 
 scholar. Bishop of Avranches ; was chief 
 editor of the Delphiu classics, and wrote a 
 treatise against Descartes. 
 
 Hufeland, Christof WUl {b. 1762, d. 1836), 
 German physician, author of a treatise on 
 the art of prolonging life {Macrobiotik). 
 
 Huggins, William, D.C.L., LL.D. (*. 
 
 1824), English astronomer; built a private 
 observatory in 1855, and was elected fellow 
 of the Royal Society for his discoveries with 
 the spectroscope ten years later ; afterwards 
 re-examined the nebulae aud the spectra of 
 comets, and obtained photographs of violet 
 parts of the star spectra, by means of which 
 data were gained for the determination of 
 the relative ages of the stars and of the sun. 
 He received the Lalande medal in 1872, was 
 ])resident of the Royal Astronomical Society 
 from 1876 to 1878, aud was elected president 
 of the British Association for 1891. 
 
 Hugh Capet (d. 996), Count of Paris, first 
 King of France, in 987 was crowned on 
 the death of Louis V., and obtained the 
 kingdom for his descendants. 
 
 Hugh the Great, or le Blanc (<£. 956), 
 Count of Paris and Duke of France ; carried 
 on war with Charles the Simple and Louis 
 IV. ; was excommunicated at the Council of 
 Ingelheim, and having made Lothaire king, 
 received from him Burgundy and Aquitaine. 
 
 Hughes, David Edward (6. 1831), Ameri- 
 can mechanician ; was bom in London, but 
 early emigrated to the United States. In 
 1850 he was made professor of music at 
 Bardstown, in Kentucky, and soon suc- 
 ceeded to the chair of natural philosophy in 
 the same college. In 1854 he took out a 
 patent for his printing telegraph, which 
 was soon after tried and adopted in France, 
 after having been rejected in England. It 
 was adopted here in 1863, and is now almost
 
 Hug 
 
 (461) 
 
 Hnm. 
 
 in universal use. In 1878 Professor Hughes 
 announced the invention of the microphone, 
 and in 1879 that of the iuduction balance. In 
 1880 he was elected fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety, and received the gold medal in 1885. 
 
 Hughes, John (6. 1787, d. 1857), English 
 wi'iter, author of the Boscobel Tracts, and 
 composer of the Small-Coal Man, sometimes 
 attributed to Theodore Hook and Barham. 
 
 Hughes, Thomas (6. 1823), English wi-iter; 
 educated under Arnold at Rugby, and at 
 Oriel ; was called to the bar in 1848, and sat 
 in Parliament as a Liberal for Lambeth 
 (1865-8), and Frome (1868-74). He became 
 Queen's Counsel in 1869, and county coixrt 
 judge in 1882. His chief works are Tom 
 BrowrCs School Bays (1857), Tom Brown at 
 Oxford (1861), and A Memoir of Daniel 
 Macmillan. 
 
 Hugo, King of Italy {d. circa 947), sou of 
 Thebault, Count of Aries, married Marozia, 
 and governed cruelly ; was subdued by Be- 
 renger, and returned to France. 
 
 Hugo, Victor-Marie, (*. 1802, d. 1885), 
 French poet and romance-writer, bom 
 of noble parents at Besau9on ; began to 
 write verse at the age of fourteen, and soon 
 deserting classic models, became the founder, 
 with Sainte-Beuve and others, of the French 
 romantic school. In like manner his early 
 royaUsm gave place to ardent republicanism. 
 Cromwell, Le Dernier Jour d'un Condamney 
 Marion Belorme, and, above all, Hernnni, 
 were strongly censured by the Academie ; 
 but Charles X. would not prohibit the per- 
 formance of the last. Le £oi s'amuse was, 
 however, interdicted by the ministry. Be- 
 tween the years 1830-40 appeared also N6t7-e- 
 I)ame de Paris, and several volumes of verse, 
 and the poet was elected to the Academie in 
 1841. In 1845 he also became pairde France. 
 In 1848 he was elected by Paris to the Con- 
 stitutional Assembly, and acted with the 
 Moderates, but in the next Assembly he be- 
 came one of the orators of the Left, and, 
 having attempted to resist the coup d''etat of 
 Louis Napoleon, was banished in 1851. He 
 lived chiefly in Jersey and Guernsey, and 
 vsTote Les Contemplations and La Legende des 
 Siecles. He refused to avail himself of the 
 amnesties of 1859 and 1869, but returned to 
 Paris in 1870. In 1866 appeared Les 
 Travailleurs de la Mer, and, after the return, 
 Quatre-vingt Treize (1872), L'Histoire dUm 
 Crime (1877), and many other works. Her- 
 nani was revived in 1867, and Hu^o became 
 a senator in 1879. He was buned in the 
 Pantheon, which was secularised for the 
 purpose. Chief among his lyrics were his 
 early Odes et Ballades, LesFeuille^d'Automne 
 (1831), Les Chants du Crepmcule (1835), Le» 
 Rayons et les Ombres (1840), and Chansons 
 des Rues et des Bois (1865). The romance, 
 
 Les Miser ables (1862), was translated into 
 twelve languages. 
 
 Hugues d' Amiens {d. 1164), Abbot of 
 Eeadiug, and afterwards Archbishop of 
 Rouen ; quaiTelled with Henry I., and ra- 
 tii'ed to Italy, but was present at the coro- 
 nation of Henry IL 
 
 Hugues de Clugny {d. 1109), Abbot of 
 Cluguy ; mediated between Gregory VII. 
 and the Emperor Henry IV. 
 
 Hugues de Sainte Marie (r2th century), 
 Abbot of Fie ury; author of Chronicon Florea- 
 cense and Be Potestate Regaii et de Sacerdotali 
 Bigtiitate. 
 
 Hulin, Pierre (6. 1758, d. 1841), French 
 soldier, conspicuous at the taking of the 
 Bastille ; served under Bonaparte in Italy, 
 and w^s president of the council which con- 
 demned the Comte d'Eughien; afterwards 
 held high commands in Germany and 
 Austria. 
 
 Hull, Edward, LL.D., F.R.S. (6. 1829), 
 British geologist, graduated at Trinity 
 College, Dubhu, 1850, aud was for the next 
 twenty years employed in the geological 
 sm-vey of the United Kingdom. He became 
 director in Ireland, aud professor of geology 
 at the Dublin College of Science in 1869, aud 
 in 1883 was named head of an expedition 
 sent by the Palestine Exploration Society 
 to Palestine and Arabia Petraea. In 1890 
 he received the Murchison medal. His 
 chief works are The Coalfields of Great 
 Britain, Sketch of Geological History (1887), 
 and A Text-book of Physiography (1888). 
 
 Hullah, John Pyke (6. 1813, d. 1884), 
 musical writer, bom at Worcester ; after 
 being professor of music at King's College, 
 was inspector of training schools from 
 1874 to 1882, in which year he received a 
 Civil List pension. Besides some operas. 
 The Village Coquettes (words by Dickens'), 
 The Barber of Bassora, etc., he wrote The 
 Grammar of Harmony, and republished his 
 lectures imder the name of The History of 
 Modern Music and The Transitional Period 
 of Musical History. 
 
 HuUmandel, Charles J. (6. 1789, d. 1850), 
 English lithographer, son of a German 
 musician, invented the litho-tiut process. 
 
 Hulls, Jonathan (18th century), published 
 a description of aud took out a patent in 
 1737 for a machine for using steam as a 
 motive-power for boats. 
 
 Hulse, John (6. 1708, d. 1790), English 
 clergyman, of St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge ; left funds for the foundation and 
 endowment of the Hulseau lectureship. 
 
 Humbert, Joseph Amable (6. 1767, d. 
 1823), French general, at first a dealer in
 
 Hum 
 
 (462) 
 
 Hum 
 
 rabbit-skius ; conimauded the expeditiou of 
 179S to Ireland, but was defeated by Coru- 
 wallis aud surreudered, after which, being 
 suspected by Napoleou, he was seut to the 
 West Indies, and joined the insurrectiou of 
 the Spanish colomsts. 
 
 Humbert I. [or rv.]« King of Italy (6. 
 1844), distinguished himself as Prince of 
 Piedmont iu the Austrian war, and nearly 
 lost his life at Custozza : succeeded Victor 
 Emmanuel as King of Italy iu 1878. In that 
 year an attempt to assassinate him was 
 made, but his popularity increased, aud 
 culminated after his exertions iu 1884 
 during the cholera epidemic. His reign 
 has been marked by the formation of the 
 Triple Alliance. 
 
 Humbert 11., Dauphin of Vieunois (6, 
 1313, d. 135.5), ceded Dauphin^ and Vien- 
 nois to Philip VI. of France, and retired 
 into a monastery in 1349. 
 
 Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander, 
 Barou von {b. 1769, d. 1859), German natura- 
 list aud geographer, born at Berlin, was a 
 pupilofHeyueandBlumeubachatGottingen, 
 and studied mining at Freiberg with Jame- 
 son. In 1799, with Bonpland, he set out on 
 his travels, which lasted five years, during 
 which he visited Teneriffe and explored 
 South America aud Cuba. After 1807 he 
 lived chiefly in Paris, and his Vonagcs aux 
 Eigions Equinoxiales du Nouveau Continent 
 appeared between 1809 and 1825. In 1810 
 and 1811 he also published Yues des Cor- 
 dilleres aud Essai Politique mr Nouveau 
 Espagne. In 1814 he came to England, aud 
 in 1822 visited Rome and Naples. After 
 studying chemistry with Gay-Lussac aud 
 Berthollet, he left Paris for Berlin in 1827. 
 Two years after he made a rapid journey 
 across Siberia, and between 1830 and 1848 
 was employed on various diplomatic mis- 
 sions. Between 1835 aud 1838 appeared his 
 Examen Critique de la Geogrnphie du 
 Nouveau Continent, and between 1845 and 
 1848 his Cosmos. 
 
 Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm von (*. 1767, 
 d. 1835), philologist aud statesman, elder 
 brother of the above ; vrrote a criticism on 
 Hermann und iJorothea in 1800, and, after 
 philological researches made in retirement, 
 went in 1802 as Prussian minister to Rome, 
 but soon returned to Berlin, of whose uni- 
 versity he was one of the chief fouuders 
 wheu minister of public instruction. Signed 
 the capitulation of Paris in 1815, was at 
 Frauktort in 1816, and at the Congress of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle iu 1818, but retired from 
 public life next year. His chief works were 
 JEsthetische Tersuche (1799), Pi-ufnng dcr 
 Untersuchugen ilber die Urbewohner Mispa- 
 niens vermittehi der Boikischen Sprache 
 (1821), etc. 
 
 Hume, David (*, 1711, d. 1776), philo- 
 sopher aud liistorian, bom at Edinburgh ; 
 after being a merchant's clerk at Bristol, 
 studied iu France for several years, and 
 published iu 1739 his Treatise on Human 
 Nature. His Essays, Moral and Political, 
 which appeared iu 1741, attracted some 
 attention. After being secretary aud tutor, 
 he became a librarian at Edinburgh, and in 
 1763 went to Paris as secretary to the 
 British embassy, aud made the acquaintance 
 of the philosophes. After this he lived in 
 London, and was under- secretary of state. 
 His History of England appeared between 
 1754 aud 1762, and the Natural History of 
 Religion in 1755. 
 
 Hume, Hamilton (6. 1797, d. 1873), Aus- 
 tralian explorer, born at Paramatta ; vdth 
 W. H. Hovell made the first overlaud jour- 
 ney (1824), from Sydney to Port Philip, and 
 discovered Lake Bathurst, the Goulbum 
 Plains, etc., receiving a grant of land for 
 his services. He afterwards went with 
 Sturt to the Macquarie river. 
 
 Hume, Joseph {h. 1777, d. 1855), poli- 
 tician, boru at Montrose; went to India 
 in 1797 as an army-surgeon, and became 
 interpreter and commissary-general, being 
 with Lake in the Mahratta war. In 1812 he 
 became member for Weymouth, but his 
 extreme views compelled an early retire- 
 ment. Having meanwhile formed the ac- 
 quaintance of Beutham and the elder Mill, 
 he was returned for Aberdeen in 1818, and 
 afterwards represented Middlesex, Kil- 
 kenny, and Montrose. He was energetic 
 in reducing expenses, and in his protests 
 against flogging in the army, press-gangs, 
 and imprisonment for debt ; aud he also 
 detected the Orange plot of 1835. He pro- 
 moted the establishment of savings banks, 
 and the Laucasteriau system of education. 
 
 Hummel, Johann Nepomuk {b. 1778, d. 
 1837), Germau pianist aud composer, kapell- 
 meister to Prince Esterhazy and the King of 
 Wiirtemberg, and pupil of Mozart and 
 Haydu ; was director of the theatres of 
 Stuttgardt aud Weimar, and composed 
 several operas, two masses, and some 
 pianoforte pieces. 
 
 Humphreys, Henry Noel {b. 1810, d. 
 187^), English antiquary, author of Ancient 
 Coins and Medals (1850), Coinage of the 
 British Empire, and British Moths. 
 
 Humphry, Sir George Murray, M.D., 
 F.R.S. {b. 1820), surgeon, born at Sudbury, 
 became professor of anatomy at Cambridge 
 18G6, and of surgery 1883. In 1868 he 
 became a member of the council of the 
 College of Surgeons, and subsequently 
 fellow of King's College, Cambridge, aud 
 vice-president of the British Medical Asso- 
 ciation. He was knighted iu 1891, aud
 
 Hun 
 
 (463) 
 
 Hun 
 
 his chief works are A Treatise on the 
 Muman Skeleton (1858), On Myology (1872), 
 and Old Age (1889). 
 
 Hiumeric {d. 484), King of the Vandals, 
 succeeded Genseric in 477, and as an Arian 
 persecuted the orthodox. 
 
 Hiumlades, Johannes Corvinus (d. 1456), 
 Hungarian general and voivode of Transyl- 
 vania; defeated the Turks at Kunobitza 
 and other places, was regent of the king- 
 dom for some years, and was defeated at 
 Cossova in 1448, but afterwards dispersed 
 the Turkish fleet in the Danube, and made 
 a name for himself by his storming of Bel- 
 grade (1456). He died of his wounds. 
 
 Hunnius, Gilles, or ^gidius (6. 1550, d. 
 1603), Lutheran reformer, opposed the Cal- 
 vinists, and drew up the articles now used 
 in the Saxon Church. 
 
 Hunt, AHred WHliam (6. 1830), English 
 painter, won the Newdigate, and became 
 fellow of Corpus Christi College ; exhibited 
 Llyn Idwal at the Academy in 1856, and 
 other pictures admired by Euskin ; joined 
 the Water-Colour Society, and afterwards 
 exhibited many water-colours and oils in 
 the Turner manner. 
 
 Hunt, Frederick Knight {d. 1854), 
 journalist; established the Medical Times, 
 edited the Pictorial Times, and, after being 
 assistant to Dickens, became editor of the 
 Daily News in 1851. He wrote The Fourth 
 Estate : a History of the English Newspaper 
 Fress. 
 
 Hunt, Eight Hon. George Ward (J. 1825, 
 d. 1875), statesman, educated at Eton and 
 Christ Church ; was called to the bar in 
 1851, and returned for Xorthamptonshire 
 as a Conservative in 1857. After having 
 been financial secretary to the Treasury, he 
 became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1868, 
 and First Lord of the Admiralty in 1874. 
 
 Hunt, Henry (Jb. 1773, d. 1835), Radical 
 reformer, called " Orator Hunt ; " engaged 
 in farming for many years, but, after suf- 
 fering imprisonment for challenging his 
 superior officer in the yeomanry, became 
 one of the early Radicals. He was rejected 
 at Bristol and several other places, but sat 
 for Preston from 1830 to 1833. For his 
 speech at Spa fields, which led to the 
 •' Manchester massacre," he was sent to 
 prison for three years, where he wrote his 
 Autobiography. 
 
 Hunt, James, Ph.D. (*. 1833, d. 1869), 
 physiologist, founder and first president 
 of the Anthropological Society, which fiirst 
 met in 1863. 
 
 Hunt, JamesHenry Leigh (6. 1784, d. 1859), 
 essayist and critic; after having been m 
 
 the office of his brother, an attorney, and a 
 clerk in the War Office, became "in 1808 
 editor of the Examiner, with Hazlitt and 
 Lamb on his stafF, and was fined and im- 
 prisoned for two years (1813-15) for an 
 attack on the Regent. While in prison he 
 wrote Rimini, and in 1821 went to Italy to 
 join Byron and Shelley in the establishment 
 of a paper. This came to little on account 
 of Shelley's death and Byron's going to 
 Greece, but while in Italy Hunt wrote The 
 Religion of the Heart, and translated Bacco 
 in Toscana. On his retui'n he published 
 Byron and his Contemporaries (1828), Cap- 
 tain Sword and Captain Pen (a poem), and 
 in 1840 The Legend of Florence. Having 
 received a Civil List pension, and an annuity 
 from Mrs. Shelley, he devoted his last years 
 to critical essays {Wit and Humour, etc.), 
 and to the composition of his Auto- 
 biography. 
 
 Hunt, Robert (6. 1807, d. 1887), geol- 
 ogist, self-educated ; was first professor 
 of mechanical science in the School of 
 Mines, and afterwards became keeper of 
 mining records at the liluseum of Practical 
 Geology, and F.R.S. He originated the 
 Miners' Association of Cornwall and Devon, 
 was a member of the commission to inquire 
 into unworked coalfields in 1866, and wrote, 
 besides the Handbook to the Exhibitions of 
 1851 and 1862, a work on photography 
 (1842), Researches in Light, The Poetry of 
 Science, and several other works. 
 
 Hunt, Thomas Sterry (6. 1826), American 
 scientist, bom at Norwich, Connecticut ; 
 was employed in the geological survey ojf 
 Canada in 1847, and became professor of 
 chemistry in Laval University, Quebec. In 
 1872 he was given the chair of geology in 
 the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 He was elected F.R.S. in 1859, and was 
 president of the Canadian Society in 1884-5. 
 He is author of Mineral Physiology and 
 Physiography (1886), A Neiv Basis for 
 Chemistry, and Systematic Mineralogy. 
 
 Hunt, William Henry (6. 1790, d. 1864), 
 painter, son of a tin-plate worker ; was 
 apprenticed to John Varley, and first ex- 
 hibited about 1814, joining the old Water- 
 Colour Society ten years later. Of his 
 figure-pieces, 'The Blessing and I'/ie Shy 
 Sitter may be mentioned, but he was 
 chiefly, perhaps, known for his pictures of 
 fruit and flowers. 
 
 Hunt, William Holman (6. 1827), painter 
 of the pre-Raphaelite school, son of a 
 London warehouseman ; made the ac- 
 quaintance of Varley, and studied at the 
 Academy. In 1853 he exhibited Claudio and 
 Isabella and The Awakened Conscience, and 
 in 1854 The Light of the World, now in 
 Keble College Library. After this he went to
 
 Hnn 
 
 (464) 
 
 Hns 
 
 the East, aud on his returu yaiuted The 
 Scapegoat (1856), The Fmduig of the 
 Saviour in the Temple (1850), aud Isabella 
 a»d the Pot of Basil (1866). Among his 
 more recent pictiu-es are The Festival of 
 St. Sivithin, The Shadoiv of Death, and The 
 Triumph of the Innocents, etc. 
 
 Hunter, Colin, A.R,A. (h. 1841), English 
 pa inter, bom and educated at Helensburgh, 
 where he was for some years a clerk. Chief 
 among his pictiu-es are Traiclers Waiting for 
 Darkness (1873) ; Salmon Stake-Nets (1875), 
 now at Sydney; Their Only Harvest (1878), 
 purchased for the Chantrey Bequest ; Wait- 
 ing for the Homeward Bound, at Adelaide ; 
 Herring Market at Sea (1884), at Man- 
 chester; The Hills of Morven (1890). 
 
 Hunter, John {b. 1728, d. 1793), Scottish 
 surgeon, brought up as a turner, went to 
 London in 1748, and was with the expe- 
 dition to Belle-isle in 1761. He became 
 surgeon-extraordinary to the king in 1 776, 
 and published Natural History of the 
 Human Teeth, and other papers. His col- 
 lection was bought by the nation for 
 £15,000. Anne, his wife {d. 1821), wrote 
 T}>e Mermaid's Song, and other poems. 
 
 Hunter, John Kelso (6. 1802, d. 1873), 
 Scottish artist, son of an Ayrshire cobbler, 
 worked at his father's trade while he also 
 painted ; exhibited at the Academy a por- 
 trait of himself as a cobbler, and wrote, 
 among other works, Retrospect of an 
 Artist's Life (1868). 
 
 Hunter, Joseph {b. 1783, d. 1861), English 
 clergyman, assistant-keeper of the records, 
 aud author of A History of Hallamshire, 
 and other topographical works, as well as 
 of Historical Tracts (1849). 
 
 Hunter, William (d. 1815), Scotch sur- 
 geon and Orientalist, went to Java, and was 
 for some time professor at Calcutta. He 
 wrote An Account of Pegu, and was secre- 
 tary of the Asiatic Society for many years. 
 
 Hunter, Sir William Guyer, K.C.M.G. (6. 
 1831), English surgeon, entered the Indian 
 medical service, aud served in the Mutiny 
 and the Burmese wars. In 1876 he was 
 made principal of the Grant Medical 
 College, and in 1879 vice-chancellor of 
 Bombay uuiversity. In 1883 he served on 
 the Cholera Commission in Egypt, and in 
 1885 entered Parliament for Central Hack- 
 ney as a Conservative. 
 
 Hunter, Sir Wilham Wilson (6. 1840), 
 Indian civilian ; educated at Glasgow Uni- 
 versity, went to India in 1862, and was 
 sent to Orissa during the famine of 1866. 
 After having been on the Bengal secre- 
 tarial staff, he became in 1871 director- 
 general of statistics. In 1881 he was made 
 
 an additional member of the Viceroy's 
 coimcil, and in 1886 member of the finance 
 committee. In 1887 he was knighted. He 
 is author of Indian Musalmans, Brief 
 History of the Indian People, a Life of 
 Lord Mayo, and other works on Indian 
 subjects. 
 
 Huntingdon, Selina, Countess of {b. 1707, 
 d. 1791), was the patron of Whitefleld, and 
 the founder of a sect which bears her name. 
 She founded schools, and spent large sums 
 in private charity. Her Memorials were 
 written by A. H. New. 
 
 Huntington, Daniel (6. 1816), American 
 painter, born at New York ; studied under 
 S. B. F. Morse and in Italy, and visited 
 England in 1851, when he painted the por- 
 traits of several well-known persons. 
 Among his productions may be mentioned 
 The Toper Asleep and The Bar-Room Poli- 
 tician, The Roman Penitents and The Com- 
 munion of the Sick (in Italy), Lady Jane 
 Grey arid Feckenham in the Tower, The 
 Republican Court, Titian and Charles V., 
 and several Shakespearian subjects. 
 
 Huntington, Robert {b. 1636, «?. 1701), Ori- 
 entalist and divine, was chaplain at Aleppo 
 and travelled in Egypt, Palestine, and 
 Cyprus, collecting MSS., which are now in 
 the Bodleian. After his return he became 
 provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and 
 Bishop of Raphoe. 
 
 Huntsman, Benjamin (J. 1704, d. 1776), 
 EngUsh inventor of cast steel. 
 
 Huot, Jean Nicolas (6. 1790, d. 1845), 
 French naturalist, travelled in the Crimea 
 and the Kouban, and brought out Nouveau 
 Cours Slementaire de Geologie (1837-8), 
 Nouveau Manuel Complet de Geologie 
 (1841). 
 
 Huppazoli, Francisco (b. 1587, d. 1702), a 
 Piedmontese, who lived to the age of 105, 
 married five times, and had about fifty 
 children. He left in manuscript Journal 
 d^s £venements les Plus Importants de mon 
 Temps. 
 
 Hurlstone, Frederick Yeates (6. 1801, d. 
 1869), English artist, exhibited at the 
 Academy from 1821 to 1830, and after- 
 wards at the Society of British Artists, of 
 which he became president. At the Paris 
 Exhibition of 1855, to which he sent Arthur 
 and Constance and The Farewell of Boabdil 
 to Granada, he was awarded a gold medal. 
 
 HusMsson, William {b. 1770, d. 1830), 
 statesman, was returned as a Tory for 
 Morpeth, and became in 1804 secretary 
 to the Treasury. From 1814 till 1823 he' 
 was Commissioner of Woods and Forests, 
 aud then became President of the Board of
 
 Hns 
 
 ( 465 ) 
 
 Hut 
 
 Trade, and a cabinet minister. Under 
 Canning, whom he regarded as his leader, 
 he was Secretary for the Colonies. Though 
 opposed to reform, he resigned his post 
 under the Duke of Wellington on a question 
 of this nature. After this the Canningitea 
 acted partly with the Opposition. Hus- 
 kissou was killed by an engine in Septem- 
 ber, 1830, at the opening of the Liverpool 
 and Manchester Eailway. He did much to 
 forward economical improvements, and is 
 said to have written Canning's tinaucial 
 speeches. 
 
 Huss, or Hus, Johann (6. probably 1369, d. 
 1415), Bohemian reformer, attacked abuses 
 in Prague university and among the clergy, 
 and opposed German predominance. He 
 was excommunicated by John XXIII. for 
 giving adhesion to WycLiffe's doctrines, and 
 afterwards wrote his Traetatus de liceleaid. 
 Having gone to the Council of Constance 
 under a safe-conduct from the emperor, 
 his enemies procured his imprisonment as a 
 heretic, and, on refusal to retract, he was 
 burnt. 
 
 Hussein Pacha {b. 1773, d. 1838), last 
 Dey of Algiers, dethroned by the French 
 after a two years' blockade of the coast. 
 
 Husson, Jean Houore (6. 1803, d. 1864), 
 French sculptor, pupil of David d' Angers ; 
 gained the gold medal at the Exhibition of 
 1837 for his L'Ange Gardien Offrant d Lieu 
 un Pecheur Repentant, now in the Luxem- 
 bourg museum. Other specimens of his 
 work are statues of Bailly and Voltaire at 
 the Hotel de Ville, a marble bust of Louis 
 Philippe at Eome, and a statue of Victory 
 made for the fimeral ceremony of Napoleon 
 I. in 1840. 
 
 Hutcheson, Francis (6. 1694, d. 1747), 
 Scotch metaphysician, professor of moral 
 philosophy at Glasgow, wrote A Sijstem of 
 Moral Philosophy and other works. 
 
 Hutchinson, John {b. 1616, d. 1664), 
 colonel in the Parliamentarian army during 
 the Great Rebellion, defended Nottingham 
 against the Royalists, and was one of the 
 commission who tried the king. His 
 Memoirs were written by his wife. 
 
 Hutchinson, John {b. 1674, d. 1734), 
 English divine, author of Mose'is Prineipia, 
 founder of a so-called philosophical school, 
 which asserted that all philosophy and 
 theology were contained in the Old Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 Hutchinson, Jonathan, F.R.S. (6. 1828), 
 English surgeon ; was president of the 
 Hunterian Society 1869-70, and subse- 
 quently of the Pathological and Ophthalmo- 
 logical, and professor of surgery in the 
 College of Surgeons 1877-83. He was a 
 
 KB 
 
 member of the Royal Commission of Inquiry 
 into the condition of the London fever and 
 small-pox hospitals in 1881. 
 
 Hutchinson, J. Hely. 
 chinsou.] 
 
 [See Hely-Hut- 
 
 Hutchinson, Thomas (6. 1711, d. 1780), 
 administrator, born at Boston ; became 
 chief justice and lieutenant-governor of 
 Massachusetts, and was entrusted with 
 the enforcement of the Stamp Act. In 
 1774 he was removed from the post of 
 governor, and came to England, his cor- 
 respondence with the home government 
 having been published by Franklin. He 
 wrote a History of the Colony of Massachu- 
 setts Bay. 
 
 Hutchinson, Thomas Joseph, M.D. {b. 
 1820), administrator, bom in Ireland, was 
 appointed in 1855 consul at the Bight 
 of Biafra and Fernando Po. As consul at 
 Rosario in the Argentine Republic he ex- 
 plored the Salado Valley in search of wild 
 cotton in 1862-3, and was consul at Callao 
 from 1870 to 1873, when he was gi-anted a 
 pension. He wrote, among other works. 
 Impressions of Western Africa (1858), 
 Buenos Ayres and Argentine Gleanings, 
 (1865), and Two Years in Peru (1874), and 
 was delegate of the British Anthropological 
 Institute to the International Geographical 
 Congress at Venice in 1881. 
 
 Hutchison, John, R.S.A. {h. 1832), sculp- 
 tor, executed the carvings for the picture- 
 gallery of Arbroath in 1852, began to ex- 
 hibit in the Scottish Academy in 1856, and 
 three yeai-s later modelled the bust of 
 Harold Hardrada which was bought for Lord 
 DufEeriu. He became librarian of the Scot- 
 tish Academy in 1877, and treasurer in 1886. 
 He executed a bust of the Queen in 1888, 
 and has several times exhibited at the 
 Royal Academy. 
 
 Hutten, Ulrich von (6. 1488, d. 1523), 
 German reformer and poet ; ran away 
 from the Fulda monastic school, travelled 
 and served in the Imperial army ; defended 
 Reuchliu, and attacked obscurantism in 
 PJpistolce Obscurorum J'irorum, and was 
 knighted by the Emperor Maximilian with 
 the title of "Imperial Poet and Orator." 
 He afterwards became known by his edition 
 of Valla's work on the Donative of Con- 
 stantine as a Reformer. 
 
 Button, Charles, F.R.S. (6. 1737, d. 1823), 
 English mathematician, bom at Newcastle, 
 author of a Mathematical and Philosophical 
 Dictionari/ (1796), and a Course of Mathe- 
 matics (1798). 
 
 Hutton, James (6. 1726, d. 1797), geol- 
 ogist, bom and educated at Edinburgh ; 
 was the foimder of the Plutonian or
 
 Hut 
 
 (466) 
 
 Hyp 
 
 volcanic theory. His chief works are The 
 Trogress of Reason from Sense to Science and 
 Fhilosophy, aud A Theory of the Earth, 
 with Proof and Illustrations. 
 
 Hutton, William {b. 1723, d. 1815), Eng- 
 lisli writer, the son of poor parents at 
 Derby ; was a stocking- weaver and then a 
 bookseller at Birmingham, where his house 
 was destroyed by the rioters in 1791. He 
 ■wrote The Court of Ecquests and several 
 local histories, and his Autobiography was 
 jniblished after his death. 
 
 Huxliam, John, F.R.S. (6. 1694, d. 1768), 
 Ijhysician, studied under Boerhaave at 
 Leyden, practised at Plymouth for thirty 
 years, and advocated the use of tincture of 
 bark. 
 
 Huxley, Thomas Henry, F.R.S. {b. 1825), 
 biologist, son of a schoolmaster at Ealing; 
 as surgeon in the royal navy went to 
 Haslar, and with the Rattlesnake to Aus- 
 tralia, New Guinea, and the East Indies. 
 During the voyage he sent papers to the 
 Royal Society, and soon after his return 
 in 1854 left the navy and devoted him- 
 self to scientific work. In 1854 he became 
 professor of natui'al history iu the School 
 of Mines. In 1859 his Oceanic Hydrozoa 
 was published by the Ray Society, and 
 his Lessons in Elementary Physiology ap- 
 peared in 1866, his Elementary Biology in 
 1875, and the Crayfish in 1881. He ac- 
 cepted and popularised the theory of evo- 
 lution in Mail's Place in Nature (1863), 
 became professor of physiology at the 
 Royal Institution, iuspector of fisheries, 
 and in 1883 president of the Royal 
 Society. Besides the works mentioned, 
 he wrote Lay Sermons (1870), Hume (" Men 
 of Letters''' Series), Science and Culture 
 (1881), and carried on several religious 
 controversies with Professor Wace, Mr. 
 Gladstone, and others. He it was who in- 
 vented and applied to himself the term 
 "Agnostic." 
 
 Huyghens, Christian {b. 1629, d. 1693), 
 Dutch natural philosopher and astronomer, 
 was compelled to leave Paris by the revo- 
 cation of the Edict of Nantes. He had been 
 iavited to France by Colbert, and during 
 his residence there visited England, and was 
 made fellow of the Royal Society. He 
 applied the pendulum to clocks, ascertained 
 the laws of collision of elastic bodies, and 
 discovered the rings of Saturn. 
 
 Huysum, Jan van (b. 1682, d. 1749), Dutch 
 painter (whose father and brothers were also 
 artists of some note), painted flowers, fruit, 
 and landscapes. 
 
 Hyacinthe, Pere. [See Loison.] 
 
 Hyde, Anne (6. 1637, d. 1671), first wife of 
 
 James, Duke of York (afterwards James II.), 
 and daughter of Lord Clarendon. The 
 marriage was not brought about without 
 great oj)position from the royal family. 
 
 Hyde, Edward. \_See Clarendon.] 
 
 Hyde, Thomas {b. 1636, d. 1703), Orient- 
 ahst, became Bodley's librarian, Laudian 
 professor of Arabic and professor of 
 Hebrew. He wrote Historia Religionis 
 Veterum Personum, and assisted Walton with 
 his Polyglot Bible. 
 
 Hyder All {b. 1728, d. 1782), Indian prince, 
 rose from a low position to be general-in- 
 chief of the forces of Arivas, Rajah of Serin- 
 gapatam, and introduced European discijiline 
 among his troops. He at last assumed the 
 sovereignty himself, made conquests from 
 the Mahrattas, and invaded the temtories 
 of the British East India Company. Peace 
 was made in 1769 with the latter, but war 
 continued with the Mahrattas. Hyder All 
 died after having begun another war with 
 the Company, in which he had at first gaiued 
 some successes. 
 
 Hymers, John, D.D. {b. 1803, d. 1887), 
 English mathematician, was second wrangler 
 in 1826, and was elected fellow ajid tutor of 
 St. John's College. He was a fellow of the 
 Royal and other societies, and was author of 
 Treatises on Differential Equations, The In- 
 tegral Calculus, Conic Sections, etc. 
 
 Hyndford, John, Earl of (b. 1701, d. 1767), 
 dif)lomatist, after being a representative 
 peer of Scotland and lord high com- 
 missioner to the General Assembly, was 
 sent as envoy-extraordinary to Prussia in 
 1741, where he arranged the treaty of 
 Breslau between that country and Austria. 
 In 1744 he went to Russia, was made privy 
 councillor in 1756, and was ambassador at 
 Vienna from 1752 to 1764. 
 
 Hyiidman, Henry Mayers {b. 1842), 
 socialist, was educated at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, and, as correspondent of the 
 Pall Mall Gazette, went to Italy in 1866. 
 After travelling in America and the colonies, 
 he became, in 1881, one of the chief founders 
 of the Social Democratic Federation. In 
 1886 he, with John Bums and others, was 
 charged with inciting the mob who com- 
 mitted outrages at the West End, but was 
 acquitted. He is author of The Historic 
 Bases of Socialism in England (188.3), and 
 he had controversies with Herbert Spencer 
 and Bradlaugh (the latter viva voce) on social 
 subjects. 
 
 Hypatia {b. circa 370, d. 415), daughter of 
 Theon, head of the Platonic school of Alex- 
 andria, gave public lectures in philosophy, 
 but was brutally murdered by the partisaus 
 of the Patriarch Cyril.
 
 syp 
 
 (467) 
 
 Ign 
 
 Hyperides {d. 322 e.g.), Athenian orator, 
 disciple of Plato, is thought to be the author 
 of one of the Fhiltppics of Demosthenes, 
 whose banishment he procured. He was 
 tortured and put to death by Antipater after 
 the battle of Cranon. 
 
 Hyrcanus John [d. 106 s.a), Jewish high 
 
 priest, son of Judas Maccabaeus, resisted 
 Antiochus Sidetes, and conquered Samaria 
 and Idumea. 
 
 Hjnrcanus II., his son, was dethrone ~ by 
 his brother, Aristobulus, restored by the 
 Romans, but again dethroned and put to 
 death by Heiod (30 B.o.)« 
 
 lamblichus {d. circa 330), a Neoplatonic 
 philosopher, a disciple of PoiplijTy, born at 
 Chalcis, in Sjn-ia. Among his works are a 
 Life of Pythagoras and possibly a treatise 
 on the Mysteries of the Egyptians. 
 
 Ibarra, Joachim (6. 1725, d. 1785), a 
 Spanish printer, bom at Saragossa. 
 
 Ibas, Bishop of Edessa in the 5th cen- 
 tury ; was alternately deposed and rein- 
 stated by several councils. 
 
 Ibn-Doreid (6. 838, d. 933), a famous 
 Arabian poet, bom at Bassorah. He died 
 at Bagdad. 
 
 Ibn-Ehaldoou, Abd-er-Rahman (6. 1332, 
 d. 1406), Arabian poet, bom at Tunis; 
 became grand cadi of the Maleldte sect at 
 Cairo. He wrote a History of the Persians, 
 Arabs, and Berbers. 
 
 Ibn-KTiallikan, or Khilcan (A. 1211, d. 
 1282), grand cadi of Damascus; wrote a 
 Biographical Dictionary, part of which was 
 translated into English by M. de Slane 
 (1842-3). 
 
 Ibrahim, Pasha of Egypt (*. 1789, d. 
 1848), succeeded his father, Mehemet Ali, 
 in 1848, but reigned only two months. 
 
 Ibrahim Bey {b. circa 1735, d. 1817), 
 Mameluke chief, bom ia Circassia, became 
 governor of Cairo. He withdrew to Syria 
 during Bonaparte's invasion. After the 
 massacre of the Mamelukes by Mehemet 
 Ali he fled into Nubia. 
 
 Ibsen, Henrik {b. 1828), Norwegian dra- 
 matist, appointed director of the theatre at 
 Bergen in 1852, and in 1857 of that at 
 Chnstiania. Among his plays are Brand 
 (l866). Peer Gynt (1867), The Pillars of 
 Society (1877), The Doll's Mouse (1879), 
 Ghosts (1881), etc. 
 
 Ibycus, a Greek lyric poet of the 6th 
 century B.C., bom at Bhegium. Fragments 
 of his poems remain. 
 EB 2 
 
 Icttnns, a Greek architect of the 5th 
 century B.C., built the Parthenon, and the 
 temples of Demeter at Eleusis, and Apollo 
 Epicurius, near Phigaleia. 
 
 Iddesleigh, Stafford H. Northcote, Earl 
 of (i. 1818, d. 1887), statesman, dis- 
 tinguished himself at Oxford ; was called 
 to the bar in 1847, entered Parliament as 
 Conservative member for Dudley (1855), 
 represented Stamford 1858-66, and North 
 Devon 1866-85. He was president of the 
 Board of Trade under Lord Derby (1866-8), 
 was transferred to the India office in 1868, 
 and became Chancellor of the Txchcquer in 
 the ministry of Mr. Disraeli (1; M). When 
 the latter was raised to the peenige he be- 
 came leader of the House of Commons. He 
 was raised to the peerage in 1885, and made 
 Fii-st Lord of the Treasury, and in 1886 was 
 appointed Foreign Secretary. 
 
 Iffland, August Wilhelm {b. 1759, d, 1814), 
 German actor and dramatist, appointed 
 director of the Berlin theatre in 1796. 
 
 Ignarra, Niccolo (b. 1728, d. 1808), Italiaa 
 antiquary, professor in the Royal Uni- 
 versity of Naples ; wrote De Palastra 
 Neapolitana Commentarium, etc. 
 
 Ignatieff, Nicholas Paulovitch (b. 1832), 
 Russian diplomatist and soldier, was ap- 
 pointed ambassador at Pekiu in 1859 aud at 
 Constantinople in 1864. Here he gradually 
 assumed a defiant attitude towards the Porte, 
 proposing hard terms at the Conference of 
 Constantinople (1876). In 1877 he went on a 
 mission to the European courts, endeavour- 
 ing to gain their aid against Turkey. He 
 was minister of the interior in 1881-2. 
 
 Ignatius (r/. circa 107), saint and martyr, 
 probably a disciple of St. John, became 
 Bishop of Antioch about 69. Duriug the 
 persecution under Trajan he was taken to 
 Rome, and suffered death in the amphi- 
 theatre. On the journey he wrote epistles 
 to the churches in Asia, concerning which 
 there has been much controversy.
 
 Ign 
 
 (468) 
 
 Inn 
 
 Ignatius, Father (Joseph Leycester Lyne) 
 {b. iSoT), after working under Mr. Lowder 
 at St. (jeorge's-in-the-East, took the vow 
 and habit of a monk (18(32), and attempted 
 to revive monasticisra in England, establish- 
 ing a Benedictine community at Llanthony 
 Abbey, where he now resides. 
 
 Ihre, Johan {b. 1707, d. 1780), Swedish 
 scholar, firofessor of belles-lettres and politi- 
 cal science in the university of Upsala. His 
 cliiei work is a Glossarium Suio-Gothicum. 
 
 Ilbert, Courtenay Peregrine, C.S.I. , 
 CLE. {b. 1841), as legal member of the 
 council of the Viceroy of India (1882-6), 
 originated the Ilbert Bill for amending 
 criminal procedure, the Bengal Tenancy 
 Bill, and other important measures. 
 
 Imbert, Joseph Gabriel {b. 1654, d. 1740), 
 French artist, became a monk, and painted 
 sacred subjects. His masterpiece is a Gal- 
 vai-ij. 
 
 Immermaim, Karl Leberecht [b. 1796, d. 
 1840;, Gei-man dramatist and poet, author 
 of The Frinces of Syracuse, a comedy (1821), 
 and King Periander, a tragedy (1823), etc. 
 
 Ina, King of the "West Saxons {d. 728), 
 succeeded Ceadwalla in 689 ; defeated the 
 King of Kent (694), and gained some terri- 
 tory from the Britons. In 728 he withdrew 
 to Rome, where he died. He drew up a 
 code of the customary law of Wessex. 
 
 Inchbald, Elizabeth {b. 1753, d. 1821), 
 novelist and dramatist, bom at Stanning- 
 field, in Suffolk, daughter of a farmer 
 named Simpson; came to London when 
 sixteen to gain a Livelihood on the stage, 
 and married Mr. Inchbald, an actor. Her 
 Simple Story and Nature and Art rank high 
 among works of fiction. 
 
 Inchofer, Melchior {b. 1584, d. 1648), a 
 learned Jesuit, author of an unfinished 
 Ecclesiastical History of Hungary. 
 
 Incledon, Charles Benjamin {b. 1763, d. 
 1826), singer, bom at St. Kevem, in Corn- 
 wall ; after serving in the royal nairy, made 
 his first appearance in London in 1790, and 
 rapidly acquired great popularity. He was 
 particularly successful in singing ballads 
 such as Black Eyed Susan, The Arethusa, 
 and The Storm. 
 
 Indore, Maharajahs of. The dynasty was 
 founded by Malhar Rao, son of a shepherd, 
 about 1694. The following maharajahs 
 have reigned during this century : — Jaswant 
 Rao Holkae (6. circa 1775, d. 1811), who 
 did much to restore the power of his family ; 
 Malhae Rao Holkak (6. 1805, d. 1833), 
 who became feudatory to Britain in 1818 ; 
 Haei Rao (d. 1843) ; Takaji Rao Holkae 
 (*. 1825, d. 1886;), selected by the British Gov- 
 ernment ; Bhao Rhao Holkae {b. 1855). 
 
 Ingelow, Jean (&. 1820), became known 
 as a poetess at an early age. She has also 
 written OJf' the Skelligs (1872), Fated to be 
 Free (1875), and other novels. A collection 
 of her poems was brought out in 1880. 
 
 Ingenhousz, Jan {b. 1730, d. 1799), a 
 celebrated Dutch physician and chemist. 
 
 IngersoU, Jared {b. 1749, rf. 1862), Ameri- 
 can j uiist and statesman. 
 
 IngersoU, Robert Green {b. 1833), Ameri- 
 can lawyer ; was colonel of a Federal regi- 
 ment 1862-65, and in 1866 State Attomey- 
 General. Is a well-known orator and 
 anti-Christian lecturer. 
 
 Inghirami, Francesco {b. 1772, d. 1846), 
 ItaUan archasologist, wrote Monuinenti 
 Etruschi, etc. 
 
 Inghirami, Tommaso, called "II Fedra" 
 (i. 1470, d. 1516), Italian scholar and 
 orator, wrote in Latin a commentary on 
 Horace's Be Arte Poetica, and other works. 
 
 Inglis, Henry David {b. 1795, d. 1835), 
 bom at Edinburgh, visited several European 
 countries, and wrote descriptions of his 
 travels. 
 
 Inglis, Sir John (b. 1814, d. 1862), general, 
 commanded the garrison at Lucknow, after 
 the death of Lawrence and Banks, till 
 relieved by Havelock. 
 
 IngUs, Sir Robert {b. 1786, d. 1855), 
 member of Parliament for Oxford Uni- 
 versity from 1829 to 1847, was a leader of 
 the extreme Tory party, and vigorously 
 opposed the Maynooth grant. 
 
 Ingram, John H. (b. 1849), has written a 
 Memoir of Poe (1874), and contributed a 
 Life of Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1888) 
 to the '■'Eminent Women" Series, of which 
 he is editor. 
 
 Ingram, John Kells, LL.D. (6. 1823), 
 was appointed professor of Greek in Trinity 
 College, Dublin, in 1866 ; has delivered 
 some important addresses on economical sub- 
 jects, and contributed the article Political 
 Economy to the Encyclopcedia Britannica. 
 
 Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste (6. 1780, 
 d. 1867), French artist, painted the Apo- 
 theosis of Homer (1827), the Source, and 
 other works in the classical style. He was 
 also a good musician. 
 
 Ingulph {d. 1109), secretary of William, 
 Duke of Normandy, who, after the Con- 
 quest, made him abbot of Crowland (1085). 
 The history of the abbey which bears his 
 name is now known to be a forgery. 
 
 Innocent I. (rf. 417), Pope, a native of 
 Albano, elected Bishop of Rome in 402;
 
 Inn 
 
 (469) 
 
 irv 
 
 zealously upheld the supremacy of the 
 Roman see. He excommunicated Pelagius. 
 
 Innocent II., Pope {d. 1143), elected in 
 1130 ; was expelled from Rome by the sup- 
 porters of Anacletus 11. ; excommunicated 
 his rival in a council held at Pisa (1134) ; 
 in 1138 was reinstated by the Emperor 
 Lothar ; banished Arnold of Brescia (1139), 
 
 Innocent III., Pope {b. cirm 1160, d. 1216), 
 son of Count Trasimund, a Roman noble; 
 elected in 1198, aimed at making the papacy 
 supreme in all European affairs. In 1212 
 he deposed the Emperor Otho, setting up 
 Frederick 11. in his place. His dispute with 
 John of England concerning the appoint- 
 ment of Langton to the see of Canter- 
 bury lasted from 1207 to 1213. In that year 
 John admitted Langton, and surrendered 
 England to the pope, at the same time re- 
 ceiving it back as a papal fief. Innocent 
 favoured the fourth crusade (1200), and in- 
 stigated the Albigensian persecution (1214). 
 The fourth Lateran Council was held in 1215. 
 
 Innocent IV., Pope (d. 1254), a member 
 of the Fieschi family of Genoa, elected 
 in 1243 ; was forced by Frederick II. to re- 
 tire to Lyons in 1244. At a council held 
 there in 1245 the emperor was excommimi- 
 cated and deposed. After his death, in 1250, 
 Innocent returned to Rome. He now had 
 to contend with Frederick's sons, Conrad 
 IV. and Manfred of SicOy, and was finally 
 defeated by the latter in 1254. 
 
 Innocent X., Pope {Giovanni Battista 
 Pamfili), {b. 1572, d. 1655), elected in 1644 ; 
 issued a biill, condemning the propositions 
 of Jansen, in 1653. 
 
 Innocent XL, Pope (Benedict Odescalchi) 
 (6. 1611, d. 1689), elected in 1676; was in- 
 volved in a dispute with Louis XTV. regard- 
 ing the claims of foreign ambassadors to a 
 right of asylum within their own palaces and 
 in the neighbourhood, which led him to act 
 against James II. of England. 
 
 Iphicrates {b. 419 B.C.. d. circa 350 B.C.), 
 Athenian general ; introduced a Hght target 
 in place of the heavy shield ; gained a victory 
 over the Spartans near Corinth (392) ; 
 saved Sparta when attacked byEpaminondas 
 (369) ; duiing the Social war took part in 
 an expedition against Bj'zantium. 
 
 Ireland, John (h. 1761, d. 1842), Dean of 
 Westminster, contributed to the Quarterly 
 Review, and wrote numerous theological 
 works. 
 
 Ireland, Samuel William Henry {b. MTl, 
 d. 183')), forger of Shakesperean documents, 
 and finally of a play, Vnrtigern^ which was 
 acted at Drury Lane, John Kemble taking 
 a part. The fraud was detected, and the 
 author obliged to confess. 
 
 Irenseus (6. circa 140, d. 202 or 208), saint 
 and martj'r ; a disciple of Polycarp ; bom in 
 Asia Minor ; succeeded Pothinus as Bishop 
 of Lyons in 178, and is believed to have been 
 a victim in the persecution of Septimius 
 Severus. His treatise Against Heresies is 
 very valuable. 
 
 Irene {b. circa lb2, d. 803), Empress 
 of the East, bom at Athens, after the death 
 of her husband, Leo IV. (780), acted as 
 regent for her son Constantine. In 790 he 
 assumed the government, but in 797 he was 
 deprived of his sight by Iiene, who usurped 
 the throne. In 802 she was banished by 
 Nicephorus to Lesbos, where she died. 
 
 Ireton, Henry (Jb. 1610, d. 1651), soldier 
 and statesman ; after studying for the law, 
 joined the Parliamentary army, and com- 
 manded the left wing at Naseby ; in 1646 
 married CromwelFs daughter, Bridget : took 
 part in the trial and condemnation of Charles 
 I. ; accompanied Cromwell to Ireland, and, 
 after his return, remained there as lord- 
 deputy. 
 
 Irving, Edward (6. 1792, d. 1834), founder 
 of the "Catholic and Apostolic Church"; 
 educated at Edinburgh University ; entered 
 the Scottish chiu'ch, and became assistant to 
 Dr. Chahners at Glasgow (1819). In 1822 
 he became minister at Hatton Garden, 
 London, where his preaching drew large 
 congregations, and in 1826 removed to the 
 Presbyterian Church, Regent Square. He 
 now formed heretical opinions, especially in 
 regard to prophecy, which led to his sus- 
 pension in 1833. 
 
 Irving, Henry [John Henry Brodribb], 
 
 {b. 1838), actor, born at Keinton, near Glas- 
 tonbury ; acted at the Theati-e Royal, Edin- 
 burgh, from 1856 to 1859, and afterwards 
 for seven years at Manchester. He played 
 in London in 1859, but attracted Uttle notice 
 till his appearance at St. James's theatre 
 in 1866. He soon established a connection 
 with the Lyceum, of which he became 
 manager in 1878. There he has played his 
 chief parts, in conjunction with Miss Ellen 
 Terry, producing, amongst other plays, 
 Hamlet (1878), The Merchant of Venice 
 (1879), Faust (1886), Macbeth (1889), and 
 Henry VIII. (1892). 
 
 Irving, Washington (J>, 1783, d. 1859), 
 American man of letters, son of a New York 
 merchant; was admitted to the bar in 1806, 
 but devoted himself to literature. In 1810 
 he became a partner in his brother's com- 
 mercial establishment, which failed in 1817. 
 He lived in Em-ope from 1815 to 1832, acting 
 as secretary to the American embassy in 
 London from 1829 to 1831. From 1842 to 
 1846 he was United States minister to Spain, 
 Ajnong his works are Knickerbocker'' s His- 
 tory of Neio York (1809), Geoffrey Crayon''»
 
 Isa 
 
 (470) 
 
 Itu 
 
 Sketch Book (1819), The Life of Columbus 
 (1828), The Chronicle of the Conquest of 
 Granada (1829), andiUveaoi Mahomet (1850), 
 and TTashington (1855-9). 
 
 Isaac, Hebrew patriaich, sou of Abraham 
 and Sarah ; married Rebecca, aud settled at 
 Gerar, iuthe country of the Philistiues, where 
 he amassed great wealth. He died at 
 Hebrou at the age of 180. 
 
 Isaac I. (Comneuus) (d. 1061), Emperor 
 of the East, chosen in place of Michael VI., 
 in 1057 : ruled till 1059, when he became a 
 monk. 
 
 Isaac II. (Augelus) {d. 1204), succeeded 
 Audiouicus Comuenus (1185) ; was deposed 
 aud imprisoned by his brother Alexis (1195) ; 
 recovered his throne during the fourth cru- 
 sade (1203). 
 
 Isabella of CastUe (6. 1451, d. 1504), 
 daughter of John II. ; was married to Fer- 
 dinand of Aragou in 1469, and in 1474 suc- 
 ceeded her brother, Henry IV., on the throne 
 of Castile. Isabella promoted the expedition 
 of Columbus. She was a wise aud humane 
 ruler, but her reUgious zeal led her to con- 
 sent to the establishment of the Inquisition. 
 
 Isabella of France, Queen of England 
 (6. 1290, d. 1357), daughter of Philip the 
 Fair of France and wife of Edward II. ; 
 formed an illicit connection with Roger 
 Mortimer, Earl of March, and induced Par- 
 liament to depose her husband, in whose 
 murder she was probably concerned. In 
 1330 she aud her paramour were suddenly 
 seized by Edward III., and Isabella spent 
 the remainder of her life in confinement at 
 Castle Rising, Norfolk. 
 
 Isabella II., ex-Queen of Spain (b. 1830), 
 ascended the throne on the death of her 
 father, Ferdinand VII., in 1833. Her uncle, 
 Don Carlos, challenged her claim, but was 
 finally defeated by Espartero in 1839. In 
 1843 Isabella married her cousin, Don Fran- 
 cis d'Assisi, Duke of Cadiz. The govern- 
 ment was alternately in the hands of 
 Espartero and the queen-mother, Christina ; 
 after the fall of the former in 1843, Christina 
 exercised much influence, but was expelled 
 from Spain in 1854. Espartero was again in 
 power from 1854 to 1856 ; after his resig- 
 nation a period of confusion aud disorder en- 
 sued. Isabella, supported by the Pope, 
 pirrsued a reactionary and oppressive policy, 
 and was driven from the country by an in- 
 surrection in 1868. In 1870 she abdicated 
 in favour of her son Alfonso. She now 
 resides chiefly at Paris. 
 
 Isabey, Jean Baptiste {b. 1767, d. 1855), 
 French artist, painted miniatures of the 
 Bonaparte family suid of many European 
 sovereigns. 
 
 Isaeus, Atlienian orator, lived in the earlier 
 half of the 5th century B.C. 
 
 Isaiah, Hebrew prophet of the 8th century 
 B.C. ; passed his life at Jerusalem, where he 
 is said to have been sawn asunder by King 
 Manasseh. He is known to have had a wife 
 and two sons. 
 
 Ishmael (b. circa 1900 b.c, d. 1773 B.C.), 
 sou of Abraham and Hagar, and ancestor of 
 the Arabians. 
 
 Isidore, St. {b. circa 570, d. 636), Bishop 
 of Seville, renowned for his learning ; he 
 wrote a History of the Goths, Vandals, and 
 Sueves, Origines, or Libri Etymologiarum 
 XX., etc. 
 
 Isidore, St. (6. circa 370, d. 450), an 
 ecclesiastical writer, head of a monastery 
 near Pelusium. 
 
 Isla, Jose Francisco (b. 1703, d. 1781), a 
 Spanish Jesuit; wrote The llistory of Fray 
 Gerundio, a satire on the ignorance and 
 superstition of the monks. 
 
 Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt (b. 1830), 
 succeeded his uncle. Said, in 1863. He in- 
 troduced many reforms, but burdened the 
 country with debt, and was deposed in 
 
 1879. 
 
 Ismail I. {b. 1487, d. 1524). Shah of Persia, 
 founder of the dynasty of Sofees. 
 
 Ismail II. {d. 1577), Shah of Persia. 
 
 Isnard, Maximin {b. 1751, d. 1830), an 
 eloquent Girondist orator ; elected to the 
 Legislative Assembly in 1791 ; was proscribed 
 in 1793, but escaped by hiding himself. 
 
 Isocrates (S. 436, d. 338 b.c), Athenian 
 orator, taught at Athens, but, owing to his 
 timidity, never spoke in public. On hearing 
 of the battle of Chseronea he refused to take 
 food and died of starvation. Twenty-one 
 of his orations remain. 
 
 Israels, Josef (6. 1824), Dutch artist, has 
 painted numerous pictures dealing with 
 peasant and seafaring life. 
 
 Istria, the Princess Dora d', the name 
 assumed by the Princess Helen Ghika (6. 
 1829), niece of Prince Gregory IV. of Wal- 
 lachia. She has greatly interested herself in 
 the political and social welfare of the Greeks 
 and the Slav races in Turkey and Northern 
 Europe, and has also published Les Femmes 
 en POrioit (1858), and other works. 
 
 Iturbide, Augustin de (6. 1783, d. 1824), 
 Emperor of Mexico ; took the lead in freeing 
 Mexico from the yoke of Spain, and was 
 proclaimed emperor (1822) ; was exiled by 
 the Republican party in 1823 ; attempting to 
 return the following year, was arrested oa 
 the sea-coast, and shot.
 
 Iva 
 
 (471) 
 
 Jac 
 
 Ivan III., of Russia, or Ivan Vasilie- 
 Vitch I. {b. 1439, d. 1505), succeeded to the 
 throne in 1462. He freed Russia from the 
 Tartars by his victory over their Khan 
 Ahmed. 
 
 Ivan IV., or Ivan Vasilievitch II., "the 
 Terrible" (*• 1'530, d. loS4), came to thethrone 
 in 1533, and assumed the title of Czar in 
 1547. He overthrew the Tartars, driving 
 
 them from Kasan and Astrakhan into the 
 Crimea. 
 
 Ivan VI. {b. 1740, d. 1764), became Czar 
 in 1740, but was deposed in 1741, and as- 
 sassinated by Catherine's command. 
 
 Iveteaux, Nicholas Vauquelin Seigneur 
 des (6. 1559, d. 1649), French poet, wrote 
 L Institution d'un Frince, etc 
 
 Jablonski, Daniel Ernest (J. 1660, d. 1741), 
 a German Protestant theologian. 
 
 JablonsM, Paul Ernest {b. 1693, d. 1757), 
 son of the preceding, professor of theology 
 at Frankfort-ou-the-Oder, was learned in 
 Coptic, and wrote Pantheon ^gyptiorum, 
 etc. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew {h. 1767, d. 1845), 
 American general and statesman, son of an 
 Irish immigrant ; served while a boy in the 
 War of Independence, afterwards studied 
 law, and was one of the original representa- 
 tives of Tennessee in Congress ; became a 
 justice of the supreme court of Tennessee 
 in 1798 ; suppressed the Creek Indians in 
 1813 ; during the war with England com- 
 pletely defeated Sir Edward Pakenham near 
 Kew Orleans (1814) ; was elected president 
 in 1828, and re-elected 1832, in which 
 capacity he signaUsed himself by his defence 
 of the Union. 
 
 Jackson, John (6. 1686, d. 1763), an 
 English clergj-man, noted for his Arian 
 views, wrote some treatises on the Trinity, 
 and a valuable work called Chronological 
 Antiquities. 
 
 Jackson, John, R.A. (b. 1778, d. 1831), a 
 portrait-painter. His best portraits are 
 those of Flasman and Canova. 
 
 Jackson, Thomas JefEerson, "Stonewall" 
 (6. 1824, d. 1863), American general; took 
 part in the Mexican campaign ; became 
 professor in the Military Institute at Lex- 
 ington (1852) ; when the Civil war broke 
 out, became a colonel in the Confederate 
 army; gained his nickname by "standing 
 like a stone wall " at the battle of Bull 
 Run (1862) ; gained several victories during 
 I860, the most important being that over 
 Hooker at Chancellorsville. Ho died from 
 the effects of his wounds. 
 
 Jackson, William {b. 1730, d. 1803), 
 organist of Exeter cathedral, composed 
 Bougs, canzonets, and sonatas. He was also 
 
 a landscape-painter, and wrote a treatise 
 
 On the Present State of Music, etc. 
 
 Jacob, a Hebrew patriarch, son of Isaac 
 and Rebecca. He was also named Israel, 
 whence his descendants are called Israelites 
 or Children of Israel. 
 
 Jacob, Henry {b. circa 1562, «^. circa 1626), 
 originally rector of Cheriton in Kent ; in 
 consequence of a work advocating church 
 reform, was obliged to withdi-aw to Leyden. 
 On his return he became minister of the 
 first Independent congregation in England. 
 He afterwards settled in Virginia, where he 
 died. 
 
 Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich (b. 1743, d. 
 1819), German man of letters and philo- 
 sophical writer, bom at Diisseldorf , became 
 minister of state in 1772; was appointed 
 president of the Academy at Munich in 
 1805 ; maintained a correspondence with 
 Goethe, and was engaged in controversies 
 with Moses Mendelssohn and Schelling. 
 His chief works are AlluilPs Correspondence 
 (1779), Woldemar (1781), and Of Divine 
 Things and their Revelation (1811). 
 
 Jacobi, Johann Georg (b. 1740, d. 1814), 
 a German poet, brother of the preceding. 
 
 Jacobini, Ludovico {b. 1832, d. 1887), 
 Cardinal, was papal nuncio at Vienna from 
 1874 to 1880, and in 1878-9 did much to 
 settle the difficulties which arose between 
 Germany and Russia. 
 
 Jacobs, Friedrich Christian Wilhelm {b. 
 1764, d. 1847), Gennan philologist, spent 
 most of his life at Gotha, where he was 
 librarian to Duke Ernst II. Besides his 
 critical works, of which theAnthologiaGrceca 
 was the chief, ho wrote Alhci)i und Theodor 
 (1802), Mosalieti's Nachlass, etc., also several 
 papers on contemporary politics. 
 
 Jacoby, Johaun (6. 1805, d. 1877), a Ger- 
 man politician, whose pamphlets on behalf 
 of religious ami civil freedom often brought 
 him into conflict with the government.
 
 Jac 
 
 (472) 
 
 Jam 
 
 Jacopone, or Jacopo da Todi (d. 130G), 
 an Italiau monk and poet, left Canti 
 Spiriiiiali, and is supposed to have written 
 the hjTnu Stabat Mater. 
 
 Jacotot, Joseph (6. 1770, d. 1840), bom 
 at Dijon, appointed professor of French in 
 the uuiversity of Louvain in 1818 ; devised 
 a new method of education. 
 
 Jacquard, Joseph Marie {b. 1752, d. 1834), 
 French mechanician, invented the Jacquard 
 loom, exhibited in 1801. 
 
 Jacquemart, Jules {b. 1837, d. 1880), 
 French artist, best known by his etchings, 
 of which those for his father's Histoire de la 
 Forcelaine, and Histoire de la Ceraniique, 
 and for Gemmes et Joyaiix de la Couronne, 
 are good examples. 
 
 Jagellon [b. 1354, d. 1434), Duke of 
 Lithuania, became ruler over Polaud in 
 1386 by his marriage with Queen Hedwig. 
 He introduced Christianity into Lithuania. 
 
 Jago, James {b. 1815), physician, has 
 written Entoptics (1864), Entacoustics (1868), 
 and other works. 
 
 Jahn, Johann (6, 1750, d. 1816), appointed 
 professor of Oriental languages at Vienna 
 in 1789 ; was forced to resign in 1806 owing 
 to his Introduction to the Old Testament 
 (1804), and Archceologia Biblica (1805), which 
 were put ia the index. 
 
 Jahn, Otto {b. 1813, d. 1869), German 
 archaeologist, philologist, and art-critic, 
 professor at Leipzig (1847-51) and Bonn 
 (1855-69), wrote a Life of Mozart (1856-9), 
 and several philological works. 
 
 James, St., the "Greater" Apostle {d. circa 
 44), was put to death by Herod Agrippa. 
 
 James, St., "the Less" {d. circa 63), 
 one of the twelve apostles, supposed by 
 some to have been the sou of a sister of the 
 Virgin ; wrote the epistle which bears his 
 name, and became Bishop of Jerusalem. 
 According to Josephus, he was put to death 
 by the high-priest Ananias. 
 
 James, George Paine Rainsford (b. 1801, 
 d. 1860), historical novelist, author of 
 Richelieu (1829), Henry Masterton (1832), 
 etc. He died in Venice. 
 
 James, Henry {b. 1843), American novelist 
 and critic, has lived chiefly in Europe. 
 Among his novels are The Europeans and 
 Daisy Miller. 
 
 James, Sir Henry, Q.C. (i. 1828), entered 
 Parliament as a Liberal in 1869, and was 
 Attorney-General under Mr. Gladstone, 
 1873-74 and 1880-5. 
 
 James, Thomas Lemuel (fc. 1831), Ameri- 
 can journalist and politician; he effected 
 
 important reforms in the postal service 
 of New York, and was made postmaster- 
 general by President Garfield in 1881. 
 
 James, William {d. 1827), wrote a well- 
 known Naval History of Great Britain, 
 which extends from 1792 to 1820. 
 
 James Francis Edward, called the Cheva- 
 lier de St. George, or "the Pretender" (Jb. 
 1688, d. 1758), son of James II. and Mary 
 of Modena, was bi-ought up in France as a 
 Roman Catholic. He was in correspondence 
 with several leading statesmen during the 
 reign of Anne, and, after the accession of 
 George I., attempted to seize the kingdom 
 by force. Risings took place in the northern 
 counties and Scotland simultaneously (1715), 
 but the former were suppressed at Preston, 
 and the latter at Sheriffmuir. In December 
 James himself lauded in Scotland, but his 
 presence did little to animate his troops, 
 and it was determined to abandon the enter- 
 prise. The rest of his life was spent chiefly 
 in Italy. 
 
 James I., of Aragon Q). 1208, d. 1276), 
 became king in 1213. 
 
 James II., of Aragon {b. circa 1260, d. 
 
 1327), became king in 1285. 
 
 James I., of Scotland (6. 1394, d. 1437), 
 of the house of Stuart ; was taken prisoner 
 by the English while on his way to France 
 in 1405, and confined in the Tower. Two 
 years later he was removed to Windsor, 
 where he composed his poem The King's 
 Quair, and first saw his future wife, the 
 Lady Joan Beaufort. On his release in 
 1424 he determined to put an end to feudal 
 anarchy in Scotland. The Duke of Albany 
 and other nobles were executed, but at 
 length a conspiracy was formed against 
 him, and he was assassinated. 
 
 James II. (6. 1430, d. 1460), son and 
 successor of the preceding ; was engaged in 
 a struggle with the Douglas family, and 
 supported Henry VI. of England. He was 
 slaiu whilst besieging Roxburgh castle. 
 
 James IV. (6. 1472, d. 1513), became king 
 in 1488 : invaded England, and was defeated 
 and slain at Flodden Field. 
 
 James V. (6. 1512, d. 1542), son and 
 successor of the preceding, married Mary of 
 Guise in 1538. With the aid of the clergy, 
 headed by Cardinal Beaton, he succeeded in 
 curbing the nobles, but, owing to their 
 mutinous conduct, he was unsuccessful in 
 his war with the English. After the defeat 
 of Solway Moss he died of a broken heart. 
 
 James I. of England and VI. of Scotland 
 (b. 1566, d. 1625), son of Mary, Queen of 
 Scots, and Henry, Lord Darnley. was 
 crowned on the deposition of his mother in
 
 Jam 
 
 (473) 
 
 Jap 
 
 1567. During his minority the government 
 was, for the most part, in the hands of the 
 Earl of Morton, who in 1581 was executed 
 through the machinations of James's favour- 
 ites, Arran and Lennox. A struggle ensued 
 between Arran and the Scottish nobles, 
 which ended in the disgrace of the former 
 in 1585. A treaty was concluded with 
 England in 1586, and, notwithstanding the 
 execution of his mother (1587), James 
 maintained friendly relations with Elizabeth 
 throughout her reign. On her death in 
 1603 he became King of England. The 
 Hampton Court Conference (1604), an un- 
 successful attempt to reconcile the JPuritaiis 
 to Church views, was followed by more 
 stringent measures against them. The 
 Roman Catholics were also dissatisfied ; 
 hence the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. The 
 king soon fell under the influence of un- 
 worthy favourites, of whom Robert Carr, 
 Earl of Somerset, and George Villiers, 
 Duke of Buckingham, were the most con- 
 spicuous. The arrogance of the latter, as 
 weU as James's friendly relations with 
 Spain, and his refusal to assist his son-in- 
 law, the elector-palatine, the champion of 
 Protestantism, caused general discontent in 
 England. War was declared against Spain 
 in 1624, but, owing maialy to mismanage- 
 ment, nothing effectual was accomplished. 
 
 James II. (b. 1633, d. 1701), second sur- 
 viving son of Charles I., created Duke of 
 York in his infancy, was Lord High Admiral 
 from 1660 to 1673. He became king on the 
 death of Charles II. in 1685, and soon re- 
 vealed his aims by levying customs and ex- 
 cise duties without consent of Parliament, 
 receiving a pension from Louis XIV., and 
 sending an agent to Rome. The public dis- 
 content encouraged the Duke of Monmouth, 
 illegitimate son of Charles II., to attempt an 
 invasion, which was crushed at Sedgemoor 
 (July 5th). An attempt to evade the Test 
 Act by pardoning those who refused to take 
 the oath was followed by the Declaration of 
 Indulgence (1687), in which James vainly 
 sought to wia over the Dissenters by freeing 
 them from its provisions. Four Roman 
 Catholic bishops were now consecrated, and 
 a Papist was appointed president of Mag- 
 dalen College, Oxford ; but the feeling of 
 the country was against the king, and when, 
 in 1688, Archbishop Sancroft and six other 
 bishops were prosecuted for objecting to the 
 Declaration, their acquittal was hailed with 
 universal joy. The crown was now offered 
 to William, Prince of Orange, by a majority 
 of the English nobles. In November, 1688, 
 he landed in Devonshire, and James soon 
 afterwards fled to France. In 1689 he pro- 
 ceeded to Ireland with a force furnished him 
 by Louia XIV., but was defeated in the 
 battle of the Boyne (1690), and hencefor- 
 ward lived in retirement at St. Germains. 
 
 Jameson, Anna {b. 1794, d. 1860), wiiter 
 on art, bom in Dublin, daughter of a painter 
 named Murphy, married a barrister, whom 
 she left on account of his cruelty. She 
 published Zircs of Early Italian Fainters 
 (1845), Legends of the Monastic Orders 
 (18.50), Legends of the Madonna (1852), etc. 
 
 Jameson, Robert {b. 1772, d. 1854), was 
 appointed professor of natural history at 
 Ediubur«h in 1804 ; wrote Mineralogij of the 
 SiottUh Isles (1800), JL System of Minei-alogy 
 (1804-8), etc. 
 
 Jamesone, George (5. circa 1588, d. 1644), 
 Scottish artist, studied at Antwerp under 
 Rubens, and painted portraits, including 
 one of Charles I., also landscapes and his- 
 torical pieces. 
 
 Jamieson, John {b. 1759, d. 1838), born at 
 Glasgow, was appointed minister of a church 
 in Edinburgh iu 1797 ; wrote axi Lti/mological 
 Dictionary of the Scottish Language (1809), 
 and other works. 
 
 Jane. \See Grey and Seymour.] 
 
 Jane of Navarre. {See D'Albret.] 
 
 Jane I., Queen of Naples (i. 1327, d. 
 1382), daughter of Charles, Duke of Cala- 
 bria, succeeded Robert the C^ood in 1343. 
 
 Jane II., of Naples {b. 1370, d. 1435), suc- 
 ceeded her brother, Ladislaus, in 1414. 
 
 Janet, Paul (i. 1823), French philosopher, 
 author of La Famille (1855), Les Causes 
 finales (1876), etc. 
 
 Janin, Jules Gabriel (6. 1804, d. 1874), 
 a French critic and novelist. His dramatic 
 criticisms, written for the Journal des Lebats, 
 have been published under the title Histoire 
 de la Littcratnre Lrainatique. He also 
 wrote VAne mort et la Femme guillotinee 
 (1829), Barnave (1831), and other novels. 
 Correspondence (1877), etc. 
 
 Jansen, or Jansenius, Cornelius {b. 1585, 
 d. 1638), founder of the Jansenist sect, bom 
 near Leerdam, was appointed professor of 
 divinity at Louvain in 1617, and became 
 Bishop of Ypres in 1635. He was a follower 
 of St. Augustine, and wrote Augustinus, 
 controverting the doctrine of the Jesuits, 
 especially in the matter of necessity and 
 free will. It was condemned by Urban 
 VIII. 
 
 Janssen, Comelis (b. 1.590, d. 1665), Dutch 
 portrait painter, Hved in England from 1618 
 to 1648. He was patronised by James I. 
 
 Japan, Rulers of. Prior to 1868 there 
 were two sets of rulers — those de facto, who 
 were called shoguns or tycoons, and those de 
 jure, the mikadoa, who were practically 
 prisoners of state. The names of the
 
 Jar 
 
 (474) 
 
 Jef 
 
 tycoons from 1787 were lYi;NOEi (1787-1838), 
 Itktoshi ,1838-53), Iyesada (1853-59), It^- 
 MOCHi i,18i9-l)(3), and Yoshinobu (1867-68). 
 In 186S a revolution took place, which re- 
 sulted iu the restoration of the mikados. 
 MouTZ HiTO {b. 1852), who then became 
 absolute ruler, has shown himself very open 
 to the iulluence of western civilisation. 
 
 Jarchi, Solomon ben Isaac, called '' Ras- 
 chi" {J}. 1040 or 1104, d. 1105 or 1180), a 
 learned rabbi, noted for his commentaries 
 on the Old Testament and the Talmud. He 
 travelled much iu Europe and Asia. 
 
 Jasmin, Jacques {b. 1798, d. 1864), a 
 French poet, whose real name was JBoe, 
 spent his life in his native town, Agen. as a 
 barber. He wrote Son Chalibar, VAbuglo 
 de Castel Guilli, Frangonetto, La Semano d'un 
 Fil, and other poems in the langue d'oc. 
 
 Jaucourt, Louis, Chevalier de (5. 1704, d. 
 1779), French encyclopaedist, studied at 
 Geneva, Cambridge, and Ley den, where he 
 published his Tie de Leibnitz (1734). After 
 returning to Paris (1736), he contributed 
 largely to Diderot's Encyclopcedia. 
 
 _ Jay, John {b. 1745, d. 1829), American 
 jurist and statesman, bom at New York, 
 was a member of the first American Congress 
 (1774) ; took part in negotiating the treaty 
 of peace with Great Britain, signed at Paris 
 in 17S3 ; was appointed chief justice of 
 the United States in 1789 ; went to Great 
 Britain as envoy- extraordinary in 1794, and 
 concluded the treaty which bears his name ; 
 became governor of New York iu 1795. 
 
 Jay, William (b. 17G9, d. 1853), English 
 Congregational minister, was iu 1791 aj)- 
 
 EoLuted to the Ai'gyle chapel at Bath, where 
 e remained sixty-two years. He was the 
 author of several devotional works and an 
 Autobiography (1854). 
 
 Jeaflfreson, John Cordy {b. 1831), English 
 author, has published A ISooh about Doctors 
 (1860), A Book about Lawyers (1866), A 
 Book about the Clergy (1870), The Real Lord 
 Byron (1883), The Heal Shelley (1885), Lady 
 Hamilton and Lord jSfelson (1888) ; also 
 several novels and other works. 
 
 Jeannin, Pierre {b. 1540, d. 1622), French 
 statesman and diplomatist, prevented a 
 massacre of Protestants at Dijon in 1572. 
 He was afterwards president of the Parlia- 
 ment of Burgundy ; became a trusted 
 minister of Henri IV. ; and was controller 
 of the finances to Marie de' Medici. 
 
 Jebb, John (b. 1775, d. 1833), divine, 
 appointed Bishop of Limerick in 1823, wrote 
 an E^say on Sacred Literature (1819). 
 
 Jebb, Richard Claverhouse (6. 1841), bom 
 at Dundee, senior classical tripos 1862, was 
 
 appointed public orator at Cambridge iu 
 1869, and professor of Greek at Glasgow in 
 1875 ; has edited the Attic Orators (1376) 
 and Sophocles (1883), and written a Life 0/ 
 Bentley, etc. M.P. for Cambridge Univer- 
 sity 1891. 
 
 Jebb, Samuel {d. 1772), nonjuror and 
 classical scholar, was librarian to Jeremy 
 Colher, and afterwards practised as a phy- 
 sician in Essex. He edited Justin Martyi''s 
 Dialogue and Roger Bacon's Opus Majns. 
 
 Jefiferies, Jolm Richard (6. 1848, d. 1887), 
 son of a Wiltshire farmer, began life by 
 writing for the North TFilts Herald (1866) ; 
 in 1877 settled at Surbiton, where he wrote 
 The Gamekeeper at Home, JFild Life in a 
 Southern County, The Amateur Poacher, and 
 other well-known sketches of country life. 
 
 Jefferson, Joseph {b. 1829), an American 
 actor, chiefly celebrated for his impersona- 
 tion of Rip Van Winkle ; published his 
 Memoirs in 1891. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas (h. 1743, d. 1826), 
 American statesman, son of a Virginia 
 planter, practised as a lawyer till the out- 
 break of the War of Independence ; after 
 writing a Summary View of the Rights oj 
 Britisli Americans, was elected to the Con- 
 tinental Congress in 1775, and di-ew up the 
 Declaration of Independence. He now 
 became a champion of advanced democratic 
 principles. He was governor of Virginia 
 in 1779, and minister-plenipotentiary at 
 Paris from 1785 to 1789 ; on his return was 
 appointed secretary of state under Vv'ash- 
 iugton ; became leader of the Republican 
 party, and was vice-president in 1796. In 
 180U he was elected president, and re-elected 
 in 1804. 
 
 Jeffrey, Francis Lord (6. 1773, d. 1850), 
 Scottish judge and literary critic, took 
 part in starting the Edinburgh Review 
 (1302), of which he was editor from 1803 to 
 
 1829. He was appointed Lord Advocate in 
 
 1830, and represented Perth and afterwards 
 Edinburgh in Parliament. In 1834 he 
 obtained a seat on the Scottish bench. 
 
 Jeffreys, George, Baron (6. 1648, d. 1689), 
 born at Acton in Denbighshire, studied at 
 the Inner Temple, and became successively 
 Recorder of Loudon, Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench (1633), and Lord Chancellor 
 (1685). Already notorious for his scurrilous 
 behaviour on the bench, he truckled to the 
 arbitrary notions of James II., and branded 
 his name by his cruelty in punishing the 
 adherents of the Duke of Monmouth. On 
 the landing of William of Orange he at- 
 tempted to escape abroad in the disguise of 
 a sailor, but was arrested at Wapping, and 
 taken before the Lords, who placed him in 
 the Tower, where he died.
 
 Jeh 
 
 (475) 
 
 Jer 
 
 Jehoaliaz, son of Jehu, was King of Israel 
 from 856 to 839 B.C. 
 
 Jeboaliaz, or Shallum {d. 610 b.c), King 
 of Judah, succeeded his father, Josiah, and 
 reigned three months. 
 
 Jehoash. [See Joash.] 
 
 Jehoiakim, originally Eliakim, was King 
 of Judah from 60« to 597 B.C. 
 
 Jehoiakin, or Jeconiah, was son of the 
 preceding, whom he succeeded. He reigned 
 three months. 
 
 Jehoram, or Joram, son of Ahab, was 
 King of Israel from 896 to 884 B.C. He was 
 slain in battle by Jehu. 
 
 Jehoram, or Joram {d. circa 885 b.c), son 
 of Jehoshaphat, became King of Judah in 
 893 or 892 b.c. 
 
 Jehoshaphat (6. circa 950, d. 889 b.c), 
 fion of Asa, became King of Judah in 914, 
 and ruled with justice and prudence. 
 
 Jehu {d. 861 b.c), whilst an officer in 
 Jehoram' s army was anointed kiug over 
 Israel by a young prophet sent by Elisha. 
 After murdering Jehoram, he obtained the 
 royal power. 
 
 JekyU, Sir Joseph {b. 1664, d. 1738), a 
 prominent member of Parliament, took part 
 in Sacheverell's trial, and became Master of 
 the RoUs under George I. 
 
 Jelf, WilUam Edward (A. 1811, d. 1875), 
 English scholar, educated at Eton and 
 Christ Church, Oxford. He is chiefly 
 known by his Greek Grammar. 
 
 JeUachich von Buzim, Joseph, Baron (6. 
 1801, d. 1659), a general in the Austrian 
 service ; was appointed Ban of Croatia in 
 1848, and defeated the Hungarians at 
 Schwechat, near Vienna. 
 
 Jenghiz Khan. {See Gengis Khan.] 
 
 Jenkin, Fleeming (6. 1833, d. 1885), en- 
 gineer and eloctriciau, appointed professor 
 of engineering in University College, Lon- 
 don (1865), and Edinburgh University 
 (1868), wrote Magnetism and Electricity and 
 other works. 
 
 Jenkins, Sir Leoline (6. 1623, d. 1685), 
 statesman and diplomatist, bom at Llan- 
 trissant, Glamorganshire, educated at Jesus 
 College, Oxford ; served as a Royalist in the 
 Civil War ; left the country during the pro- 
 tectorate ; was principal of Jesus College 
 (1661-72); succeeded Sir William Temple 
 as ambassador at the Hague, and on his 
 return was appointed Secretary of State. 
 
 Jenkinson, Robert. [See Liverpool.] 
 
 Jenner, Edward {b. 1749, d. 1323), after 
 
 studying imder John Hunter (1770-2), 
 settled at his native town, Berkeley, ia 
 Gloucestershire, as a surgeon. In 1798 he 
 pubhshed a work annomicing his discovery 
 of the process of vaccination. He received 
 a grant of £10,000 from Parliament in 
 1802, and one of £20,000 in 1806. 
 
 Jenner, Sir Wilham (h. 1815), physician, 
 educated at University College, London, 
 where he has filled various chairs. He was 
 appointed physician to the Prince of Wales 
 in 1863, and attended bini in his dangerous 
 illness in 1871. 
 
 Jenyns, Soame (6. 1704, d. 1787), a writer 
 and politician, remembered as the author of 
 A Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin 
 of Evil (1757), and A View of the Internal 
 Evidence of the Christian Religion (1776). 
 
 Jephthah ((/. circa 1182 b.c), Judge of 
 Israel, vowed to sacrifice the first object he 
 met on his return from victory over the Am- 
 monites. His daughter came to greet him 
 with song and dance, but Jephthah was 
 faithful to his vow. 
 
 Jordan, William (J. 1782, d. 1869), editor 
 of the Literary Gazette from 1817 to 1850. 
 
 Jeremiah {d. circa 580 b.c), a prophet of 
 Judah, author of the book which bears his 
 name, and of the Book of Lamentations. 
 
 Jemingham, Edward {b. 1727, d. 1812), 
 poet and essayist, wrote The Rise and Fall 
 of Scandinavian Poetry, etc. 
 
 Jeroboam I. {d. 954 b.c), first King of 
 Israel, chosen by the twelve tribes who 
 rebelled against Rehoboam. 
 
 Jeroboam IL (d. 785 b.c), son of Joash, 
 became King of Israel in 826. 
 
 Jerome, or Hieronjonus, St. (6. circa 
 346, d. 420) , born at Stridon, in Dalmatia, 
 of Christian parents, studied at Rome under 
 Donatus ; after travelling in Gaul and else- 
 where, adopted a studious and ascetic life, 
 spending four years in the desert of Chalcis, 
 in Syria ; was ordained presbyter in 378 ; 
 visited Constantinople, where he became 
 the friend and pupil of Gregory Nazianzen ; 
 returning to Rome, became secretary to 
 Pope Damasus, but after his death (384) 
 withdrew to the Holy Land, accompanied 
 by Paula, Eustochiuni, and other Roman 
 ladies devoted to the ascetic life. For the 
 remainder of his days he presided over a 
 monastery established by I'aula at Beth- 
 lehem. Here he completed his translation 
 of the Bible from Hebrew into Latin, 
 known as the Vulgate. He wrote numerous 
 commentaries on the Old and New Testa- 
 ments, and was engaged in controversies 
 with Rufinus, the Pelagians, and others. 
 
 Jerome of Prague {b. circa 1378, d. 1416),
 
 Jer 
 
 (476) 
 
 Joh 
 
 studied at Prague, Paris, aud Oxford, where 
 he adopted the views of Wycliffe. On his 
 returu to Bohemia he became an ardent 
 supporter of Huss. He followed him to the 
 Council of Constance, but was imprisoned 
 and induced to recant. He afterwards 
 maintained his views boldly at the stake. 
 
 Jerrold, Douglas William (6. 1803, d. 
 1857), dramatist and humorous writer; aiter 
 serving as a midshipman for two years, was 
 apprenticed to a printer. He wrote many 
 plays, of which Black-Eyed Susan, written 
 about 1823, is the best Imown. He after- 
 wards became a journalist, contributing 
 chiefly to Punch, and from 1852 to 1857 
 edited Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper. 
 
 Jerrold, William Blanchard (6. 182G, d. 
 1884), son of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded as editor of Lloyd^s Weekly News- 
 paper. His most important work is his Life 
 of Napoleon ILL. (1874-82). 
 
 Jervas, Charles (6. circa 1675, d. 1739), a 
 portrait-painter, bom in Ireland. He was 
 a friend of Pope. 
 
 Jervis, Admiral. [See St. Vincent.] 
 
 Jervois, Lieutenant- General Sir William 
 Francis Drummond, G.C.M.G. (6. 1821), 
 entered the Royal JEngineers in 1839 ; was 
 
 fovemor of the Straits Settlements (1875-7), 
 outh Australia (1878-82), and New Zea- 
 land (1882-8). 
 
 Jessel, Right Hon. Sir George (6. 1824, 
 d. 1883), entered Parliament as Liberal 
 member for Dover in 1868, became Solicitor- 
 General in 1871, and Master of the Rolls in 
 1873. 
 
 Jessopp, Rev. Augustus, D.D. (6. 1824), 
 head- master of Norwich grammar school 
 from 1859 to 1879 ; has published One Gene- 
 ration of a Norfolk Rouse (1878), Arcady 
 (1887), The Coming of the Friars (1888), and 
 other works. 
 
 Jesus, son of Sirach, author of the 
 apocryphal Book of Ecclesiasticiis, was 
 bom at Jerusalem, and lived in the 3rd or 
 2nd century b.o. 
 
 Jevons, William Stanley (*. 1835, d. 1882), 
 was professor of logic and mental and 
 moral science, and lecturer on political 
 economy at Owens College, Manchester, 
 from 1866 to 1876, when he became pro- 
 fessor of political economy at University 
 College, London. He wrote The Principles 
 of Science, a Theory of Political Economy, etc. 
 
 Jewel, John {b. 1522, d. 1571), English 
 prelate, bom at Berrj-uarbor, in Devonshire, 
 was educated at Oxford, where he became 
 tutor of Corpus Christi College, and did 
 much to extend the refoi-med doctrines. In 
 
 1553 he withdrew to the Continent, and lived 
 withPeter Martyr at Strasbui-g. He returned 
 on the accession of Elizabeth, and was ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Salisbury in 1560. He 
 now distinguished himself by his zeal 
 against the papists, and in 1562 published 
 his Apoloyia Ecclcsice AnglicancB, afterwards 
 translated into English. 
 
 Jewsbury, Geraldine Endsor {b. circa 
 1820, d. 1880), novelist, wrote Zoe (1845), 
 Marian Withers (1851), etc. 
 
 Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, King of 
 Tyre aud Sidon, and wife of Ahab ; was 
 murdered by order of Jehu. 
 
 Joab, nephew of David, and chief cap- 
 tain of the IsraeUtish host during his reign, 
 
 Joachim, Georg, called "Rhasticus" {b. 
 1514, d. 1576), professor of mathematics at 
 Wittemberg, was the first follower of Co- 
 pernicus, and published his Be Bevolutionibua 
 at Nuremberg in 1543. 
 
 Joachim, Joseph (6. 1831), violinist, bom 
 at Kittsee, near Pressburg, Hungary ; studied 
 under Bohm in Vienna ; was patronised 
 by Mendelssohn ; resided in Hanover from 
 1854 to 1866 ; became director of the Royal 
 Academy of Music at Berlin in 1882 ; 
 Mus.Doc. Cambridge, 1877. 
 
 Joan of Arc, the "Maid of Orleans" 
 (6. 1412, d. 1431), bom at Domremy, in 
 Lorraine ; while tending sheep in her native 
 village heard voices summoning her to 
 deliver France from the English. She pre- 
 sented herself before Charles VII., who 
 gave her some troops, and with these she 
 raised the siege of Orleans in May, 1429. In 
 June Talbot was defeated at Patay, and in 
 July Joan caused Charles to be crowned at 
 Rheims. She now declared that her mission 
 was over, but was persuaded by Charles to 
 remain. In May, 1430, she was taken 
 prisoner while attempting to raise the siege 
 of Compiegne, and, after a trial conducted 
 by the Bishop of Beauvais, was condemned 
 as a sorceress, and burnt in the market- 
 place of Rouen. 
 
 Joash (d. 838 B.C.), son of Ahaziah, 
 became King of Judah in 878. He was 
 assassinated. 
 
 JoaiBli, son of Jehoahaz, reigned over 
 Israel from 840 to 825. 
 
 John, called " de Dieu" {b. 1495, d. 1550), 
 bom at Monte-Mor-el-Novo, in Portugal; 
 after a dissipated life as a soldier, devoted 
 himself to the service of the sick. He 
 founded the Order of Charity, and estab- 
 lished a hospital at Grenada. 
 
 John, Duke of Burgundy (6. 1371, d. 1419), 
 son of Philip the Bold and Margaret of 
 Flanders ; earned the title of '' Sans Peur "
 
 Joh 
 
 (477) 
 
 Joh 
 
 in the war against Bajazet (1396-8). On his 
 return he opposed the party of the Duke of 
 Orleans, who was assassinated by his com- 
 mand in 1407. He was himself murdered 
 by order of the Dauphin, whilst holding an 
 interview with him on the bridge of 
 Montereau. 
 
 Jonn, King of England (b. 1166, d. 1216), 
 was the youngest son of Henry II. and 
 Eleanor of Aquitaine. Richard I. named 
 him his successor, disregarding the claim 
 of Arthur, son of their brother Greoifrey. 
 Arthur was acknowledged by Anjou, Maine, 
 and Touraine, and supported by Philip. 
 In 1202 he fell into John's hands, and 
 soon afterwards mysteriously disappeared. 
 John was now summoned before Philip, 
 but failed to appear, whereupon his French 
 provinces were declared forfeited, and be- 
 fore the end of 1204 Philip had possessed 
 himself of the greater part of them. In 
 1205 John quarrelled with the pope in 
 regard to the appoiutmeut to the arch- 
 bishopric of Canterbury, John's nominee 
 being Bishop Grey of Norwich, while Inno- 
 cent forced the monks to elect Stephen 
 Langton. England was laid under an 
 interdict in 1208, the king excommimicated 
 in. 1209, and in 1212 Phihp of France was 
 invited to conquer the country for himself. 
 Hereupon John, in an interview vsrith the 
 legate Pandulph at Dover (1213), consented 
 to receive Langton, and also to hold England 
 as a fief under the pope, pajfing him a 
 thousand marks annually. This measure, 
 as well as John's disregard of their privi- 
 leges, caused a rising of the barons ; at 
 Rmmymede, in 1215, they forced him to 
 sign Magna Charta, which became the 
 foundation of English liberties. The king, 
 however, proceeded to raise mercenaries, 
 and persuaded Innocent to annul the 
 charter, whereupon the barons offered the 
 crown to Louis the Dauphin, who landed at 
 Sandwich (1216), and proceeded to Loudon. 
 Wliilst marching against him John died, it 
 is said, from the effects of a debauch. 
 
 John, St., the Apostle (b. circa 4, d. circa 
 99), was one of the earliest of Christ's dis- 
 ciples. During the crucifixion our Lord 
 commended His mother to his cai-e, and he 
 "took her to his own home." John after- 
 wards became Bishop of Epliesus. Accord- 
 ing to Tertullian, he was plunged into a 
 caldron of boiling oil during the persecution 
 under Domitian, but received no injury. 
 He was subsequently exiled to the island 
 of Patmos, where he wi-ote the Bonk of 
 Revelation. He was also author of the 
 Gospel and Epistles which bear his name. 
 
 John Casimir, Count Palatine {h. 1543, 
 d. 1592), second son of the Elector Palatine, 
 Frederick III., invaded France in 1568 and 
 1575 in support of the Huguenots. On the 
 
 death of his father he became the political 
 head of the reformers. 
 
 John of Austria, Don (6. 1546, d. 1578), 
 illegitimate sou of the Emperor Charles V. ; 
 distinguished himself against the Moors in 
 Granada (1570), and was in command of 
 the combined Italian and Spanish fleets at 
 the battle of Lepanto (1571). In 1576 he 
 was appointed governor of the Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 John the Baptist, the forerimner of the 
 Messiah, was the son of Zacharias, a priest, 
 and Elizabeth, his wife. He fulfilled his 
 mission by preaching repentance, and bap- 
 tising with water on the banks of the 
 Jordan. Our Lord there received baptism 
 at his hands. He was beheaded by Herod 
 to gratify his wife, Herodias. 
 
 John of Denmark (6. 1455, d. 1513), 
 succeeded his father. Christian I., as King 
 of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in 1481. 
 He was recognised in Norway after grant- 
 ing exorbitant privileges to the nobles and 
 clergy, in 1483, but did not gain possession 
 of Sweden till his reduction of Stockholm in 
 1497. 
 
 John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster {b. 
 1340, d, 1399), so called from his birthplace, 
 Ghent, third son of Edward III., married 
 Blanche, daughter of Heury, Duke of 
 Lancaster ; took part in the Black Prince's 
 expedition against Heniy of Trastamare ; 
 after the death of Pedro the Cruel, married 
 his daughter, Constance, and vainly at- 
 tempted to secure the throne of Castile. 
 In 1373 he led a raiding expedition into 
 France. After the death of Heury of 
 Trastamare he invaded Castile, but failed 
 to effect anything. 
 
 John of Luxemburg, "the Blind," King 
 of Bohemia {h. 1295, d. 1346), son of the 
 Emperor Henry VII., obtatued the throne 
 of Bohemia in 1311 by his marriage with 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Wenceslaus IV. He 
 was of an adventurous disposition, served 
 in the armies of several European sovereigns, 
 and was slain at Crecy, fighting for Philip 
 of Valois. 
 
 John of Yepez, called "St. John of the 
 Cross" {b. 1542, rf. 1591), a Spanish mystic, 
 was associated with St. Theresa in estab- 
 Ushing the " barefooted Carmelites." 
 
 John I., Pope (d. 526), elected 523, died 
 in prison, where he had been placed by 
 Theodoric. 
 
 John XXII., Pope (Jacques d'Euse) (6. 
 
 1 circa 1244, d. 1334), a native of Cahors, was 
 
 ! elected in 1316, during the "Babylonish 
 
 Captivity." He was at variance with the 
 
 Emperor Louis of Bavaria, whom he ex- 
 
 1 coimnunicated in 1324. He was nominally
 
 Joii 
 
 (478) 
 
 Joh 
 
 deposed by Louis in 1327, but continued to 
 exercise the papal functions at Avignon, 
 
 John XXIII., Pope (Baldassare Cossa) (d. 
 1419), an avaricious and licentious prelate. 
 His claim was disputed by Gregory XII. 
 and Benedict XIII. He was deposed at the 
 Council of Constance (1415). 
 
 John L (Zimisces), Emperor of the East 
 (d. 976), ascended tlie throne after poison- 
 ing Nicephorus Phocas (969). He defeated 
 the Russians and Bulgarians, and extended 
 the boundaries of the empii-e in the East. 
 He died by poison. 
 
 John II. (Calo- Johannes) {b. 1088, d. 1143), 
 renowned for his humanity and purity of 
 life, succeeded his father, Alexius Com- 
 nenus, in 1118. He pardoned his sister, 
 Anna Comnena, and others, who had joined 
 in a conspiracy against him. He wrested 
 a large part of Asia Minor from the Turks, 
 and defeated the Servians and Hungarians. 
 
 John III. (Ducas Vatazes) (b. 1193, d. 
 1255), reigned at Nicaea in Bithynia from 
 1222 to 1255. Though unsuccessful in an 
 expedition against Baldwin II., Emperor 
 of Constaatinople, he greatly extended his 
 territory at the expense of the Latin do- 
 minions. 
 
 John VI. (Palseologus) {b. 1332, d. 1391), 
 succeeded his father, Andronicus the 
 Younger, in 1341, but exercised no real 
 power till the retirement of the usurper, 
 John Cantacuzene, in 1355. His dominions 
 were invaded by the Turkish Sultan Amu- 
 rath, with whom he made a disgraceful 
 compact. 
 
 Joh» VIL (Palffiologus) (6. 1390, d. 1448), 
 succeeded his father, Manuel, in 1425. He 
 was unsuccessful against the Turks. Hoping 
 to effect a union of the Eastern and Western 
 Churches, he induced Eugenius TV. to sum- 
 mon a council at Ferrara, which he attended 
 in persoiL 
 
 John L, of Aragon (6. 1350, d. 1395), 
 succeeded his father, Pedro IV., in 1387. 
 
 John IL, of Aragon (b. 1397, d. 1479), 
 obtained Navarre through his wife Blanche 
 (1425), and in 1458 succeeded his brother, 
 Alfonso v., as ruler over Aragon, Sicily, 
 and Sardinia. 
 
 John I., of Castile (6. 1358, d. 1390), 
 succeeded his father, Henry of Trastamare, 
 in 1379. 
 
 John II. (b. 1405, d. 1454) succeeded his 
 father, Henry III., in 1406. 
 
 John II., the "Good," King of France 
 (h. circa 1315, d. 1364), succeeded his father, 
 Philip VI., in 1350. He was defeated by 
 the Black Prince at Poitiers (1356), and 
 
 remained a prisoner till the treaty of 
 Bretiguy (1360). Unable to raise his 
 ransom, he returned to England, and died 
 in captivity. 
 
 John I., of Portugal (*. 1358, d. 1433), 
 founder of the Aviz dynasty, illegitimate 
 son of Pedro L, became king in 1385. In 
 1387 he married Philippa, daughter of John 
 of Gaunt. 
 
 John II. {b. 1455, d. 1495), became king 
 in 1481. He encouraged maritime enter- 
 prise. 
 
 John III. {b. 1502, d. 1557), became king 
 in 1521. During his reign the Portuguese 
 dominions in the East were extended. He 
 introduced the Inquisition, and encouraged 
 the Jesuits. 
 
 John IV. (b. 1604, d. 1656), son of Theo- 
 dosio, Duke of Braganza, was proclaimed 
 king in 1640, after an insurrection which 
 freed Portugal from the dominion of Spain. 
 
 John VL {b. 1769, d. 1826), became regent 
 for his mother, Maria, in 1793; when 
 threatened with Juuot's invasion (1807), 
 retired to Brazil, where he reigned as em- 
 peror ; returned to Europe in 1821. 
 
 John III., of Sweden (b. 1537, d. 1592), 
 second son of Gustavus Vasa, deposed his 
 brother Eric in 1568. He unsuccessfully 
 strove to re-establish the Roman Catholic 
 religion. 
 
 Johnson, Andrew (6. 1808, d. 1875), 
 American statesman, for some years a tailor 
 at Greenville, Tennessee ; was returned to 
 Congress in the Democratic interest in 1843, 
 and became governor of Tennessee in 1853. 
 He was vice-president under Lincoln, on 
 whose death he became president (1865). 
 
 Johnson, General Sir Edwin, K.C.B., 
 CLE. (b. 1825), entered the Bengal Ar- 
 tillery in 1842; has seen much service in 
 India, especially during the Mutiny, when 
 he took part in the engagement on the 
 Hindun (1857). He was appointed director- 
 general of military education in 1884. 
 
 Johnson, Samuel {b. 1649, d. 1703), divine, 
 a zealous supporter of Protestantism ; was 
 in favour of the Bill of Exclusion, and in 
 1682 published Julian the Apostate^ opposing 
 passive obedience. For his Humble a>ia 
 Hearty Address he was placed in the pillory, 
 whipped, and fined. He received a pension 
 on the accession of William III. 
 
 Johnson, Samuel (J. 1709, d. 1784), man 
 of letters, son of a bookseller at Lichfield, 
 educated at Pembroke College, Oxford : in 
 1 732 became a master in a school at Market 
 Bosworth, which he quitted to enter the 
 employment of a bookseller at Birmingham,
 
 Joh 
 
 (479) 
 
 Jon 
 
 for whom he translated Father Lobo's 
 Voyage to Abyssinia ; in 1736 married Mrs. 
 Porter, a widow nearly twice his age, and 
 started a school, which was unsuccessful ; 
 came to London with David Garrick, who 
 was one of liis pupils, in 1737 ; published 
 London (1738), and obtained work on the 
 Gentleman^ s Magazine, reporting the par- 
 liamentary debates under a fictitious title. 
 In the following years appeared The Vanity 
 of Suman IViJies (1749), Irene (1749), The 
 Rambler (1750-2), the Dictionary (1755), 
 which had occupied him since 1747, The 
 Idler (1758-9), and Ras^^elas (1759). In 1762 
 he received a pension of £300 annually, and 
 in 1764 founded the Literary Club, which 
 included Burke, Goldsmith, and Reynolds 
 among its members. His connection with 
 the Thrales lasted from 1765 to the death of 
 Mr. Thrale in 1784, when he returned to 
 his house at Bolt Coui-t, Fleet Street. His 
 tour in Scotland with Boswell in 1773 is 
 described in the Journey to the Hebrides 
 (1775). 
 
 Jolinstoii, Alexander (6. 1813), Scottish 
 painter, studied at the Royal Academy. 
 Among his pictures are Lord and Lady 
 RusseU in Friaon (1845), Tyndale Translating 
 the Bible (1855), and Flora Macdonald (1869). 
 
 Johnston, Alexander Keith {b. 1804, d. 
 1871), geographer; in 1851 exhibited his 
 physical globe of the earth, and in 1866 
 completed his Fhysical Atlas, undertaken at 
 the suggestion of Humboldt. 
 
 Jolinston, Henry Hamilton {b. 1858), ap- 
 pointed consul for Portuguese East Africa 
 in 1888, has travelled in North, West, East, 
 and Central Africa, and published The River 
 Congo (1884), The Kilimanjaro Expedition 
 (1886), and T)ie History of a Slave (1889). 
 
 Johnston, Joseph Eggleston (b. 1807), 
 American soldier; joined the Confederate 
 army, and became commander of the 
 Federal forces in South Carolina in Feb- 
 ruary, 1865, but surrendered with his army 
 in the following August. 
 
 Johnstone, Chevalier de {b. 1720), a 
 Jacobite, aide-de-camp to Charles Edward 
 during the insurrection in 1745 ; wrote 
 Memoirs of the Rebellion, published in 1820. 
 
 Johnstone, John Henry {b. 1750, d. 1828), 
 a celebrated comic actor and vocalist. 
 
 Johore, Tunkoo Abubeker bin Ibrahim, 
 K.C.S.I., Maharajah of Johore (usually 
 called the Tumongong) (b. 1835), succeeded 
 his father in 1861. He has always main- 
 tained friendly relations with the British 
 Government, and co-operated with it in 
 suppressing piracy. He visited England in 
 1866 and 1885. 
 
 JoinvUle, Fran(;ois Ferdinand Philippe 
 
 d'Orleans, Prince de {h. 1818), third son of 
 Louis Philippe, served in Mexico (1838), 
 Morocco (1845), and the Franco-German 
 War ; was deported to England, but re- 
 turned on the abrogation of the law of exile 
 in 1871. His works on the French navy 
 are important. 
 
 JoinviUe, Jean, Sire de (b. 1224, d. 1317), 
 French chronicler, joined the sixth crusade ; 
 was taken prisoner with Louis IX. at Man- 
 soorah, and returned with him in 1254. He 
 wrote a History of St. Louis. 
 
 Jokai, Maurice (6. 1825), Hungarian 
 novelist ; took part as a joumahst in the 
 revolution of 1848 ; has written about 200 
 novels, including Timar^s Two Worlds 
 (English translation, 1888), etc 
 
 Jomini, Henri, Baron (b. 1779, d. 1869), 
 Swiss strategist, born at Payeme ; fought 
 under Ney, distinguished himself at Bautzen 
 (1813), but afterwards transferred his ser- 
 vices to Russia. He wrote Traite des 
 Grandes Operations Militaires (1805), and 
 other works on the art of war. 
 
 Jonah, a Hebrew prophet, is believed to 
 have lived in the 9th century B.C., during 
 the reign of Jeroboam II. 
 
 Jonas, Justus {b. 1493, d. 1555), German 
 reformer, accompanied Luther to Worms in 
 1521 ; was appointed professor of theology 
 at Wittemberg, and took a prominent part 
 in the religious discussions of the time. He 
 attended Luther on his death -bed, and 
 translated several of his and Melancthon'e 
 works from Latin into German. 
 
 Jonathan, the son of Saul, and friend 
 of David ; was slain, vpith his father, in a 
 battle against the Philistines on Mount 
 Gilboa. 
 
 Jones, Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Stowell, 
 V.C, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. (6. 1832), was 
 deputy-assistant-quarter-master-general at 
 the siege of Delhi, and greatly distinguished 
 himself on several occasions during the 
 Mutiny. He has published Will a Sewage 
 Farm Fay} (1874), and was one of the 
 authors of the Canvey Island Scheme 
 (1884). 
 
 Jones, Ebenezer {p. 1820, d. 1860), author 
 of Studies of Sensation and Event, a volume 
 of poems (1843). 
 
 Jones, Ernest Charles (A. 1819, d. 1869), 
 poet and Chartist ; for eight years edited the 
 Feople's Faper ; wrote The Revolt of Hin- 
 dustan (an epic) during his imprisonment 
 in 1848-9 ; was also author of The Wood 
 Spirit (1841), a romance, and other works, 
 
 Jones, nigo {b. 1573, d. 1652), architect, 
 bom in London ; after being apprenticed
 
 Jon 
 
 (480) 
 
 Jos 
 
 to a joiner, was seut to Italy by the Earl 
 of Pembroke, who discovered his taleut 
 for drawing. About 1604 he became 
 architect to Christiau IV. of Denmark, 
 and in 1606 accompanied him to England, 
 where he was appointed architect to the 
 queeu and Prince of Wales. His build- 
 ings at this period were in a debased Eliza- 
 bethan style, but, after a second visit to 
 Italy in 1612, he introduced the Palladiau 
 style into England. He now became sur- 
 veyor to the king, and, besides other 
 buildings, designed the palace of Whitehall, 
 of which he completed the banqueting - 
 hall. 
 
 Jones, Owen {b. 1809, d. 1874), architect, 
 visited Granada in 1834, and wrote Plans, 
 Elevations, Sections, and Details of the 
 Alha)nb)-a {18i2) , The Grammar of Ornament 
 (1856), etc. 
 
 Jones, Paul, the name assumed by John 
 Paul (6. 1747, d. 1792), a naval adventurer, 
 who. in 1773, emigrated to Virginia. En- 
 tering the American naval service (1775), 
 he made bold descents on the coasts of 
 England and Scotland, and ia 1779 did 
 much damage to the English fleet. 
 
 Jones, Thomas Wharton (h. 1808), Eng- 
 lish ophthalmic surgeon and physiologist, 
 author of The Wisdom and Beneficence of 
 the Almighty Displayed in the Sense of 
 Human Vision, etc. 
 
 Jones, William (J>. 1726, d. 1800), a divine 
 of the Hutchinsonian school, perpetual 
 curate of Nay land, in Suffolk; wrote T/ie 
 Catholic Doctrine of the Trinitij (llbl), TJie 
 First Principles of Natural Philosophy {lldT), 
 and a life of his fiiend. Bishop Home 
 (1795). 
 
 Jones, Sir William [b. 1746, d. 1794), 
 Orientalist, educated at Harrow and Uni- 
 versity College, Oxford ; was called to the 
 bar in 1774, and in 1783 became judge of 
 the supreme court of judicature at Fort 
 William. Whilst in India he founded the 
 Asiatic Society, and superintended the com- 
 piling of a digest of Hindoo and Mahometan 
 laws. In 1768 he translated the Life of 
 Nadir Shah from Persian into French for 
 the King of Denmark. His Commentaries 
 on Arabic Poetry, hegun in 1766, were pub- 
 lished in 1774. Among his other works are 
 Si. Persian Grammar (1771), and translations 
 of the Sanscrit drama, Sakoontald (1789), 
 and of the Laws of Manu (1794). 
 
 Jonson, Benjamin or Ben (6. circa 1574, 
 rf. 1637), dramatist, was educated at West- 
 minster under Camden. It is uncertain 
 whether he studied at Cambridge. After 
 following the trade of a bricklayer, he went 
 as a volunteer to Flanders, and on his 
 return became an actor, also writing plays 
 
 in conjunction with others. His first inde- 
 pendent work. Every Man in his LTumour 
 (1/396), was followed by Evet-y Man out of 
 his Humour (1599), Cynthia's Revels (1600), 
 Sejanus (1603), J^olpone {1605), The Alchemist 
 (1610), and many others. Eastward Ho 
 (1605), a satire on the Scots, produced in 
 conjunction with Chapman and Marston, 
 nearly cost him his nose and ears. He 
 wrote masques for the court of James I., 
 and in 1616 was appointed poet-laureate. 
 
 Jordaens, Jakob (b. 1593, d. 1678), 
 painter, studied under Van Oort and 
 llubeus. His chief work is Christ in the 
 Midst of the Doctors. 
 
 Jordan, Dorothea (b. 1762, d. 1816), 
 English actress, for twenty years the mis- 
 tress, and virtually the wife of the Duke of 
 Clarence, afterwards William IV., by whom 
 she was abandoned, and died iu great 
 distress at Paris. 
 
 Jortin, John (h. 1698, d. 1770), scholar 
 and divine, educated at Cambridge, became 
 Archdeacon of London. Among his works 
 are Remarks upon Ecclesiastical History and 
 a Life of Erasmus (1758). 
 
 Joseph, Hebrew patriarch, son of Jacob ; 
 was sold by his brothers to some Ishmaelitish 
 merchants, and taken by them to Egypt, 
 where he afterwards held a high omcial 
 position. 
 
 Joseph of Exeter {d. circa 1214), English 
 poet ; went on the third crusade, and wrote 
 De Bella Trojano and Antiochesis. 
 
 Joseph I., Emperor of Germany (6. 1678, 
 d. 1711), son of Leopold I., became King of 
 Hungary in 1687, King of the Romans in 
 1690, and emperor in 1705. 
 
 Joseph II. (6. 1741, d. 1790), son of 
 Francis I. and Maria Theresa ; was crowned 
 King of the Romans iu 1764, succeeded his 
 father as Emperor in 1765, and became 
 ruler over Hungary and Bohemia on the 
 death of his mother (1780). 
 
 Josephine, Marie Joseph Rose Tascher de 
 la Pagerie (6. 1763, d. 1814), a native of 
 Martinique ; in 1779 married the Vicomtede 
 Beauharnais, who was guillotined. She 
 married Bonaparte in 1796, and was di- 
 vorced from him in 1809. 
 
 Josephus, Flavins (5. 37, d. circa95), Jewish 
 historian, went on a mission to Rome in 63 ; 
 on his return unwillingly joined the revolt 
 against the Romans ; was appointed governor 
 of Galilee, and valiantly defended Jotapata 
 against Vespasian, but was taken prisoner ; 
 was present with the Roman army at the 
 siege of Jerusalem, and returned with Titus 
 to Rome, where he spent the remainder of 
 his life. His chief works are The History of
 
 Jos 
 
 (481) 
 
 Jug 
 
 the Jewish War, The A>itiquitiesofthe Jews, 
 and a Discourse on the Martyrdcun of the 
 
 Maccabees. 
 
 Joshua, or Hoshea, son of Xun; com- 
 mander of the Israelites after the death of 
 Moses, led them into the Holy Land, and 
 obtained many victories over the tribes of 
 Canaan. 
 
 Josiali {d. 609 b.c.) succeeded his father, 
 Amon, as Kingof Judah in 641. He died in 
 a war with Pharaoh Necho, King of Egypt. 
 
 Joubert, Barthelemi Catherine (6. 1769, «?. 
 1799), French general, enlisted in 1791. 
 His bravery at Loano was rewarded with the 
 rank of brigadier-general. He afterwards 
 distinguished himself in the Tyrol, and in 
 1798 was appointed commander-in-chief in 
 Italy. He was slain at Novi. 
 
 Joubert, Petrus Jacobus (6. circa 1831), 
 one of the triumvirate who organised a 
 Transvaal revolt against the British Govern- 
 ment in 1880, held the chief command in 
 the engagements at Laing's Nek, Ingogo 
 Eiver, and Majuba Hill. 
 
 Jouffroy d'Abbaus, Claude, Marquis de 
 (6. 1751, d. 1832), a French mechanician, 
 one of the ftrst to apply steam to navigation. 
 He launched a steam-vessel on the Danube 
 in 1776. 
 
 Joule, James Prescott (6. 1818, d. 1889), 
 electrician, pupil of Dalton ; made dis- 
 coveries in electro-magnetism, and in 1849 
 established his theory of the mechanical 
 equivalent of heat. 
 
 Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, Comte (6. 1762, 
 d. 1833), French marshal; served in the 
 wars of the Eepublic, and in 1799 was ap- 
 pointed commander of the army of the 
 Danube by the Directory. In 1797 he 
 became president of the Council of Five 
 Hundred, but was expelled in 1799 owing to 
 his opposition to Bonaparte, by whom, how- 
 ever, he was afterwards employed. He 
 subsequently followed the fortunes of Joseph 
 Bonaparte. He owed his title to Louis 
 XVIII., but joined in the revolution of 
 1830. 
 
 Jouvenet, Jean {b. 1647, «?. 1717), a French 
 historioal painter, bom at Rouen. 
 
 Jouy, Victor Joseph fitienne de (6. 1764, 
 d. 1846), French writer, author of a collec- 
 tion of essa.ysca.\\edLVIIer>nitedela Chmtssee 
 d'Antin. fie also wrote librettos for operas, 
 and the tragedies of Tippoo Saib and Si/lla. 
 
 Jovellanos, Don Caspar Melchior de 
 (6. 1744, d. 1811), Spanish statesman and 
 author, wrote Pelayo (a tragedy), The 
 Honourable Belinqtient (a comedy), and 
 several treatises on political economy. 
 BE 
 
 Jovianus (6. 331, d. 364), succeeded 
 JuUau as Emperor of Eome in 363. 
 
 Jowett, Benjamin, M.A. {b. 1817), 
 successively scholar, fellow, and master of 
 Balliol College, Oxford, and Regius prof essor 
 of Greek since 1855. His works include 
 translations of Plato and Thucydides. He 
 contributed a paper on The Interpretation 
 of Scripture to Essaijs and Reviews. 
 
 Joyeuse, Anne de (6. circa 1561, d. 
 1587), admiral of France, displayed great 
 cruelty as commander-in-chief against the 
 Huguenots. He was defeated and slain by 
 Henry of Navarre in the battle of Coutras. 
 
 Juarez, Benito Pablo (6. 1806, d. 1872), 
 Mexican statesman, of pure Indian blood ; 
 after a war between Liberals and Clericals, 
 became president in 1861. He resisted the 
 attempt of Napoleon III. to set up Maxi- 
 milian as emperor of Mexico, and, after the 
 withdrawal of the French troops, put him 
 to death. He was again elected president 
 in 1867. 
 
 Juba I. {d. B.C. 42), King of Numidia, 
 supported Pompey against Caesar, but wa3 
 defeated at Thapsus, and committed suicide. 
 
 Juba II. (cZ. 24), son of the preceding; 
 was taken by Caesar to Rome, where he 
 received a good education. He fought 
 under Augustus, who made him King of 
 Mauritania and Gaetulia. Of his numerous 
 works fragments alone remain. 
 
 Judah, Hebrew patriarch, fourth son of 
 Jacob, saved Joseph's life by persuading 
 his brothers to sell him to the Ishmaelites. 
 Joseph on his deathbed prophesied that the 
 Messiah would be bom of his family. 
 
 Judah, Leo (6. 1482, d. 1542), Protestant 
 theologian, a friend of Zwiugli, translated 
 part of the Old Testament into Latin. 
 
 Judah Hakkadosh {b. 123, d. 190), a 
 Jewish rabbi, compiled the Mishna or ori- 
 ginal Talmud, a collection of the ancient 
 customs of the Jews. 
 
 Judas Maccabseus. {See Maccabseus.] 
 
 Judd, John W., F.R.S. (6. 1840), was ap- 
 pointed professor of geology in the Royal 
 College of Science in 1881 ; has investigated 
 the secondary strata of the Scottish High- 
 lauds and the remains of the tertiary vol- 
 canoes of the western islands of Scotland. 
 
 Judson, Adoniram (&. 1788, d. 1850), an 
 American Baptist missionary ; laboured 
 among the Burmese, and translated the 
 Bible into their language. 
 
 Jugnirtha {h. circa 154 B.C., d. 104), King 
 of Numidia, son of Mastauabal, was 
 brought up by his uncle, Micipsa, and after 
 his death shared the kingdom with his sons. 
 Adherbal and Hiempsal, both of whom he 
 afterwards murdered. After a long war
 
 Juk 
 
 (482) 
 
 Jus 
 
 with the Romans he was betrayed into their 
 hands by his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauri- 
 tania, and died in the Mamertine prison at 
 Rome. 
 
 Jukes, Joseph Beete {b. 1811, d. 1869), 
 naturalist, bom at Birmingham ; took part 
 in the survey voyage of H.M.S. Fly, of which 
 he wrote a Narrative (1847). He made dis- 
 coveries in rock strata south of Conway. 
 
 Julian, Flavins Claudius, "The Apos- 
 tate" (6. 331, d. 363), Roman emperor, son 
 of Julius Constantius, half-brother of Con- 
 stantine the Great ; was brought up in the 
 Christian faith, but his study of Greek 
 philosophy and literature at Nicomedia and 
 Athens gave a different bent to his mind. 
 In 355 he was made Cassar, and sent to 
 Gaul, where he was saluted as emperor by 
 his army (361). In 363 he undertook an 
 expedition against the Persians, in which he 
 lost his life. 
 
 Julien, Stanislas Aignan (6. 1799, d. 1873), 
 French Orientalist ; appointed professor of 
 Chinese in the College de France in 1832 ; 
 translated the works of Meng-tsze and 
 Laou-tsze, Voyages des Pilerins Bouddhistes, 
 etc. 
 
 Julius I., Pope {d. 352), a native of 
 Rome, elected in 337; supported Atha«- 
 nasius against the Arians. 
 
 Julius II., Pope (Cardinal Giuliano della 
 Rovere) (p. 1441, d. 1513), distinguished as a 
 warrior and patron of the arts, became pope 
 in 1603. He endeavoured to extend the 
 papal territory, and, after driving Caesar 
 Borgia from the Romagna, formed the 
 league of Cambrai with Maximilian and 
 Louis XII. against Venice (1508). After 
 the submission of the republic, he turned 
 his arms against France (1510). In loll 
 the Holy Alliance was formed, and the 
 French army driven back over the Alps. 
 
 Julius IIL, Pope (Cardinal del Monte) 
 (6. 1487, d. 1555), succeeded Paul III. La 
 1650. 
 
 Jung, or Jung-Stilling, Johann Hein- j 
 rich (6. 1740, d. 1817), oculist, farmer, and , 
 mystic ; studied medicine at Strasburg 
 (1770), where he formed friendships with 
 Goethe and Herder. He practised as an 
 ocuUst at Elberfeld, and afterwards at Mar- 
 burg, where he was professor of farming. 
 His most interesting works are Stilling^s 
 Jugend and the otners which deal with 
 his own life. ! 
 
 Jung, Sir Salar, K.C.S.I. (6. 1829, d. 
 1883), from 1853 prime minister of the 
 Deccan ; restored order in the government, 
 and, by securing tranquillity in Hyderabad 
 during the Mutiny, avoided the proposed 
 British annexation. 
 
 Junge, or Jungius, Joachim (6. 1587, d. 
 1657), German philosopher; opposed the 
 schoolmen, and endeavoured to base phi- 
 losophy on observation and experience. His 
 Jsagoge I'hytoscopica to some extent formed 
 the groundwork of later botanical systems. 
 
 Junghuhn, Franz Wilhelm (6. 1809, d. 
 1864), the explorer of Java, of which he 
 wrote several descriptions. 
 
 Jungmann, Josef Jakob (6. 1773, d. 1847), 
 Slavonian philologist, professor of Latin in. 
 the gymnasium of Prague (1815-34); wrote 
 a History of Bohemian Literature. 
 
 Junius, Frauc^ois (6. 1545, d. 1602), French 
 Protestant theologian, professor of divinity 
 at Heidelberg, and afterwards at Leyden. 
 His works are numerous. 
 
 Jiinius, Francois {b. 1589, d. 1677), phil- 
 ologist, sou of the preceding ; edited Ulphilas' 
 Gothic Bible, with a Commentary (1665). 
 
 Junot, Androche, Due d'Abrantes (h. 1771, 
 d. 1813), French soldier; served with dis- 
 tinction under Napoleon in Italy and Egypt; 
 was present at Austerlitz ; in 1807 led an 
 expedition to Portugal, and captured Lis- 
 bon within a month, but was defeated at 
 Vimiera (1808), and forced to evacuate the 
 country. 
 
 Jurieu, Pierre {b. 1637, d. 1713), French 
 Protestant thtiologian, professor of theology 
 and Hebrew at Sedan , in 1685 withdrew to 
 Rotterdam, where he was engaged in con- 
 troversies with Bayle and others. He wrote- 
 several works. 
 
 Jussieu. The name of a family of French 
 botanists, including ANTOrmE de (6. 1686, 
 d. 1758) ; Beenaed de (6. 1699, d. nil), 
 brother of Antoine, demonstrator in the Jar- 
 din duRoi; Antoine Laxteent de (6. 1748, 
 d. 1836), who, in Genera Flantarum (1789)> 
 introduced a new system of classification ; 
 and Adeien de (6. 1797, d. 1853), son of 
 Antoine Laurent. 
 
 Justin, a Latin historian of unknown 
 date ; wrote an epitome of the History of 
 the World by Trogus Pompeius. 
 
 Justin, or Justlnus, called " Martyr" {b. 
 circa 103, d. circa 164), Christian saint and 
 martyr, bom in Samaria ; after attaching 
 himself to various schools of Greek philo- 
 sophy in succession, became a Christian 
 about 132. His chief works are his Apology 
 to Antoninus Pius and the Dialoaue with 
 Tryphon the Jew. Owing to the calumnious 
 attacks of the Cynic Crescens, he was taken 
 before the prcefectus urbi, and beheaded for 
 refusing to sacrifice to the heathen gods. 
 
 Justin, or Justinus I., Emperor of the 
 East (i. 450, d. 627), by birth a Dacian
 
 Jus 
 
 (483) 
 
 Kar 
 
 peasant, during the reign of Leo I. enlisted 
 in the imperial guards, of which he became 
 commander. He was chosen emperor on 
 the death of Anastatius (518). 
 
 Justin, or Justinus II. (d. 578), succeeded 
 his uncle, Justinian I., in 565. His reign 
 was marked by inroads of the Persians and 
 Longobards. He abdicated in 574. 
 
 Justinian I., Emperor of the East {b. 
 483, d. 565), succeeded his uncle, Justin I., 
 in 527. He issued a famous code, forming, 
 together with his collections of Pandects, 
 Institutiones, and Novellm, the corpus juris 
 civilis. Under Justinian the boundaries of 
 the empire were much extended through 
 the victories of Belisarius and Narses over 
 the Persians, Vandals, and Ostrogoths. 
 
 Justinian IL (d.lll), succeeded his father, 
 Constantine Pogonatus, in 685. He was 
 killed by Philippicus Bardanes, who suc- 
 ceeded him. 
 
 Juvenal (Decimus Junius Juvenalis) {b. 
 circa 55, d. circa 128), a Roman satirical 
 poet. In consequence of his satire against 
 Paris, he was sent as prefect of a cohort 
 to Egypt, and died either there or at Rome. 
 
 Juxon, WilHam (b. 1582, d. 1663), English 
 prelate ; was appointed Bishop of Hereford 
 through Laud's influence in 1633, held the 
 oifice of lord high treasurer from 1635 to 
 1641, and was Bishop of London. He at- 
 tended Charles I. during his trial, and was 
 present with him at his death. He was 
 Archbishop of Canterbury from 1660 to 1663. 
 
 Kaempfer, Engelbrecht (6. 1651, d. 1716), 
 naturalist and physician, bom in West- 
 phalia; accompanied the Swedish embassy 
 to Persia in 1683 ; afterwards visited Java, 
 Japan, Arabia, and other coimtries. 
 
 Ealakaua, David (6. circa 1838, d. 1891), 
 King of the Sandwich Islands. 
 
 Kaldi, Georg (6. circa 1572, d. 1634), Hun- 
 garian Jesuit, became professor of theology 
 at Olmiitz, and afterwards at Presburg. 
 
 KaUd, or Khaled, "The Sword of Allah " 
 {d. 642), Saracen general, at first opposed 
 Mahomet ; took part in the invasion of 
 Persia (633), and, by his victory at the Yer- 
 muk and his capture of Damascus, brought 
 Syria under the authority of the caliph. 
 
 Kalkbrenner, Christian (b. 1755, d. 1806), 
 musical composer, was bom in Prussia. He 
 settled in Paris, where he died. 
 
 Ealnoky, Count Gustav Siegmimd (b. 
 1832), Austrian statesman, entered the diplo- 
 matic service in 1852 ; in 1881 became mini- 
 ster of foreign affairs. In 1886 he opposed 
 the machinations of Russia in Bulgaria, and 
 diuiig 1887 and 1888 made several speeches 
 against the war party at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Kamel, Malek el (d. 1238), Sultan of 
 Egypt, succeeded in 1218. In 1221 he re- 
 took Damietta from the Crusaders. He 
 afterwards captured Jerusalem and other 
 towns, but yielded them to the Emperor 
 Frederick II. in 1229. 
 
 Eames, Henry Home, Lord (6. 1696, d. 
 1782), Scotch judge and miscellaneous 
 pf2 
 
 writer ; was called to the bar in 1724. In 
 1752 he was appointed a judge of sessions, 
 with the title of Lord Kames. 
 
 Eauaris, Constantine {b. 1785, d. 1877), 
 Greek patriot, distinguishedhimseLfinanaval 
 capacity during the war of Independence. 
 
 Kane, Ehsha Kent (b. 1820, d. 1857), 
 American explorer, entered the United 
 States navy as assistant -surgeon ; travelled 
 extensively in Asia, Africa, and Eastern 
 Europe ; was surgeon and naturalist to the 
 first GrinneU expedition in search of Frank- 
 lin (1850-2), and commanded the second 
 Grinnell expedition (1853-5). 
 
 Kant, Immanuel (6. 1724, d. 1804), Ger- 
 man philosopher, bom at Konigsberg ; was 
 educated at the Collegium Fredericianum 
 and the imiversity of Konigsberg; became 
 professor of logic and metaphysics there in 
 1770, and was made rector in 1786. His 
 great work is the Critique of Pure Meason 
 (1782), in which all knowledge is based on 
 experience, with the admission that experi- 
 ence must inevitably conform itself to the 
 subjective laws of mind. The Critique of 
 Practical Reason, the ethical side of the 
 system, appeared in 1788, and the Critique 
 of Judgment m. 1790. Among Kant's other 
 works are i?tf%?o« Within the Limits of Pure 
 Reason (17' '2) and The Metaphysic of Ethic. 
 
 Karamzin, Nicholas Michailovitch (6. 
 1765, d. 1826), bom in Orenburg, Russia; 
 wrote a History of the Russian Empire from 
 the earliest times to 1612. 
 
 Karatheodori, Alexander, Pasha (h. circa
 
 Ear 
 
 (484) 
 
 Kea 
 
 1820), Turkish statesman, of Greek descent ; 
 representt?d the Porte at tlie Congress at 
 Berlin (IS78), and was minister of foreign 
 affairs 1878-9. 
 
 Karr, Jean Baptiste Alphonse (6. 1808, 
 d. 1890), French writer, became editor of the 
 Figaro in 1839. Among his novels are Sous 
 les Tdleuh (1832) and Fort en Theme (1853). 
 
 Karslake, Sir John Burgess (*. 1821, d. 
 1881), barrister, became Solicitor- General 
 under Lord Derby in 1866 ; entered Parlia- 
 ment in 1867 ; was made Attorney-General 
 by Disraeli in 1874, but soon afterwards 
 resigned. 
 
 Katona, Stephen {b. 1732, d. 1811), Hun- 
 garian Jesuit, wrote a History of Hungary. 
 
 Katterfelto, Gustavus (d. 1799), a quack 
 and conj urer, of Prussian origin. He died 
 in Yorkshire. 
 
 Ka,iifmaTm, Angelica (6. 1741, d. 1807), 
 painter, bom at Chur; in 1766 came to 
 England. She was elected a member of 
 the Eoyal Academy in 1768. In 1783 she 
 married the Venetian artist, Antonio Zucchi, 
 and henceforward lived in Italy. 
 
 Kaufmann, Constantino von (6. 1818, d. 
 1882), Russian general, was governor of Turk- 
 estan from lSo7 to 1882. After annexing 
 Bokhara (1868), forcing the Khan of Khiva 
 to become the Tzar's vassal (1873), and de- 
 priving the Khan of Khokaud of all his 
 dominions north of the Sir Darya (1875), he 
 attempted to embroil England in a war with 
 the Ameer of Afghanistan, but was not sup- 
 ported by the authorities at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Kaulbach, Wilhelm von (6. 1805, d. 1874), 
 German painter, bom at Arolsen, studied 
 at Diisseldorf under Cornelius ; went with 
 his master to Munich, where he painted 
 The Battle of the Huns for the King of 
 Bavaria. He became director of the Munich 
 Academy in 1849. 
 
 Eaulbars, General Paxil, Baron (b. circa 
 1837) , Russian diplomatic agent at Sofia in 
 1886. 
 
 Eaunltz, Wenceslaus Anton, Prince von 
 (6. 1711, d. 1794), Austrian statesman, was 
 present at the Congress of Aix-Ia-Chapelle 
 (1748) ; in 1750 went as ambassador to Paris ; 
 after his return (1753), became chancellor 
 and prime minister of AusUia. 
 
 Kavanagh, Julia (b. 1824, d. 1877), wrote 
 Nathalie and other novels, Women in France 
 during the Eighteenth Century, etc. 
 
 Kawase, Viscount Masataka (6. 1839), 
 Japanese minister at the court of St. 
 Jxmes's. 
 
 Kay, Hon. Sir Edward Ebenezer (6. 1822), 
 became lord justice of appeal in 1890. 
 
 Kaye, Sir John William {b. 1814, d. 1876), 
 historian ; was secretary to the political and 
 secret department of thelndia Office, 1858-74. 
 His chief works are histories of The War in 
 Afghanistan (1851), The Sepoy War (1864), 
 and The Administration of the East India 
 Company (1853). 
 
 Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir John Phillips, 
 Bart. (b. 1804, d. 1877), was secretary to 
 the Committee of Coimcil on Education 
 from 1839 to 1849. 
 
 Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir Ughtred James 
 (6. 1844), son of the preceding, entered 
 Parliament in 1869. It was greatly owing 
 to his efforts that the Government intro- 
 duced the Artisans' Dwellings Bill, passed 
 in 1875. 
 
 Kean, Charles John (6. 1811, d. 1868), 
 actor, bom at Waterford, son of Edmund 
 Kean, was educated at Eton; made his 
 debut at Drury Lane in 1827, but did not 
 establish his reputation tiU 1838, when he 
 acted as Hamlet, Richard III., and Sir 
 Giles Overreach. In 1842 he married Miss 
 Ellen Tree, a celebrated actress. From 1850 
 to 1859 he was manager of the Princess's 
 theatre. 
 
 Kean, Edmund {b. 1787, d. 1833), actor; 
 first attracted general notice by his repre- 
 sentation of Shylock at Drury Lane in 1814. 
 He was distinguished by energy, passion, 
 and fire, as opposed to the stately classicism 
 of Kemble's school. 
 
 Keane, John, Baron Keane of Ghuznee 
 {b. 1781, d. 1844), general; in 1838-9 carried 
 on a successful campaign in Afghanistan, 
 culminating in a brilliant victory at 
 Ghuznee. 
 
 Keary, Annie {b. 1825, d. 1879), wrote 
 Castle Ealy, and other novels. 
 
 Keats, John (6. 1795, d. 1821), poet, son 
 of a livery stable proprietor in Finsbury ; 
 was educated at a school at Enfield, where 
 he foi-med a lifelong friendship with the 
 master's son, Charles Cowden Clarke. He 
 was apprenticed to Mr. Hammond, a 
 surgeon at Edmonton, whom he left in 
 1812, but pursued his studies at Guy's 
 Hospital till 1817. He then determined to 
 follow the bent of his genius. Endymion, 
 his first long poem, appeared in ISIS. 
 Isabella or the Pot of Masil, Hyperion, 
 lamia, The Eve of St. Agnes, and the Ode.% 
 were written in the course of the next two 
 years. Meanwhile, an hereditary tendency 
 to consumption had developed itself, and in 
 September, 1820, he was forced to undertake 
 a journey to Italy. He was accompanied 
 by his friend, Joseph Severn, who nursed 
 him tenderly during his last illness at Rome, 
 where he died in February, 1821.
 
 Eeb 
 
 (485) 
 
 Eem 
 
 KebDel, Thomas Edward (b. 1828), journ- 
 alist and political writer, has written lives 
 of Lord Beaconsfield and Lord Derby. 
 
 Keble, John (b. 1792, d. 1866), divine and 
 poet, born at Fairford in Gloucestershire, 
 was educated at Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford, and elected to an Oriel fellowship in 
 1811 ; became professor of poetry at Oxford 
 in 1831 ; in 1835 was appointed vicar of 
 Hursley, where he remained until his death. 
 Keble took a prominent part in the " Ox- 
 ford Movement," and WTote several of the 
 Tracts. His Christian Year has become a 
 classic. He also edited Hooker's Ecclesias- 
 tical Polity, and wrote Lyra Innocentium, 
 and a Zife of Bishop Wilson. 
 
 Keeley, Robert (6. 1793, d. 1869), come- 
 dian and theatrical manager. 
 
 Keightley, Thomas {b. 1789, d. 1872), 
 wrote Fairy Mythology, and numerous 
 educational works. 
 
 Keill, John (6. 1671, d. 1721), Scotch 
 mathematician, became Savilian professor 
 of astronomy at Oxford in 1710. 
 
 Keim, Theodor (6. 1825, d. 1878), German 
 theologian, author of Geschichte Jesu von 
 Nazara, etc. 
 
 Eeiser, Reinhard (6. 1673, d. 1739), com- 
 poser, bom at Leipzig, wrote Circe (1734) , etc. 
 
 Keith, George Elphinstone, Viscount (6. 
 1746, d. 1823), admiral, son of Charles Lord 
 Elphinstone ; led the naval part of the ex- 
 pedition which reduced the Cape of Good 
 Hope (1795), and commanded the fleet in 
 the Egyptian campaign of 1801. 
 
 Keith, James Francis Edward (6. 1696, 
 d. 1758), field marshal in the Prussian 
 service ; fought on the Jacobite side at 
 Sheriffmuir; made his escape to France; 
 after serving in the armies of Spain and 
 Russia, entered that of Frederick the Great, 
 and greatly distinguished himself in the 
 Seven Years' war. Died at Hochkirch. 
 
 Keller, or Cellarius, Jacobus (6. 1568, 
 d. 1631), Jesuit; rector of the colleges of 
 Ratisbon and Munich successively, was con- 
 fessor to Albert of Bavaria, and was much 
 employed by the Emperor Maximilian. 
 
 KeUer, Gottfried {b. 1819, d. 1809), Ger- 
 man novelist aud poet, wrote Der griine 
 Heinrich (1854), etc. 
 
 Kellermann, Francois Christophe, Due 
 de Valmy {h. 1735, d. 1820), marshal of 
 France ; was appointed to the command of 
 the army of the Moselle in 1792, and, by his 
 victory over the Duke of Bruuswick at 
 Valmy, compelled the Prussians to retire 
 from France. In 1795 he was made com- 
 mander of the army of the Alps and Italy. 
 
 He afterwards served under Napoleon and 
 the Bourbons. 
 
 Kellermann, Fran9oi8 Etienne, Due de 
 Valmy {b. 1770, d. 1835), son of the pre- 
 ceding, served under his father; by his 
 charge at Marengo turned defeat into 
 victory ; fought xmder Jimot in Portugal, 
 1807-8, and negotiated the convention of 
 Cintra. 
 
 Kelley, or Talbot, Edward (6. 1555, d. 
 1595), alchemist, born at Worcester, edu- 
 cated at Oxford ; accompanied Dr. Dee to 
 Germany ; was imprisoned by the Emperor 
 Rodolph ; in attempting to escape received 
 a fall, from the effects of which he died. 
 
 KeUgrea, Johan Henrik (6. 1761, d. 1796), 
 a Swedish poet. 
 
 Kelly, Charles Henry (*. 1833), was 
 president of the Wesleyan Methodist Con- 
 ference in 1889. 
 
 KeUy, Sir Fitzroy (*. 1796, d. 1880), was 
 called to the bar in 1824 ; entered Parliament 
 in 1843 ; was Solicitor- General under Peel 
 (1845-6) and Lord Derby (1852), and 
 Attorney- General 1858-9. In 1866 he was 
 made Chief Baron of the Exchequer. 
 
 Kelly John {b. 1750, d. 1809), philologist, 
 bom at Douglas, translated the Bible into 
 Manx. He wrote a Grammar of the Manx 
 Language, and had nearly completed a 
 Triglot JDictionary of the Celtic Tongue 
 when it was destroyed by fire. 
 
 Kelly, Michael (*. 1762, d. 1826), vocaUst, 
 after performing ia Italy and Germany, 
 appeared at Drury Lane in 1787. He pub- 
 lished Reminiscences. 
 
 Kemball, General Sir Arnold Burrowes 
 (?/. 1820), held diplomatic posts in Persia 
 1842-55, when he became consul-general at 
 Bagdad ; distinguished himself in the Per- 
 sian war (1857) ; in 1875 was a commissioner 
 for determining the boundary between 
 Turkey and Persia. 
 
 Kembles, The, a celebrated family of 
 actors. (1) John Philip (b. 1757, d. 1823), 
 son of Roger Kemble, manager of a travel- 
 ling company, was educated for the Roman 
 Catholic priesthood. His first appearance 
 in London was in the character of Hamlet 
 at Drury Lane (^1783). He was manager of 
 Drury Lane 1788-1802, and part proprietor 
 of Covent Garden 1803-17. (2) Sarah 
 Kemble [Siddous]. (3) Chaeles {b. 1775, 
 d. 1854), educated at the college of Douay, 
 appeared at Drury Lane in 1794 as Malcolm 
 in Macbeth ; in 1803 joined his brother and 
 sister at Covent Garden, of which he was 
 manager for a short time in 1817 ; visited 
 the United States in 1832 ; retired from the 
 stage in 1840. (4) Frances Anna [b. 1811),
 
 Eem 
 
 ( 486 ) 
 
 Sen 
 
 daughter of Charles, appeared as Juliet at 
 Covent Garden in 1829. Among her chief 
 parts were Portia, Beatrice, and Julia in 
 The Runchbaek. In 1833 she married a 
 Mr. Butler. She has published Records of a 
 Girlhood (1878), Records of Later Life (1882), 
 etc. (5) Adelaide (6. 1820) established 
 her reputation as a singer in Italy, and 
 appeared as Norma at Covent Gai'deu in 
 1812, but retired from the stage on her 
 marriage in tihe following year. 
 
 Kemble, John Mitchell (/;. 1807, d. 1857), 
 Anglo-Saxon scholar, son of Charles Kemble, 
 the actor ; was educated at Cambridge ; 
 passed much of his life in Germany ; in 1839 
 conunenced the publication of his Codex 
 Diplomaticus -^vi Saxonici, on which to a 
 large extent wa;S based his history of The 
 Saxons in England (1849). 
 
 Kempe, Alfred Bray, F.R.S. [h. 1849), has 
 written some valuable papers on mathe- 
 matical subjects. 
 
 Eempe, John Edward (6. 1810), rural 
 dean of the diocese of London ; has intro- 
 duced into the Church of England monthly 
 conferences, in which both laymen and 
 clergy take part. 
 
 Kempenfelt, Richard {b. 1720, d. 1782), 
 admiral, son of a Swedish officer, who be- 
 came governor of Jersey ; served against 
 the French in the East Indies; in 1781 
 intercepted a French fleet on its way to the 
 West Indies; was drowned in the Roijal 
 George. 
 
 Kempis, Thomas a {b. 1379, d. 1471), bom 
 at Kempeu, in the diocese of Cologne, be- 
 came a monk in the priory of Mount St. 
 Agnes near ZwoU. As he was employed as 
 a copyist, it has been doubted whether the 
 Be Imitatione Christi was an original work. 
 According to some the real author was John 
 Gerson, chancellor of Paris. The subject 
 is stiU a matter of controversy. 
 
 Ken, Thomas {b. 1637, d. 1711), divine, 
 bom at Berkhampstead, educated at Win- 
 chester and Oxford ; became chaplain to 
 Charles II., who made him Bishop of Bath 
 and Wells in 1684 ; was one of the seven 
 bishops confined in the Tower for opposing 
 James II. in 1688, but refused to take the 
 oath of allegiance to William and Mary, 
 and was deprived in 1691. 
 
 Kendal, Margaret (b. 1848), actress, made 
 her debut as Miss Madge Robertson at the 
 Haymarket in 1865. 
 
 Kennan, George [b. 1845), author, a native 
 of Ohio, United States, has travelled exten- 
 sively in Siberia. 
 
 Kennedy, Professor Alexander Blackie 
 William {b. 1847), vice-president of the 
 
 Institute of Mechanical Engineers ; he has 
 made several important improvements in 
 engineering. 
 
 Kennedy, Captain Alexander William 
 Maxwell Clerk (6. 1851), an English tra- 
 veller and naturalist. 
 
 Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (6. 1804, d. 1889), 
 head-master of Shrewsbury, where, and at 
 Cambridge, he was educated; was ap- 
 pointed Regius professor of Greek at Cam- 
 bridge in 1867. 
 
 Kennedy, James {b. 1405, d. 1466), became 
 Bishop of Dunkeld in 1437 and of St. 
 Andrew's in 1440. He was one of the 
 council of regency during the minority of 
 James III. 
 
 Kennet, White (b. 1660, d. 1728), a Whig 
 partisan, became Bishop of Peterborough 
 in 1718. 
 
 Kenneth I., King of Scotland {d. 604), 
 began to reign in 558. 
 
 Kenneth II. {d. 854), became king in 823. 
 
 Kenneth III. (d. 994), son of Malcolm, 
 ascended the throne in 969. He was assas- 
 sinated. 
 
 Kennicott, Benjamin {b. 1718, d. 1783), 
 biblical critic, bom at Totnes ; went to Ox- 
 ford in 1744, and was elected to a fellowship 
 at Exeter College. He published the first 
 part of his Hebrew Bible in 1776, and the 
 second in 1780. 
 
 Kenrick, Peter Richard {b. 1806), Roman 
 Catholic Archbishop of St. Louis, Missouri, 
 has published The Holy House of Loretto, 
 Anglican Ordinations, etc. 
 
 Kent, H.R.H. Prince Edward Augustus, 
 Duke of (6. 1767, d. 1820), fourth son of 
 George III., married in 1818 Victoria Maria 
 Louisa, youngest daughter of the Duke of 
 Saxe-Coburg. From this marriage was 
 bom at Kensington Palace, May 24th, 
 1819, Alexandrina Victoria, now Queen of 
 England. 
 
 Kent, James {b. 1700, d. 1776), composer, 
 bom at Winchester, was organist of Win- 
 chester cathedral from 1737 to his death. 
 
 Kent, James, {b. 1763, d. 1847), American 
 jurist, pubUshed Commentaries on American 
 Law (1826-30), etc. 
 
 Kent, William (b. 1685, d. 1748), an Eng- 
 lish painter and architect, now remembered 
 only as having introduced a more natural 
 style of landscape-gardening. 
 
 Kent, WilHam Charles Mark (b. 1823), 
 poet and journalist, has published Poems 
 (1870), etc. 
 
 Kenyon, Lloyd, Lord {b. 1773, d. 1802),
 
 Eep 
 
 t487) 
 
 Kil 
 
 iudge, bom in Flintshire ; was called to the 
 bar in 1761 • distinguished himself by his 
 defence of Lord George Gordon (1780) ; wa^ 
 made Attorney -General in 1782, Master of 
 the RoUs in 1784, and Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench in 1788. 
 
 Kepler, Johann (J. 1571, d. 1630), astro- 
 nomer, born of poor parents at Wlirtemberg, 
 studied at Tubingen under Mffisthn; m 
 1593 became professor of astrouomjr at 
 Gratz; in 1600 visited Tycho Brahe at 
 Pra<Tue, became his assistant, and on His 
 death (1601) was appointed mathematician 
 to the Emperor Rodolph. He was after- 
 wards professor at Linz, aud tmally at 
 Rostock. He died at Ratisbon. Two of 
 Kepler's laws— that enunciatmg the elhptic 
 form of the planetary orbits, and that ot 
 the "equable description of areas — ^e 
 contained in Astronomia Nova (1609). His 
 third law, that the squares of the penodic 
 times of the planets are as the cubes of their 
 mean distances, is to be found m the Mar- 
 monice Mundi (1619). 
 
 Keppel, Augustus, Viscount [b. 1725, d 
 1786)T admiral, son of WQUam, Earl of 
 Albemarle ; ia consequence of an indecisive 
 action with the French fleet off Ushant 
 (1778) was tried by court-martial, but ac- 
 quitted. 
 
 Keppel, Admiral the Hon. Sir Henry (*. 
 1809), distinguished himself in the Chma 
 war (1857). 
 
 K^ratry, fimile, Uomte de (6. 1832), during 
 the Mexican war was officer of ordnance to 
 Marshal Bazaiue, whom he afterwards ac- 
 cused in the Revue Contemporame and the 
 Jievue Modeme. 
 
 Kergu6len Tr^marec, Yves Joseph de 
 (b. 1745, d. 1797), French naval officer ; in 
 1771 led an exploring expedition to the 
 South Sea, and discovered the territory 
 afterwards named Kerguelen Land by Look. 
 
 Kern, J. Conrad (6. 1808), Swiss states- 
 man • in 1838 successfully withstood the 
 French demand for the extradition of Prmce 
 Louis Napoleon. 
 
 Kemer, Andreas Justinus {b. 1786. d. 
 1802), a German poet of the " Suabian 
 School." 
 
 Kerr, Robert (b. 1823), an architect, bom 
 at Edinburgh. 
 
 Kersaint, Gui Pierre {b. 1742, d. 1793), 
 French naval officer and political writer; 
 took part in the revolution, and was guil- 
 lotined. 
 
 Kervyn de Lettenhove, Joseph Marie 
 Bruno Constantin, Baron («. 1817), French 
 statesman and historian; has published 
 
 itude sur le Chroniques de Froissart, Lea 
 Huguenots et les Gueux, etc. 
 
 Kett, William id. 1549), a tanner of Nor- 
 folk, headed a rismg in the reign of Edward 
 VI The rebels were routed by the Earl ot 
 Warwick, and Kett perished on the gaUows. 
 
 Kettle, Sir Rupert Alfred {b. 1817), settled 
 the builders' strike in Wolverhampton in 
 1864 by means of a board of arbitration, aiid 
 afterwards extended the system to other 
 trades. 
 
 Key, Thomas Hewitt (*. 1799, d. 1875), 
 philologist, wrote Language : %ts Origin and 
 Development (1874). 
 
 Khosnil. [Chosroes], "Nashirvan," King 
 of Persia, ascended the throne m 531 ; in 
 540 augao-ed in a war with Justiman, and, 
 after devastating Syria, imposed on the em- 
 peror a truce of tifty years, by which the 
 latter became tributary to hun (ot)2). in 
 570 he made war on Justinus 11., but was 
 defeated at Melitene (576). 
 
 Khosra II. [Chosroes], called "Purviz" 
 (d 628), grandson of the preceding, was 
 declared king in 590; invaded the Eastern 
 Empire in 602, subdued Syna m 611, 
 Palestine in 614, aud Egypt and Asia Minor 
 in 616. In 622 HeracUus led an army 
 against him, and between that year and 
 628 won back all the conquered provmces. 
 Khosru was murdered by his son, Shiroueh. 
 
 Kidd, George Hugh {b. 1824), a distin- 
 guished surgeon, founder and president ot 
 the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland. 
 
 Kiepert, Heiurich (*. 1818), German geo- 
 grapher, has published an Atlas oj Greece, 
 Biblical Atlas, etc. 
 
 KUdare, Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th Earl of 
 (d 1513), became lord-deputy of Ireland in 
 1478 • was concerned in the nsmgs of Lam- 
 bert Simuel and Perkin Warbeck, attamted 
 in a parUament at Drogheda, and sent as 
 a prisoner to London, but pardoned. He 
 afterwards served the king loyally m Ire- 
 land. 
 
 KHdare, Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th Earl of 
 (d. 1534), was appointed lord-deputy of Ire- 
 land in 1515. He was deprived of the office 
 in 1520, but, in spite of repeated efforts to 
 incite the Irish against the Enghsh, held it 
 again 1524-7, and was sole deputy in lo.ii. 
 iS consequence of the anarchy which fol- 
 lowed his reappointment, he was smnmoued 
 to England, and imprisoned m the lower, 
 where he died. 
 
 Killan, the name of a family of German 
 eneravers, who resided at Augsburg, ihe 
 most distinguished was Philip Andbeas (6. 
 1714, d. 1759), who became court engraver 
 to Augustus III. of Poland.
 
 Eil 
 
 (488) 
 
 Kir 
 
 TTillaTi , Saint, Bishop of Wiirzburg, a 
 native of Ireland, who in the 7th century 
 laboured as a missionary among the Thur- 
 iugiaus. 
 
 KilUgrew, the name of a family who 
 became famous through their devotion to 
 the cause of Charles I. Thomas (6. 1611, 
 d. 1684) was on such familiar terms with 
 Charles II. that he was called " King 
 Charles's Jester." His niece, Annb {b. 
 1660, d. 1685), was a skilful painter, and 
 wrote elegant verses. 
 
 Kimberley, Joseph Wodehouse, Earl (b. 
 1826), grandson of the second Baron Wode- 
 house; was Lord -Lieutenant of Inland 
 1864-6, Lord Privy Sea] 1868-70, Colonial 
 Secretary 1870-4 and 1880-2, and Secretary 
 for India 1882-5, and again in 1892. 
 
 KimcM, the name of a learned Jewish 
 family, who lived in Provence during the 
 12th and 13th centuries. Joseph Kimchi 
 and his son, Moses, were celebrated biblical 
 critics ; but the most distinguished member 
 of the family was David (d. circa 1240), who 
 wrote commentaries on the Old Testament 
 and a Hebrew grammar and dictionary. 
 
 Kinaston, or Kjraaaton, Sir Francis (b. 
 circa 1588, d. 1642), poet; wrote Leoli)ie and 
 Si/danis, etc. 
 
 King, Edward (6, 1829), educated at 
 Oxford, was appointed principal of Guddes- 
 don College in 1863 ; became canon of Christ 
 Church and professor of pastoral theology 
 in 1873, was appointed Bishop of Lincoln 
 in 1885. He is a prominent member of the 
 High Church party. 
 
 King, Henry (b. 1591, d. 1639), Bishop of 
 Chichester, wrote Poems and Sermons. 
 
 King, Peter, Baron {b. 1669, d. 1743), 
 statesman and ecclesiastical writer, born at 
 Exeter, entered Parliament in 1701 ; be- 
 came Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in 
 1715 ; was Lord Chancellor 1725-33. 
 
 King, WilHam {b. 1650, d. 1729), Irish 
 divine, became Bishop of Derry in 1691, 
 and of Dublin in 1703. He wrote Be 
 Origine Mali, etc. 
 
 Kinglake, Alexander William (*. 1811, 
 d. 1891), historian, bom at Taunton, edu- 
 cated at Cambridge ; was called to the bar 
 in 1837 : represented Bridgewater in Parlia- 
 ment 1857-G8. His works are Ed then 
 (1844), and the History of the }Far in the 
 Crimea (1863-87). 
 
 Kingsborougli, Edward Ejng, Viscount 
 (6. 1795, d. 1837), son of George, 3rd Earl 
 of Kingston, wrote The Antiquities of 
 Mexico (1831). 
 
 Kingsley, Charles (A. 1819, d. 1875), 
 
 novelist, poet, and divine, bom in Devon- 
 shire, educated at Cambridge ; was appointed 
 rector of Eversley, Hants, in 1844 ; was 
 Regius professor of modem history at Cam- 
 bridge 1859-69; held a canonry at Chester 
 cathedral 1869-73, when he was made 
 canon of Westminster. In 1848 Kingsley 
 published a drama. The Sainfs Tragedi/. 
 His first novel, Alton Locke (1849), was 
 followed by Yeast (1851), Hypatia (18531, 
 Westward Ho! (1855), Two Years Ago 
 (1857), Hereward the Wake (1866). He also 
 wrote a volume of Village Hermons (1844), 
 etc. 
 
 Kingsley, Henry (6. 1830, d. 1876), 
 novelist, brother of the preceding, wrote 
 Ravenshoe (1861), etc. 
 
 Kingston, William Henry Giles {b. 1814, 
 d. 1880), a popular writer of tales for boys. 
 
 Kipling, Rudyard (6. 1864), novelist, 
 born in Bombay, has published Plain Taka 
 from the Hills, The Light that Failed, etc. 
 
 Kippis, Andrew {b. 1725, d. 1795), Dis- 
 senting minister, wi'ote a Vindication of the 
 iJisscnters, and other works, and published 
 five volumes of a new edition of the 
 Biographia Britannica. 
 
 Klrby, John Joshua (6. 1716, d. 1774), a 
 painter, bom in Suffolk. His Treatise on 
 Firspective attracted the notice of the Earl 
 of Bute, through whose influence he became 
 clerk of the works at Kew. 
 
 Kirby, Tobias {b. 1803), Roman Catholic 
 prelate, became rector of the Irish College 
 m 1850 ; was made Bishop of Lita in 1881. 
 
 Kirby, William {b. 1759, d. 1850). ento- 
 mologist, was rector of Barbara, in Suffolk, 
 1796-13,30. He wrote British Bees (1802), 
 an Introduction to Entomology (1815-26), 
 etc. 
 
 Kircher, Athanasius (fi. 1601, d. 1680), a 
 Jesuit, born near Fulda, in Germany, 
 studied at Wurzburg and Avignon ; becanae 
 professor of Hebrew in the Jesuit college at 
 Rome. He wrote (Edipus yEgi/ptiaciis, on 
 the hieroglyphics, Musurgia Universalis, etc. 
 
 Kirk, Sir John (*. 1832), accompanied 
 Livingstone's second expedition as natu- 
 ralist; was afterwards English consul at 
 Zanzibar. He induced the Sultan of Zan- 
 zibar to sign a treaty for suppressing the 
 slave trade. 
 
 Kirkaldy, Sir William, of Grange id. 
 1573), Scottish soldier, joined the Lords of the 
 Congregation (1559), pursued Both well to 
 the coast of Norway (1566), fought against 
 Mary at Langside, and was made governor 
 of Edinburgh Castle. He was afterwards 
 won over to the queen's side, and, after the
 
 Kir 
 
 (489) 
 
 Xne 
 
 capture of the castle by Morton, was put to 
 death. 
 
 Eirke, Colonel Percy, commanded the 
 troops in the west after Monmouth's re- 
 bellion, and gained an evil notoriety by his 
 cruel treatment of his supporters. 
 
 Kirkpatrick, Alexander Francis (b. 1849), 
 was appointed Regius professor of Hebrew 
 at Cambridge in 1882. 
 
 Kisfaludy, Sandor (b. 1772, d. 1844), 
 Hungarian poet, wrote I£itnft/''s Love, 
 Legends of the Olden Time in Hungary, 
 etc. 
 
 "Kisi, August {b. 1802, d. 1865), a German 
 sculptor. His chief work is the Amazon 
 attacked by a Panther, in Berlin. 
 
 Kitchin, George WUliam {b. 1827), be- 
 came Dean of Winchester in 1883. He has 
 pubhshed a History of France previous to 
 the Itevolution (1873-7). 
 
 Kitto, John (6. 1804, d. 1854), BibUcal 
 scholar, son of a Plymouth mason ; pub- 
 lished The Pictorial Hmtory of Palestine, a 
 Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature, etc. 
 
 Klapka, Georg (6. 1820, d. 1892), Hun- 
 garian general, bom at Temeswar, distin- 
 guished himself in the Hungarian war of 
 Independence (1849). He held out after his 
 feUow-cornmanders had laid down their 
 arms, and, when he at last capitulated, was 
 allowed to leave the country. He has since 
 resided chiefly in Switzerland. He has pub- 
 lished My War in Htmgary (1850), and The 
 War in the East from 1853 to 1855 (1855), 
 
 Elaproth, Heinrich Julius von (A. 1783, d. 
 1835), traveller and OrientaUst, son of 
 Martin Heinrich Klaproth, pubhshed Tra- 
 vels in the Caucasus and Georgia, Asia Poly- 
 glotta, etc. 
 
 Klaproth, Martin Heinrich (5. 1743, d. 
 1817), i^rofessor of chemistry at Berlin; 
 made many important discoveries, including 
 those of uranium, mellitic acid, and the 
 earth zirconia. He wrote a System of 
 Minei-alogy, etc. 
 
 Kl^ber, Jean BaptLste (*. 1754, d. 1800), 
 distinguished himself in the wars of the 
 French revolution, and under the Directory 
 befame commander of the army of the 
 Sambre and Meuse. He went to Egypt 
 with Napoleon, and on his departure re- 
 mained behind as commander-in-chief. He 
 captured Cairo, and entered into an alliance 
 with Murat Bey, but was assassinated by 
 an Arab. 
 
 Klein, Bemhard {b. 1794, d. 1832), German 
 composer, was musical director and pro- 
 fessor of singing in the university of Berlin. 
 HIb chief works are the oratorios of Job, 
 
 Jephthah, and David ; Dido, an opera; and 
 Die Worte des Glaubens, a cantata. 
 
 _Kleist, Ewald Christian von {b. 1715, d. 
 1759), poet, bom in Pomerania, wrote 
 idylls, a descriptive poem called Spring, etc. 
 He was slain in the battle of Kunersdorf. 
 
 Kleist, Heinrich Wilhehn von [b. 1777, d. 
 1811), poet, bom at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
 wrote Robert Guiscard, Amphitryon, Prinz 
 Heinrich von Hamburg, Kdthchen von Heil- 
 bronn, and other dramas. 
 
 Klenze, Leo von {b. 1784, d. 1864), Ger- 
 man architect, bom at Hildesheim, studied 
 in Berlin, Paris, and Italy. In 1815 he be 
 came architect to Maximilian I. of Bavaria. 
 His finest buildings are at Munich. They 
 are imitated from Greek models, though 
 much of the detail is original. 
 
 Klingenstiema, Samuel (A. 1689, d. 1785), 
 educated at Upsala ; was professor of mathe- 
 matics in that university (1730-85). He made 
 important discoveries concerning optics. 
 
 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb (b. 1724, 
 d. 18u3), German poet, bom at Quedlinburg, 
 educated in his native town and the univer- 
 sity of Jena ; paid a visit to Switzerland in 
 1750 ; while there was invited by Baron 
 BemstorfE to Copenhagen, where he re- 
 mained till 1771, when he went to Ham- 
 burgh as Danish legate. Besides his famous 
 epic. The Messiah, which occupied him from 
 1747 to 1773, he wrote a large number of 
 odes. 
 
 Klotz, Christian Adolph {b. 1738, d. 1771), 
 German scholar and critic, professor of 
 philosophy at Gottingen, and afterwards at 
 Halle ; wrote treatises on coins, ancient 
 gems, and paintings. 
 
 Kluit, Adrian {b. 1735, d. 1795), professor 
 at Leyden : wrote a history of the political 
 affairs of Holland. 
 
 Kmety, Georg {b. 1810, d. 1865), during 
 the Hungarian war of Independence held a 
 command vmder Gorgt y on the Upper 
 Danube, and afterwards took a prominent 
 part in the operations of the south. He 
 subsequently entered the Turkish army, 
 and during the Crimean war took part with 
 Sir F. Williams in the heroic defence of 
 Kars. He died in London. 
 
 Knapp, Albert (b. 1798, d. 1864), a German 
 writer of religious hymns. 
 
 Knaus, Ludwig (b. 1829), a German 
 painter, bom at Wiesbaden. 
 
 Kneller, Sir Godfrey {b. circa 1648, d. 
 1723), portrait-painter, bom at Liibeck ; 
 settled in England iu 1074, and held the 
 office of royal painter under five successive 
 sovereigns. Among his chief works are
 
 Eni 
 
 ( 490) 
 
 Eom 
 
 The KU-Cat Club, a series of forty-three por- 
 traits, and the Beauties of Hampton Court. 
 
 Knight, Charles (6. 1790, d. 1873), pub- 
 lisher: started The Penny Magazine {lV>2>2-Ab), 
 and other works intended to diffuse a taste 
 for high-class literature. He wrote The 
 Biography of Shakespeare, edited Shake- 
 speare, etc. 
 
 Knight, John Prescott, R.A, (6. 1803, d. 
 1S81), portrait-painter, was secretary to the 
 Eoyal Academy from 1848 to 1873. 
 
 Knight, Richai-d Payne (6. 1748, d. 1824), 
 a writer on classical antiquity. He be- 
 queathed his collection of antique bronzes, 
 medals, and paintings to the British Mu- 
 seimi. 
 
 Knighton, Henry, an historian of the 
 latter part of the 14th century ; wrote a 
 Chronicle, extending from 950 to 1390, also 
 an account of the deposition of Richard II. 
 
 Knighton, Wilham {b. 1834), has published 
 a History of Ceylon, etc. 
 
 KnoUer, Martin von (6. 1725, d. 1804), a 
 German fresco-painter. 
 
 Knolles, or Knowles, Sir Robert (6. circa 
 1317, d. 1407), a captain of free companies ; 
 distinguished himself in the wars of Edward 
 III. 
 
 Knollis, or Knowles, Sir Francis (6. circa 
 1530, d. 1596), statesman; withdrew to the 
 Continent during the reign of Mary, re- 
 turned on the accession of Elizabeth, and 
 was appointed vice-chamberlain and after- 
 wards treasurer. He wrote a treatise on 
 The Usurpation of Fai al Bishops, ete. j 
 
 Knott, Edward {b. 1580, d. 1656), a i 
 Jesuit, bom in Northumberland, whose 
 real name was Matthias Wilson. He be- 
 came provincial of his order in England. 
 His Infidelity Unmasked (1652) was a reply 
 to Chillingworth's Religion of Protestants. 
 
 Knowles, James (fi. 1831), architect and 
 man of letters; edited the Contemporary 
 Review from 1870 to 1877, when he started 
 the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 Knowles, James Sheridan (6. 1784, d. 
 1862), dramatist, wrote Virginius (1820), 
 The Hunchback (1832), and other dramas. i 
 
 Knox, John (6. 1505, d. 1572), bom at 
 Gifford in East Lothian, educated at Had- | 
 dington grammar school and the univer- : 
 sities of Glasgow and St. Andrew's ; was 
 ordained priest before 1530 ; embraced the 
 reformed doctrines about 1542 ; in conse- 
 quence of the persecution to which he was 
 subjected took refuge in the castle of St. 
 Andrew's (1547) ; was a prisoner in France 
 1547-9; in 1549 came to England, where he 
 
 exercised much influence on the course of 
 the Reformation ; during the reign of Mary 
 resided chiefly in Switzerland. In 1559 he 
 returned to Scotland, and so inflamed the 
 jieople by his sermons against the Romish 
 Church that riots took place in Perth, Stir- 
 ling, and other towns. Throughout the 
 religious struggle which ensued Knox was 
 the leading spirit of the extreme Protestant 
 party and the bitter opponent of the queen. 
 Of his writings the best known are The 
 First Blast of the Trumpet (1558), and a 
 History of the Reformation of Scotland. 
 
 Knox, Robert Bent (6. 1808), became 
 Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ire- 
 land in 1876. 
 
 Knox, Vicesimus (b. 1752, d. 1821), was 
 headmaster of Tunbridge grammar school 
 1778-1811. He published Essays, Moral and 
 Literary, a treatise on Liberal Education, etc. 
 
 Knutsford, Henry Thurstan Holland, 
 Lord {b. 1825), son of Sir Henry Holland ; 
 entered Parliament in 1874 ; became 
 Colonial Secretary in 1887 ; was raised to 
 the peerage in 1888. 
 
 Kobell, Ferdinand (6. 1740, d. 1799), a 
 German painter and etcher. 
 
 Koch, Joseph Anton (&. 1768, d. 1839), 
 German painter, lived chiefly at Rome. He 
 excelled in landscape. 
 
 Koch, Karl Heinrich Emmanuel {b. 1809, 
 d. 1879), German naturalist and scientific 
 explorer; published^ Journey Across Russia 
 to the Isthmus of the Caucasus (1842-3), 
 TFanderings in the East, describing ms 
 travels in Turkey and Armenia (1846-7), 
 and Dendrology (1875). 
 
 Koch, Robert, M.D. (6. 1843), bom in the 
 Harz Mountains ; between 1879 and 1883 
 succeeded in identifying the germs of cattle 
 disease, of consumption, and of cholera. 
 In 1884 he established the existence of a 
 bacterium as the cause of cholera. _ In 
 1885 he was appointed professor of hygiene 
 at Berlin ; in 1890 brought out a lymph for 
 the cure of consumption. 
 
 Kock, Charies Paul de {b. 1794, d. 1871), 
 French novelist, wrote Le Barbier de Paris, 
 A))dre le Savoyard, etc. 
 
 Kolbe, or Kolben, Peter (6. 1674, d. 1726), 
 German traveller : wrote a Description of 
 the Cape of Good Hope (1719). 
 
 Kollar, Jan {b. 1793, d. 1852), Hungarian 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, became pro- 
 fessor of archaeology in the university of 
 Vienna in 1849. He was an ardent advocate 
 of " Panslavism." 
 
 Komaroff, General Alexander (6. 1830), 
 commanded the Russian troops at the time
 
 Eon 
 
 (491) 
 
 Em 
 
 of the difficulties respecting the Afghan 
 frontier (1884). The incident at Penjdeh, 
 when the Afghans were routed by his 
 troops, nearly occasioned a war between 
 England and Russia. 
 
 Konig, Friedrich (6. 1775, d. 1833), 
 the inventor of the steam printing-press, 
 was born at Eisleben. He came to England 
 in 1806. His invention was first adopted in 
 1811, when a sheet of the Annual Register 
 was turned out in this manner. 
 
 Komer, Karl Theodor (6. 1791, d. 1813), 
 German poet, bom in Dresden. On the 
 outbreak of war with Franco he entered the 
 Prussian army, and was slain in an engage- 
 ment near Schwerin. His war songs were 
 published after his death under tie title 
 Lexer und Schwert. 
 
 Kosciusko, Tadeusz (h. 1746, d. 1817), 
 Polish patriot, went to America and be- 
 came aide-de-camp to Washington ; in 1789 
 received the appointment of major-general 
 in the Polish army ; distinguished himself 
 in the campaign of 1792, especially at the 
 battle of Dubienka ; after the submission of 
 Stanislaus retired to Leipzig ; on the out- 
 break of the second Polish rising, in 1794, 
 was chosen commander-in-chief ; although 
 scantily supplied with troops, succeeded in 
 expelling the Russians from Poland, but 
 was finally overwhelmed at Maceiowice in 
 October. He was imprisoned in a fortress 
 near St. Petersburg, but released on the 
 accession of the Emperor Paul. In 1798 he 
 settled in France. He died at Soleure, in 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Kosegarten, Johann Gottfried Ludwig 
 (h. 1792, d. 1862), German Orientalist, pro- 
 fessor at Jena (1817-24) and Greifswald 
 (1824-62), edited and translated the Kitab- 
 el-Aghany (1840). 
 
 Kossuth, Lotiis (b. 1802), Hungarian 
 patriot ; in 1847 was returned to the Diet as 
 deputy for Pesth ; became leader of the 
 party of reform ; held the office of minister 
 of finance in the new Hungarian ministry, 
 and after its fall was made president of the 
 Committee of National Defence. In April, 
 1849, the Hungarians declared themselves 
 independent, and Kossuth earned on the 
 government from Debreczin, and after- 
 wards from Szegedin ; but, finding it impos- 
 sible to act in conjunction with Gorgey, he 
 resigned in August, 1849. The ill-success 
 of his countrymen in the field compelled 
 him soon afterwards to flee to Turkey, 
 whence he removed to England i.a 1851. 
 Of late years he has lived chiefly in Italy. 
 
 Kotzebue, August Friedrich Ferdinand von 
 {h. 1761, d. 1819), German man of letters; 
 iu 1781 was attached to the Prussian emV)assy 
 at St. Petersburg ; afterwards entered the 
 
 Russian service, and in 1817 was sent by 
 the Tzar as consul-general to Prussia. His 
 Russian sympathies made him unpopular in 
 Germany, and led to his assassination. His 
 works embrace a wide range of subjects. 
 
 Krantz, Albert {b. circa 1450, d. 1517), 
 bom at Hamburg; wrote a Chronicle of the 
 Kingdoms of Denmark, Streden, and Norway, 
 a History of Saxony, a History of the 
 Ancient Vandals, etc. 
 
 Krapotkine, Prince Peter (i. 1842), Rus- 
 sian Nihilist ; m 1871 went to Belgium and 
 Switzerland ; became an Internationalist ; 
 after his return to Russia, lectured under 
 assumed names ; was imprisoned, but es- 
 caped to Switzerland ; has since taken part 
 in the agitation carried on throughout 
 Europe against existing social arrange- 
 ments. 
 
 Krehl, Ludolf {b. 1826), Arabic scholar, 
 has edited Bukhary's Corpus of Mahotnmedan 
 Tradition. 
 
 Kremer, Alfred von [h. 1828), Orientalist ; 
 was consul at Cairo (1859), Galatz (1862), 
 and Beyrout (1870-72), in succession. His 
 chief works are The Leading Ideas of Islam, 
 and a History of Eastern Civilisation under 
 the Khalifs. 
 
 Kreutzer, Conradin {b. 1782, d. 1849), Ger- 
 man musician; resided at Vienna 1804-38, 
 when he became kapellmeister at Cologne. 
 He died at Vienna. JHis chief works are 
 Das Nachtlager in Granada, and Der Fersck- 
 wender. 
 
 Kreutzer, Rudolf {b. 1767, d. 1831), a 
 violinist and musical composer. 
 
 KrilofiF, Ivan Andreevitch {b. 1768, d. 
 1844), a celebrated Russian fabulist. 
 
 Kriidener, Barbara Juliana, Baroness 
 von {b. 1766, d. 1824), religious visionary, 
 daughter of the Count von Wietinghotf, 
 governor of Riga ; iu her fifteenth year was 
 married to Baron von Kriidener: in 1805 
 appeared iu Paris, where she proclaimed the 
 approach of the millennium, predicted the 
 fall of Napoleon, and exercised considerable 
 influence over the Emperor Alexander ; was 
 expelled from several European countries 
 in succession, and finally withdrew to the 
 Crimea, where she founded an institution 
 for the reformation of criminals. 
 
 Kriiger, S. J. Paul (b. 1825), Boer states- 
 man ; formed with Joubert and Pretorius a 
 provisional government (December, 1881), 
 and shortly afterwards became president of 
 the Transvaal : held this office during the 
 war with England ; was re-elected in 1883 
 and 1888. 
 
 Knimmactier, Friedrich Adolf (6. 1768,
 
 Krn 
 
 (492 
 
 IiaC 
 
 d. 1845), German divine, -wrote Farables, 
 etc. His son, Feiedeich Wilhelm {b. 
 1796, d. 1868), was the author of Elijah the 
 Tishbite, and other works. 
 
 Knipp, Friedrich (6. 1812, d. 1887), a 
 German metal-founder, the inventor of the 
 gigantic steel guns which bear his name. 
 
 Kublai Klian (Chi-Tsou) {d. 1294), son of 
 Tuly Khan and grandson of Jenghis Khan, 
 became Khagan, or Grand Khan, of the 
 Moguls in 1259. He expelled the Kin 
 dynasty from Northern China in 1260, and 
 completed his conquest of the country by 
 the overthrow of the Song dynasty in 
 Southern China (1279). His empire ex- 
 tended from the Arctic Ocean to the Straits 
 of Malacca and from Corea to Asia Minor. 
 
 Euenen, Abraham (fi. 1828, d. 1891), pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew and the Old Testament at 
 Leyden ; has written a. Historico-Ci'itical In- 
 vestigation into the Origin and Collection of 
 the Old Testament Books, part of which was 
 translated into English by Bishop Colenso. 
 
 Kugler, Franz Theodor (i. 1808, d. 1858), 
 
 a German writer on the fine arts, became 
 professor at Berlin in 1833. His chief work 
 18 a Manual of the History of Fainting. 
 
 Kunckel, Johann (b. 1630, d. 1703), Ger- 
 man chemist, bom in Sleswick, made im- 
 portant discoveries, including that of the 
 phosphorus which bears his name. He died 
 at Stjckholm. 
 
 Kuster, LudoU {b. 1670, d. 1716), classical 
 scholar, born in Westphalia, came to Eng- 
 land in 1699. He was subsequently pro- 
 fessor at Berlin, whence he removed to 
 Holland. His works include editions of 
 Suidas, Aristophanes, and lamblichus's Life 
 of Pythagoras. 
 
 Eutusow, Michael, Prince of Smolenskoi 
 {b. 1745, d. 1813), Russian field-marshal, led 
 the allied forces at AusterUtz (1805) ; in 
 1812 was given the chief command against 
 Napoleon, and gained a brilliant victory at 
 Smolensk. 
 
 Kyrle, John {b. 1664, d. 1724), a philan- 
 thropist, born at Ross in Herefordshire, the 
 hero of Pope's Man of Boss. 
 
 Laar, or Laer, Pieter van, " Bamboccio " 
 (J. 1613, d. circa 1648), Dutch artist, ex- 
 celled in depicting country sports and 
 festivals. 
 
 Laban, son of Bethuel, was father of Leah 
 and Rachel. 
 
 Labiche, Eugene Marin {b. 1815, d. 1888), 
 French dramatist; wrote Embrassons-nous 
 (1850), Le Voyage de Monsieur Perrichon 
 (I860), etc. 
 
 Lablache, Louis {b. 1794, d. 1858), actor 
 and singer, of French extraction, bom at 
 
 Naples. 
 
 Laborde, Alexandre L. J., Comte de {b. 
 1774, d. 1842), accompanied Lucien Bona- 
 parte to Spain in 1800 ; wrote Voyage Pit- 
 toresque et Historique en Espagne, and other 
 works ; took part in the revolution of 1830. 
 
 Laborde, Jean Benjamin de {b. 1734, d. 
 1794), French author and musical composer; 
 wrote an Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et 
 Moderne, and other works. 
 
 Labouchere, Henry (&. 1831), was in the 
 diplomatic service from 1854 to 1864 ; sat in 
 Parliament for Windsor (1865-66), and 
 for Middlesex (1867-68) , since lfi80 has 
 
 represented Northampton. He started Truth 
 
 in 1877. 
 
 La Bourdonnais, Bertr^md Francois Mah6 
 de {b. 1699, d. circa 1753), officer in the 
 French East India Company ; was appointed 
 governor of Bourbon and the Isle de France 
 in 1734 ; took Madras from the English in 
 1746, but was recalled and imprisoned for 
 three years in the Bastille. 
 
 Labrunie, Gerard de Nerval {b. 1808, d. 
 1845), au eccentric French man of letters ; 
 translated Faust. 
 
 La Bniyfere, Jean de (b. 1644, d. 1696), 
 French writer, bom near Dourdan ; author 
 of Lcs Caracteres de Theophraste (1688). 
 Through his friendship with Bossuet he be- 
 came tutor to a son of the Prince de Cond^. 
 
 LacaiUe, Nicholas L. de {b. 1713, d. 1762), 
 French mathematician and astronomer. 
 
 Lacep^de, Bernard de la Ville, Comte 
 de (i. 1756, d. 1825), French naturalist, 
 bom at Agen ; wrote a Histoire des Cetaces 
 (1804), etc. 
 
 La Chaise, or La Chaize d'Aix, Francois 
 de (6. 1624, d. 1709), a French Jesuit, con- 
 fessor to Louis XIV.
 
 Xac 
 
 (493) 
 
 Xai 
 
 Lachma.Tin, Karl Konrad Friedrich Wil- 
 helm (J). 1793, d. 1851), German philologist, 
 professor at Berliu in 1827 ; published essays 
 on the Iliad aud the Xiebelungenlied, etc. 
 
 La Condamine, Charles Marie de (6. 1701, 
 d. 1774), French man of science, went with 
 Bouguer to Peru in 1736 ; on his return, 
 published an Account of a Journey in South 
 America (1745), and The Figure of the Earth 
 Deter mined (1749). 
 
 Lacordalre, Jean Baptiste Henri (b. 1802, 
 d. 1861), French preacher, educated at the 
 Dijon Lycee ; abandoned the bar for the 
 church ; was ordained priest, 1827 ; became 
 joint-editor with Lamennais of the demo- 
 cratic and Ultramontane L'Avenir, but, on 
 its condemnation by the pope (1832) sub- 
 mitted to the church ; was lectui-er at Notre 
 Dame 1835-6 ; entered the Dominican order 
 in 1839 ; started UEre Nouvelle in 1848 ; be- 
 came master of the college at Soreze in 1854. 
 
 Lacroix, Paul (6. 1806, d. 1884), French 
 novehst, historian, and art-critic. 
 
 Lactantius, Lucius Coelius Firmianus {b. 
 circa 250, d. circa 325), Latin Father, pupil 
 of Amobius ; probably bom in Africa ; was 
 converted to Christianity about 300 ; taught 
 rhetoric, and had among his pupils Crispus, 
 son of the Emperor Constantine. His chief 
 work is Institutiones Divince. 
 
 Laelius, Caius (b. circa 235, d. circa 165 
 B.C.), Roman general, accompanied Scipio 
 African us to Spain in 210 ; defeated Syphax, 
 King of the Masssesylians (203) ; was consul 
 in 190. 
 
 Lselius, Caius, Sapiens (d. circa 185, d. 
 circa 115 B.C.), son of the preceding, accom- 
 panied Scipio Africanus t» the siege of 
 Carthage ; imbibed the doctrines of Stoicism 
 from Diogenes of Babylon and Panagtius ; 
 was consul in 140 ; opposed the Gracchi. 
 
 Laennec, Rene Thfeodore Hyacinthe {b. 
 1781, d. 1826), French physician; invented 
 the stethoscope. 
 
 Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roche Yves 
 Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de (b. 1757, d. 
 1834), educated at the college of Plessis; 
 took part in the American war of Inde- 
 pendence, and was entrusted by Washington 
 with the defence of Virginia ; was one of 
 the earliest leaders in the French revolution, 
 presenting his Declaration of Jiitj/it.s to the 
 Coustituent Assembly, and receiving the 
 com.mand of the National Guard in July, 
 1789; retained tliis post till 1791, but, by 
 opposing mob violence, excited the animosity 
 of the Jacobins, which was increased by his 
 letter denouncing the clubs (June, 1792). 
 After vainly attempting to make his presence 
 felt in Paris, he fled over the frontier, but 
 was captured by the Austriaus (August, 
 
 1792), and remained in prison tiU released 
 by Napoleon in 1797. After holding office 
 under the Bourbons, he took part in raising 
 Louis PhiUppe to the throne (1830), but 
 afterwards opposed his government. 
 
 Laffltte, Jacques (6. 1767, d. 1844), French 
 financier and politician ; was governor of the 
 Bank of France in 1814 ; was president of 
 the Assembly which offered the throne to 
 Louis PhiUppe, under whom he became 
 minister of finance and president of the 
 Council, but resigned in 1831. 
 
 La Fontaine, Jean de (6. 1621, d. 1695), 
 French author ; bom at Chateau-Thierry, 
 resided many years in Paris. Besides the 
 Fables, published in three parts (1668, 
 1679, 1693), he wrote Contes et Nouvelles 
 (1665-66-71), &u^ Les Amours de Fsyche et de 
 Cupidon (1669). 
 
 Lagomarsini, Girolamo (b. 1698, d. 1773), 
 Jesuit philologist, professor of Greek in the 
 college at Rome. 
 
 Lagrange, Joseph Louis, Count [b. 1736, 
 d. 1813), mathematician, of French ex- 
 traction, bom at Tm-in ; became professor 
 of mathematics in that town at the age of 
 nineteen. In 1766 he succeeded Euler as 
 director of the academy of Berlin. Re- 
 moving to Paris in 1787, he remained there 
 during the revolution, and was afterwards 
 patronised by Napoleon. 
 
 Laguerre, Louis {b. 1663, d. 1721), French 
 painter, came to England in 1683. 
 
 La Harpe, Jean Fran<^ois de (6. 1739, d. 
 1803), French author and critic, educated at 
 the College d'Harcourt, His chief work is 
 his Cours de Litterature, lectures deUvered 
 at the Lycde in 1 786 and the following years. 
 He took part in the French revolution, but 
 during an imprisonment in the Bastille hia 
 views underwent a change. 
 
 La Hire, Philippe de {b. 1640, d. 1719), 
 French mathematician and engineer. 
 
 Lainez, or Laynez, Jago [b. 1512, d. 1565), 
 born in Castile ; was one of the earliest 
 disciples of Loyola, and succeeded him as 
 general of the Jesuits in 1558. He took a 
 prominent part in the Council of Trent and 
 the Colloquy of Poissy. 
 
 Laing, David (*. 1790, d. 1878), Scotch 
 antiquarian, honorary secretary to the Ban- 
 natyne Club 1823-60 ; wrote the Life and 
 Works of John Knox (1846-64), and edited 
 several Scottish poets. 
 
 Laing, Malcolm (6. 1762, d. 1818), bom in 
 Orkney, wrote a Mistory of Scotland (1800). 
 
 Laing, Samuel (b. 1810), nephew of the 
 preceding ; has taken a prominent part in 
 railway legislation.
 
 Lai 
 
 (494) 
 
 Lam 
 
 Lairesse, G«rard(6. 1640, d. 1711), Dutch 
 historical painter and engraver. 
 
 Lake, Gerard, Viscount (*. 1744, d. 1808), 
 general ; distinguished himself in the Mah- 
 ratta war, defeating Siudia at Alleghur and 
 Delhi, restoring Shah AUuni to the throne 
 
 il803), routing Sindia's northern army at 
 jaswaree in the same year, and in 1804-5 
 suppressing the rebellion of Holkar. 
 
 Lcilande, Joseph Jerome le Fran(jais de 
 (b. 1732, d. 1807), French astronomer; was 
 sent to Berlin to determine the parallax of 
 the moon, and became professor of astro- 
 nomy in the College de France. His chief 
 work is Traite d'Astronomie (1764). 
 
 Lally, Thomas Arthur, Baron deTollendal, 
 Comte de (6. 1702, d. 1766), descended from 
 an Irish family ; was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of the French possessions in India 
 in 1756 ; captured Fort St. David (1758), but 
 was taken prisoner by Sir E. Coote at Pon- 
 dicherry (1761). On his return to France 
 he was imprisoned in the Bastille, and 
 finally executed. 
 
 Lally-Tollendal, Trophime Gerard, Mar- 
 quis de {b. 1751, d. 1830), son of the pre- 
 ceding; was a deputy from the noblesse in the 
 Constituent Assembly, where he became a 
 prominent advocate of reform. His mode- 
 rate views occasioned his withdrawal to 
 Switzerland, and afterwards to England. 
 He returned in 1800. 
 
 Lamar, Hon. Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus 
 (6. 1825), American lawyer and pohtician. 
 
 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de 
 Monuet de (*. 1744, d. 1829), French natural- 
 ist, appointed professor of zoology in the 
 Museum of Natural History in 1793 ; wrote 
 numerous works, the chief being PhUosophie 
 Zoologique (1809), and a Histoire Naturelle 
 des Animaux sans Vertebres (1815-22). 
 
 Lamartine, Alphonse Marie Louis du Prat 
 de {b. 1790, d. 1869), French author and 
 statesman ; held diplomatic posts in Italy 
 from 1820 to the accession of Louis PhUippe ; 
 travelled for two years in the East ; return- 
 ing in 1833, sat in the National Assembly 
 till the revolution of 1848, when he became 
 minister of foreign affairs, but retired, 
 owing to what he considered the absence of 
 hberal views among his colleagues. His 
 chief prose works are Histoire des Girondins 
 (1847), Souvenirs d' Orient (1835), Le Tailleiir 
 de Pierres de St. -Point, and Histoire de la 
 Pestauration. 
 
 Lamb, Lady Caroline (6. 1786, d. 1828), 
 daughter of the Earl of Bessborough, and 
 vrife of the Hon. William Lamb, afterwards 
 Lord Melbourne; wrote Glenarvon, and 
 other novels. She is now chiefly remembered 
 for her unhappy attachment to Lord Byron. 
 
 Lamb, Charles (b. 1775, d. 1834), essayist 
 and poet, was born in the Temple, where 
 his father was clerk to a bencher ; received 
 his education at Christ's Hospital ; became a 
 clerk in the South Sea House, and after- 
 wards in the India House, retiring on a 
 pension in 1825. His hfe was devoted to 
 the care of his sister, Mary, who always 
 remained subject to fits of insanity. Most 
 of the Pssays of Elia were published in the 
 London Magazine between 1820 and 1826 ; 
 others appeared in the New Monthly and 
 the Englishman'' s Magazine. Lamb also 
 wrote Rosamund Gray (1795), John Wood- 
 ville, a di-ama (1799), studies of the Eliza- 
 bethan dramatists, and many short lyrics. 
 He died at Edmonton. 
 
 Lamb, Mary {b. 1762, d. 1847), sister of 
 the preceding, in conjimction with whom 
 she wrote Tales from Shakespeare. 
 
 LambaUe, Marie Therfese de Savoie- 
 Carignan, Princesse de (6. 1748, d. 1792), 
 was superintendent of the household of 
 Marie Antoinette, and shared her imprison- 
 ment in the Temple. 
 
 Lambert, Francois (&. 1487, d. 1530), 
 French Protestant reformer, appointed pro- 
 fessor of theology at Marburg in 1527. 
 
 Lambert, Johann Heinrich {b. 1728, d. 
 1777), philosopher and mathematician, bom 
 at Miilhausen, in Alsace. 
 
 Lambert, John (^i. 1619, d. circa 1694), 
 EngUsh revolutionist; fought at Marston 
 Moor and Naseby ; led the van at Dunbar ; 
 resisted the proposal to make Cromwell 
 king, and was deprived of his commission ; 
 after the death of Cromwell, restored the 
 Long Parhament; marched against Monk, 
 by whom be was defeated ; was exiled to 
 Guernsey, where he lived thirty years. 
 
 Lambert, Sir John, K.C.B. {b. 1815), 
 secretary to the Local Government Board 
 from 1871 to 1882, framed a large num- 
 ber of Government measures, including 
 the MetropoUtan Poor Act (1867) and the 
 Redistribution of Seats Act (1884). He 
 also collected statistics with reference to 
 the Irish Church and Land Bills, and the 
 Franchise Act (1884) was based on his 
 proposals. 
 
 Lambert of Aschaffenburg {b. circa 1020, 
 d. circa 1080), a Benedictine monk; wrote 
 Annales, including a chronicle of contempo- 
 rary events in Germany. 
 
 Lambton, Wniiam (i. 1748, d. 1823), 
 lieutenant- colonel ; began the great trigono- 
 metrical survey of India in 1802, and deter- 
 mined an arc of the meridian from lat. 
 8° 23' to lat. 21° Q'. 
 
 Lamech, the son of Methusaleh, and 
 father of Noah.
 
 Laxa 
 
 (496) 
 
 Iian 
 
 Lamennais, Felicite Eotert de (&. 1782, 
 d. 1854), French philosopher and political 
 writer ; after a period of scepticism in youth, 
 adopted ultra-CathoUc views ; was ordained 
 in 1816; in 1821-3 published Es&ain mr 
 V Indifference ; between 1826 and 1830 
 ihanged his opinions, and came to regard 
 liberty rather than authority as the main 
 factor in human progress; in 1830 started 
 UAwnir, at once radical and Ultramontane 
 n its views ; after its condemnation by 
 Gregory XVI. (1832), severed his connection 
 vith the Chirrch, and identified himself 
 vith the Democratic party, pubhshing 
 ■i'aroles d'un Croyant in 1834. Among his 
 ater works are Ze Pays et le Gouvernement 
 (1840), a pamphlet for which he suffered 
 \% year's imprisonment, Esquisse d'une Philo- 
 sophie (1841-6), and a translation of the 
 Divine Comedy. 
 
 Lameth, Charles Male Francjois de (b. 
 1757, d. 1832), and Alexandre de {b. 1760, 
 d. 1829), brothers; served together in the 
 American war of Independence; were 
 elected to the Constituent Assembly (1789), 
 and exercised much influence after the death 
 erf Mirabeau. In 1792 Charles fled abroad, 
 but Alexandre was taken prisoner by the 
 Austriaus. They returned together in 1800. 
 'jharles served under Napoleon 1809-14, 
 
 Lami, Giovanni {b. 1697, d. 1770), Italian 
 luthor, professor of ecclesiastical history at 
 Florence ; wrote on history, theology, and 
 fintiquities. 
 
 Lamorici^re, Christophe Leon Louis 
 Guchault de {b. 1806, d. 1865), French 
 peneral, took part in the Revolution of 
 (848, was banished in 1851, was appointed 
 commander of the Papal troops in 1860, and 
 beaten at Castelfidardo. 
 
 Lamotte, Jeanne de Valois, Comtesse de 
 (6. 1757, d. 1791), French adventuress, 
 notorious for her conduct in the affair of 
 the Diamond Necklace. 
 
 La Motte-Fouqu6. [See Fouque.] 
 
 Lana, Francesco Terzi (b. 1631, d. 1687), 
 an Italian Jesuit; author of Magisterium 
 Natures et Artis. 
 
 Lancaster, Sir James {d. 1618), English 
 navigator ; in 1600 conducted the first trad- 
 ing expedition of the East India Company, 
 and made a commercial treaty with tlie 
 King of Acheen. 
 
 Lancaster, Joseph (6. 1771, d. 1838), a 
 Quaker, the founder of the Lancastrian or 
 monitorial system of education. 
 
 Lancisi, Giovanni (*. 1654, d. 1720), 
 Italian physician, wrote several medical 
 works. 
 
 Lander, Richard {h. 1804, d. 1834), and 
 John (6. 1807, d. 1839), African explorers, 
 
 brothers, were natives of Cornwall. John 
 accompanied Clapperton's expedition in 
 1825-7, assuming the command after his 
 death. In 1829-31 the brothers explored 
 the lower course of the Niger, and published 
 their Journal in 1832. Richard afterwards 
 established a commercial settlement on the 
 Niger, but was killed in an attack by the 
 natives. John died in Cornwall. 
 
 Landon, Letitia Elizabeth, "L. E. L." 
 (6. 1802, d. 1838), daughter of a Hereford- 
 shire squire ; wrote the Improvisatrice (1824), 
 and other poems, many of which appeared 
 in the Literary Gazette; also some prose 
 works, including Ethel Churchill (1836). 
 In 1838 she married George Maclean, gov- 
 ernor of Cape Coast, and died in Africa. 
 
 Landor, "Walter Savage (6. 1775, d. 1864), 
 descended from a good Warwickshire 
 family ; was educated at Rugby and Trinity 
 CcUegd, Oxford, where he won a high 
 leiJatation as a scholar. He next passed 
 tLree years of solitude in South Wales, and 
 there wrote Gebir (1798). Simonidia ap- 
 peared in 1806, and Count Julian in 1811. 
 In the same year he married, and his agri- 
 cultural schemes at Llanth-ony Abbey re- 
 sulting in failure (1814), went abroad with 
 his wife, with whom he Uved very un- 
 happily at Florence and other places, and 
 at last separated from her in 1835. From 
 1837 to 1858 he resided at Bath, and from 
 1858 till his death at Florence. The first 
 series of Imaginary Conversations was pub- 
 lished in 1824, 
 
 Landseer, Charies (b. 1799, d. 1879), 
 second son of John Landseer, exhibited 
 many pictures in the Royal Academy. 
 
 Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry (6. 1802, d. 
 
 1873), youngest son of John Landseer, born 
 in London, showed bis genius at an early 
 age; was elected A.R. A. in 1825, and E.A. 
 in 1830; dechned the presidency in 1865. 
 Among his chief works are High Life and 
 Low Life (1831), Bolton Abbey in the Olden 
 Tmxe (1834), The Old Shepherd's Chief 
 Mourner (1837), Dignity and Impudence 
 (1839), Night, Morning, and Children of the 
 Mist (1853). 
 
 Landseer, John, A.R.A. (b. 1769, d. 1852), 
 an Enghsh engraver and writer on art. 
 
 Landseer, Thomas (b. 1795, d. 1880), en- 
 graver, eldest son of the preceding, studied 
 under his father ami Haydon. He excelled 
 in engravings of animals. 
 
 Lane, Edward William (b. 1801, d. 1876), 
 visited Egypt in 1825-8, 1833-5, and 1842-9, 
 and published The Manners and Customs of 
 the Modern Egyptians (1836), five volumes 
 of an Arabic Lexicon (1863-74), and other 
 works.
 
 Lan 
 
 (496) 
 
 Xiau 
 
 Lane-Poole, Stanley {b. 18.i4), grand- 
 nephew of tJie preceding, to whose Arabic 
 Lexicon he has added three volumes. 
 
 Lanfranc [b. 1005, d. 1089), bom at Pavia, 
 was elected prior of Bee in Normandy in 
 104o, and abbot of St. Stephen's, Caen, iu 
 1062 ; after the Norman conquest was made 
 Archbishiip of Canterbury (1070), and 
 brought the English Church into closer 
 connection with the Eoman See. 
 
 Lanfrey, Pierre (6. 1828, d. 1877), French 
 historian ; wrote a Histoire de Napoleon I. 
 
 Lang, Andrew (6. 1844), journalist and 
 poet, has published Custom and Myth (1884), 
 and numerous other works. 
 
 Langbaine, Gerard {b. 1656, d. 1692), 
 wrote An Account of the English Dramatic 
 Foets (1691). 
 
 Langdale, Henry Bickersteth, Lord (b. 
 1783, d. 1851), educated at Cambridge; was 
 called to the bar in 1811, and became 
 Master of the Eolls in 1836. 
 
 Langdale, Sir Marmaduke {d. 1661), 
 Royalist commander. 
 
 Langevin, Sir Hector Louis (b. 1826), 
 Canadian politician ; appointed minister of 
 public works in 1879. 
 
 Langham, Simon de {b. 1310, d. 1376), 
 became Chancellor in 1364, and Archbishop 
 of Canterbury in 1366. In 1368 he was 
 made a cardinal. He opposed Wychf . 
 
 Langhome, John {b. 1735, d. 1779), be- 
 sides other works, pubhshed a translation 
 of Plutarch's Lives, produced in conjunction 
 with his brother William. 
 
 Langland, William (b. ciroa 1332, d. circa 
 1400), author of The Vision of William con- 
 cerni)ig Fiers the Flowman ; is believed to 
 have been born at Cleobury Mortimer, in 
 Shropshire. 
 
 Langlfes, Louis {b. 1763, d. 1824), French 
 Orientalist, professor of Persian and Malay 
 at Paris ; wrote Les Instituts Folitiques et 
 Militaires de Tamerlan, etc. 
 
 Langtoft, Peter de, an English monk of 
 the 14th century ; wrote, in French verse, a 
 Chronicle of England, translated by Robert 
 de Brunne. 
 
 Langton, Stephen {d. 1228), bom in Lin- 
 colnshire, studied at Paris ; went to Rome 
 in 1206, and was made a cardinal by Inno- 
 cent III.; was elected Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in 1207, but excluded from England 
 by John till 1213. 
 
 Languet, Hubert {b. 1518, d. 1581), born 
 at Viteaux, in Burgundy ; after studying at 
 Padua, went to Wittemberg, where he em- 
 braced the doctrines of the Reformation ; in 
 
 1568 entered the service of the Elector of 
 Saxony, and was his envoy at Paris at the 
 time of the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 His chief work is Vindicice contra Tyrannos 
 
 (1579). 
 
 Laniere, Nicholas (b. 1568, d. 1646), an 
 ItaUan painter and musician ; patronised by 
 Charles I. of England. 
 
 Lanjuinais, Jean Denis, Comtede (b. 1763, 
 d. 1827), French lawyer and poHtician, bom 
 at Rouen ; sat in the Constituent Assembly 
 and the Convention ; ably defended Louis 
 XVI. and the Girondists ; concealed himself 
 during the Reign of Terror ; withstood 
 Napoleon ; mider the Bouibons was a lead- 
 ing exponent of Liberal views. 
 
 Lankester, Edwin Ray, F.R.S., LL.D. 
 
 (6. I«i47), zoologist, educated at St. 
 Paul's school, and Christ Church, Oxford ; 
 was appointed professor of zoology and com- 
 parative anatomy ia University College, 
 London, in 1874, and re-elected in 1882. He 
 has written Fossil Fishes of the Old Fed 
 Sandstone, Degeneration : a Chapter in Dar- 
 winism, and other works, and is chief editor 
 of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopic 
 Science. 
 
 Lannes, Jean, Due de Montebello {h. 1769, 
 d. 1809), French marshal, began life as a dyer ; 
 entered the army in 1792; distinguished him- 
 self in Italy (1796-7) ; accompanied Bona- 
 parte to Egypt ; commanded the advanced 
 guard in crossing the Alps, gained the victory 
 of Montebello, and rendered great service at 
 Marengo (1800) ; was ambassador to Portu- 
 gal 1801-4; fought at Austerhtz, Jena, and 
 Friedland ; went to Spain as commander-in- 
 chief in 1808, and reduced Saragossa (1809); 
 was mortally wounded at Aspem. 
 
 La Noue, FraLQois de {h. 1531, d. 1591), 
 Huguenot general, "Bras de Fer"; con- 
 ducted the defence of La Eochelle 1573-7; 
 commanded the Flemish forces 1578-80 ; 
 was a prisoner in the hands of the 
 Spaniards 1580-85 ; took part in the wars 
 of the League, and was slain at the siege of 
 Lamballe. 
 
 Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Fitz- 
 maurice, fifth Marquis of {h. 1845), was 
 Governor-General of Canada from'1883 to 
 1888, when he succeeded Lord Dufferin as 
 Viceroy of India. 
 
 Lansdowne, Henry Petty Fitzmaurice, 
 third Marquis of (6. 1780, d. 1863), entered 
 Parliament as a Whig in 1802 ; was Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer in the "Ministry of 
 All the Talents," Home Secretary under 
 Canning (1826), and president of the Council 
 under Grey (1831-41), after which he led the 
 opposition in the Upper House. 
 
 Lanzi, Luigi (6. 1732, d. 1810), an Italian
 
 Lao 
 
 (497) 
 
 Las 
 
 archseologist and writer on art ; author of 
 Storia PUtorica delta Italia (1792-1806). 
 
 Lao-Tze, Chinese philosopher, lived in the 
 middle of .the 7th century B.C., and is re- 
 garded as the patriarch of the religious sect 
 of the Taose. 
 
 La Perouse, Jean Francois de Galaup, 
 Comte de (b. 1741, d. 1788), French navi- 
 gator ; in 1782 did much damage to the 
 English settlement on Hudson's Bay ; went 
 on a voyage of discovery to the South Sea 
 in 1785, and was last heard of in Februai-y, 
 1788. In 1828 it was discovered that Ms 
 ships had been wrecked on the island of 
 Vanikoro. 
 
 Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis de (6. 
 17-19, d. 1827), French astronomer and mathe- 
 matician, of humble origin, bom at Beau- 
 mont-en- Auge ; at the age of eighteen 
 became professor of mathematics in the 
 ficole Militaire, at Paris. His chief works 
 were Mecanique Celeste (1799-1825) and 
 Exposition du Systeme du Monde (1796). 
 Napoleon made him minister of the interior. 
 
 Lapo, Amolfo di (6. 1232, d. 1300), a re- 
 nowned Italian architect and sculptor, built 
 the Duomo of Florence. 
 
 Lappenberg, Johann Martin (6. 1794, d. 
 1865), German historian, keeper of the 
 Hamburg archives ; wrote a History of 
 England down to 1 160, translated by Thorpe. 
 
 Larcher, Pierre Henri (6. 1726, d. 1812), 
 French Hellenist and bibliophile, translated 
 Herodotus. He carried on a controversy 
 with Voltaire. 
 
 Lardner, Dionysius (6. 1793, d. 1859), son 
 of a Dublin solicitor, educated at Cam- 
 bridge ;_ in 1827 became professor of natural 
 history in the University of London, and set 
 on foot his Cabinet Encyclopedia (1834), for 
 which he wrote most of the scientific articles. 
 
 Lardner, Nathaniel {h. 1684, d. 1768), a 
 learned Unitarian divine ; author of a work 
 On the Credibility of the Gospel History. 
 
 Lar^velli^re Lepeauz, Louis Marie de 
 (6. 1753, d. 1824), French revolutionist; de- 
 fended the Girondists, and was forced to 
 conceal himself ; returned to the Convention 
 in 1795, and became a member of the 
 Directory. He invented the "Theophilan- 
 thropic" religion. 
 
 La Rochefoucauld, Franqois, Due de, 
 Prince de Marsillac(i. 1613, d. 1680), French 
 courtier and man of letters ; joined the 
 Frondeurs, and was wounded at the siege 
 of Paris. The celebrated Sentences et 
 Maxinies Morales were published in 1665. 
 
 La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Francois 
 A. F., Due de (b. 1747. d. 1827), French 
 politician and pliilanthropist ; was a member 
 
 of the Constituent Assembly, but left France 
 in 1792. After travelling in the United 
 States, he returned in 1799. 
 
 La Rochejaquelein, Henri du Verger, 
 Comte de (b. 1772, d. 1794), bom at Chatillon, 
 in Poitou ; became commander-in-chief of 
 the Vendeans in October, 1793, and gained 
 several victories. He was slain in single 
 combat at Nouaille. 
 
 La Rochejaquelein, Louis du Verger, 
 Marquis de {b. 1777, d. 1815), brother of the 
 preceding ; headed a rising of the Vendeans 
 during the Hundred Days, but was slain at 
 Pont-des-Mathis. 
 
 Larrey, Dominique Jean, Baron (6. 1766, 
 d. 1842), French military surgeon ; soon 
 after enteiing the army (1792) devised a 
 scheme of ambulances volantes for rendering 
 immediate help to the wounded ; served in 
 Italy (1797), Egypt (1798), and elsewhere; 
 left several valuable works. 
 
 La Salle, Eobert Cavelier de {b. 1643, 
 d. 1687), French traveller ; traced the Mis- 
 sissippi to its source in 1682 ; in 1684 at- 
 tempted to establish a fortified settlement 
 on the Gulf of Mexico, but was murdered 
 by his companions in Texas. 
 
 Lascaris, Andreas Johannes, sumamed 
 Rhyndacenus (b. circa 1445, d. 1535), a noble 
 Greek ; after the capture of Constantinople, 
 was employed by Lorenzo de' Medici to 
 rescue Greek MSS. from the Turks ; was 
 afterwards in the service of Louis XII. of 
 France ; became first principal of the Greek 
 coUege established at Rome by Leo X. 
 
 Lascaris, Constantine [d. 1493), a noble 
 Greek ; after the capture of Constan- 
 tinople, taught Greek at Rome, Naples, and 
 elsewhere, and did much to promote the 
 revival of learning. His Greek Grammar 
 was printed in 1476. 
 
 Las Casas, Bartolome de [b. 1474, d. 
 1366), studied at Salamanca ; went to His- 
 paniola in 1502, and henceforward laboui-ed 
 as a missionary among the Indians ; made 
 several voyages to Spain to remonstrate 
 against the cruelties practised towards them 
 by the Spaniards ; was Bishop of Chiapa 
 from 1544 to 1551 ; died in Madrid. He 
 wrote a History of the Indies. 
 
 Las Cases, Emmanuel Dieudonne, Marquis 
 de (b. 1766, d. 1842), one of Napoleon's 
 officers; lived with him for some time at 
 St. Helena, but was removed by Sir Hudson 
 Lowe. He published Memorial de Sainte 
 Helene (\%-l\-'i). 
 
 Lasker, Edouard (b. 1829, d. 1884), Ger- 
 man politician ; for many years a solicitor in 
 Berlin, was elected to the Prussian Diet in 
 1865; helped to constitute the older National
 
 Las 
 
 (498) 
 
 Lan 
 
 Liberal party, but differed from Bismarck 
 on the Kulturkampf and other questions, 
 and led the party of secession in 1880. 
 
 Lassalle, Ferdinand [b. 1825, d. 1864), 
 Socialist, son of Jewish parents, bom at 
 Breslau, studied at the universities oX Bres- 
 lau and Berlin ; was imprisoned in 1848 for 
 inciting the working classes to ai'med resist- 
 ance ; in 1862 enunciated his Arbeiter- 
 program, calling for a revolution, not neces- 
 sarily violent, which would break down the 
 monopoly of the propertied classes, and 
 transfer to the labourers the a^l vantages 
 enjoyed by the capitalists; for the next 
 year was engaged in a contest with the 
 Liberals and the Political EconomistSj op- 
 posing Schulze-Delitzsch with great bitter- 
 ness ; in 1863 presided over a delegation of 
 working men at Leipzig, which resulted in 
 the formation of a great labour union. He 
 was killed in a duel in Switzerland. 
 
 Lassen, Christian (6. 1800, d. 1876), Nor- 
 wegian Orientalist, appointed professor of 
 Inflian languages at Bonn in 1840 ; wrote 
 Indian Antiquities (1844-62), etc. 
 
 Lasso, Orlando di (Roland de Lattre) (6. 
 1520, d. 1594), a famous composer of church 
 music, to which he gave a graver and more 
 simple character. He was bom at Mons, 
 and at an early age taken to Italy by 
 Ferdiannd Gonzago. After spending some 
 time at Rome, he went to Munich, and 
 became kapellmeister to Albert, Duke of 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Latham, John (6. 1740, d. 1837), ornith- 
 ologist, wrote a General History of Birds 
 (1821-4), etc. 
 
 Latham, Robert Gordon (*. 1812, d. 
 1888), philologist and ethnologist; wrote 
 The JEnglish Language (1841), etc 
 
 Latimer, Hugh {b. circa 1490, d. 1555), 
 EngHsh reformer, son of a yeoman of 
 Thurcaston in Leicestershire ; was educated 
 at Cambridge, entered the Church, and 
 became famous for his eloquence and zeal 
 as a preacher; was appointed Bishop of 
 "Worcester in 1535, but resigned in conse- 
 quence of the Bill of Six Articles (1539); 
 was imprisoned for six years in the Tower, 
 obtaining his release on the accession of 
 Edward VI. ; in 1553 was confined in the 
 Tower with Ridley and Cranmer; was 
 afterwards removed to Oxford, where he 
 was burnt, together with Ridley, on Oc- 
 tober 16th, 1555. 
 
 Latimer, William [d. 1545), a reviver of 
 classical learning in England ; was tutor to 
 Cardinal Pole, and taught Greek to Erasmus. 
 
 Latouche-Tr^ville, Louis R. M. de V. de 
 (6. 1745, d. 1804), a distinguished French 
 ndnural. 
 
 Latour d'Auvergne, Theophile Malo Cor- 
 ret de (6. 1743, d. 1800), French soldier; 
 joined the army of the Pyrenees, and became 
 comniauder of a corps of 8,000 grenadiers, 
 which gained the name of "the infernal 
 column." He fell at Oberhausen. He 
 wrote on Celtic etymology and antiquities. 
 
 Latreille, Pierre Andre {b. 1762, d. 1833), 
 French entomologist ; wrote Genera Crusta- 
 ceorum et Insectorum (1806-9), etc. 
 
 Laud, William (J. 1573, d. 1645), bom at 
 Reading ; was educated at Reading gram- 
 mar school and St. John's College, Oxford, 
 of which he became president in 1611 ; was 
 appointed chaplaiu to James I. in 1615, and 
 Bishop of St. David's in 1621 ; exercised 
 great influence after the accession of 
 Charles I. ; became Bishop of Bath and 
 Wells in 1626, and of London in 1628, and 
 in 1633 was raised to the see of Canterbury. 
 By his endeavours to establish uniformity 
 in the Church, to reform ecclesiastical dis- 
 cipline, and to introduce a more ornamental 
 form of ritual, as well as by his support of 
 Strafford's policy of "thorough," he ren- 
 dered himself obnoxious to the Puritans, 
 and, when the Long Parliament met, was 
 impeached of high treason. After three 
 years' imprisonment he was brought to 
 trial, condemned to death by bill of at- 
 tainder, and beheaded on Tower Hill. 
 
 Lauder, Sir Thomas Dick (6. 1784, d. 
 1848), Scottish miscellaneous writer ; was an 
 early contributor to Blackwood's Magazine. 
 
 Lauderdale, John Maitland, Duke of (6. 
 1616, d. 1682), bom at Lethington in Scot- 
 land, supported Prince Charles, and was 
 taken prisoner at Worcester; after the 
 Restoration, administered the affairs of 
 Scotland, and treated the Covenanters with 
 great cruelty. He was a member of the 
 Cabal Ministry (1670). 
 
 Laudon, or Laudobn, Gideon Ernst (*. 
 1716, d. 1790), an Austrian general in the 
 service of Maria Theresa, defeated Frederick 
 the Great at Hochkirchen, Kunersdorf, and 
 Landshut ; in the next reign repelled the 
 Turks, and took Belgrade (1789). 
 
 Laurens, Henry {b. 1724, d. 1792), Ameri- 
 can statesman, became president of Congress 
 in 1777 ; while on his way to the Hague as 
 ambassador was captured by the English, 
 and confined in the Tower, 1780-1 ; with 
 Jay and Franklin simed the preliminaries 
 to a treaty with England (November, 
 1782). 
 
 Laurier, Hon. Wilfrid (6. 1841), Canadian 
 statesman ; has led the Liberals since 1887. 
 
 Lauriston, Alexandre Jacques Bernard 
 Law, Marquis de (6. 1768, d. 1828), entered 
 the French artillery, became aide-de-camp
 
 LaV 
 
 499 ) 
 
 Law 
 
 to Napoleon in 1800, and was instrumental 
 in gaining the battle of Wagram. 
 
 La Valette, Antoine Marie Chamans, 
 Comte de (p. 1769, d. 1833), an aide-de-camp 
 of Napoleon, whom he accompanied to 
 Egypt, Germany, and Prussia ; was con- 
 demned to death in 1815, but escaped from 
 prison through the devotion of his wife, 
 who changed clothes with him. 
 
 La Valette, Jean Paxisot de (6. 1494, d. 
 1568), became grand-master of the Knights 
 of St. John of Jerusalem in 1557 ; success- 
 fully defended Malta against Soliman II. 
 (15(35) ; bunt Valetta, and thoroughly forti- 
 fied the island. 
 
 Lavater, Johann Gaspar {b. 1741, d. 1801), 
 minister of a church at Zurich ; was an 
 eloquent preacher, and wrote several reli- 
 gious works, but is best known by his 
 Fhysiognomic Fragments, treating of the 
 connection between the featui-es and the 
 character. At the capture of Zurich by 
 Massena (1799) he was shot in the street, 
 and died from the effects of the woimd. 
 
 Laveleye, Emile Louis Victor de [b. 1822, 
 d. 1892), wi-iter on economics, bom at Bruges; 
 was appointed professor of political economy 
 in the university of Liege in 1864. Among 
 bis chief wor]^ are La Question de VOr 
 (1860), rimtruction du Feuple (1872), Le 
 Socialisme Contemporain (1883), and La 
 Feninsule des Balkans (1886). 
 
 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (b. 1743, d. 
 1794), French chemist; after studjing at 
 the College Mazarin, obtained the post of 
 farmer-general (1769), and devoted much 
 of his time to chemical experiments, result- 
 ing in a new theory of chemistry, the 
 "anti-phlogistic" (1773-5), on which the 
 modem science is based. In arriving at his 
 results he was much indebted to Priestley, 
 who made known to him his discovery of 
 oxygen. During the revolution he was 
 accused of adulterating tobacco, and guillo- 
 tined. 
 
 Law. {See Ellenborough.] 
 
 Law, Edmund (6. 1703, d. 1787), 
 divine, educated at Cambridge, became 
 Bishop of Carlisle in 1769. He wrote 
 Reflections on the Life and Character of 
 Christ, and other works, and published an 
 edition of Locke. 
 
 Law, John (of Lauriston) (6. 1671, d. 1729), 
 financial projector, son of an Edinburgh 
 goldsmith, having kiUed a man in a duel, 
 fled abroad; in 1715 propoiinded a scheme 
 for paying off the national debt of France, 
 whichVa^ favoured by the Duke of Orleans, 
 and resulted in the formation of the Missis- 
 sippi Company (1717), to which was granted 
 the sole right of trading with Louisiana, 
 o o 2 
 
 China, and other countries (1719). The 
 company's bank soon afterwards became the 
 Royal Bank of France, and in 1720 Law was 
 made comptroUer-general of the finances. 
 The sums mvested were for some time very 
 large, but the pubUc lost confidence, and a 
 panic ensued. Law escaped to Venice, where 
 he died in poverty. 
 
 Law, William (6, 1686, d. 1761), mystic 
 and nonjuror, educated at Cambridge ; was 
 for some years tutor in the family of 
 Gibbon's father, and in 1740 became chap- 
 laiu to Miss Hester Gibbon at King's Chft'e. 
 Besides the Serious Call (1729), he wrote 
 several works expounding the doctrines of 
 Jacob Boehme. 
 
 Lawes, Henry (b. 1600, d. 1662), musical 
 composer, a gentleman of the Chapel Royal ; 
 set to music the Comus of Milton and the 
 poems of Waller, Herrick, and others. His 
 Ayres and Ijialogues appeared in 1653. 
 
 Lawrence, Sir Hem-y Montgomery (6. 
 1806, d. 1857), entered the Bengal artillery 
 in 1822 ; was appointed revenue officer in 
 the North- West Provinces in 1829, and 
 assistant to the resident at Ferozpur in 
 1838; was afterwards British resident in 
 Nepaul; took part in the first Sikh war 
 (1845); in 1846 was appointed resident at 
 Lahore, and president of the Cotmcil of 
 Regency ; after the annexation of the Pun- 
 jaub became president of the Board of 
 Administration, but, differing in his views 
 from his brother John, resigned, and was 
 appointed agent at Rajputana ; when the 
 Mutiny broke out, was chief commissioner 
 at Oude, and, though he was defeated by the 
 rebels at Chinhut, did much to save India 
 by his efforts for the defence of Lucknow. 
 
 Lawrence, John Laird Mair, Baron (b. 
 1811, d. 1879), Governor-General of India, 
 brother of the preceding; entered the ser- 
 vice of the East India Company in 1829 ; 
 was in 1831 appointed assistant to the chief 
 commissioner of Delhi, where he becajne 
 officiating magisti-ate and collector in 1834 ; 
 was selected as commissioner for the newly- 
 annexed Sikh territory in 1846; after the 
 second Sikh war was appointed by Lord 
 Dalhousie a member of the board to ad- 
 minister the Pimjaub, and, on its dissolution, 
 chief commissioner. Here he gained such 
 influence over the Sikhs by his good govern- 
 ment and personal character that, on the 
 outbreak of the Mutiny, they remained loyal, 
 and it was mainly owing to reinforcements 
 of Punjabis that Delhi fell, and India was 
 saved (September, 1857). Lord Lawrence 
 was Viceroy from 1864 to 1869. 
 
 Lawrence. Sir Thomas (b. 1769, d. 1830), 
 portrait-paiTitor, son of a Biistol inn-keeper, 
 began his artistic career at Bath in 1782 by 
 taking crayon portraits. He became a
 
 Law 
 
 (500) 
 
 Lee 
 
 student of the Koyal Academy in 17S7, asso- 
 ciate iu i7iJl, fall member in 179S and 
 president iu 1S26. 
 
 Lawrence, Sir "William (6. 1783, d. 1S67), 
 a pupil of Abemethy ; was surgeon to St. 
 Bartholomew's Hospital from 1828 to 1865. 
 At the time of his death he was senior ser- 
 geant-surgeon to the Queen. Among his 
 chief works are a treatise on Hernia (1807), 
 Observations on Lithotomy (1809), and lectures 
 on The Natural History of Man (1819). 
 
 Lawson, Cecil (b. 1851, d. 1882), landscape- 
 painter, son of "VYUliam Lawson, por- 
 trait-painter ; sent pictures to the Academy 
 in 1870 and the following years, but re- 
 mained obscure till A Minister's Garden and 
 A Pastoral appeared at the Grosvenor 
 Gallery in 1878. Among his later works were 
 A Morning Mist (1879), Wharfdale (1881), 
 and The Boone Valley (1882). 
 
 Lawson, Sir Wilfrid, Bart. (5. 1829), 
 member for Carlisle, temperance advocate. 
 
 Layamon, the author of Brut, a chronicle 
 of Britain in verse ; was a priest near Em- 
 ley, on the Severn, and is supposed to 
 have lived early in the 13th century. 
 
 Layard, Sir Austen Henry, G.C.B. {b. 
 1817), born at Paris, spent his youth chiefly 
 in Italy : in 1839 journeyed from the Le- 
 vant to the interior of Asia, and determined 
 to explore the buried cities of Mesopotamia ; 
 with the assistance of Stratford Canning 
 began his excavations at Birs Nimrud in 
 1845, and there discovered the Assyrian 
 monuments, now in the British Museum. 
 He subsequently entered on a parliamen- 
 tary and diplomatic career, and, as ambassa- 
 dor to the Porte (1877), brought about the 
 annexation of Cj-prus. He published 
 Nineveh and Babylon (1849-51), and other 
 works describing his discoveries. 
 
 Leader, Benjamin Willianis, A.R.A. (6. 
 1831), landscape painter. 
 
 Leake, Sir John [b. 1656, d. 1720), admiral, 
 fought at La Hogue (1692); relieved Gib- 
 raltar (1705) ; reduced Barcelona and Ma- 
 jorca (1706) ; commander-in-chief in 1707. 
 
 Lear, Edward [b. 1813, d. 1888), author of 
 the Book of Nonsense, etc. 
 
 Le Brun, Charles (*. 1619, <?.1690), French 
 artist, pupQ of N. Poussin ; painted The 
 Battles of Alexander, etc. 
 
 Lebrua, Charles Francois, Duke of 
 Piacenza (h. 1739, d. 1824), French states- 
 man ; sat in the Constituent Assembly (1789) 
 and the CouncU of Ancients (1796) ; became 
 third consul in 1799, and chief treasurer in 
 1804 ; was governor-general of Holland 
 1811-13. He ti-anslated Tasso. 
 
 Le Brun, Marie (b. 1755, d. 1842), Freuch 
 paiutress of portraits ; travelled through 
 Europe during the Revolution. 
 
 Lecky, William Edward Hartpole {b. 
 1838), has written a History of Rationalism 
 in Europe (1865), History of European 
 Morals p-om Augustus to Charlemagne {1S69), 
 and History of England in the Eighteenth 
 Century (1878-90). 
 
 Le Clerc, Jean (i. 1657, d. 1736), Swiss 
 divine, adopted Ai'miuiau views ; was ap- 
 pointed professor of philosophy and Hebrew 
 at Amsterdam ; wrote three large Biblio- 
 theques, and other works. 
 
 Lecluae, Charles de {b. 1526, d. 1609), was 
 professor of botany at Leydeu 1593-1609. 
 
 Lecocq, Alexandre Charles [b. 1832), 
 French musician; has composed La Fille 
 de Madame Angot, etc. 
 
 Leconte, Joseph {b. 1823), an American 
 
 geologist. 
 
 Leconte de Lisle, Charles Marie (b. 1818), 
 French poet, bom in the island of Reunion ; 
 has published Poemes Antiques (IS5'3) , Poemen 
 Bat-bares (1862), etc. 
 
 Ledochowski, Mieceslas, Cardinal {b. 
 1822, d. 1889), Primiite of Poland; be- 
 came Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen in 
 1866. He was imprisoned in the dungeons 
 of Ostrowo 1874-6, owing to his resistance 
 to the Prussian enactments affecting the 
 Church. 
 
 Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre Auguste (b. 1807, 
 d. 1874), Freuch politician and lawyer, was 
 returned to the Assembly in 1841 ; joined 
 the Extreme Left ; on the fall of Louis 
 Philippe became muiister of the iaterior in 
 the provisional government ; after f aiUng 
 in his candidature for the presidency and his 
 attempts to raise an insurrection, fled to 
 England. He was allowed to return in 
 1870. 
 
 Ledyard, John {h. 1751, d. 1788), American 
 traveller, came to England ia 1771 ; joined 
 Captain Cook's third expedition ; in 1786-8 
 attempted to reach Behring's Straits on foot, 
 but was arrested at Irkootsh, and expelled 
 from Russia ; returning to England, was 
 sent on a voyage of exploration by the 
 African Association, but died at Cairo. 
 
 Lee, Anne {b. 1736, d. 1784), daughter of 
 a Manchester blacksmith ; went to Ajnerica, 
 and there founded the sect of Shakers. 
 
 Lee, Charles {b. 1730, d. 1782),^bom in 
 Cheshire ; emigrated to America (1773), and 
 during the War of Independence became 
 commander-in-chief of the southern colo- 
 nies. He was suspended by Washington for 
 disobedience to orders (1778).
 
 Lee 
 
 (501) 
 
 Lek 
 
 Lee, Frederick Eichard (b. 1798, d. 1879), 
 landscape-painter, bom at Barnstaple ; be- 
 came A.R.A. in 1834, and R.A. in 1838. 
 
 Lee, Nathaniel (*. circa 1657, d. 1691 or 
 1692), educated at Cambridge ; after failing 
 as an actor, became a dramatist, and wrote 
 Theodosius, TheRival ^«ee/is,andothertrage- 
 dies. He was confined in Bedlam 1684-8. 
 
 Lee, Robert Edward (*. 1807, d. 1870), 
 American general, educated at West Point, 
 entered the corps of engineers; served in 
 the Mexican war ; was superintendent of 
 West Point 1852-5 ; after the outbreak of 
 Civil war was placed in command of the 
 army of Northern Virginia (May, 1862) ; 
 repelled McCIellan, and roUeved Richmond ; 
 defeated the Northern army near Manassas 
 Junction ; was beaten by McCIellan at An- 
 tritam (September) ; gained the victories 
 of Fredericksburg (December), and Chan- 
 cellorsville (May, 18G3) ; waa defeated at 
 Gettysburg (July) ; fought several battles 
 against Grant, and defended Petersburg for 
 ten months ; became general-in-chief of the 
 Confederate armies in February, 1865 ; sur- 
 rendered at Five Forks in April. 
 
 Lee, Samuel (6. 1783, d. 1852), began life 
 as a carpenter ; went to Cambridge (1813), 
 where he became professor of Arabic (1819), 
 and Hebrew (1831). 
 
 Lee, Sophia (*. 1751, d. 1824), an English 
 noveUst and dramatist. 
 
 Leech, John (*. 1817, d. 1864), son of a 
 coffee-house keeper, educated at the Charter- 
 house ; abandoned the study of medicine to 
 become an artist. He is best known by his 
 political cartoons in Punch. Among his 
 other works are illustrations for the In- 
 gohlshy Legends (1840), Fortraits of Chil- 
 dren of the Mobility, and the etchings in 
 the Comic History of England, Comic History 
 of Rome, and Hood's Comic Annual. 
 
 Leeds, Thomas Osborne, Duke of (h. 1631, 
 d. 1712), best known as Earl Danby, 
 minister of Charles II., and played an im- 
 portant part in the revolution of 1688. 
 
 Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, Duo de Dant- 
 zig {b. 1755, d. 1820), French marshal, son 
 of a miller, became a general of division in 
 1794 ; displayed great bravery at Stockach 
 (1799) ; assisted Napoleon in overthrowing 
 the Directory ; captured Dantzig in 1807 ; 
 distinguished himself in Austria (1809), and 
 Russia (1812) ; joined Napoleon on his re- 
 turn from Elba. 
 
 Lefebvre, Joseph (i. 1836), French painter; 
 has exhibited Fandora (1877), Morning Gray 
 (1887), Fsyche, etc. 
 
 Lefevre, George John Shaw {b. 1832), 
 educated at Cambridge ; called to the bar m 
 1856 ; represented Reading 1863-85 ; has sat 
 for Bradford since 1886. He became first 
 
 commissioner of works in 1884, and post- 
 master- general in the same year. 
 
 Le F^vre d'^taples, Jacques (*. 1455, d. 
 1537), French theologian ; published a 
 French version of the Bible (1530). 
 
 Le Fort, Franqois Jacob (J. 1656, d. 1699), 
 bom at Geneva ; entered the Russian ser- 
 vice, and was appointed grand-admiral by 
 Peter the Great (1693). 
 
 Legare, Hugh Swinton {b. 1797, d. 1843), 
 American lawyer ; became attorney-general 
 of the United States in 1841. 
 
 Legendre, Adrien Marie (b. 1752, d. 1833), 
 French mathematician, bom at Toulouse, 
 became professor of mathematics in the 
 iScole Militaire at Paris about 1776 ; in 1782 
 wrote a remarkable paper on the attraction 
 of spheroids; was in 1787 placed on a com- 
 mission for connecting Paris and Green- 
 wich geodetically, and contributed to the 
 Academy papers on trigonometrical opera- 
 tions depending upon the figure of the earth, 
 which contained, among other theorems, that 
 known as " Legendre's. " He published 
 £iiments de Geometrie (1794), Theorie des 
 Nombres (1798), in which he expounds the 
 law of quadratic reciprocity, Nouvelle Theorie 
 des Faralleles (1803), axid Nouvelles Methedes 
 pour la Determination des Orbites des Cometes, 
 containing the first suggestion of the method 
 of least squares. His most important con- 
 tribution to mathematical science was that 
 on eUiptic functions. 
 
 Legge, George, Baron Dartmouth (6. 1648, 
 d. 1691), admiral, fought against the Dutch 
 (1671) ; commanded an expedition against 
 Tangiers (1682):; was in favour with James 
 II. ; failed to prevent the landing of WiUiam 
 of Orange ; took part in a Jacobite conspiracy 
 (1690), and died a prisoner in the Tower. 
 
 Legge, James (b. 1815), worked as a 
 missionary in China from 1839 to 1873 ; in 
 1875 became the first professor of Chinese at 
 Oxford. He has edited the four Shu and 
 the five King. 
 
 Legouv6, Ernest Wilfrid (6. 1807), French 
 dramatist; has written Beatrix (1861), etc. 
 
 Legros, Alphonse (b. 1837), painter and 
 etcher, bom, of humble parentage, at Dijon ; 
 after exhibiting at the Salon, came to Eng- 
 land in 1863, and was in 1876 appointed 
 professor in the Slade school in University 
 College, London. Among his best works 
 are Beath and the Woodman (an etching), 
 and Le Repas des Fauvres (a picture). 
 
 Lehmann, Rudolf {b. 1819), German 
 artist, was educated at Paris, Munich, and 
 Rome. Among his best pictures are 
 Sixtus V. Blessing the Foniine Marthes, 
 Grazielle, and portraits of Lord Houghton 
 and Mrs. Browning.
 
 Lei 
 
 (502) 
 
 Lem 
 
 Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, Barou vou 
 (b. loiii, d. I7I1J), philosopher aud mathema- 
 ticiau, educated at the university of Leipzig ; 
 iu 1667 went to Frankfort on the invitation 
 of Baron von Boiaeburg. aud became coun- 
 cillor to the Elector of Maiaz ; during visits 
 to Paris in 1672, and to London in 1673 aud 
 1676, became acquainted vrith the leading 
 scientific men of his time ; about this time 
 discovered the differential calculus, which 
 resembled Newton's method of fluxions so 
 closely that it occasioned a bitter dispute 
 between the two ; in 1676 was appointed 
 councillor and librarian to the Duke of 
 Brunswick-Liineberg, and spent the re- 
 mainder of his life at Hanover. Among his 
 chief works are, in philosophy, the Ussai de 
 Theodicee (1710) and the Monadologie (1714); 
 iu mathematics, Theovia Motus Concreti and 
 Theoria Motus Abstracti (1671) ; in natural 
 science, Protagcea, a treatise on geology. 
 
 Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of {b. 
 1532, d. 1588), son of John Dudley, 
 Duke of Northumberland ; narrowly es- 
 caped execution in 1553 ; rose rapidly in 
 Elizabeth's favour, and is suspected of 
 having murdered his wife, Amy Robsart 
 (1560), in the hope of winning her hand. 
 He privately married Lady Sheffield (1573), 
 and Lettice KnoUys, Dowager-Countess of 
 Essex (1578). In 1585 he commanded the 
 English forces sent to the Netherlands ; 
 remaiaed there for a year as governor- 
 general of the United Provinces, and re- 
 turned in 1587, but failed to effect anything. 
 
 Leidy, Joseph, M.D. (b. 1823, d. 1891), 
 was in 1853 appointed professor of anatomy 
 in the university of Pennsylvania. He has 
 written The Extinct Mammalian Fauna of 
 Dakota and Nebraska (1870), etc. 
 
 Leigh, Sir Edward {b. 1602, d. 1670), 
 biblical critic; wrote Critica Sacra (1639). 
 
 Leighton, Alexander (Jb. 1568, d. 1649), 
 Scotch divine and physician, " a fiery Puri- 
 tan zealot," came to London ia 1613 ; in 
 1623 published Zion's Plea, for which he 
 was summoned before the Star Chamber, 
 whipped, mutilated, and imprisoned in the 
 Tower till 1640. 
 
 Leighton, Sir Frederick, Bart. (b. 1830), 
 bom at Scarborough, studied at (Berlin, 
 Frankfort, and Paris ; in 1855 sent Cimabue^s 
 Triumph to the Royal Academy from Rome ; 
 ha3_ since exhibited The Triumph of Music 
 (1856), Hercules Wrestling with Death 
 (1871), The Daphnephoria (1876), etc. ; 
 A.R.A., 1864; R.A., 1869; President, 1878. 
 
 Leighton, Robert {b. 1611, d. 1684), 
 theological writer, son of Alexander Leigh- 
 ton ; was Presbyterian minister at New- 
 battle, near Edinburgh, 1641-53 ; principal 
 of Edinburgh University, 1653-61 ; Bishop 
 of Dunblane, 1661-70, and Axohbiahop of 
 
 Glasgow, 1670-3, after which he lived in 
 retirement at Broadhurst, in Sussex. His 
 works, comprising sermons and a commen- 
 tary on the First Epistle of St. Peter, were 
 published after his death. 
 
 Leitner, Gottlieb W. {b. 1840), Orientalist, 
 born at Pesth ; appointed professor of 
 Arabic at King's College, London, in 1861 ; 
 founded the Oriental University Institute 
 at Woking in 1884. He has carried on 
 excavations in India, and written Grmco- 
 Buddhistlc Discoveries, etc. 
 
 Lejay, Gui Michel (b. 1588, d. 1674), 
 French OrientaUst ; published a polyglot 
 Bible. 
 
 Le Keux, John (6. 1784, d. 1846), English 
 architectural engraver ; illustrated the works 
 of Britton, Pugin, and Neale. 
 
 Leland, Charles Godfrey (6. 1824), has 
 published Hans Breitmann'' s Ballads (1871), 
 a translation of Heine, etc. 
 
 Leland, John {b. circa 1506, d. 15&2), 
 
 antiquary and linguist, educated at St. Paul's 
 school, studied at Cambridge, Oxford, and 
 Paris ; became chaplain, librarian, and, in 
 1533, antiquary to Henry VIII., who com- 
 missioned him to search for antiquities, and 
 examine the libraries of aU the abbeys and 
 colleges in the kingdom. He was prevented 
 by insanity from completing the arrange- 
 ment of the materials he collected. Most 
 of his MSS. were afterwards placed in the 
 Bodleian library. His Itinerarium and 
 Collectanea were edited by Heame (1710-15), 
 and his Gommentarii de Scriptoribus Britan* 
 mm by Hall (1709). 
 
 Leland, John {b. 1691, d. 1766), minister 
 of a Dissenting congregation in Dublin ; 
 wrote in defence of Chri.^tiauity. 
 
 Leila, Vittorio {b. 1859), an Italian 
 mountaineer and photographer. 
 
 Lely, Sir Peter ("Van der Faes) (6. 1617, 
 d. 1680), portrait-painter ; came to England 
 in 1641, and succeeded Vandyke as painter 
 to the king. His best-known portraits are 
 those of the beauties of the court; of 
 Charles II. 
 
 Lemaire, Jeanne Madeline (*. 1850), 
 French artist, paints chiefly in oils. 
 
 Lemaltre, Frederick {b. 1798, d. 1876), a 
 French actor, celebrated for his realistic 
 impersonations. 
 
 Lemoine, Francois (*. 1688, d. 1737), a 
 French artist, pupil of Galloche, became 
 professor of painting in the Academy. 
 His chief work is The Apotheosis of Her- 
 cules in the palace of Versailles. 
 
 Lemon, Mark {b. 1809, d. 1870), bom in
 
 Lem 
 
 (503) 
 
 Leo 
 
 Londou ; joined in starting Punch (1841), of 
 which he was sole editor 1843-70. He also 
 wrote many farces, melodramas, novels, 
 Bongs, and essays. 
 
 Lemonnier, Pierre Charles (b. 1715, d. 
 1799j, French astronomer ; assisted Mau- 
 pertuis in measui-iug an arc of the meridian 
 at Toruea in the Arctic regions. 
 
 Lempriere, John (,b. circa 1760, d. 1824), 
 classical scholar, whose Classical Bictionary 
 was published in 1792. 
 
 Lenau, Nicholas (Nieinbsch von Streh- 
 lenau) {b. 1802, d. 1850), Hungarian poet, 
 lived chiefly at Vienna and Stuttgart; 
 excelled as a lyrist ; also wrote Faust (1836), 
 Savonarola (^1837), Die Albigenser (1842), 
 and other long poems. 
 
 Leubacli, Franz (Jb. 1836), German artist ; 
 has painted portraits of Moltke, Bismarck, 
 Diillinger, Wagner, and others. 
 
 Lenclos, Anne or Ninon de {b. 1616, d. 
 1706), a celebrated French beauty, who re- 
 tained her attractions to a great age. 
 
 Lenfant, Jacques (6. 1661, d. 1728), 
 French Protestant divine ; settled at Berlin, 
 and became chaplaiu to Frederick William 
 of Prussia (1710). He wrote histories of the 
 Councils of Constance and Basle. 
 
 Lenormant, Fran9oi3 {b. 1837, d. 1883), 
 professor of archaeology at the Bibliotheque 
 Nationale (1874-83) ; carried on excavations 
 at Eleusis and elsewhere ; wrote an Ancient 
 History of the East, etc. 
 
 LenthaU, William (i. 1591, d. 1662), law- 
 yer and politician ; was Speaker of the 
 House of Commons (1640-53), and again in 
 1654 and 1660. 
 
 Lentulus, P. Cornelius Sura Id. 62 B.C.), 
 consul in 73 B.C. ; joined Catiline's con- 
 spiracy. He was arrested, and strangled in 
 prison. 
 
 Leo, Johannes, "Africanus "(<?. circa 1526), 
 a Moor of Granada, travelled in Africa and 
 Asia ; was captured by pirates, and carried 
 before Leo X. , who induced him to change 
 his religion. He wrote, in Arabic, a Descrip- 
 tion of Africa. 
 
 Leo, Leonardo (h. 1694, d. 1744), musician, 
 bom at Naples, pupil of Scarlatti ; composed 
 two oratorios, many sacred pieces, and some 
 operas. 
 
 Leo of Modena (Judah Arieh) [b. 1571, d. 
 1054), a learned Venetian rabbi ; wrote Is- 
 toria dei Riti Hebraici, etc. 
 
 Leo III., " the Isauriau," Emperor of the 
 East Ul. 741), succeeded Anastatius II. in 
 717. In 718-19 the Saracens besieged Con- 
 stantinople, but were at last defeated. By 
 condemning the use of images, in opposition 
 
 to the pope, he started the celebrated 
 Iconoclast controversy. 
 
 Leo VL, "the PhUosopher" {b. 865, d. 
 911), succeeded his father, Basil, in 886. 
 Duiing his reign the empire was overrun by 
 the Saracens and Bulgarians. He wrote a 
 treatise on tactics, and completed the code 
 of laws called Basilica. 
 
 Leo I., " the Great," Pope (b. circa 309, 
 d. 461), succeeded Sixtus III. in 440 ; 
 zealously opposed the Mauichaeans and 
 Pelagians, and secured the condemnation 
 of the Eutychiau heresy at the General 
 Council of Chalcedon (451). He induced 
 Attila to spare Rome (452), but it was 
 pUlaged by Genseric (455). 
 
 Leo m. {d. 816), on becondng Pope (795) 
 acknowledged Charlemagne as protector of 
 the Church ; was driven from Rome in 799, 
 but restored by Charlemagne, whom ha 
 crowned Emperor of the West in 800. 
 
 Leo IX. (Bruno), Pope (A. 1002, d. 1054), 
 previously Bishop of Toulouse ; was elected 
 at the Diet of Worms (1048), and confirmed 
 by the Roman clergy ; made strenuous en- 
 deavours to eradicate the vices of the 
 clergy, attacked the Normans, and was 
 taken prisoner at Civitella (1053), but 
 released after ten months' imprisonment. 
 
 Leo X., Pope (Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici) 
 {h. 1475, d. 1521), son of Lorenzo the Mag- 
 nificent, born at Florence ; was banished 
 with his family in 1497 ; travelled in Ger- 
 many and Flanders, and formed a friend- 
 ship with Erasmus ; on his return to Italy 
 became legate to Julius II. ; was taken 
 prisoner at Ravenna (1512) ; became pope 
 in 1513. In his efforts to extend the papal 
 dominions he allied himself at one time 
 with France, at another with the Empire. 
 In 1515 he signed the famous concordat 
 with Francis I. His pontificate is one of 
 the most brilliant periods in the history of 
 art and literatui'e, aud is also memorable as 
 the time when the Reformation began. 
 
 Leo XII. (Annibale dolla Genga), Pope (6. 
 1760, d. 1829), a native of Romagua, suc- 
 ceeded Pius VII. in 1823. 
 
 LeoXIIL(GioacchiuoPecci),Pope (6. 1810), 
 son of Count Ludo\aco Pecci, born at Car- 
 pineto, in the Papal States, educated at the 
 CoUegio Romano and the Academy of Noble 
 Ecclesiastics ; adniiuistered the districts of 
 Benevento, Spoleto, and Perugia suc- 
 cessively ; became Archbishop of Damietta 
 1843, aud Bishop of Perugia 1846 ; was 
 nuncio to the King of the Belgians 1843-6 ; 
 was created a cardinal 18;)3, and in 1S77 
 became chamberlain. He was elected pope 
 as representative of the Moderates in 1878. 
 Among his most important encyclicals are
 
 Leo 
 
 ( 504 ) 
 
 Ler 
 
 those conceminfj the Irish Nationalist move- 
 ment (1888), and the Labour question (1891). 
 
 Leon, Juau Ponce de (b. 1460, d. 1521), 
 Spanish adventurer, accompanied Columbus 
 in 1493 ; received a command in Hayti ; con- 
 quered Porto Eico ; discovered Florida in 
 1512 ; -was vroundedin an expedition against 
 the Caribs, and died in Cuba. 
 
 Leonidas, King of Sparta, defended the 
 pass of Thermopylae against Xerxes, King 
 of Persia, but, owing to the treachery of a 
 Greek named Ephialtes, was surprised in 
 the rear, and slain, with his whole army 
 (480 B.C.). 
 
 Leopardi, Giacomo, Count {b. 1798, d. 
 1837), Italian philologist and poet, born at 
 Recanati, in the March of Ancona ; after a 
 visit to Rome (1820), where he formed a 
 friendship with Niebuhr, rambled about 
 Italy, settling at Naples in 1832. He wrote 
 Canzoni, and lyrics, such as La Genestra ; 
 also Operette Morali (dialogues), many 
 learned essays, including one On the Popular 
 Errors of the Ancients, and translations of 
 several classical authors. He suffered much 
 from ill-health. 
 
 Leopold L, Duke of Austria (6. 1157, d. 
 1194), after taking part in the third Crusade, 
 seized Richard I. when on his way home, 
 and sold him to the Emperor Henry VI. 
 
 Leopold XL, Duke of Austria (b. 1292, d. 
 1326), was son of the Emperor Albert I. He 
 was defeated by the Swiss at Morgarten 
 (1315). 
 
 Leopold XXL , Duke of Austria {b. \Z5\, d. 
 1380), son of Albert II., ruled over Suabia, 
 Carinthia, and Tyrol. He was slain at 
 Sempach. 
 
 Leopold I., Emperor {b. 1640, d. 1705), 
 son of Ferdinand III., became King of 
 Hungary in 1655, and of Bohemia in 
 1657 ; was elected emperor in 1658. The 
 Turkish invasion was brought to a close by 
 the victory of Montecuculi, at St. Gothard 
 (1664). A war with France, begun in 1674, 
 was terminated by the treaty of Nimeguen 
 (1678). Owing to the emperor's cruel 
 government, the Hungarians rose in revolt 
 under Tekeli, and were aided by the Turks, 
 who besieged Vienna, but were driven back 
 by John Sobiesld, and finally defeated by 
 Prince Eugene near Zeuta (1697). Mean- 
 while Leopold was engaged in a war with 
 France, which was ended by the peace of 
 Ryswick ( 1697). His attempts to secure the 
 throne of Spain for his son Charles led to 
 the war of the Spanish Succession. 
 
 Leopold n., Emperor (5. 1747, d. 1792), son 
 of Francis I. and Maria Theresa ; in 1765 be- 
 came Grand Duke of Tuscany, where he in- 
 troduced many reforms in church and state ; 
 in 1790 succeeded to the throne of Austria, 
 
 and was elected emperor ; suppressed a re- 
 volt in the Netherlands ; restored tranquillity 
 in Hungary, and concluded a peace with 
 the Turks ; signed the treaty of Pilnitz with 
 Prussia in support of Louis XVI. (1791), 
 but died soon afterwards. 
 
 Leopold I., King of the Belgians (b. 1790, 
 d. 1865), Duke of Saxe-Coburg, elected king 
 by the National Congress in 1831 ; after a 
 struggle with the Dutch, concluded by the 
 Convention of 1833, applied himself to the 
 development of the resources of the country. 
 A commercial treaty with England was 
 signed iu 1851, and one with France in 1861. 
 
 Leopold IX. {b, 1835), son of the preceding, 
 married the Archduchess Maria of Austria 
 in 1853, and succeeded his father in 1865. 
 His reign has been marked by the quarrels 
 of the Liberals and Roman Catholics. He 
 is the leading spirit of the International 
 African Association, 
 
 Leopold I., of Tuscany. [See Leopold n., 
 
 Emperor.] 
 
 Leopold XL, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 
 
 1797, d. 1870), abdicated in 1859. 
 
 Lepidus, Marcus ^milius {d. 13 B.C.), 
 attached himself to Caesar, with whom he 
 was consul in 46 B.C. ; after his assassination, 
 joined Antonius and Octavianus, the three 
 forming the first triumvirate ; in 36 was 
 worsted in a struggle with Octavianus, and 
 banished to Circeii. 
 
 Lepsius, Karl Richard (6. 1810, d. 1884), 
 Egyptologist, bom at Naumburg, studied 
 philology under Bopp at Berlin ; edited the 
 Egyptian Book of* the Bead (1842) ; in the 
 same year was appointed professor of 
 Egyptology at Berlin, and led a scientific 
 expedition to Egypt, resulting in the Monu- 
 ments of Egypt and Ethiopia (1849-60) ; 
 published his Egyptian Chronology in 1849 ; 
 m 1866 revisited Egypt. 
 
 Ler do de Tejada, Sebastian (b. 1825), 
 Mexican politician ; was minister of foreign 
 affairs 1863-7, chief justice 1867-72, and 
 president 1872-6. 
 
 Lerma, Francisco de Rojas y Sandoval, 
 Duke of (d. 1625), was mmister of Philip 
 III. of Spain from 1598 to 1618, when he was 
 displaced by his son, the Duke of Uzeda. 
 
 Lermontofif, Mikhail Yurevitch (b. 1814, 
 d. 1841), Russian poet, wrote The Novice, 
 The Demon, The iSong of the Czar, Ivan 
 Vdsilievitch, etc. 
 
 Leroux, Pierre {b. 1798, d. 1871), French 
 Socialist, son of a Paris artisan ; in 1831 be- 
 came a follower of St. Simon, but differed 
 from Enfantin, and in 1840 published De 
 V Hmnanite, formulating the creed of the 
 Humanitarian schooL
 
 LeS 
 
 (605) 
 
 Lev 
 
 Le Sage, Alain Bene (b. 1668, d. 1747), 
 French novelist and dramatist, bom at Sar- 
 zeau, in Brittany, educated in the Jesuit 
 college atVannes; went to Paris in 1692, 
 learnt Spanish, and translated or imitated 
 several Spanish dramas; in 1707 produced 
 Ze Diable Boiteux, and soon afterwards a 
 comedy called Turcaret. Gil Bias was pub- 
 lished in three parts (1715-24-35). 
 
 Leslie, Alexander, Earl of Leven (b. 1590, 
 d. 1661), after serving under Gustavus 
 Adolphus, became commander-iu-chief of 
 the Covenanters (1639), and defeated the 
 royal forces at Newbum (1640). He com- 
 manded the Scots in the Parhamentary army 
 at Marston Moor. 
 
 Leslie, Charles {b. 1650, d. 1722), Irish 
 nonjuror; carried on controversies against 
 Boman Catholicism, and wrote A Short and 
 Easy Method with the Deists (1694) ; went 
 with the Pretender to Italy in 1715 ; died 
 in Ireland. 
 
 Leslie, Charles Robert (b. 1794, d. 1859), 
 artist, bom in London of American parents, 
 brought up in America ; returned to London 
 in 1811, was elected A.B.A. in 1821, and 
 R.A. in 1826. Most of his works illustrate 
 incidents from Shakespeare, Molifere, Cer- 
 vantes, and other humorists. 
 
 Leslie, George Dunlop (6, 1835), son of 
 the preceding, became A.B.A. in 1868, and 
 R.A, in 1876. 
 
 Leslie, John (6. 1526, d. 1596), Scotch 
 Roman Catholic priest; became Bishop of 
 Ross in 1565 ; defended Queen Mary's cause 
 at York in 1568 ; was implicated in Norfolk's 
 plot, and imprisoned in the Tower 1571-3; 
 became Bishop of Coutances in 1593 ; died 
 in a monastery near Brussels. 
 
 Leslie, Sir John (6. 1766, d. 1832), mathe- 
 matician, bom at Largo, in Fifeshire ; was 
 educated at St. Andrews and Edinburgh, 
 where he was professor of mathematics 
 (1805-19), and natural philosophy (1819-32). 
 His chief work is an Inquiry into the Nature 
 and Propagation of Heat (1804). In 1810 he 
 invented a process of artificial congelation. 
 By means of the differential thermometer, 
 which he claims to have invented, he carried 
 out original investigations in photometry, 
 hydroscopy, and the temperature of space. 
 
 Leslie, Thomas Edward Cliffe (6. 1827, d. 
 1882), educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; 
 became professor of political economy and 
 jurisprudence at Belfast in 1853. His chief 
 works are The Land System (1870), and 
 Essar/s in Folitical and Moral Philosophy 
 (1879). He api>lied the historical method to 
 economic questions. 
 
 Lespinasse, Claire Francois (J>. circa 1731, 
 d. 1776), held a famous salon, where 
 
 D'Alembert was a constant attendant. Her 
 Lettres were published in 1809. 
 
 Lesseps, Ferdinand, Vicomte de {b. 1805), 
 after holding various consular posts, went 
 to Madrid as ambassador in 1848. While in 
 Egypt. iQ 1854, he proposed the scheme of 
 the Suez Canal to Said Pasha, aud, a com- 
 pany having been formed, the canal was 
 begim in 1859, and completed in 1S69. He 
 was also author of the Panama Canal scheme. 
 
 ^Lessing', Gotthold Ephraim {b. 1729, d. 
 1781), bom at Kamenz, in Lusatia, educated 
 at the Meissen Fiirstenschule and the univer- 
 sity of Leipzig ; between 1749 and 1760 
 lived chiefly at Berhn, where Mendelssohn 
 and Nicolai were his hterary associates ; was 
 secretary to General Taueutzieu, governor of 
 Silesia, 1760-5 ; in 1770 became librarian to 
 the Duke of Bnmswick at Wolfenbiittel. 
 By publishing Reimarus's Wolfihhiittel 
 Fragments (1774), of which he was supposed 
 to be the author, he incurred the hostihty of 
 the church. His chief works are Laokoon 
 (1760), a treatise on art, and the following 
 dramas : Miss Sarah Sampson, a tragedy 
 fl755), Minna von Barnhelm, a comedy 
 (1767), Emilia Galotti, a tragedy (1772), 
 and Nathan der Weise (1779). 
 
 L'Estrange, Sir Roger (b. 1616, d. 1704), 
 fought for Charles L ; was licenser of the 
 press imder Charles II., and set up two 
 newspapers, the London Gazette (1663-5), 
 and the Observator (1679-87). He wrote 
 several poUtical tracts. 
 
 Le Sueur, Jean Francois (b. 1760, d. 1837), 
 musical composer, born near Abbeville; 
 was appointed chapel-master of Notre Dame 
 in 1786. He composed Telemaque, La Cth 
 verne, Les Bardes, and other operas. 
 
 Lethington. [See Maitland,] 
 
 Leucippus, Greek philosopher, disciple of 
 Zeuo and teacher of Democntus ; originated 
 the atomic theory. 
 
 Leusden, Johann {b. 1624, d. 1699), was 
 professor of Hebrew at Utrecht 1649-99. 
 
 Leutze, Emanuel (b. 1816, d. 1868), a 
 German historical painter. 
 
 Leuwenhoek, Antoni (*. 1632, d. 1723), 
 Dutch naturalist; said to have discovered 
 the spermatozoa. 
 
 Levaillant, Francois {b. 1753, d. 1824), 
 French traveller, explored South Africa 
 (1781-84). 
 
 Lever, Charles {b. 1806, d. 1872), novelist, 
 born in Dublin ; practised as a doctor in 
 Ireland 1832-9, and at Brussels 1830-42; 
 was appointed consul at Spezzia in 1858, and 
 at Trieste in 1867. Among his works ar« 
 Marry Lorrequer (1837), Charles O'Mallef 
 (1841), Con Cregan, A Lay^a Ride, etc.
 
 Lev 
 
 (606) 
 
 Lie 
 
 Leveridge, Richard (6. 1670, d. 1758), a 
 popular English siuger. 
 
 Leverrier, Urbain Jean Joseph (b. 1811, 
 d. 1877). French astronomer, bom at St. L6 
 in Normandy, studied at the ficole Poly- 
 technique in Paris ; in 1846 discovered the 
 planet Neptune ; after his appointment to 
 the directorship of the Paris observatory, 
 (1854), revised the theories of planetary 
 motion, and fonned more accurate tables. 
 He founded the Association Scientiflque. 
 
 Levi, Hebrew patriarch, son of Jacob and 
 
 Leah, died in Egypt. 
 
 Levi, Leone, Professor (*. 1821, d. 1888), 
 economic writer, born at Ancona, settled in 
 England in 1844, Among his works are 
 Intei-national Commercial Law, and a His- 
 tory of British Commerce (1763-1878). 
 
 Lewald, Fanny (b. 1811, d. 1889), German 
 novelist, has published Die Erloserin (1873), 
 Voter und Sohn (1881), etc. 
 
 Lewes, George Henry (b. 1817, d. 1878), 
 miscellaneous writer ; published a Misto7-y of 
 Philosophy (1845-6), Life of Robespierre 
 (1849), Life of Goethe (1855), Problems of 
 Life and Mind (\d,14:-9), etc. 
 
 Lewis, Sir George Comewall (b. 1806, d. 
 1863), educated at Oxford, was called to 
 the bar in 1831 ; entered Parliament in 1847 ; 
 was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 in 1855, Home Secretary in 1859, and secre- 
 tary for war in 1861. He wrote The Use 
 and Abuse of some Political Terms (1832), 
 The Tnjiuence of Authority in Matters of 
 Opinion (1850), and other works. 
 
 Lewis, John Frederick, E.A. {b. 1805, 
 d. 1876), artist, excelled in representations 
 of Eastern Hf e and scenery. 
 
 Lewis, Matthew Gregory (6. 1775, d. 1818), 
 wrote The Monk (1795), The Bravo of Venice 
 (1804), and other blood-curdling novels; 
 also several plays. 
 
 Lewis, Thomas Hayter {b. 1818), pro- 
 fessor of architecture at University College 
 1865-81 , wrote the articles on Ancient and 
 Modern Architecture in the Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica. 
 
 Lewis, William James {b. 1847), educated 
 at Oxford ; became professor of mineralogy 
 at Cambridge in 1881. 
 
 Ley, James, Earl of Marlborough {b. 1552, 
 d. 1628), lawyer; was made chief -justice of 
 the King's Bench in 1621, and lord-treasmer 
 in 1625. 
 
 Leydea, John (5. 1775, d. 1811), Scottish 
 poet and Orientalist ; contributed to Scott's 
 Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. He 
 aiterwau'da became a judge at Calcutta. 
 
 Leyden, Lukas van (Lukas Jacobs) (b. 
 1494, (/. 1533), a celebrated painter and 
 engraver of the Flemish school. 
 
 L'Hdpital, Guillaimie de, Marquis de 
 Saint-Mesme {b. 1661, d. 1704), French 
 mathematician ; wrote Analyse aes Infini- 
 ment-Petits (1696). 
 
 L'Hdpital, Michel de {b. 1504, d. 1573), 
 French statesman, went as ambassador to 
 the Council of Trent ; became chancellor of 
 France in 1560; prevented the establish- 
 ment of the Inquisition in France; caused 
 the States- General to be assembled (1560), 
 and secured the passing of an edict granting 
 freedom of worship to the Protestants. His 
 pacific policy being distasteful to the Guises, 
 civil war broke out in 1562, and in 1568 he 
 was deprived of his office. 
 
 Lhuyd, Edward {b. 1670, d. 1709), Welsh 
 antiquary, keeper of the Ashmolean Mu- 
 seum ; wrote Archceologia Britannica, etc. 
 
 Libanius (Jb. circa 314, d. circa 390), Greek 
 rhetorician, friend of the Emperor Julian ; 
 taught at Constantinople, Athens, and An- 
 tioch. Saints Basil and Chrysostom were 
 among his pupils. 
 
 Liberius, Bishop of Eome {d. 366), suc- 
 ceeded Julius I. in 352; supported Athan- 
 asius, and was banished by Coustantine in 
 356 ; retracted in 358, and was allowed to 
 return. 
 
 Libri-Carucci, GugUelmo Brutus Iciliua 
 Timoleon, Count {b. 1803, d. 1869), Italian 
 mathematician, settled in London in 1848. 
 
 Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph {b. 1742, 
 d. 1799), Gei-man humorist, professor of 
 experimental philosophy at GiJttingen ; 
 wrote The Physiognomy of Tails in ridicule 
 of Lavater, etc. 
 
 Liddell, Henry George (b. 1811), Dean 
 of Christ Church, Oxford (1855-91), joint 
 author of Liddell and Scoffs Greek Lexicon. 
 
 Liddon, Henry Parry, D.D. {b. 1829, d. 
 1890), a prominent member of the Liberal 
 High Church Party, educated at Oxford, 
 delivered his Bampton lectures On the Di- 
 vinity of Jesus Christ va 1866; was appointed 
 canon residentiary of St. Paul's in 1870. 
 
 Lie, Jonas (b. 1833), a Norwegian novel- 
 ist ; wrote The Man with the Second Sight 
 (1870), The Pilot and His Wife (1874), etc. 
 
 Lieber, Franz (6. 1800, d. 1872), bom in 
 Berlin ; after suffering imprisonment for his 
 political opinions, went to America (1827), 
 and became professor of history in Columbia 
 College, South Carolina. He edited the 
 Encyclopedia Americana (1829-33), and has 
 written Political Ethics (1838), etc.
 
 Lie 
 
 (507) 
 
 Lin 
 
 Liebig, Justus, Baxon von {b. 1803, d. 
 1873), chemist, bom at Darmstadt, studied 
 at Bonn and Erlangeu ; went to Paris, and 
 attracted the attention of Humboldt by a 
 papei' on fulminic acid ; was appointed pro- 
 fessor at Giessen (1824), where his labora- 
 tory became celebrated, and afterwards at 
 Munich (1852). Among his chief works are 
 Organic Chemistry in its Application to 
 Agriculture (1840), and Annalender Chimie, 
 edited in conjunction with Wohler. 
 
 Liebkaecht, Wilhelm (6. 1826), German 
 Socialist, spent thirteen years in England, 
 and joined the International (1864) ; became 
 editor of the Bemokratisches Wochenblatt in 
 1867 ; was imprisoned from 1872 to 1875, 
 when he took his seat in the Eeichstag. 
 
 Llghtfoot. John {b. 1602, d. 1675), Hebrew 
 scholar, at tirst a clergyman of the Chui'ch 
 of England ; became a member of the 
 Assembly of Divines, and represented the 
 Presbj'terians at the Savoy Conference. 
 
 Lightfoot, Joseph Barber, D.D. {b. 1828, 
 d. li>6'S), became Lady Margaret professor 
 of divinity at Cambridge in 1875 ; was ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Durham in 1879. He 
 published valuable commentaries on St. 
 Paul's epistles and the Apostolic Fathers, etc, 
 
 Ligne, Charles Joseph, Prince de (b. 1735, 
 d. 1814), general in the Austrian service, 
 bom at Brussels; distinguished himself in 
 the Seven Years' war; went to Russia as 
 ambassador in 1782, and served in the army 
 of Catherine II. against the Turks. His 
 Melanges give a lively picture of contempo- 
 rary events. 
 
 Ligonier, John, Earl {b. 1678, d. 1770), 
 field-marshal, distinguished himself in Marl- 
 borough's campaigns ; served in Flanders, 
 1746-7, displaying great gallantry at the 
 battle of Laffeldt; became commander-in- 
 chief in 1757. 
 
 Liguorl, St. Alfonso Maria de (6. 1696, d. 
 1787), founded the Congregation of the 
 Most Holy Redeemer, for promoting the 
 religious education of the poor (1732); was 
 Bishop of St. Agatha dei Goti 1762-75; 
 died in the convent of his order at Nocera 
 dei PaganL He wrote Veritd delta Fede, etc. 
 
 Li Hung Chang {b. 1823), the prime 
 minister of China. 
 
 LUbume, John (*. 1618, d. 1657), was 
 imprisoned by the Star Chamber for circu- 
 lating seditious libels (1636-40) ; served in 
 the Parliamentary army ; during the Com- 
 monwealth was frequently imprisoned for 
 attacks on Cromwell's government. 
 
 LUlo, George (*. 1693, d. 1739), English 
 dramatist ; wrote George Barnwell, Fatal 
 Curiosity, and Arden of Feversham. 
 
 Lilly, or Lyly, John {b. circa 1553, d. 
 circa 1606), vrrote several dramas, and about 
 1580 pubHshed EiipJiues .• the Anatomy of 
 Wit, the flowery language of which was 
 much admired by Elizabeth's courtiers, 
 and gave rise to the style of speaking and 
 writing called "Euphuism." 
 
 Lilly, William (*. 1602, d. 1681), astro- 
 loger ; was consulted by both parties during 
 the Civil war. His Merlinus Anglicus was 
 published annually from 1644 to 1681. 
 
 Lily, William (i. 1466, d. 1523), educated 
 at Magdalen College, Oxon. ; after travel- 
 ling in the East, opened a school in London, 
 in which he taught Greek. He was the 
 first master of St. Paul's school. His Latin 
 Grammar was pubUshed in 1513. 
 
 Limborch, Philip van {b. 1633, d. 1712), 
 Dutch Arminian divine, pastor at Gouda 
 and Amsterdam ; wrote Theologia Christiana 
 (1686), etc. 
 
 Linacre, Thomas {b. circa 1460, d. 1524), 
 founder and first president of the College of 
 Physicians ; after completing his course at 
 Oxford, studied at several Italian uni- 
 versities ; returning to England, lectured 
 on Greek and medicine at Oxford ; became 
 tutor and phj-sician to Prince Arthur ; took 
 orders about 1509, and received various 
 preferments. He wrote De Emendata 
 Structura Latini Sermonis, and other works. 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham {b. 1809, d. 1865), Ameri- 
 can statesman, bom in Kentucky, spent his 
 childhood in Indiana ; settled in Illinois in 
 1830 ; served in the Black Hawk War (1832),; 
 studied law, and sat in the Legislature 
 (1834-41) ; was elected to Congress in 1846, 
 and became conspicuous as an opponent of 
 slavery. While canvassing the state for a 
 seat in the Senate (1858), he won much 
 popularity among the Republicans. His 
 election to the presidency in November, 
 
 1860, was followed by the secession of the 
 southern states, and Civil war broke out in 
 
 1861. In September, 1862, Lincoln issued a 
 proclamation of emancipation, which took 
 eflfect on January 1, 1863. He was re- 
 elected in 1864. The success of Grant's 
 operations brought the war to a close in 
 1865, and Lincoln was engaged in schemes 
 of re-organisation, when he was shot at the 
 theatre by an actor named Booth. 
 
 Lincoln, Robert Todd {b. 1843), son of 
 the preceding ; was appointed American 
 minister to England in 1889. 
 
 Lind, Jenny (*. 1820, d. 1889), bom at 
 Stockholm, studied in Paris under Garcia 
 (1841) ; visited Berlin in 1844, Vienna in 
 1846, London in 1847, and the United States 
 in 1850-2 ; married Herr Otto Goldschmid 
 in 1852, and withdrew from the stage, but 
 continued to sing in oratorios and concerts.
 
 Ziiu 
 
 (508) 
 
 Lis 
 
 Linde, Samuel Bogumil (-''. 1771, d. 1S17), 
 of Swedish descent, boru at Thorn, published 
 a FoUsh Dictionari/. He died at Warsaw. 
 
 Lindpaintner, Peter Joseph {b. 1791, d. 
 1858), a German musical composer. 
 
 Lindsay, Sir David {b. circa 1490, d. 1555), 
 Scotch poet, was sent on several embassies 
 bj' James V. , after whose death he supported 
 the cause of the reformers. He wrote 
 17(6 Drone, The Complaynt, A Satyre of 
 the Three Etitatis, etc. 
 
 Lindsay, David, F.E.G.S. {b. 1856), born 
 in South Australia, conducted the Arnheims 
 exploring expedition in 1883 ; in 1885-6 
 led a private expedition across Australia 
 from south to north. 
 
 Lindsey, Theophilus _ (*. 1723, d. 1808), 
 Euglish clergyman, resigned his living at 
 Catterick in Yorkshire (1773), and became a 
 Unitarian minister in London (1774-93). 
 He wrote an Apology, explaining the change 
 in his views. 
 
 Lingard, John (b. 1771, d. 1851), his- 
 torian, descended from a Roman Catholic 
 family in Lincolnshire, studied at Douay ; 
 on the estabUshment of Crook Hall, Dur- 
 ham (1794), became its vice-president, and 
 subsequently professor of natural and moral 
 philosophy ; removed with the community 
 to Ushaw (1808), and in 1811 withdrew to 
 Hornby. His works are Antiquities of the 
 Anglo-Saxon Church (1806) and a History of 
 England (1819-30). 
 
 Lingen, Ralph Robert Wheeler, Baron {b. 
 1819), educated at Oxford, where he was a 
 fellow of Balliol ; called to the bar 1847 ; 
 and in 1849 became secretary to the Educa- 
 tional Department ; became permanent sec- 
 retarj'- to the Treasm-y in 1870 ; Alderman to 
 the London County Council, 1889. 
 
 Linley, Thomas {b. circa 1725, d. 1795), 
 musical composer, became proprietor of 
 Drury Lane theatre in conjunction with his 
 son-in-law, R. B. Sheridan (1776). He wrote 
 the accompaniment to the airs in the 
 Beggar's Opera, and composed several 
 ballads. 
 
 Linnaeus (Von Linne), Carl [b. 1707, d. 
 1778 1, bom at Rashult, studied at the 
 universities of Lund and Upsal, where, 
 about 1730, he conceived the idea of a new 
 method of classifying plants ; in 1732 was 
 sent on a scientific expedition to Lapland, 
 the results of which he published in his 
 Flora Lapponica (1737) ; from 1735 to 1738 
 superintended the garden of Georg Cliffort, 
 near Haarlem, and there wrote works ex- 
 plaining his system ; after visiting Eng- 
 land, became professor of medicine at Upsal 
 (1741-8). His Philosophia Jjotanica (1751) 
 gives a complete account of his system. 
 
 Linnell, Jo'm (*. 1792, d. 1882), artist, 
 studied at the Academ}-^ under West and 
 Varley ; painted portraits of Blake, Mul- 
 ready. Peel, Carlyie, and other famous 
 men ; in 1846 returned to landscape, and, 
 after his removal to Red Hill (1852), usually 
 chose his subjects from the country sur- 
 rounding his home. 
 
 Linton, Eliza Lynn (J. 1822), has written 
 many novels and social articles. 
 
 Linton, Sir James Drumgole (b. 1840), 
 artist, was successively elected member 
 (IS67), vice-president (1883), and president 
 (1884) of the Royal Institute of Painters in 
 Water-Colours, and has done much towards 
 raising it to its present position. He excels 
 in depicting scenes of chivalry and rcmance. 
 
 Linton, William James {b. 1S12\ en- 
 graver and writer ; has published a History 
 of Wood-Engraving and other works. 
 
 Lippi, Fra FiUppo (b. 1412, d. 1469), 
 Florentine painter, educatedat themonastery 
 del Carmine, studied under Masaccio. Ro- 
 mantic stories are told of his life, for which 
 there appears to be little foundation. Among 
 his masterpieces are the frescoes in the 
 cathedrals of Spoleto and Prato, and a 
 Coronation of the Virgin, now at Florence. 
 
 Lippi, Filippino {b. 1460, d. 1504), a 
 painter, son of the preceding. 
 
 Lippi, Lorenzo (5. 1606, d. 1664), Italian 
 painter and poet; wrote Fl MalmantUe 
 liacquistato. 
 
 Lippincott, Sarah Jane (Jb. 1823), an 
 American authoress. 
 
 Lipsius, Justus (b. 1547, d, 1606), a learned 
 critic, professor of history at Leyden, and 
 afterwards at Louvain. 
 
 Lisle, Lady Alicia {d. 1685), widow of 
 John, Viscount Lisle ; was condemned to 
 death by Jeffreys on the charges of having 
 sheltered some of Monmouth's adherents 
 after Sedgemoor, and executed at Winchester. 
 
 Lisle, Sir George {d. 1648), Royalist 
 officer, distinguished himself at Newbury; 
 bravely defended Colchester, "but at last sur- 
 rendered, and was shot. 
 
 Lisle, Joseph Rouget de {b. 1760, d. 
 1836), a French revolutionist; author and 
 composer of the Marseillaise. 
 
 Lista y Aragon, Alberto (6. 1775, d. 
 1848), Spanish poet and mathematician; 
 became editor of the Censor in 1820. and of 
 the Gaceta de Madrid in 1833, and advocated 
 Liberal principles. He was afterwards pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Madrid. 
 
 Liston, John {b. 1776, d. 1846), actor, 
 appeared at the Haymarket in 1805, and
 
 Lis 
 
 (509) 
 
 Lob 
 
 from that time was recognised as the 
 greatest low comedian of the day. 
 
 Listen, Robert {b. 1794, d. 1848), an emi- 
 nent Scotch surgeon, practised in London. 
 
 Liszt, Abbe Franz (6. 1811, d. 1886), 
 pianist and composer, bom at Raiding, near 
 Oldenburg, played in public at the age of 
 nine; studied at Vienna imder Czeruy and 
 iSalieri, 1821-3 ; lived several years in Paris; 
 afterwards worked as a teacher; between 
 1839 and 1849 visited the principal European 
 towns. His symphonies were written be- 
 tween 1849 and 1859, while he was director 
 of the Court Theatre at Weimar. In 1859 
 he went to Rome, entered a convent (1865), 
 and henceforward wrote chietiy church 
 music; to this period belong the oratorios 
 Si. Elizabeth (1865) and Christus (1870-5). 
 He returned to Hungary in 1871- 
 
 Littre, MaximOien Paul Emile {b. 1801, d. 
 1881), French philologist, author of a Bic- 
 tionnairede la Langue Fraii^aise (1863-1878). 
 
 Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona {d. circa 
 972), was sent on embassies to Constanti- 
 nople by Berengarius (946), and Otho I. 
 (968) ; sat in the council at Rome, which 
 deposed John XII. He wrote Antapodosis 
 (a history extending from 886 to 948), De 
 Legatione Constantinopolitana, etc. 
 
 Liverpool, Robert Banks JenMnson, 
 second Earl of {b. 1770, d. 1828), statesman, 
 entered Parliament as a Tory in 1791 ; 
 became Foreign Secretary under Addington 
 in 1801, and concluded the treaty of Amiens 
 (1802) ; was Home Secretary under Pitt 
 (1804-6) and the Duke of Portland (1807-8), 
 and Secretary for War and the Colonies 
 imder Perceval (1809-12) ; formed an admin- 
 istration in 1812, and remained at the head 
 of the Government till his death. 
 
 Liversidge, Prof. Archibald, president of 
 the Royal Society of New South Wales in 
 1883-4. 
 
 Livingston, Edward {b. 1764, d. 1836), 
 American lawyer and statesman, was elected 
 to Congress in 1794 ; followed his profession 
 at New Orleans (1804-23) ; represented that 
 town in Congress (1823-9) ; entered the 
 Senate (1829) ; became secretary of state 
 (1831) ; was minister to France (1833-5). 
 He wrote a celebrated System of Fenal Law 
 (1833). 
 
 Livingstone, David {b. 1813, d. 1873), 
 bom at Blantyre in Lanarkshire, worked 
 during childhood and youth in a cotton- 
 mill ; was sent to South Africa by the 
 London Missionary Society in 1840 : resided 
 for several years at various stations near the 
 Limpopo, discovering Lake Ngami in 1849, 
 and penetrating to the Makololo country in 
 1851 : in 1853-4 crossed Africa from the 
 Zambesi to the Congo, and in 1354-6 made 
 
 his way from Loando to Quilimane, follow- 
 ing the course of the Zambesi, and discover- 
 ing the Victoria Falls ; came to England in 
 1856, and published Missimiary Travels 
 (1857) ; returned to Africa as consul at Quili- 
 mane in 1858 ; explored the country north 
 of the Zambesi (1858-64), discovering Lakes 
 Shirwa and Nyassa, and in 1865 pubUshed 
 his Narrative of the journey ; xmdertook his 
 thiid expedition in 1866, and spent the 
 remainder of his life endeavouring to ascer- 
 tain whether the Nile flowed from the 
 water-system west of Lake Tanganyika. 
 In November, 1871, he was found by Stanley 
 at Ujiji. He died of dysentery at the 
 village of Ilala. 
 
 Livius, Titus (i, 59 -B.o., d. 17 a.d.), bom 
 at Patavium, lived chiefly at Rome, where 
 he was patronised by Augustus. He wrote 
 a History of Rome from its foundation to 
 9 B.C., in 142 books, of which 35 remain, 
 
 Llewelyn ap Grufjrdd (i. 1224, d. 1282), 
 the last of the native princes of Wales ; 
 aided Simon de Moutfort during the reign 
 of Henry III. ; on refusing to do homage to 
 Edward I., was attacked by that king, and 
 driven to the fastnesses of Snowdon ; again 
 took up arms in 1282, and was slain in 
 battle. 
 
 Llorente, Juan Antonio (b. 1756, d. 1823), 
 Spanish ecclesiastic ; wrote a Critical History 
 of the Inquisition (1817). 
 
 Lloyd, Charles (d. 1839), poet, bom in 
 Birmingham, friend of Coleridge, Southey, 
 and Lamb ; wTote Nugae Ganorce (1819), etc. 
 
 Lloyd, Edward (6. 1845), an English tenor 
 vocalist. 
 
 Lobau, Comte de (Georges Mouton) (6. 
 1770, d. 1838), French general ; served in 
 Napoleon's campaigns, earning his title by 
 his defence of the island of Lobau on the 
 Danube ; was taken prisoner at Waterloo ; 
 took part in the revolution of 1830, and suc- 
 ceeded Lafayette as commander of the 
 National Guard. 
 
 Lobeira, Vasco de {d. 1403), Portuguese 
 author ; wrote Amadis de Gaul, a famous 
 romance of chivalry. The Portuguese 
 original has been lost, the earliest edition 
 now extant being a Spani.ih translation of 
 1519. 
 
 Lobel, Mathieu (h. 1538, d. 1616), bom 
 at Lille ; settled in England, and became 
 physician to James I. His Stirpii/m Adver- 
 saria was the first attempt to classify plants 
 according to their natural orders. The Lo- 
 belia was named after him. 
 
 Lobo. Joronimo {b. 1593, d. 1678), Portu- 
 guese Jesuit missionary ; originally sent to 
 India (1622) : after labouring for nine years 
 in Abyssii'ia, was expelled (1634), and
 
 Loc 
 
 (610) 
 
 Lorn 
 
 retmiied to Goa. He died in Lisbon. His 
 Ifustori/ of Etktopta was translated by Dr. 
 Johnson. 
 
 Loch, Sir Henry Brougham, G.C.M.G., 
 chief commissioner of the Cape. 
 
 Lock, Matthew {b. 1635, d. 1677), musi- 
 cian, born at Exeter; composed music for 
 The Tempest and Macbeth. 
 
 Locke, John {b. 1632, d. 1704), EngUsh 
 philosopher, born at Wrington, in Somerset- 
 shire, educated at Westminster, studied at 
 Christ Church, Oxford : in 1666 became ac- 
 quainted with Lord Ashley, afterwards Earl 
 of Shaftesbui-y ; resided much in his house, 
 and, when he became Lord Chancellor (1672), 
 was appointed secretary for the presentation 
 of benefices ; in 1673 was made secretary to 
 the Board of Trade ; from 1675 to 1679 lived 
 in France on account of his health ; in 1683 
 followed Shaftesbury to Holland, where he 
 remained till the Revolution, after which he 
 became commissioner of appeals, and ia 
 1695 commissioner of trade and plantations. 
 From 1691 to his death he lived with Sir 
 Francis Masham, at Gates, in Essex. His 
 most important works are an Essay Con- 
 cerning Human Understanding (1690), a 
 Treatise on Education (1693), three Letters 
 on Toleration (1690-2), a Treatise on Civil 
 Government, and a Vindication of the Reason- 
 ableness of Christianity (1695). 
 
 Locke, Joseph {b. 1805, d. 1860), civil en- 
 gineer, bom near Sheffield ; assisted George 
 Stephenson in constructing the Manchester 
 and Liverpool Railway (1826-30) ; after- 
 wards completed the Grand Junction Rail- 
 way (1837), and constructed several other 
 lines in England and abroad. 
 
 Locker-Lampson, Frederick (b. 1821), has 
 published Lotidon Lyrics and other vers de 
 sociite, and edited Lyra Elegantiarum. 
 
 Lockliaxt, John Gibson {b. 1794, d. 1854), 
 educated at Glasgow and Oxford; joined 
 the staff of Blackwood in 1817 ; became 
 acquainted with Sir "Walter Scott (1818), 
 whose daughter he married (1820) ; edited 
 the Quarterly Review 1826-53 ; died at 
 Abbotsford. He wrote a Life of Burns, 
 Life of Scott, and other works, and translated 
 Spanish Ballads. 
 
 Lockhart, Sir William {b. 1621, d. 1675), 
 went to Paris as ambassador in 1655, and 
 negotiated the alHance against the Dutch ; 
 commanded the English contingent in the 
 war that ensued, and became governor of 
 Dunkirk (1658) ; was again ambassador at 
 Paris under Charles 11. 
 
 Lockhart, William Ewart, R.S.A. (*. 
 1846), has exhibited The Jubilee Celebration 
 in Westminster Abbey, etc. 
 
 Lockroy, Edouard i^tienne Simon {b. 
 
 183S), French journalist and politician, 
 first entered the National Assembly in 
 1871; in 1872 became editor of the Feuple 
 Souverain, and afterwards contributed to 
 the Rappel; became minister of commerce 
 and industry iu 1886, and of public in- 
 struction ia 1888. 
 
 Lockyer, Joseph Norman, F.R.S. {b. 1836), 
 directed the eclipse expedition to Sicily 
 (1870) and to India (1871). He has written 
 Studies in Spectrum Analysis (1872), etc. 
 
 Lodge, Edmund (b. 1756, d. 1839), Claren- 
 cieux kiug-at-arms ; wrote Portraits ofJllus- 
 trious Fersonagt's of Great Britain, etc. 
 
 Lodge, Oliver Joseph, F.R.S. (b. 1851), 
 professor of physics at University' CoUege, 
 Liverpool ; has written Modern Views of 
 Electricity (18^9), and contributed to the 
 Philosophical Magazine. 
 
 Lodge. Thomas {b. circa 1555, d. 1625), 
 an English poet and miscellaneous wiiter. 
 Among his dramas are The Wounds of Civil 
 War (1694), &nd. A Looking-glass for London 
 (1692), written ia conjunction with Robert 
 Greene. From his Rosalgnde (1590), Shake- 
 speare derived the plot of As You Like Jt. 
 
 Loewe, Louis {b. 1809), bom in Silesia; 
 traveUed in the East (1836-8) to study the 
 Coptic, Circassian, and other languages, and 
 accompanied Sir Moses Montefiore on many 
 of his expeditions. He has published A. 
 Circassian Dictionary (1854), etc. 
 
 Loftus, Lord Augustus, G.C.B. {b. 1817), 
 son of the second Marqms of Ely ; was am- 
 bassador at Vienna (1858-60), Berlin (1860- 
 2), Munich (1862-5), Berlin again (1865-8), 
 to the North German Bund (1868-71), at 
 St. Petersburg (1871-9); and governor of 
 New South Wales (1879-85). 
 
 Logan, John {b. 1748, d. 1788), a Scottish 
 divine and poet. The Cuckoo and other 
 lyrics formerly attributed to him are now 
 believed to have been written by his friend, 
 Michael Bruce, who died in 1767. They 
 were published by Logan as his own (1781). 
 
 Loison, Charles (*. 1827), known as Pere 
 Hyacinthe, French preacher, founder of the 
 Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland. 
 
 Lolli, Antonio (b. 1728, d. 1802), an Italian 
 violinist, bom at Bergamo. 
 
 Lombardi, a family of Venetian architects 
 and sculptors of the 16th century, famous 
 for their decorative work of the kind caUed 
 cinquecento. Pieteo Lombaedo, son of a 
 Lombard mason, executed the monument of 
 Dante at Ravenna (1482). His son, Ttn/Lio, 
 excelled in ornamental sculpture. Sante {d. 
 1560), son of Gnnjo, and grandson of 
 Pietro, was for many years employed on the 
 Scuola di San Eoco. Many of the Venetian
 
 Loin 
 
 (611) 
 
 Lot 
 
 palaces and churches were built by the 
 Lombardi. 
 
 Lombroso, Cesare {b. 1836), Italian man 
 of scieuce, professor of medical juris- 
 prudence in the university of Turin ; has 
 published The Man of Gemus (1888), etc. 
 
 Lomenie de Brienne, Etienne Charles de, 
 Cardinal (1727, d. 1794), Fi-ench statesman; 
 became archbishop of Toulouse in 1763, and 
 of Sens in 1788 ; succeeded Calonne (1787) as 
 controller of the hnances and chief minister. 
 His schemes for raising money involved him 
 in a struggle with the parliament of Paris, 
 which ended in his resignation (1789). 
 
 Lomi, Orazio, called Gentileschi(Zi. 1563, d. 
 1646) , Itahan painter who settled in London. 
 
 Lomonosov, Michael (6. 1711, d. 1765), 
 Russian poet and historian, sou of a fisher- 
 man, born near Archangel ; made his way 
 to Moscow, and studied there and at St. 
 Petersburg, where he became professor of 
 chemistry in 1746. He wrote a History of 
 Jiussia, and many odes and lyrics. 
 
 Long, Edwin, R.A. (6. 1839, d. 1891), 
 painter of oriental antiquity. Among his 
 ■woiks weie An jEgi/ptian Feast (1877), and 
 Esther and Vashti (1879). 
 
 Long, George [b. 1800, d. 1879), classical 
 Bcholar, educated at Cambridge ; wrote The 
 Decline of the Roman Republic (1864-9), etc. 
 
 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth {b. 1807, 
 d. 1882), American poet, bom at Portland, 
 in Maine, educated at Bowdoin College; 
 after travelling in Europe, became professor 
 of modem languages at Bowdoin in 1829, 
 and held the same post at Harvard 1835-54. 
 He revisited Europe in 1835-6, and again in 
 1842 and 1868-9. His chief volumes of 
 poetry are Voices of the Night (1839), The 
 Spanish Student (1843), Evangeline (1847), 
 The Golden Legend (1851), The Song of 
 Hiawatha (1855), The Courtship of Miles 
 Standish (1858), and Tales of a Wayside Inn 
 (1863). He also wrote Hyperion and other 
 prose works, and translated the Divine 
 Comedy. 
 
 Longhi, Giuseppe (b. 1766, d. 1831), an 
 Italian engraver, professor in the academy 
 of Milan. 
 
 Longinus, Dionysius Cassius (b. circa 213, 
 d. 273), Platonic philosopher and rhetori- 
 cian, probably bom at Athens ; opened a 
 school of philosophy and rhetoric at Athens, 
 and while there wrote his treatise On the 
 Sublime. He afterwards went to Palmyra 
 to Queen Zenobia, whose counsellor he be- 
 came. When Aurelian took Palmyra, he 
 was charged with having incited Zenobia 
 against the Romans, and put to death. 
 
 Longley, Charles Thomas {b. 1794, d. 
 
 1868), became Archbishop of Canterbury 
 in 1862. 
 
 Longomontanus, Christian (6. 1562, d. 
 1647), Danish astronomer; assisted Tycho 
 Brahe, and was professor of mathematics 
 at Copenhagen 1604-45. 
 
 Longperier, Adrien de (*. 1816, d. 1882), 
 French archaeologist. 
 
 Longstreet, James (b. 1821), American 
 general, served in the Confederate army 
 during the Civil war. 
 
 Lonnrott, Elias {b. 1802, d. 1884), Finnish 
 antiquary, discovered and published the 
 
 Finnish ej)ic Kalevala (1835-49). 
 
 Lopes, or Lopez, Femao (b. circa 1380, 
 d. circa 1449), a Poriuguese chronicler. 
 
 Lopes, Sir Henry Charles (b. 1828), became 
 lord justice of the Court of Appeal in 1885. 
 
 Lorenzetti, or Di Lorenzo, Pietro and 
 Ambrogio, brothers, painters of the Siennese 
 school, hved early m the 14th centviry. 
 The allegorical frescoes in the palace of 
 Siena were painted by Ambrogio. 
 
 Loria, Ruggero {d. 1305), admiral in the 
 service of Pedro III. of Aragon ; gained 
 many victories over the French. 
 
 Lome, John George Douglas Sutherland 
 Campbell, Marquis of {b. 1845), eldest son 
 of the Duke of Argyle, was Liberal member 
 for Argyleshire 1868-78; married the 
 Princess Louise, fourth daughter of Queen 
 Victoria, in 1871 ; was Governor-General of 
 Canada 1878-83. 
 
 Lorraine, Claude Gelee of (fi. 1600, d. 
 1682), French landscape painter; settled in 
 Rome, and acquired gieat celebrity. 
 
 Lorris, Guillavmie de {d. circa 1250), the 
 author of the Roman de la Rose, a poem on 
 the art of love. 
 
 Lot, Hebrew patriarch, son of Haran, 
 and nephew of Abraham ; lived in Sodom, 
 but was warned by angels of its coming 
 destruction, and fled to the mountains. 
 
 Loth, Otto (l). 1844, d. 1881), a German 
 Orientalist, professor at Leipzig. 
 
 Lothar, Kinp of the West Franks {b. 941, 
 d. 986), succeeded his father, Louis d'Outre- 
 mer, in 954. He endeavoured to extend his 
 dominions, but was unsuccessful both in 
 Normandy and Lorraine. He was much 
 thwarted in his projects by the Duke of the 
 French, Hugh Capet. 
 
 Lothar I., Emperor of the West {b. circa 
 795, d. 855), succeeded his father, Louis le 
 Debonnaire, in 840; was defeated by his
 
 Lot 
 
 (512) 
 
 laOU 
 
 brothers Louis aud Charles at Foutenet 
 (841), aud compelled, by the Treaty of 
 Verduu (S13), to agree to a divisiou of the 
 einiiire, taking as his share Italy aud a 
 loug, uarrow tract of laud, esteuding from, 
 the Mediterranean to the North Sea, and 
 includiug wliat are now Holland and Pro- 
 vence. 
 
 Lothar {d. 869), son of the preceding; 
 became on his father's death ruler over the 
 district betwe'^n Germany and Gaul, which 
 thus received t.ie name of "Lotharingia," 
 preserved in "Lorraine." 
 
 Lotliar n., "the Saxon," Emperor of 
 the West (b. 1075, d. 1137), became Duke of 
 Saxony in 1106, and was elected emperor in 
 1125. His rivals, Conrad of Franconia and 
 Frederick of Suabia, took up arms, and the 
 former was crowned by his supporters at 
 Milan. Lothar is supposed to have done 
 homage at his coronation to Innocent II., 
 whom he afterwards assisted agaiust the 
 anti-pope Anacletus and Roger, King of 
 Sicily. 
 
 Lotti, Antonio {b. 1665, d. 1740), Venetian 
 musician, pupil of Legrenzi ; composed 
 operas and sacred pieces. 
 
 Lotto, Lorenzo {b. circa 1485, d. 1554^, a 
 painter of the Venetian school, lived chiefly 
 at Bergamo. 
 
 Lotze, Rudolf Hermann (b. 1817, d. 1881), 
 professor of philosophy at Gottingen 
 1845-80 ; wrote a Si/stem of Philosophy 
 (1874), etc. 
 
 Loudon, John Claudius (b. 1783, d. 1843), 
 landscape gardener and horticulturist ; pub- 
 lished The Eyicyclopccdia of Gardening (1822), 
 etc. His wife, Jane {b. 1800, d. 1858), wrote 
 The Ladies' Flower Garden (1841). 
 
 Louis (Ludwig) " the Child " {b. 893, d. 
 912), son of the Emperor Amulph, became 
 King of the East Franks in 900. He was 
 the last descendant of Charlemagne who 
 ruled in Germany. 
 
 Louis (Ludwig) " the German," King of 
 the East Franks {b. 806, d. 876), son of Louis 
 le Debonnaire, ruled over the district lying 
 between the Rhine and the Elbe. 
 
 Louis L (Ludwig), the Pious, Emperor of 
 the West {b. 778, d. 840), succeeded his 
 fatlier, Charlemagne, in 814. He soon 
 afterwards named his sons Lothaire, Pepin, 
 and Louis kings over Italy, Aquitaine, and 
 Bavaria respectively. They frequently re- 
 belled against him, and he was twice de- 
 posed. 
 
 Louis n. (Ludwig), Emperor {b. circa 822, 
 d.^ 875), succeeded his father. Lothaire, in 
 855. He ruled over Italy alone. 
 
 Louis III. (Ludwig), "the Blind," Em- 
 peror (b. circa 880, d. circa 923), son of 
 Boson, King of Burgundy, and Ermengarde, 
 daughter of the Emperor Louis II. ; was 
 chosen ruler over Italy on the deposition of 
 Berengar (900), who in dOb captured him, 
 and deprived him of his sight. 
 
 Louis IV. (Ludwig), Emperor {b. 1286, d. 
 1347), succeeded his father, Louis, as Duke of 
 Bavaria in 1294. In 1314 a double election 
 to the empire took place, some of the princes 
 declaring for Louis and others for Frederick 
 of Austria. A war ensued, in which Louis 
 was victorious (1322). John XXII. having 
 attempted to depose Louis, a contest arose 
 between the pope and the emperor, which 
 was continued by Benedict XII. and 
 Clement VI. 
 
 Louis I. (Ludwig), King of the West 
 Franks. [See Louis I., Emperor.] 
 
 Louis II. (Ludwig, ths Stammerer, King 
 of the West Franks (/<. 84u, d. 879), succeeded 
 his father, Charles the Bald, in 877. 
 
 Louis IIL (Ludwig) (*. circa 863, d. 882), 
 son of the preceding ; shared the kingdom 
 with his younger brother, Carloman (879-81). 
 
 Louis IV. (Ludwig) (b. 921, d. 954), called 
 "d'Outremer," from having been brought 
 up at the court of his uncle, j^Jthelstan of 
 England ; succeeded his father, Charles the 
 Simple, in 936. He was constantly at 
 variance with Hugh the Great, Duke of the 
 French. He unsuccessfully attacked the 
 Normans, who kept him a prisoner 944-5. 
 
 Louis V. (Ludwig), "le Faineant" (b. 
 966, d. 987), the last of the Carolingian 
 kings, succeeded his father, Lothar, in 986. 
 He was succeeded by Hugh Capet. 
 
 Louis VI., "le Gros," King of France 
 {b. 1078, d. 1137), succeeded his father, 
 Philip I., in 1108. He carried on a war 
 with Henry I. of England. He granted 
 charters to the towns, in order to gain their 
 support against the nobles. 
 
 Louis VIL [b. 1120, d. 1180) succeeded his 
 father, Louis \1., in 1137. He took part in 
 the second Crusade, 1147-9. In 1152 he 
 divorced his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, 
 who thereupon married Henry, Count of 
 Anjou, afterwards King of England. He 
 afterwards aided Henry's sons in their fre- 
 quent revolts against their father. 
 
 Louis VIIL {b. 1187, d. 1226), son of 
 Philip Augustus ; was in 1216 offered the 
 crown of England by the discontented 
 barons, but, after John's death, was deserted 
 by most of his supporters, and, on the defeat 
 of his army at Lincoln (1217), returned to 
 France. He succeeded his father in 1223.
 
 Lou 
 
 (513) 
 
 Loa 
 
 He died whilst engaged in the "crusade" 
 against the Albigenses. 
 
 Louis IX. (6, 1215, d. 1270) succeeded his 
 father, Louis VIII., in 1226, under the 
 regency of his mother, Blanche of Castile. 
 In 1229 the Albigensian crusade was brought 
 to a close, and the county of Toulouse was 
 incorporated with the French kingdom. 
 Henry III. of England made some unsuc- 
 cessful attempts to recover his lost provinces, 
 and in 1259 yielded them to Louis. In 1218 
 Louis embarked on a crusade, wasted much 
 time in Egypt (1248-50), where he was 
 taJseu prisoner, and returned from Palestine 
 in 1254 without having effected anything. 
 He undertook another crusade in 1270, but 
 died whilst besieging Tunis. He was 
 canonised in 1297. 
 
 Louis X., "le Hutin" {b. 1289, d. 1316), 
 succeeded his father, Philip the Fair, in 
 1314. 
 
 Louis XI. {h. 1423, d. 1483) succeeded his 
 father, Charles VII., in 1461. His crafty 
 policy enabled him to establish his su- 
 premacy over his powerful vassals. His 
 most powerful adversary was Charles, Duke 
 of Burgundy, who in 1468 kept him three 
 days a prisoner in the castle of Peronne. 
 In 1481 Provence was annexed to France. 
 
 Louis XIL (h. 1462, d. 1515), son of 
 Charles, Duke of Orleans, succeeded Charles 
 VIII. in 1498. He laid claim to the king- 
 dom of Naples and the duchy of Milan. In 
 1499 he invaded Italy, and gained posses- 
 sion of Milan. With the assistance of Fer- 
 dinand of Aragon he conquered Naples in 
 1500, but, having quarrelled with his ally, 
 was expelled in 1503. In 1508 he united 
 with Ferdinand, Pope Julius II., and the 
 emperor, in the League of Cambrai against 
 the Venetians. In 1511 Ferdinand joined 
 Julius in the Holy League against the 
 French, who were finally driven out of 
 Italy by means of the Swiss in 1513. In 
 the same year Henry VIII. invaded France, 
 and was successful at Guiuegate. In 1499 
 Louis married Anne, Duchess of Brittany, 
 widow of Charles VIII. By his good gov- 
 ernment he earned the title of ' ' Father of 
 his People." 
 
 Louis Xin. {b. 1601, d. 1643) succeeded 
 his father, Henri IV., in 1610. Under the 
 government of Cardinal Richelieu the royal 
 power greatly increased. The Huguenots 
 lost their privileges, and La Rochelle was 
 reduced in 1628 ; yet Richelieu openly aided 
 the Protestant powers in the Thirty Years' 
 war. 
 
 Louis XIV. (A. 1638. rf. 1715), succeeded 
 hia father, Louis XIII.. in 1643. His 
 mother, Anne of Austria, was nominally 
 regent, but the government was carried on 
 
 H B 
 
 by Cardinal Ma^aiin. France was then 
 engaged in the Thirty Years' war, in which 
 Turenne and Conde gained many successes. 
 Peace was made in Germany by the Treaty 
 of Westphalia (1648), but the war with 
 Spain continued till 1659, when Louis 
 married Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip 
 IV. The unpopularity of Mazariu's govern- 
 ment occasioned the rising of the Frondeurs 
 (1648-53). After his death (1661) Louis 
 conducted the government himself, follow- 
 ing in financial matters the advice of his 
 minister, Colbert. In 1665 he invaded the 
 Netherlands, in violation of his agreement 
 with Spain. In consequence of his attack 
 on Holland (1672) an alliance against him 
 was formed between Spain, the emperor, 
 and the Elector of Brandenburg, and a war 
 ensued, which was terminated by the Treaty 
 of Nimeguen (1678). The Edict of Nantes 
 was revoked in 1685. Another war, under- 
 taken to check the growing power of France, 
 was concluded by the Peace of Ryswick 
 (1697). In 1700 began the war of the 
 Spanish Succession between the rival 
 claimants, Philip, Duke of Anjou, Louis' 
 grandson, and the Archduke Charles of 
 Austria, who was supported by England and 
 the emperor. 
 
 Louis XV., "le Bien-Aime" {I. 1710, d. 
 1774), succeeded his great-grandfather, 
 Louis XIV., in 1715, under the regency of 
 Philip, Duke of Orleans, a nephew of Louis 
 XIV. Fleury became chief minister in 1725. 
 The king's attempt to enforce the claim of 
 his father-in-law, Stanislas, to the throne of 
 Poland led to a war with the emperor 
 (1733-8). France was next engaged in the 
 war of the Austrian Succession, Louis sup- 
 porting the claim of Charles, Elector of 
 Bavaria (1741-8). During the Seven Years' 
 war (1756-63) France was deprived by 
 England of most of her colonial possessions. 
 
 Louis XVI. (6. 1754, d. 1793) succeeded 
 his father, Louis XV., in 1774. In 1770 he 
 had married Marie Antoinette, daughter of 
 Maria Theresa of Austria. The finances 
 were in complete disorder, and Louis was 
 not fortunate in his choice of ministers. 
 Turgot and Necker were in turn dismissed, 
 and succeeded by the incapable Calonne 
 (1783-7) and Lomenie de Brienne (1787-8). 
 Necker was recalled, and advised the sum- 
 moning of the States-General (May, 1789), 
 who were reconstituted as the National 
 Assembly. The dismissal of Necke'r was 
 followed by the taking of the Bastille 
 (July 14). In October a mob of armed 
 women from Paris made an attack on the 
 palace of Versailles, after which the king 
 and queen were forcibly removed to Paris. 
 In February, 1790, a new constitution was 
 issued, which the king found himself forced 
 to accept. In June, 1791, Louis attempted
 
 Lou 
 
 (614) 
 
 IiOW 
 
 to escape from France, but was arrested at 
 Vareuues and taken back to Paris. During 
 the attack on the Tuileries (August, 1792) 
 Louis fled to the Assembly, by whose order 
 he was imprisoned, with his family, in the 
 Temple. The Convention met in September ; 
 Louis was brought to trial, and ably 
 defended by Malesherbes, but condemned 
 to death, and executed on January 21, 
 1793. 
 
 Louis XVII. {b. 1785, d. 1795), son of 
 Louis XVI. ; was regarded as king by the 
 Royalists after the execution of his father. 
 He died ia confinement. 
 
 Louis XVIII. (Comte de Provence) (b. 
 1755, d. 1824), younger brother of Louis 
 XVI.^ was in favour of summoning the 
 States - General, and gained popularity 
 through his liberal views ; left France in 
 1791 ; after visiting several European courts, 
 resided in England (1807-14) ; ascended the 
 throne of France in April, 1814, and granted 
 a constitutional charter; was expelled by 
 Napoleon on his return from Elba, but re- 
 gained the throne in July, 1815. The 
 ministries of the Due de Richelieu (1815-18) 
 and Decazes (1818-20) were liberal in their 
 tendency, but in 1820 the ultra- Royalists 
 gained the upper hand, and De Villele 
 became chief minister. In 1823 France 
 aided Ferdinand VII. to regain the throne 
 of Spain. 
 
 Louis Philippe, King of the French (i. 
 1773, d. 1850), son of Philippe (EgaUt^), 
 Duke of Orleans, was during his father's 
 lifetime known as the Due de Chartres. 
 He favoured the principles of the revolu- 
 tion, and fought against the allies, but after 
 Neerwinden (1793) fled with Dumouriez to 
 the Austrian army. During the following 
 years he led a wandering life, and in 1800 
 came to England, where he remained till 
 1808. On the restoration of the Bourbons 
 he settled in Paris. After the " July " 
 revolution in 1830 he was proclaimed king. 
 The people were bitterly disappointed in 
 their "Citizen King." His government 
 became every year more arbitrary, and at 
 last the general discontent culminated ia 
 a revolution (February, 1848), which forced 
 the king to seek refuge in England. 
 
 Louis I., King of Hungary, reigned from 
 1342 to 1382. He also ruled over Poland. 
 
 Louis II., of Hungary {d. 1526), was slain 
 at the battle of Mohacs. 
 
 Louisa Augusta Wilhelmina Amelia, 
 Queen of Prussia {b. 1776, d. 1810), daughter 
 of Charles, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 
 in 1793 married the Crown Prince of Prussia, 
 afterwards Frederick William III. 
 
 Louisa of Savoy {b. 1476, d. 1532), 
 daughter of Phihp, Duke of Savoy ; was the 
 
 wife of Charles d'OrMans, Comte d'Angou- 
 leme, and mother of Francis I. of France, 
 She was regent for her son dxiring his inva- 
 sion of the Milanese, and again when he had 
 been taken prisoner at Pavia in 1525. 
 
 Louvois, Franc^ois Michel Le Tellier, Mar- 
 quis de (A. 1641, d. 1691), became minister of 
 war to Louis XIV. ia 1666. His influence 
 rivalled that of Colbert. It was by his 
 advice that the Edict of Nantes was re- 
 voked (1685) and the Palatinate ravaged 
 (1689). 
 
 Lovat, Simon Eraser, Lord (b. circa 1667, 
 d. 1747), fought against the Pretender in 
 1715, and took Inverness, but joined in the 
 rising of 1745, and was executed two years 
 afterwards. 
 
 Lovelace, Richard {b. 1618, d. 1658), poet ; 
 fought for Charles I., and was imprisoned 
 by the Parliament in 1648. He died in 
 poverty. 
 
 Lover, Samuel (b. 1797, d. 1868), bom in 
 Dublin; abandoned miniature-painting for 
 literature, and wrote Handy Andy (1842), 
 etc. 
 
 Lowder, Charles Fuge (fi. 1820, d. 1880), 
 was vicar of St. Peter's, London Docks 
 (1866-80). 
 
 Lowe, Major-General Sir Drury {b. 1830), 
 distinguished himself in the Egyptian war 
 (1882), taking Cairo and capturing Arabi 
 
 Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S. {b. 1825),. 
 an English meteorologist and botanist. 
 
 Lowe, Sir Hudson (*. 1769, d. 1844), 
 general ; was governor of St. Helena during 
 Napoleon's captivity. He died in poverty. 
 
 Lowe, Robert, Viscount Sherbrooke (b. 
 1811, d. 1892), was educated at Winchester 
 and Oxford : was called to the bar in 1842 ; 
 went to Australia, and was a member of the 
 Council of New South Wales (1843-50) ; 
 returned in 1851 ; was elected member for 
 Kidderminster (1852) ; was vice-president 
 of the Committee of Council on Education 
 (1859-64); led the " Adullamites " in 1866; 
 became member for the University of London 
 in 1868 ; was Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 under Mr. Gladstone (1868-73), and Home 
 Secretary (1873-4). In 1880 he was raised 
 to the peerage. 
 
 Lowell, James Russell {b. 1819, d. 1891), 
 American writer, bomjat Cambridge, Massa- 
 chusetts, educated at Harvard, was called to 
 the bar, but never practised; succeeded 
 Longfellow as professor of modern languages 
 at Harvard (1855) ; was minister to Spain 
 (1877-80), and to England (1880-5). Among 
 his principal works in verse are The Vision 
 of Sir Launfal, The Biglow Papers, and 
 A Fable for Critics, all published in 1848,
 
 Low 
 
 (515) 
 
 Lud 
 
 He also published Among my Books and My 
 Study Windows, etc. 
 
 Lowth, Robert (J). 1710, d. 1787), became 
 professor of poetry at Oxford in 1741 ; was 
 afterwards appointed Bishop of Oxford 
 ri766) and London (1777). He wrote JJe 
 Sacra Foesi SebrcBorum (1753), etc. 
 
 Lowth, William (*. 1661, <;. 1732), father 
 of the precediag ; wrote a Commentary on the 
 Four Greater Frophets. 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius de (Don Inigo Lopez de 
 Recalde) (*. 1491, d. 1566), founder of the 
 order of Jesuits, was the son of a Spanish 
 nobleman. He entered the army, but was 
 disabled for Uf e by a wound received at the 
 siege of Pampeluna, and devoted himself 
 to reUgious aims ; went on a pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem (1523-4) ; while a student at 
 Paris (1528) became acquainted with Xavier 
 and other enthusiasts, in conjunction with 
 whom he founded a society for converting 
 the heathen, instructing the young, and 
 restoring the power of the Roman Church 
 (1534). After its organisation it was recog- 
 nised by Paul III. (1540), and Loyola was 
 chosen general, with absolute power. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John (*. 1834), entered 
 Parliament as a Liberal in 1870 ; in 1871 
 passed the Bank Holidays Act ; has repre- 
 sented London University since 1880. He 
 has pubUshed Fre-Historic Times (1865), 
 Antu, Bees and Wasps (1882), The Fleasures 
 of Life (1887), etc. 
 
 Lubienetski, Stanislas (6. 1623, d. 1675), 
 Polish Socinian minister; wrote Theatrum 
 Cometicum, and a History of the Folish 
 Beformation. 
 
 LucanuB, Marcus Annaeus {b. 39, d. 65), 
 Roman poet, nephew of Seneca, bom at 
 Corduba, educated at Rome ; was made 
 quaestor and augur by Nero, but incurred 
 bis enmity by defeating him in a literary 
 competition ; conspired against him, and 
 was put to death. His Fharsalia, describing 
 the war between Caesar and Pompey, is an 
 epic in ten books. 
 
 Lucaris, Cyril (b. 1572, d. circa 1638), 
 Patriarch of Constantinople; openly declared 
 himself in favour of the doctrines of the Re- 
 formation, with which he had become ac- 
 quainted during a visit to Germany. He was 
 several times banished, and at last strangled. 
 
 Lucas, John Sejmiour, A.R.A. {b. 1849), 
 an English historical painter. 
 
 Lucas, Paul (6. 1664, d. 1737), French 
 traveller : journeyed through Egypt,Turkey, 
 and Eastern Asia, and pubUshed works de- 
 Bcribing his travels. 
 
 Lucca, Pauline (Mme. Wallhofen) (6. 
 
 1842), a celebrated singer, of Jewish birth, 
 bom at Vienna. 
 
 Lucianus {b. circa 125), a humorous Greek 
 writer, bom at Samosata ; after practising 
 as an advocate, probably at Antioch, travelled 
 through Greece, Italy, and Gaul, where he 
 acquired much wealth through his rhetorical 
 displays. At the age of forty he retumed 
 to his own land, and there wrote his principal 
 works, ridiculing the religion and philosophy 
 of the time. They are chiefly in the form 
 of dialogues. 
 
 Luciliu3 {d. 102 B.C.), the first Roman 
 satiric poet, bom at Suessa Aunmca ; ac- 
 companied Scipio Africanus to the siege 
 of Numantia. Fragments of his satires re- 
 main. 
 
 Lucius L, Bishop of Rome {d. 253), suc- 
 ceeded Cornelius ia 252. 
 
 Lucius IL, Pope {d. 1145), succeeded 
 Celestine II. in 1144 
 
 Lucius m.. Pope {d. 1185), succeeded 
 Alexander III. in 1181. 
 
 Lucretius, Titus Cams, Roman poet of 
 the first century B.C. ; wrote JDe Rerum 
 Natura, in hexameter verse, expounding 
 the Epicurean system of philosophy. He 
 is said to have been driven mad by a love 
 philtre, admiaistered by his wife, and to 
 have committed suicide. 
 
 Lucullus, Lucius Licinius (6. eirea 110, d, 
 circa 58 B.C.), Roman general; served as 
 quaestor under Sulla against Mithridates 
 (88-84) ; was consul in 74 ; went as proconsul 
 to Cilicia, and prosecuted the war against 
 Mithridates (74-66), expelling him from 
 Pontus, and defeating Tigranes, King of 
 Armenia, with whom he had taken refuge. 
 After his return to Rome he became noted 
 for his luxurious mode of life. 
 
 Ludlow, Edmund (*. 1620, d. 1693), served 
 in the Parliamentary army ; entered Par- 
 liament in 1645 ; took part in the trial and 
 condemnation of Charles I. ; commanded in 
 Ireland after the death of Ireton (16.51), but 
 resisted Cromwell's usurpation, and was re- 
 called (1653) ; joined ia restoring the Long 
 Parliament; in 1660 fied to Vevey, in 
 Switzerland, where he died. 
 
 Ludolf, Hiob {b. 1624, d. 1704), German 
 Orientalist ; wrote a History of Abyssinia, an 
 Ethiopie grammar, etc 
 
 Ludwig L, King of Bavaria {b. 1786, d. 
 1868), ascended the throne in 1825. In con- 
 sequence of his reactionary policy he was 
 forced to abdicate in 1848. He took great 
 interest in art and literature. 
 
 Ludwig II., of Bavaria (A. 1845, d. 1886), 
 ascended the throne in 1864. He rendered
 
 Lud 
 
 (516) 
 
 Lyc 
 
 armed assistutice iu the Franco-German war, 
 and was chosen to urge upon the King of 
 Prussia the acceptance of the imperial 
 throne. He was highly imaginative, and 
 took great deUght in music. In 1886 he 
 was deposed on the ground of insanity, and 
 soon afterwards drowned himself. 
 
 Ludwig IV., Grand Duke of Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt {b. 1837, d. 1892), lu 1862 married the 
 Princess Alice, second daughter of C^ueen 
 Victoria. 
 
 LuliU,orLovlno,Bemardino {d. afterlbZQ), 
 Italian painter, was a follower of Leonardo 
 da Vinci. Many of his best pictures are at 
 Milan. 
 
 Luitpold, Prince Charles Joseph WilUam 
 Louis {b. 1821), regent of Bavaria. 
 
 Luke, St., the Evangelist, accompanied 
 St. Paul on his missionary journeys (50-66). 
 
 Lukin, Lionel {b. 1742, d. 1834), the in- 
 ventor of the life-boat. 
 
 LuUi, or Lully, Jean Baptiste {b. 1633, 
 d. 1687), musical composer, bom at Florence; 
 went to Paris as a child, became musician 
 to the court, and director of the Academy of 
 Music. He composed many operas. 
 
 Lully, or Lulle, Eaymond, " the Enlight- 
 ened Doctor" {b. 1234, d. 1315), bom at 
 Palma, in Majorca; travelled in Africa, at- 
 tempting to convert the Moors ; was im- 
 prisoned at Tunis, but released by some 
 Genoese merchants ; died on his homeward 
 journey. His logical method was much in 
 vogue during the following centuries. 
 
 Lumsden, Lieutenant-General Sir Peter 
 (b. 1829), was in 1884 appointed commis- 
 sioner for settling the north - western 
 boundary of Afghanistan. 
 
 Luna, Alvarez de {b. circa 1388, d. 1453), 
 a Spanish statesman, minister of John II. of 
 Castile. He was twice banished, and at last 
 beheaded. 
 
 Lupus SejTvatus, abbot of Ferriferes, a 
 FreT'ch writer of the 9th century. His 
 letters throw much light on contemporary 
 history. 
 
 LusMngton, Stephen {b. 1782, d, 1873), 
 judge of the Consistory Court (1828-38), and 
 of the Court of Admiralty (1838-67) ; was 
 an earnest opponent of slavery. 
 
 Lusignan, Gujr de {d. 1195), King of 
 Jerusalem, married Sybilla, daughter of 
 Amalric I. On the death of Baldwin V. 
 (1186) Sybilla and Guy were crovraed to- 
 gether. He was taken prisoner at Hittin 
 (1187), but released in the following year. 
 During the third Crusade he had to yield 
 the throne to Conrad of Montferrat, re- 
 ceiving C^-prua instead. 
 
 Luther, Martin {b. 1483, d. 1546), son of 
 a miner, born at Eisleben, educated at 
 Eisenach and the university of Erfurt; 
 entered an Augustinian monastery (1505) ; 
 became professor of philosophy at Witten- 
 berg (1508) ; in 1510 visited Kome, where he 
 was deeply impressed with the corruption of 
 the church ; on his return began freely to 
 express his views on the vital points of re- 
 ligion, and when the Dominican Totzel re- 
 ceived a commission to sell indulgences, 
 published his 95 propositions condemning 
 the practice (1517) ; in 1518 held a contro- 
 versy with Eck, and was summoned before 
 the legate Cajetan at Augsburg ; pubhcly 
 burnt the bull issued against him by Leo X. 
 (1520) ; upheld his views before the Diet of 
 the Empire assembled at Worms (1521) ; was 
 sheltered for ten months in the castle of 
 Wartburg by Frederick, Duke of Saxony ; 
 in 1522 returned to Wittenberg. In 1524 he 
 renounced his monastic vows, and in 1525 
 married Catherine von Bora. In 1530 the 
 "Protestant" faith was formulated iu the 
 Confession of Augsburg, drawn up by Mel- 
 anchthon. Luther's translation of the New 
 Testament was published in 1524, and that 
 of the whole Bible about ten years later. 
 
 Lutti, Benedetto (b. 1666, d. 1724), painter, 
 bom at Florence; became president of tha 
 Academy of St. Luke, at Rome. 
 
 Luttrell, Narcissus {d. circa 1732), a po- 
 litical writer, whose Journal furnishes many 
 details concerning the period which followed 
 the Revolution. 
 
 Luxembourg, Francois Henri de Mont- 
 morend, Due de {b. 1628, d. 1695), French 
 marshal ; served under Cond^ in the Spanish 
 array (1653-9) ; commanded during the in- 
 vasion of Holland (1672) ; distinguished him- 
 self under Conde at Senef (1674) ; became 
 commander-in-chief in 1690, and gained the 
 victories of Fleurus (1690), SteenMrk (1692), 
 and Neerwinden (1693). 
 
 Luynes, Charles d'Albret, Due de (*. 1578, 
 d. 1621), a favourite of Louis XIII. of 
 France. 
 
 Lyall, Sir Alfred Comyns (fi. 1835), has 
 held the posts of home secretary in India 
 (1873-8), foreign secretary (1878-82), and 
 lieutenant-governor of the North-West 
 Provinces. He has published Asiatic Studies 
 (1882). 
 
 Lyall, Edna (Ada Ellen Bayly), novelist, 
 has published Donovan (1882), etc. 
 
 Lycurgus {b. circa 820 B.C.), the Spartan 
 lawgiver, according to tradition was the 
 son of Eunomus, King of Sparta ; acted as 
 guardian for his nephew, Polydectes ; jour- 
 neyed abroad to study the laws of other 
 countries, and on his return issued his code,
 
 Lyd 
 
 (517) 
 
 lyt 
 
 which sought to suhordinate private interests 
 to those of the commonwealth, 
 
 Lydgate, John {b. circa 1370, d. circa 
 1440), poet ; in 1389 entered the Benedictine 
 ahbey of Bury St. Edmunds. He wrote T/ie 
 Storie of Thebes, The Falls of Princes, The 
 Troy Booke, London Lickpenny, and other 
 poems. 
 
 Lye, Edward {b. 1704, d. 1767), phUolo- 
 gist, born at Totnes, published an Anglo- 
 iSaxon and Gothic Dictionary (1772). 
 
 Lyell, Sir Charles (b. 1797, d. 1875), geolo- 
 gist, bom in Forfarshire, educated at Oxford ; 
 was called to the bar iu 182-3, but abandoned 
 the legal profession in 1827 ; after travelling 
 on the Continent, and contributing papers 
 to the Transactions of the Geological Society, 
 published Principles of Geoloyy (1830-3), 
 which substituted the Huttonian doctrines 
 for the old "catastrophic" theory, thus 
 raising geology to the rank of a branch of 
 inductive science. He became president of 
 the Geological Society in 1836, and again iu 
 1850. He visited America in 1841 and 1845, 
 and published narratives of both expeditious, 
 written in a popular style. In 1863 appeared 
 TJie Antiquity of Man, in which he gave his 
 assent to the Darwinian theory. 
 
 LyndJbiurst, John Singleton Copley, Baron 
 (i. 1772, d. 1863), English statesman, born 
 at Boston, Massachusetts, son of the painter 
 Copley, came to England in 1775 ; studied 
 at Cambridge ; was called to the bar in 1804 ; 
 entered Parliament as a Tory in 1818 ; be- 
 came SoUcitor- General in 1819, Attorney- 
 General iu 1824, and Master of the Rolls in 
 1826; was Lord Chancellor under Canning, 
 Goderich, and Wellington (1827-30), Chief 
 Baron of the Exchequer and leader of the 
 Opposition (1830-4), and Chancellor again 
 under Peel in 1834 and 1841-6. 
 
 Lynedoch, Thomas Graham, Baron {b. 
 1748, (/. 1843), general, bom in Perthshire ; 
 served under Sir John Moore in the Penin- 
 sular war (1808-9) ; won the victory of 
 Barossa (1811), commanded the left wiug 
 at Vittoria (1813), took St. Sebastian, and, 
 after crossing the Bidassoa, led the British 
 army into Fi-ench territory. 
 
 Lyon, Nathaniel (*. 1819, d. 1861), Ameri- 
 can geueral ; servod in the Northern army 
 during the Civil war. 
 
 Lyons, Edmund, Lord {b. 1790, d. 1858), 
 admiral and diplomatist, entered the navy 
 in 1801 ; distinguished himself by his dariug 
 capture of Marrack, iu Java (1811) ; com- 
 manded a vessel during the blockade of 
 Navarino (1828) ■. was ambassador at Athens 
 1835-49 ; in 1853 was appointed second in 
 command of the Mediterranean squadron; 
 
 planned the operations against the Russians 
 m the Sea of Azov ; was made commander- 
 in-chief of the fleet ia 1855. 
 
 Lyons, Richard Bickerton Pennell Lyons, 
 Viscouut [b. 1817, d. 1887), son of the pre- 
 ceding ; was appointed envoy-extraordiuary 
 to the United States in 1858 ; in 1865 became 
 ambassador at Constantinople, and in 1867 
 at Paris, where he remained diuing the 
 Franco-German war. 
 
 Lyra, Nicholas de {d. 1340), theologian, of 
 Jewish descent, bom at Lyre, in Normandy ; 
 after his conversion to Christiauity, became 
 a monk ; wrote Postillte Perpetuce, a com- 
 mentary on the Bible. 
 
 Lysander [d. 395 e.g.). Spartan admiral 
 and geueral, defeated the Athenian fleet at 
 Notium (407 B.C.) ; acquired great influence 
 over the Persians ; virtually ended the 
 Peloponnesiau war by his victory at ^gos 
 Potami (405) ; in 404 captured Athens, 
 where he set up the Thirty Tyrants. He lost 
 much of his power after the accession of the 
 Spartan king, Agesilaus (397). 
 
 Lysias {b. 453, d. 378 B.C.), Athenian 
 orator ; went with a party of colonists to 
 Thurii, iu southern Italy (443) ; was expelled 
 by the Spartan faction (411), and returned 
 to Athens ; escaped to Megara during _ the 
 government of the Thirty Tyrants, and aided 
 Thrasybulus in driving them out ; passed 
 the rest of his hf e at Athens. 
 
 Lysimachus (d. 281 b.c), Macedonian 
 geueral, ou the death of Alexander the Great 
 (323) became ruler over Thrace ; after de- 
 feating Antigouus at Ipsus (301), obtained a 
 large part of Asia Minor ; in 286 seized the 
 throne of Macedon. He was slain in battle 
 with Seleucus. 
 
 Lysippus, a Greek sculptor of the latter 
 part of the 4th century B.C. ; executed many 
 statues in bronze, which have all perished. 
 
 Lysons, Daniel {d. 1834), rector of Rod- 
 marton, in Gloucestershire ; wrote The 
 Environs of London and Magna Britannia 
 (1806-22). 
 
 Lysons, Samuel {b. 1763, d. 1819), brother 
 of the preceding, bom at Rodmarton ; be- 
 came keeper of the records iu the Tower of 
 London. 
 
 Lsrte, Henry Churchill Maxwell, C.B., 
 P.S.A. (b. 1848), denuty-kecper of the 
 records; has published a History of Eton 
 College (1875), etc. 
 
 Lyttleton, or Littleton, Edward, Lord (*. 
 1589. '/. liU5), became Chief Justice of the 
 Common Pleas iu 1640, and Lord Keeper in 
 1641. He served in the Royalist army. 
 
 Lyttleton, or Littleton, Thomas {b. circa 
 14'iU, d. 1481), judge, born in Devoushire ;
 
 Lyt 
 
 (518) 
 
 Mac 
 
 was a student of the Inner Temple ; became 
 king's sergeant in Hoo, and judge of Com- 
 mon Pleas in 1462. His Treatise on Tenures, 
 in Noi-man French, is considered the founda- 
 tion of the English law of property. There 
 is a celebrated commentary on it by Sir 
 Edward Coke, 
 
 Lyttleton, George, Lord {b. 1709, d. 1773), 
 entered Parliament in 1730 ; was Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer, 1756-7. He wrote Obser- 
 vations on the Conversion of St. Paul, Dia- 
 logues of the Dead, a History of Henry II., 
 and Poems. 
 
 lyttleton, George William, Lord (b. 1817, 
 d. 1876), classical scholar, educated at Eton 
 and Cambridge ; published Translations, 
 Ephemera (1865-72), etc. He was under- 
 secretary for the colonies in 1846. 
 
 Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton 
 Bulwer-Lytton, Baron (b. 1803, d. 1873), was 
 the son of General Earle Bulwer, of Heydon 
 Hall, Norfolk. Among his novels, which 
 vary greatly in subject and treatment, are 
 Feiham (1828), The Last Days of Fompeii 
 
 (1834), Rienzi (1835), Ernest Maltravers 
 {IS37), Alice (ism), Z(mom(lSil), The Last of 
 the Barofis {I8i3), Harold {I8i8), The Caxtons 
 (1849) , My iVow^ (1853), etc. In 1838 he pro- 
 duced two dramas — Richelieu and The Lady 
 of Lyons. In 1866 appeared The Lost Tales 
 of Miletus. He sat in Parhament as a 
 Liberal 1831-41 ; was elected as a Conser- 
 vative in 1852, and was Colonial Secretary 
 under Lord Derby in 1858. In 1866 he was 
 raised to the peerage. 
 
 Lytton, Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 
 Earl of (*. 1831, d. 1891), son of the 
 preceding ; after holding various diplomatic 
 posts, became minister at Lisbon in 1874; 
 was viceroy of India 1876-89, and Ambas- 
 sador at Pai-is (1887). He published several 
 volumes of poetry xmder the pseudonym of 
 " Owen Meredith ; " also The liing ofAmasis 
 (1863). 
 
 Lyveden, Robert Vernon Smith, Baron 
 (b. 1800, d. 1873), entered Parliament as a 
 Whig in 1821. He was president of the 
 Board of Control 1855-8. 
 
 M 
 
 Maas, Joseph (*. 1847, d. 1886), English 
 tenor, bom at Dartford ; made his first 
 appearance in London in 1871, his last 
 important eugagement having been at the 
 Birmingham Festival 1885. 
 
 Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de (b. 1709, d. 
 1785), French writer, brother of Condillac. 
 His chief works were Le Droit Public de 
 VEurope, Parallele des Romams et, des 
 Franfais, and Sur les Constitutions des Etats- 
 Urns de r Amerique. 
 
 Mabuse, Jan van (Gossaert) {b. circa 1470, 
 d. 1532), Flemish painter, called from the 
 place of his birth ; patronised by Charles V. 
 and Henry VII., a portrait of whose children 
 he executed, the chief of his other works 
 having been The Descent from the Cross 
 fwhich has perished), Adam and Eve, and 
 The Beheading of St. John. 
 
 Macadam, John Loudon (*. 1756, d. 1836), 
 Scottish magistrate ; invented the system of 
 road-making called by his name, publishing 
 in 1819 A Practical Essay on the Repair and 
 Preservation of Roads ; received two grants 
 from Parliament, but declined knighthood, 
 which was conferred on his son. 
 
 Macalister, Alexander, M.D., F.R.S. 
 (b. 1844), scientific writer; is author of 
 
 Introduction to Animal Morphology (1876), 
 and Morphology of Vertebrate Animals; 
 appointed professor of zoology at Dublin 
 in 1869, and of anatomy 1872; made pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Cambridge in 1883. 
 
 MacAUster, Donald, M.D., F.R.C.P. {b. 
 
 1854), scientific writer; after nimierous 
 scholastic successes was at Cambridge 
 senior wrangler and first Smith's prize- 
 man 1877 ; became fellow of St. John's 
 College, Cambridge (1877) ; Gulstonian 
 lecturer and Croonian professor (1888), and 
 Thomson lecturer at Aberdeen (1889). His 
 chief works are The Nature of Fever (1887), 
 
 The Law 
 
 Antipyretics (1888), 
 Geometric Mean. 
 
 and 
 
 of the 
 
 McArdell, James (i. 1710, d. 1765), Irish 
 mezzotint engraver; also executed prints 
 after Rembrandt and other masters. 
 
 McArthnr, John (J. 1766, d. 1834), Aus- 
 tralian settler, founder of the wool trade ; 
 also introduced the cultivation of the vine. 
 
 Macartney, George, Earl {b. 1737, d. 
 1806), Irish diplomatist: when ambassador 
 in Russia made a treaty which was dis- 
 avowed (1765) ; as governor of Madras 
 organised the capture of Negapatam from 
 the Dutch, but opposed the policy of Warr^i
 
 Mac 
 
 (519) 
 
 McC 
 
 Hastings ; was afterwards ambassador in 
 China, and finally governor of the Cape. 
 
 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord {b. 
 1800, d. 1859), British historian and states- 
 man ; graduated at Cambridge, was called 
 to the bar in 1826, and entered Parliament 
 for Calne in 1830 as a Whig. He was Secre- 
 tary at War (1839-41), and Paymaster- 
 General (1846-8), and, having represented 
 Edinburgh for many years, was created a 
 peer in 1857. His chief works were His tort/ 
 of England from the Accession of James 
 II., Critical Essays, most of which were 
 written for the Edinburgh Review, and Lays 
 of Ancient Rome. Many of his speeches 
 were also published, 
 
 MacaiUay, Zachary, F.R.S. (J. 1768, d. 
 1838), philanthropist, father of the his- 
 torian ; co-operated with Wilberforce in 
 the abolition of slavery. 
 
 Macbetli {d. 1057) usurped the throne of 
 Scotland in 1040, having defeated and slain 
 Duncan, but was himself afterwards killed 
 by Malcolm, son of the late king. 
 
 Maccabseus, Judas {d. 160 b.c), Jewish 
 priest ; carried on the struggle begun by his 
 father, Mattathias, who had driven the 
 Syrian idolaters from Judaea ; entered Jeru- 
 salem in 163, after defeating Lysias, and 
 allied himself with the Romans, but waa 
 defeated and slain in 160. 
 
 Maccabaeus, Jonathan {d. 144 B.C.), 
 brother of the last-named, whom he suc- 
 ceeded ; supported Alexander Balus against 
 Demetrius Soter as claimant for the Syrian 
 throne; was treacherously slain by Try- 
 phon. 
 
 Maccabaeus, Simon (d. 135 b.c), brother 
 and successor of Jonathan ; made an alUance 
 with the Romans, and, with his sons, de- 
 feated the army of Autiochus VII. in 137, 
 but was murdered two years afterwards by 
 his son-in-law, Ptolemy. 
 
 MacCarthy, Sir Charles {d. 1824), British 
 soldier; became governor of Sierra Leone 
 in 1822, and in the course of operations 
 against the Ashantis, having been deserted 
 by his native troops, was defeated, captured, 
 and executed in January, 1824. 
 
 McCarthy, Denis Florence {b. 1820, d. 
 1882), Irish poet and song- writer ; author of 
 Ballads, Poems, and Lyrics, and of verse- 
 translations of Calderon and other foreign 
 poets. 
 
 McCarthy, Justin [b. 1830), politician and 
 writer, bom at Cork ; was for some years a 
 ioumalist, and entered Parliament as a 
 Home Ruler for Longford county in 1879. 
 He contested Derry unsuccessfully in 1885, 
 but obtained the seat on petition after the 
 
 next election. On the deposition of Mr. 
 Pamell he became chairman of the Nation- 
 alist party. Besides his History of Our 
 Own Times, and History of the Four Geoi-ges, 
 his works include several novels, A Fair 
 Saxon, Bear Lady Disdain, etc. 
 
 Macchiavelli, Niccolo di Bernardo dei 
 (b. 1469, d. 1527), Florentine writer and 
 statesman, son of a jurist of good family ; 
 as secretary of state at Florence from 1498 
 to 1512, went on several important missions, 
 but was deprived and exiled in the latter 
 year by the MedicL His chief works were 
 // Principe, Istorie Florentine, Arte delta 
 Guerra, some comedies and poems, and 
 Discorsi sulle Deche di Tito Livio. In 1521 
 he again took part in affairs for a short 
 time, but died in poverty a few years later. 
 
 Macchietti, Girolamo, "Del Crocefissajo" 
 {b. 1535), Florentine painter ; worked under 
 Vasari at Palazzo Vecchio, and travelled 
 much in Italy and Spain. His best pictures 
 were Martirio di San Lorenzo, and the 
 Medea. 
 
 McClellan, George Brinton {b. 1826, d. 
 1885), American general ; distinguished him- 
 self in the Mexican war, and drew up a re- 
 port on the organisation of European armies 
 after a visit to the Crimea ; during the Civil 
 war commanded the army of the Potomac, 
 but after indecisive engagements, was super- 
 seded in 1862 (November). In 1865, as a 
 Democrat, he was the unsuccessful opponent 
 of Lincoln for the presidency. In 1877 he 
 was elected governor of New Jersey. 
 
 Macclesfield, Thomas Parker, Earl of 
 (b. 1666, d. 1732), English lawyer ; took part 
 in the prosecution of Sacheverell, and in 
 1710 became chief justice of the Queen's 
 Bench. In 1716 he was made baron, in 
 1721 an earl, and was Lord Chancellor from 
 1718 to 1725, when he was found guilty of 
 seJUng offices and fined. 
 
 McClintOCk Sir Francis Leopold, D.C.L., 
 F.R.S. {b. 1819), Arctic explorer, bom at 
 Dundalk, entered the navy in 1831. After 
 some foreign service, he accompanied the 
 expeditions in search of Franklin com- 
 manded by Sir James Ross and Captain 
 Austin, and while with the latter made a 
 sledge journey of 760 miles. Next year 
 (1852) he commanded the Intrepid in Sir E. 
 Belcher's expedition, and rescued McClure. 
 In 1857 he commanded Lady Franklin's 
 expedition, and returned in two years with 
 the news of the discovery of her husband's 
 death, and pubUshed an accoimt of the 
 voyage. In 1884 he attained the rank of 
 admiral, and received a pension in 1887. 
 
 McClure, Sir Robert John le Mesurier (6. 
 1807, d. 1873), Arctic explorer; went with 
 13ack'3 expedition in 1836, and accompanied
 
 McC 
 
 (520) 
 
 Mac 
 
 Ross in 1848. In 1850, ■when iu command 
 of the Investigator, he discovered the North- 
 West Passap;e, but was ice-bound for three 
 years. Having been rescued by McClintock, 
 he returned, was knighted, and received a 
 reward of £5,000 for his discovery. 
 
 McCormac, Sir William (//. 1836), surgeon, 
 graduated at Queen's University, Belfast ; 
 served in the Franco-German war as 
 surgeon-in-chief of the Anglo-American 
 ambulance, and in 1876 in Servia. He was 
 knighted for his services in 1881 as secretary- 
 general of the International Medical Con- 
 gress, and received also many foreign 
 decorations. His chief works are Work 
 under the Red Cross, Antiseptic Surgery, 
 and Surgical Operations. 
 
 McCormick, Cyrus Hall (b. 1809, d. 1884), 
 Anvsrican, inventor of the reaping-machine, 
 which he patented in 1834, and afterwards 
 improved, receiving medals at the London 
 Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, and the Legion 
 of Honour in 1867. He built large works 
 at Chicago, and founded a seminary there. 
 
 McCormick, Robert {b. 1800), Arctic ex- 
 plorer and surgeon ; entered the navy in 
 1823, accompanied Sir Edward Parry in the 
 Hecla, and went to the Antarctic regions in 
 1836 in the Terror. From 1839 to 1843 he 
 was with the Erebus at the South Pole. 
 After his return he was sent in the North 
 Star in 1852 in search of Franklin, and in 
 1857 he laid before the Admiralty the plan 
 carried out by McClintock. 
 
 McCosh, James [b. 1811), American philo- 
 sophical writer, bom in Scotland, where he 
 took part in the founding of the Free 
 Church in 1843. After holding a professor- 
 ship at Queen's College, Belfast, he went in 
 1868 to America, and was president of the 
 college at Princetown till 1887. 
 
 McCoy, Frederick, F.R.S., D.Sc. (b. 1823), 
 British paleontologist ; made investigation 
 for the geological map of Ireland, publish- 
 ing results iu 1844 and 1846. He was also 
 employed in the Imperial Geological Survey 
 of Ireland, after which he was made pro- 
 fessor in Queen's College, Belfast. With 
 Sedgwick he brought out British Paheozoic 
 Hocks and Fossils, and then became professor 
 of natural science at Melbourne. He was 
 chairman of the first Commission on the 
 Gold Fields of Victoria, and member of 
 several other royal commissions. 
 
 McCrie, Thomas {h. 1772, d. 1835), Scotch 
 minister, author of Life of John Knox (1813), 
 Life of Andrew Melville, and History of the 
 Meformation in Italij. 
 
 Mcculloch, Horatio, R.S.A. (A. 1806, d. 
 1867), Scottish landscape-painter, whose 
 chief picture was called Mist Rising off the 
 Mountains 
 
 McCulloch, John (6. 1773, d. 1835), 
 geologist ; author of Geological Classification 
 of Rocks, System of Geology, etc. ; received 
 £7,000 for his services in the survey of 
 Scotland. 
 
 McCuUoch, John Ramsay (6. 1789, d. 
 1864), political economist, professor at the 
 London University 1828-32, and after- 
 wards controller of the Stationery Office ; 
 wrote Principles of Political Economy (1825), 
 Statistical Account of the British Empire 
 (1837), and other works. 
 
 McCunn, Hamish (b. 1868), musical com- 
 poser, studied at the Royal College of 
 Music, and produced in 1886 at the Crystal 
 Palace his Zand of the Mountain and the 
 Flood, which was followed by Bonnie Kil- 
 meny. The Ship o' the Fiend, The Dowie 
 Dens of Yarrotv, etc. 
 
 Macdonald, Etienne Jacques Joseph Alex- 
 andre, Marshal (6. 1766, d. 1840), French 
 soldier of Scottish descent ; commanded the 
 army of the Rhine in 1796, and distinguished 
 himself against Suvaroff in Italy. In 1800, 
 while in command in Switzerland, he gained 
 renown by his passage of the Spliigen. Soon 
 afterwards he lost the favour of Napoleon, 
 but in 1809 was made marshal for his ser- 
 vices at Wagram, and next year Due de 
 Tarente. He interceded for Napoleon with 
 the allies, but accepted the restoration, and 
 remained faithful to the Bourbons. 
 
 Macdonald, Flora (*. 1722, d. 1790), 
 Scotch lady, who aided Charles Edward 
 Stewart to escape in 1746. 
 
 Macdonald, George {b. 1824), poet and 
 novelist, born in Aberdeenshire ; after being 
 an Independent minister for a short time, he 
 retired and came to London, where he wrote 
 Within and Without : a Dramatic Poem, 
 David Elginbrod (1862), Annals of a Quiet 
 Neighbourhood, The Disciple, and other 
 Poems, Unspoken Sermons, and other works. 
 In 1877 he received a Civil List pension of 
 £100. His son, Greville {b. 1856), has 
 become known as a specialist in nasal 
 diseases. 
 
 Macdonald, Sir John Alexander (b. 1815, 
 d. 1891), distinguished Canadian states- 
 man, bom in Glasgow, was called to the 
 Canadian bar in 1836, and became receiver- 
 general of Canada (1847), commissioner of 
 crown lands (1847-8), attorney - general 
 (1854-62 and 1861-7), prime minister in 
 1858, government leader in the Assembly 
 (1864-7), and minister of miUtia affairs 
 (18G2-65-67). He was chairman of the 
 London Colonial Conference of 1866-7, and 
 was head of the new Dominion Government, 
 as minister of justice and attorney-general, 
 from 1867 to 1873, when he resigned on the 
 Pacific Railway charges. From 1878 till hi»
 
 Mac 
 
 (521) 
 
 McI 
 
 death he was again prime minister, being at 
 first minister of the interior, and afterwards 
 president of the council. In 1871 he was 
 one of the commissioners on the Alabama 
 claims, and was sworn of the Privy Council 
 in 1879. He visited England ia 1880 and 
 1884, on the latter occasion taking an active 
 part in the formation of the Imperial 
 Federation League. 
 
 Macdonald, John Blake, U.S.A. {b. 1829), 
 Scotch painter, bom and educated in 
 Morayshire, came to Edinburgh in 1852, and 
 studied under Lauder. In 1862 he painted 
 Prince Charlie Leavi)tg Scotland, and among 
 his other works are King James and the 
 Witches, The Massacre of Glencoe (in the 
 National Gallery, London), and several pic- 
 tures illustrative of Scott. 
 
 Macdonald, John Denis, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 (b. 1826), scientific writer, bom at Cork, 
 entered the navy iu 1 849, and went on a 
 voyage of discovery in the South Pacific 
 with Captain Deuham in 1852. He then went 
 in the Icarus to the West Indies, where he 
 rendered invaluable services in connection 
 with the yellow fever epidemic ; and in 1880 
 was appointed inspector-general of hospitals. 
 His chief works are Sound and Colour (deal- 
 ing with the undulatory theory). Guide to 
 the Microscopical Examination of Drink- 
 ing Water, and Outlines of Naval Hygiene 
 (1881). 
 
 Macdonald, John Hay Athole {b. 
 1836), Scotch judge; became advocate in 
 1859, and Queen's Counsel in 1880, and was 
 Solicitor-General for Scotland from 1876 to 
 1880, and Lord Advocate 1885-6 and 1886-8, 
 when he became lord justice clerk. He sat 
 in Parliament for Edinburgh and St. Andrews 
 Universities (1885-8), and became Privy 
 Councillor in 1885. As an electrician he was 
 elected F.R.S.E. in 1886, and F.R.S. in 
 1888, and also published a Treatise on the 
 Criminal Laic and a book on Tactics. 
 
 McDougall, William (*. 1822), Cana- 
 dian statesman, was elected to Parliament as 
 a reformer in 1858 ; became member of 
 the Executive Council in 1862, and pro- 
 vincial secretary in the coalition ministry 
 formed to carry out federation. In 1866 he 
 was minister of marine, and in the first 
 Dominion Ministry was for two years 
 minister of public works. In 1873 he was 
 commissioner to confer on fisheries and 
 emigration, but when subsequently offered 
 public office he declined. 
 
 McDowell, Irvin {b. 1818, d. 1885), Ameri- 
 can general ; commanded the Fedeiulists at 
 the defeat of Bull's Run, and afterwards 
 served under Pope and McClellan. 
 
 McDowell, Patrick (*. 1799, d. 1870), 
 Bculptor, bom at Belfast ; came to England 
 
 at the age of twelve, and made a name by 
 his Girl Reading. He was elected R.A. in 
 1846, and among other works executed the 
 statues of Pitt and Chatham in the House 
 of Commons, and the group Europa in the 
 Albert Memorial. 
 
 Macedonius I. (d. circa 360), Patriarch of 
 Constantinople ; forcibly appointed by Con- 
 stantius, became a great persecutor, and was 
 deposed in 360. He founded the sect called 
 after him. 
 
 Macer, Clodius {d. 68), Roman governor 
 of Africa ; usurped the purple on the death 
 of Nero, but was put to death by Galba. 
 
 Macfarren, Sir George Alexander ib. 1813, 
 d. 1887), composer, educated at the Academy 
 of Music, at which he became a professor of 
 harmony iu 1834. He produced Chevij Chase 
 (1836), Bon Quixote, Charles II., operas; 
 May Bay (1856), Robin Hood (1861), can- 
 tatas; Joseph, an oratorio (1877), and many 
 symphonies, concertos, and songs. In 1875 
 he was named principal of the Royal 
 Academy of Music, and he succeeded Stem- 
 dale Bennett as profes.sor of music at Cam- 
 bridge. He was blind in his latter years. 
 
 McGhee, Thomas D. (A. 1825, d. 1868), 
 Canadian statesman, bom in Ireland ; emi- 
 grated and settled at Boston in 1842, but 
 soon returned to Ireland, where he took part 
 in the Young Ireland movement, in conse- 
 quence of which he had to leave the country 
 for Ajnerica in 1848. He went to Canada 
 about 1856, and, having changed his views, 
 was elected to the Canadian Parliament, and 
 was from 1864 to 1867 president of the 
 Executive Council, when he drafted the 
 plan of federation, which was adopted. He 
 was assassinated by the Fenians at Ottawa. 
 
 McGregor, John (6. 1797, d. 1857), Scotch 
 political economist ; author of The Progress 
 of America, a History of the British Empire 
 (1852), etc. ; was elected member of Parlia- 
 ment for Glasgow in 1847, but was ruined 
 by the failiire of the British Bank, estab- 
 lished by him in 1849. 
 
 MacGregor, John (Jb. 1825), philanthropist 
 and canoeist ; wrote A Thousand Miles in 
 the Rob Roy Canoe (1866), etc. 
 
 McHale, John, D.D. (J>. 1791, d. 1881), 
 Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, author of 
 translations of the Bible and the Iliad into 
 Irish ; was for some years professor at 
 MajTiooth. 
 
 Machault, Jean Baptiste (i. 1701, d. 
 1794), French financier, appointed con- 
 troller-general in 1745. His plans not being 
 adopted, he became minister of marine in 
 1754, but retired three years later, and died 
 in prison during the revolution. 
 
 Mcnwraith, Sir Thomas, K.C.M.G. {Jb.
 
 Mac 
 
 (522 ) 
 
 Mac 
 
 1835}, Australian statesman, bom at Ayr, 
 Scotland, and educated at Glasgow ; emi- 
 grated to Victoria in. 18.54, and became a 
 ci\il engineer ; became minister of works in 
 Queensland in 1873, and was premier from 
 1879 to 1883, and again from 1888 to 1890, 
 when he became treasurer. 
 
 Machin, or Machyn, John (d. 1751), 
 British astronomer, professor at Gresham 
 College ; author of the Laws of the Moon's 
 Motion, and a computation of the ratio of 
 the circumference of a circle to its diameter. 
 
 Macias el Enamorado (15th century), 
 Spanish poet, whose name weis made cele- 
 brated by Lope de Vega and Calderon as a 
 type of pure but unhappy love. 
 
 Macintosh, Charles, F.R.S. {b. 1766, d. 
 1843), Scotch chemist, and inventor of the 
 waterproof cloak ; was bom in Glasgow, but 
 transferred his business to Manchester. 
 
 Mcintosh, "William, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. {b. 
 1838), ichthyologist and physician, bom and 
 educated at St. Andrews, where he became 
 professor of natural history in 1882. His 
 chief works are Obsei'vations and Experiments 
 on the Shore Crab, The Annelida of H.M.S. 
 " Challenger" (1885), and On the Develop- 
 ment and Life-ilistories of the British Food 
 Fishes, with B. E. Prince (1889). 
 
 Mack, Karl, Baron {b. 1752, d. 1822), 
 Austrian general, who rose from the ranks ; 
 was defeated and made prisoner by Mac- 
 donald in Italy (1797), and was in command 
 at the capitulation of Uim in 1805. 
 
 Mackay, Charles, LL.D. {b. 1814, d. 1889), 
 Scottish journalist and poet ; author of Poems 
 and Extraordinary Popular Delusions, popu- 
 lar songs, such as Cheer, Boys, Cheer, etc. 
 
 McKendrick, John Gray, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 
 (J). 1841), physiologist and surgeon, bom 
 and educated at Aberdeen (M.D., 1864), was 
 appointed to the chair of Institute of Medi- 
 cine in Glasgow in 1876, and was subse- 
 quently Fullerian professor of physiology 
 at the Royal Institution and Thomson lec- 
 turer at the Free Church college, Aberdeen ; 
 his chief work, besides monographs on 
 various medical subjects, is a Text-book of 
 Physiology (1837). 
 
 Mackenzie, Sir Alexander {b. 1755, d. 
 1820), explorer; discovered the river which 
 bears his name in 1789. 
 
 Mackenzie, Alexander {b. 1822), Cana- 
 dian statesman, bom in Perthshire ; 
 early emigrated to Canada, where he be- 
 came a contractor and journalist. After 
 sitting in the Canadian Parliament for six 
 years, he was elected to the Dominion Legis- 
 lature, and was also provincial secretary 
 and treasurer in Ontario till 1872. From 
 
 1873 till 1878 he was premier and minister 
 of public works for the Dominion. 
 
 Mackenzie, Alexander Campbell (b. 1847), 
 composer, bom in Edinburgh, and educated 
 in Germany ; became principal of the Royal 
 Academy of Music in 1888. His chief 
 works are Colomba (1884) and The Trouba- 
 dour, operas ; the Story of Sayid and The 
 Dream of Jubal, cantatas ; and The Rose of 
 Sharon (1884), an oratorio. 
 
 Mackenzie, Charles Frederick (b. 1825, d. 
 1862), British colonial bishop ; after having 
 been for some years with Colenso in Natal, 
 organised and became head of the Zambesi 
 mission, but died of fever within six months 
 of his consecration. 
 
 Mackenzie, Sir George (*. 1636, d. 1691), 
 Scotch lawyer ; as lord advocate prosecuted 
 the Covenanters, founded the Advocate's 
 Library, Edinburgh, and became the friend 
 of Dryden. His chief work was Institutions 
 of the Laws of Scotland. 
 
 Mackenzie, Henry (*. 1745, d. 1831), 
 Scotch writer and comptroller of taxes, 
 his chief works being The Man of Feeling 
 (1771), The Man of the World, and Julia de 
 Roubigne. 
 
 Mackenzie, Sir Morell (*. 1837, d. 1892), 
 physician ; bom at Leytonstone, and edu- 
 cated in London, Paris, and Vienna ; obtained 
 the Jacksonian prize in 1863 for his Essay on 
 Diseases of the Larynx, to which subject he 
 continued to devote his studies, producing a 
 treatise on Diseases of the Throat and Nose, 
 besides several smaller works. He was 
 knighted in 1887 for his services to the 
 Emperor Frederick in his last illness, of 
 which he wrote an accoimt, which gave 
 great umbrage to his profession, and obliged 
 him to resign his membership of the College 
 of Physicians. 
 
 Mackey, John {d. 1726), English political 
 agent ; followed James II. to France, and 
 supplied the English Government with in- 
 formation of the descent on Scotland medi- 
 tated by the Old Pretender ; wrote Pictures 
 of the Court of St. Germain. 
 
 Mackinnon, Daniel (b. 1791, d. 1832), Eng- 
 lish soldier ; entered the Coldstream Guards 
 at the age of fourteen, and served with 
 great distinction, particularly in the defence 
 of Hougomont on the field of Waterloo. 
 
 Mackintosh, Sir James {b. 1765, d. 1832), 
 Wliig politician and writer, friend of Can- 
 ning and Romilly ; first became known by 
 his Vindicice Gallicce (a reply to Burke's 
 Reflections on the French Revolution), and 
 gained a considerable practice at the bar. 
 After seven years in India, he entered ParUa- 
 ment in 1812, became privy councillor in 
 1827, and commissioner for Indian affairs in
 
 Mac 
 
 ( 623 ) 
 
 Mac 
 
 1830. His chief works were an incomplete 
 History of the Revolution of 1688, and Dis- 
 course on the Law of Nature and Nations. 
 
 Macklin, Charles {b. 1690, d. 1797), Irish 
 dramatist and actor ; author of The Man of 
 thf. World and Love d. la Mode. 
 
 Maclagan, William Dalrymple {b. 1826), 
 Eughsh divine, bom and educated at 
 Edinburgh; served 'in the army, and on 
 his retirement in 1852 went to Cambridge. 
 He took orders in 1856, was named Bishop 
 of Lichfield in 1878, and succeeded Dr. 
 Magee as Archbishop of York in 1891. He 
 edited (with Dr. A. Weir) a series of essays 
 called The Church and the Age (1870). 
 
 Maclaren, Charles {b. 1782, d. 1866), 
 Scotch journalist and wi-iter; established 
 and edited for thirty years The Scotsman, 
 and wrote a Treatise on the Topography of 
 Troy. 
 
 Maclaurin, Colin (*. 1698, d. 1746), Scotch 
 mathematician, professor at Aberdeen and 
 Edinburgh, and author of Geometria Or- 
 ganica, a System of Fluxions. 
 
 Maclaurin, John, Lord Dreghom [b. 
 1734, d. 1796), Scotch judge, son of last- 
 named, lord of sessions (1787-96), author 
 of Con. siderat ions on Literary Property (1767), 
 and Bemarkahle Cases Before the Supreme 
 Courts of Scotland. 
 
 Maclean. \_See Landon.] 
 
 McLennan, John Fergus (b. 1827, d. 1881), 
 British anthropologist ; author of Primitive 
 Marriage, Studies in Ancient History and 
 LJs.sai/n on Totemism. He was the chief 
 oppoaent of Sir Henry Maine's views on 
 the origin of the family. 
 
 Macleod, Norman {b. 1812, d. 1872), 
 Scotch i)reacher and writer, was appointed 
 chaplain to the Queen in 1854, and enjoyed 
 her friendship. In 1869 he was moderator 
 of the General Assembly. Most of his 
 writings appeared in Good Words, which he 
 edited. 
 
 Maclise, Daniel, R.A. (b. 1806, d. 1870), 
 painter, bom at Cork ; studied at the Royal 
 Academy, and first exhibited in 1829. The 
 picture All Hallow Eve made his name, 
 and he was elected A. R.A. two years later. 
 In 1840 he produced The Banquet Scene in 
 Macbeth, which was followed by The Play 
 Scene in Hamlet (1842), Moses and the Spec- 
 tacles, and the frescoes The Meeting of 
 Wellington and Blilcher and 'The Death 
 of Nelson, painted for the House of Com- 
 mons. He was an intimate friend of 
 Dickens. 
 
 MacMahon, Marie Edme Patrice Maurice 
 de {b. 1808), French soldier and statesman of 
 
 Irish descent ; served in the Algerian war of 
 1830, took part in the expedition to Antwerp 
 in 1832, and in 1855 succeeded to Canrobert's 
 command in the Crimea. For his services 
 in Italy in 1857 he was made Due de 
 Magenta and marshal of France, and be- 
 came governor-general of Algeria in 1864. 
 On the outbreak of war with Prussia he 
 was given the command of the first army 
 corps. He shared in the disaster at Woerth, 
 and was in chief command at Sedan (Septem- 
 ber 1st), where he was severely wounded and 
 made prisoner. On his return to France in 
 March, 1871, he conducted the siege of Paris 
 against the Communists, and reorganised the 
 army. lu 1873 he was named president of 
 the repubUc for seven years. In 1877 he 
 began to entertain monarchical designs, but 
 was defeated in the elections, and two years 
 later retired rather than submit to the law 
 against monarchical officers. 
 
 MacmiUan, Daniel (b. 1813, d. 1857), 
 publisher, son of a farmer in the Isle of 
 Arran ; after being in the bookselling trade 
 at Glasgow, Cambridge, and London, he set 
 up with his brother, Alexander, at Cam- 
 bridge in 1843, but was compelled by Ul- 
 health to retire in 1856. In 1873 the pub- 
 hshing business, now under the guidance 
 of Alexander (6. 1818), was transferred to 
 London. 
 
 McMurdo, General Sir William, K.C.B. 
 (b. circa 1819), British soldier ; entered the 
 army in 1837, and immediately went to 
 India, where he greatly distinguished him- 
 self, especially at Meeauee. He organised 
 the land transport corps in the Crimea, and 
 afterwards rendered great services in con- 
 nection with the Volimteer movement, being 
 inspector-general of volunteers for five 
 years. 
 
 Macmurrough, Dermot (12th century), 
 King of Leinster ; sought the help of the 
 English against Roderick O'Connor, which 
 circumstance contributed to the conquest of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Macnab, Sir Allan Napier (A. 1798, d. 
 1862), Canadian statesman; when speaker 
 of the Assembly of Upper Canada his 
 energy mainly contributed to the suppres- 
 sion of the rebellion of 1837-8, after which 
 he was knighted. He became premier of 
 Upper Canada in 1854, and was made a 
 baronet in 1858. 
 
 Macnaghten, Sir William (*. 1793, d. 
 1841), Eiifilish civil servant in India; was 
 made baronet for his conduct as envoy to 
 Shah Sujah in 1839, but was treacherously 
 shot by Akbar Khan in December, 1841, 
 when conferring about the evacuation of 
 Cabul. 
 
 Macnally, Leonard {b. 1750, d. 1820), 
 Irish lawyer and dramatist ; was in the pay
 
 Mac 
 
 (524) 
 
 Mad 
 
 of the Government while acting as advocate 
 for the United Irishmen. His chief plays 
 were Jiobin Hood and Jtetahatton. 
 
 Macnaughten, Right Hon. Lord {fi. 1830), 
 British judge ; called to the bar in 1857, 
 became Queen's Counsel in 1880, and repre- 
 sented Antrim as a Conservative from 1880 
 to 1887, when he was named lord of appeal. 
 
 Macnee, Sir Daniel (*. 1806, d. 1882), 
 Scotch portrait-painter, his subjects being 
 many contemporary public men ; was elected 
 member of the Scottish Academy in 1829, 
 and president in 1876, in which year he was 
 knighted. 
 
 M'NeiU, Right Hon. Sir John (J. 1795, d. 
 1883), diplomatist . published in 1854 Pro- 
 gress and Position of Russia in the East 
 as the result of his observations while 
 envoy in Persia, and afterwards presided 
 over the committee of inquiry into the 
 management of the commissariat during 
 the Crimean war. 
 
 Macpherson, James {b. 1738, d. 1796), 
 Scottish poet ; published in! 1760 Fragments 
 of Ancient Poetry, translated from Gaehc, 
 and, having been assisted by subscription, 
 travelled in Scotland, and produced two 
 years later Fingal and Temora, which pro- 
 fessed to betranslationsfrompoems by Ossian, 
 a Highland prince. He was afterwards 
 secretary to the governor of Florida, sat in 
 Parliament for some years, and was buried 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Macpherson, Sir John {b. 1767, d. 1821), 
 British soldier ; held several offices under 
 the Nabob of Arcot, and was afterwards a 
 chief agent in the overthrow of Hyder Ali. 
 He was also for a short time Governor- 
 General (1785-6). 
 
 Macready, William Charles {b. 1793, d. 
 1873), actor, bom in London, and educated 
 at Rugby ; made his first appearance at 
 Birmingham in 1810, and was engaged at 
 Covent Garden in 1816. He played Richard 
 HI. in 1819, and removed to Drury Lane 
 in 1822, and after a tour in the United 
 States, appeared as Macbeth in 1827. He 
 subsequently visited Paris, and held the 
 management of Covent Garden and Drury 
 Lane. In 1849 he nearly lost his life in a 
 riot promoted by the friends of Forrest at 
 the Astor Opera House, New York ; and he 
 made his last appearance at Drury Lane in 
 
 Macrinus {b. 164, d. 218), Roman Em- 
 peror, succeeded on the murder of Cara- 
 oalla in 217, but was killed in a civil war 
 which soon followed his attempts to restore 
 discipline among the praetorians. 
 
 Macrorie, William K., D.D. {b. 1831), 
 colonial bishop, educated at Winchester and 
 
 Oxford : after having been rector of Wap- 
 ping and vicar of Accrington, was appointed 
 Bishop of Maritzburg in 1869, the appoint- 
 ment being the occasion of a protest on the 
 ground that it was an encroachment on the 
 diocese of Natal, held by Colenso. 
 
 I MacWliirter, John {b. 1839), artist, bom 
   near Edinburgh ; was elected associate of the 
 Scottish Academy in 1863, and A.R. A. in 
 1879. His pictures are chiefly landscapes, 
 and among them may be named The Three 
 Witches, The Lord oj the Glen, A Highland 
 Harvest, and Edinburgh from Salisbury Crag. 
 
 McWiUiam, James, F.R.S., C.B. (d. 1862), 
 naval surgeon ; was chief medical officer of 
 the Niger expedition (1841), and wrote a re- 
 port on yellow fever in 1846, which was 
 printed by order of Parliament. He became 
 medical inspector of customs in 1847. 
 
 Madan, Martin {b. 1726, d. 1790), clergy- 
 man, chaplain at the Lock Hospital ; wrote 
 J%e/yjoAiAom, advocating polygamy (1780-1). 
 
 Madden, Sir Frederick (*. 1801, d. 1873), 
 archaeologist, keeper of manuscripts at the 
 British Museum ; edited Hnvelock the Bane, 
 Layamon's Brut, and (with J. Forshall) 
 WycUffe's Bible. 
 
 Madden, Richard Robert (J. 1798, «?. 1886), 
 Irish surgeon ; wrote books descriptive of 
 his travels in the East, Life and Times of the 
 United Irishmen, and other works. 
 
 Madden, Samuel [b. 1687, d. 1765), Irish 
 writer ; author of Reflections and Resolutions 
 Proper for the Gentlemen of Ireland, which 
 led to the formation of the Dublin Royal 
 Society, Memoirs of the Twentieth Century, 
 and other works. 
 
 Mademo, Carlo (A. 1556, d. 1629), Italian 
 architect, completed St. Peter's, at Rome, 
 and built several other churches and palaces. 
 
 Madison, James {b. 1751, d. 1836), fourth 
 president of the United States : was a mem- 
 ber of the first Vii'ginia Couveatiou in 1776, 
 and took an active part in the revolution 
 and the affairs of the state. He reported all 
 the debates of the Convention of 1787, wrote 
 in the Federalist, was secretary of state 
 under the presidency of Jefferson, and suc- 
 ceeded him in 1809. 
 
 Madoc (12th century), Welsh chieftain; 
 said to have discovered America before Co- 
 lumbus, the narrative of his voyage being 
 comprised in Hakluyt's collection. 
 
 Madox, Thomas {fl. circa 1735), English 
 antiquarian ; a.uthor oi History and AntK^ui- 
 ties of the Exchequer to the Reign of lung 
 John, &u6.Formnlare Anglicanum, a selection 
 of charters. 
 
 Madvig, Jean Nicholai {b. 1804, d. 1886),
 
 Mseo 
 
 (525) 
 
 Mag 
 
 Danish philologist and statesman ; suc- 
 cessively minister of worship and public in- 
 struction, and professor of Latin at Copen- 
 hagen ; was author of a Latin grammar, and 
 edited several classics. 
 
 Maecenas, Caius Cilnius {d. 8 B.C.), Roman 
 statesman and patron of men of letters ; 
 carried on the government at Eome in the 
 absence of Augustus, and entertained Horace 
 and Virgil. 
 
 Maedler, Johann Heinrich {b. 1794, d. 
 1874), German astronomer, director of the 
 Dorpat observatory ; published (with Beer) 
 Mappe Selmographlca, and was author of a 
 hypothesis that there is a central body, round 
 which the polar system revolves in millions 
 of years. He published Livestigatioji.s on 
 the System of the Fixed Stars, ^and other 
 works. 
 
 Maelzel,Leonard (6. 1776, d. 1855), German 
 mechanician, among his inventions having 
 been automatic orchestras, trumpeters, and 
 chess-players; and the metronome, an in- 
 strument for marking time in playing music. 
 
 Maffei, Francisco Scipione, Marchese di {b. 
 1675, d. 1755), Italian poet and archaeologist ; 
 author of Merope, a tragedy (1714), Le 
 Ceremonie (1728), Verona lUmtrata, and 
 other works. 
 
 Maffei, Giovanni (6. 1536, d. 1603), Italian 
 Jesuit ; author of Vita Ignatii Loyolce, His- 
 toric Indices, etc. 
 
 Magalhaens, or Magellan, Fernando de 
 (d. 1521), Portuguese navigator ; when on a 
 voyage round the world discovered the 
 .straits called after him, in 1520, and was 
 killed in a conflict with the Indians a few 
 months after. 
 
 Magee, "William Connor {b. 1821, d. 1891), 
 English divine, bom at Cork, educated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin ; while incumbent 
 of the Octagon chapel, Bath, made a name 
 by his address on T/ie Voluntary System and 
 the Established Church. In 1864 he was 
 named Dean of Cork. Four years after he 
 became Bishop of Peterborough, where he 
 continued till January, 1891, when he was 
 named Archbishop of York. 
 
 Magendie, Franqois {h. 1783, d. 1855), 
 French physiologist ; wrote Le<;ons sur les 
 Fhenomenes de la Vie, and other works. 
 
 Maggl, Girolamo {d. 1572), Italian en- 
 gineer ;iud writer, bom in Tuscany ; haying 
 become known by a treatise on fortification, 
 was employed by the Venetians apainst the 
 Turks in Cyprus, but on the fall of Fama- 
 gosta was sent as a slave to Constantinople, 
 where he was strangled. During his im- 
 prisonment he wrote, without books, treatises, 
 Le Tintinnabulis and Be Equuleo (the rack). 
 
 Maginn, William {b. 1793, d. 1842), Irish 
 man of letters ; contributed to Fraser and 
 Blackwood. His Homeric Ballads were pub- 
 lished in 1849, and Miscellanies in 1885. 
 
 MagliabeccM, Antonio {b. 1633, d. 1714), 
 Italian bibUographer, of immense learning 
 and eccentric habits, Ubrarian to Cosmo III. 
 of Tuscany ; left a large Ubrary at his death, 
 now belonging to the city of Florence. 
 
 Magnentius {d. 353), a German, Emperor 
 of the West ; usurped the purple after the 
 murder of Constans in 350, but was defeated 
 at Mursa in the following year by Con- 
 stantine. Emperor of the East, and died by 
 his own hand in GauL 
 
 Magnol, Pierre (b. 1638, d. 1720), French 
 botanist, physician to Louis XIV., and 
 author of several works. Linnaeus called the 
 Magnolia after him. 
 
 Magnus, Johannes {b. 1488, d. 1544), 
 Swedish historian ; made Archbishop of Up- 
 sala by Gustavus Vasa, but deposed for his 
 opposition to the reformation and seculari- 
 sation of church property ; went to Rome, 
 and wrote Historia Gothorum Suevorumque. 
 His brother, Olaus {d. 1568), who accom- 
 panied him to Home, was present at the 
 Council of Trent, and wrote Be Gentibus 
 Septentrionalibus. 
 
 Magnus I., King of Norway (4. 1018, d. 
 1047), went to Russia with his father, St. 
 Olav ; succeeded Knut in 1042 as King of 
 Norway and Denmark, but sold half of the 
 former to Harald, brother of Olav. 
 
 Magnus II. {b. 1035, d. 1069), succeeded 
 Harald III., and shared his throne with his 
 brotlier, Olav III. 
 
 Magnus HI. {b. 1060, d. 1105), called 
 "Bastod," or "The Barelegged," from his 
 Scotch costume ; was killed in an attack 
 upon Dublin. 
 
 Magnus IV. [d. 1139), caUed " The Blind," 
 because his eyes were put out by Harald, 
 who dethroned him, and shut him up at 
 Drontheim. He was afterwards restored, 
 but was killed in a naval battle a few years 
 after. 
 
 Magnus V. {d. 1143) reigned fifteen 
 months. 
 
 Magnus VI. (*. 1157, <^. 1184) succeeded 
 in 1132, but was dethroned by Svewer, and 
 fied to Denmark, where he was drowned. 
 
 Magnus VII. (6. 1238, d. 1280), "The 
 Reformer," succeeded Haco V. in 1262; 
 carried on war with the Scots and Danes, 
 and introduced reforms. 
 
 Magnus I., Kins of Sweden (6. 1240, d. 
 1298), dethroned \Valdemar in 1276 ; called
 
 Mag 
 
 (526) 
 
 Mah 
 
 himself "Kiug of the Swedes and Goths," 
 and put down a rebellion of the nobles. 
 
 Magmus IL, King of Sweden {b. 1316, rf. 
 1364), grandson of last-named, succeeded 
 Berger in 1321, having been elected King of 
 Norway ia 1319; gave Norway to Haco in 
 1344, and was deprived of Sweden by him 
 in 1361, but afterwards reigned with him, 
 till they were both dethroned in 1363 ; died 
 by a shipwreck next year. 
 
 Magnussen, Ame {b. 1663, d. 1730), Ice- 
 landic writer, professor at Copenhagen; 
 published Kristni-Saga (1771), and Orkneu- 
 inga-Saga (1780). 
 
 Magnussen, Finn (A. 1781, d. 1848), Ice- 
 landic writer ; translated Lilien and Edda. 
 
 Mago {d. 203 B.C.), Carthagitiian general, 
 brother of Hannibal, with whom he went 
 to Italy in 218 ; carried on the war in Spain, 
 but was defeated by Scipio in 206 ; landed 
 in Italy, and captured Genoa in 205, but 
 was defeated and mortally wounded in 203. 
 
 Magrath, John R, D.D. {b. 1839), Eng- 
 lish scholar, born in Guernsey, and educated 
 at Oxford, where he was fellow of Queen's 
 College from 1860 to 1878, when he was 
 elected provost. His chief work is Selections 
 from Aristotle's Organon (2nd edition, 1877). 
 
 Maguire, John Francis {b. 1815, d. 1872), 
 Irish politician ; was called to the Irish bar 
 in 1843, but afterwards became a joumahst. 
 He represented Dungarvan from 1853 to 
 1865, and Cork from that date till his death, 
 and was prominent as a defender of Catholic 
 interests and a supporter of land reform, 
 being also one of the earliest Home Eulers. 
 He was author of Rome and its Rulers, a 
 Life of Father Mathew, and other works. 
 
 Mahafly, John P., D.D. {b. 1839), Irish 
 scholar, educated at Trinity College, Dublin, 
 where he gamed a fellowship in 1864, and 
 became professor of ancient history in 
 1871 ; author of numerous works, the chief 
 of which are Prolegomena to Ancient History, 
 Kanfs Critical Philosophy for English 
 Readers, Greek Social Life from Homer to 
 Menander, and History of Classical Greek 
 Literature. 
 
 Mahdajee Sindia (d. 1794), Mahratta 
 chief; subdued Delhi, and having formed 
 a fine army, officered by Frenchmen, carried 
 on war against the British, but was defeated, 
 and became neutral after the Treaty of 
 Salbye. ^ 
 
 Mahdana Punt (d. 1686), Brahmin prime 
 nunister of Abou Hussein, last of the Gol- 
 conda dynasty; opposed Auruagzebe, but 
 was assassinated by Mogul partisans. 
 
 Mahmoodof Qhuzni {d. 1030), Mahometan 
 
 prince, whose dominions at his death ex- 
 tended from the Persian Gulf to the Sea 
 of Aral, and from Kurdistan to the Sutlej ; 
 invaded India, and founded Mahometan 
 power there ; carried away the gates of 
 Somuath, which were brought back to India 
 by the Britrsh. 
 
 Mahmood Shah (b. 1445, d. 1514), King 
 of Gujerat, succeeded Kootub Shah in 1459, 
 and reigned fifty- five years, during which 
 he ruled well, and carried on successful war 
 with Rajpootana and the Portuguese. 
 
 Mahmoud L, Sultan of Turkey {b. 1696, 
 d. 1754), lost several provinces in wars with 
 the Persians, and was obliged to give up 
 the Crimea to Russia, 
 
 Mahmoud II. (6. 1785, d. 1839), succeeded 
 Mustapha IV., whose relations he put to 
 death ; was obliged to cede Bessarabia to 
 Russia, and to acknowledge the independ- 
 ence of Greece, the Ionian Islands, and the 
 Slav provinces ; introduced European ideas 
 into the government, and put down the 
 Janissaries ; gave up to Russia the passage 
 of the Dardanelles, in return for their help 
 against Mahomet Ali, who had made Egypt 
 independent. 
 
 Mahomet [Muhamad] {d. 632), was in 
 his youth employed as a camel-driver be- 
 tween Mecca and Damascus by his uncle, 
 who had adopted him, but at the age of 
 twenty- eight married Kadichah, a rich 
 widow. He now led a life of meditation, 
 during which the Koran was drawn up. 
 When at the age of forty he claimed to be a 
 prophet, he was opposed by his family, and 
 in 622 left Mecca for Medina (the Hegira)." 
 Here his followers increased, and were 
 incited by him against the Arabian Jews. 
 Mecca was stormed, and in time all Arabia 
 and Syria conquered, but the prophet died 
 soon after at Medina, perhaps from poisoned 
 food. 
 
 Mahomet Ali {d. 1795), Nabob of the 
 Carnatic ; was helped in his struggle against 
 Chunda Sahib hy the British, while the 
 French sided with his rival, whom he 
 ultimately captured and executed. In his 
 later years his kingdom was administered 
 by the Madras government. 
 
 Mahomet Toghluk, Emperor of Delhi 
 (d. 1351), succeeded Gheias-ood-deen in 1325 ; 
 ruled well at first, but afterwards became a 
 tjrraut, the most cruel of his acts being the 
 enforced migration of the people of Delhi 
 to Doulutabad; died of fever at Scinde 
 while on the way to repress a rebellion. 
 
 Mahomet I. {b. 1374, d. 1421), Sultan of 
 Turkey, son of Bajazet ; was the first who 
 had a naval force, with which he attacked 
 the fleets of Venice.
 
 Mall 
 
 (527) 
 
 Mai 
 
 Mahomet IL (i. 1430, d. 1481), son of 
 Amurath II. , whom he succeeded in 1451. 
 He took Constantinople two years later, and 
 afterwards conquered Greece ; was repulsed 
 at Rhodes in 1480, but took Tarentum. 
 
 Mahomet in. (6. 1566, d. 1603), son of 
 Amurath III., whom he succeeded in 1595, 
 after killing aU his brothers. He defeated 
 the Christian army near the Theiss in 1596, 
 but failed before Buda three years later. 
 
 Mahomet IV, (b. 1642, d. 1691), son of 
 Ibrahim, who was deposed and strangled in 
 1648. His mother was regent for some 
 years, during which Candia was taken under 
 the auspices of the Kiuprili. The sultan 
 formed an alliance in 1681 with the Hun- 
 garian Tekeli, but was defeated at the 
 E,aab and before Vienna in 1613, and sub- 
 .sequently lost Buda and Pesth, the final 
 disaster being the battle of Mohacz (1687). 
 The Morea also had been taken by Venice, 
 and Mahomet was deposed in 1687. 
 
 Mahomet V., VL \_See Mahmoud I., IL] 
 
 Mahon. [^See Stanhope.] 
 
 Mahony, Francis [b. 1805, d. 1866), Irish 
 journalist and writer imder the name of 
 " Father Prout." 
 
 Mai, Angelo, Cardinal (*. 1782, d. 1854), 
 Italian scholar; discovered many paUmp- 
 sests, notably that of Cicero's Be Republicd 
 at Milan, and left a fine library to the 
 Vatican. 
 
 Mailath, Janos Nepomuk (b. 1786, d. 
 1855), Hungarian poet and historian ; author 
 of Poems (1824) and History of the Magyars. 
 
 MaiUard, Olivier (15th century), French 
 cordelier, and vigorous preacher under 
 Louis XI. and Charles VIII., the former of 
 whom he reproved unpunished. His sermons 
 were printed in 1730. 
 
 Maillebois, Jean Desmarets, Marquis de 
 {b. 1682, d. 1762), French marshal ; served 
 imder Villars in the Spanish Succession 
 war; drove the Imperialists from Italy in 
 1733-4, conquered Corsica in 1739; defeated 
 the King of Savoy in 1745, but was obliged 
 to evacuate Italy next year, after a defeat 
 at Piacenza. 
 
 Maimbourg, Louis (A. 1610, d. 1686), 
 French Jesuit ; author of Traite ITisiorique 
 de VEglise de Rome, in support of the 
 liberties of the Galilean Church, for which 
 he was expelled from the order by command 
 of Innocent XL, but granted a pension 
 by the king ; also wrote histories of 
 Arianism, Lutheranism, etc. 
 
 Maimon, Solomon (b. 1753, d. 1800), 
 Pohsh philosopher of Jewish extrartion, 
 opposed the views of Kant, and published 
 
 Sketch of a Transcendental Philosophy, and 
 Progress of Philosophy since Leibnitz. 
 
 Maimonides, Moses (6. 1135, d. 1204 ?), 
 Spanish Jew, philosophical and medical 
 writer, bom at Cordova ; studied under 
 Averroes, on account of whose persecution 
 he had to fly to Egypt, where he died; 
 arranged the Talmud, edited the Mishna, 
 and wrote Guide to the Perplexed {More 
 Novcelum), a work in Arabic on critical 
 theology. 
 
 Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner, F.E.S., 
 D.C.L. [b. 1822, d. 1888), EngUsh jurist, edu- 
 cated at Cambridge, where in 1847 he became 
 Regius professor of civil law. After being 
 reader at the Temple, he was law member 
 of the Council of India for seven years, and 
 in 1870 became Coi-pus professor at Oxford. 
 His chief works were Ancient Law (1861), 
 Village Communities (1871), and Early His- 
 tory of Lnstitutions (1875). etc. In 1871 he 
 became member of the Secretary of State 
 for India's Council, and in 1877 Master of 
 Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 
 
 Maine, Louis, Due de {b. 1670, d. 1736), 
 son of Louis XIV. by Madame de Montes- 
 pan ; was legitimated in 1673, married to the 
 granddaughter of the Due de Conde in 
 1692, and was appointed regent under 
 the will of Louis XIV., which will was, 
 however, set aside by the Due d' Orleans. 
 
 Maintenon, Francoise d'Aubign^, Mar- 
 quise d' (b. 1635, a. 1719), mistress, and 
 afterwards wife, of Louis XIV. ; on the 
 death of Scarron (her husband) was made 
 governess of Madame de Montespan's 
 children, with the mother of whom she 
 quarrelled, and succeeded in reconciling 
 Louis to the queen; was secretly married 
 to the king in 1684. 
 
 Maistre, Joseph Marie, Comte de (b. 1754, 
 d. 1821), French philosopher; wrote Con- 
 siderations sur la France while in Switzer- 
 land, having left France at the revolution ; 
 also wrote Essai sur le Principe Generateur 
 des Constitutions; was for fourteen years 
 Sardinian ambassador at St. Petersburg, 
 and in his Soirees de St. Petersbourg gave 
 an account of his residence there. 
 
 Maistre, Xavier de {b. 1763, d. 1852), 
 French novelist, brother of the last-named, 
 with whom he lived at St. Petersburg, 
 afterwards serving with the Russian army 
 in the Caucasus; his chief works were 
 Voyage autour de ma Chainbre (1794), La 
 Jeune Siberienne, and Le Lepreux d^Aoste. 
 
 Maitland. [See Lauderdale.] 
 
 Maitland, Sir Frederick L. (*. 1779, d. 
 1839), British admiral, was present at Lord 
 Howe's victory (June 1, 1794) ; he was
 
 Mai 
 
 ( 528 ) 
 
 Mai 
 
 captured by the Frencli while serving 
 under Lord St. Vincent in 1799, but soou 
 exchanged ; after various other services, 
 received Napoleon on the Bellerophon, 
 obtaining his unconditional surrender. 
 
 Maitland, John, Lord of Thirlestaue (6. 
 1537, d. 15»5), Scottish statesman and Latin 
 poet, brother of Maitland of Lethington ; 
 was early attached to the service of Mary 
 Stuart, and was Secretary of State and 
 Lord Chancellor to James VI., with whom 
 he went to Norway in 1589. 
 
 Maitland, William, of Lethington {d. 
 1573), Scottish statesman, elder son of Sir E. 
 Maitland, the poet; was appointed in 1558 
 secretary of state to Mary, Queen of Scots ; 
 joined the Lords of the Congregation 
 against her, and opposed the Darnley 
 marriage ; after some time carrying on a 
 double policy, he once more joined her, and 
 was tried as one of Darnley's murderers, 
 but was acquitted, and again became her 
 secretary ; poisoned himself when captured 
 in Edinburgh with the remnant of the 
 Marians. 
 
 Majano, Benedetto da (6. 1424, d. 1498), 
 Tuscan sculptor and architect, specimens of 
 whose work are the marble pulpit of Santa 
 Croce, Florence, the bust of Giotto, Santa 
 Triuita, and the Strozzi palace. 
 
 Major, or Mair, John (b. 1469, d. 1547), 
 Scotch writer; as professor at St. An- 
 drews had Knox among his pupils, and 
 also George Buchanan. His chief work was 
 De Ristorid Gentis Scotorum. 
 
 Major, Richard Henry (i. 1818, d. 1891), 
 historical writer ; was appointed keeper of 
 maps and charts in the British Museum in 
 1867, having previously been many years in 
 charge of them ; edited many works for the 
 Hakluyt Society, the chief of which was 
 Select Letters of Christopher Columbus. He 
 also edited India in the Fifteenth Century, 
 Early Voyages to Terra Australis, and 
 wrote a Life of Prince Henry the Navigator 
 (1868), for which he was decorated by the 
 King of Portugal, receiving similar honoura 
 from the King of Italy. 
 
 Majorianus {d. 461), Emperor of the 
 West ; helped Ricimer to depose Avitus, 
 and was appointed commander of the 
 troops; assumed the purple in 457, and 
 made wise laws, but was compelled by 
 Ricimer to abdicate in 461. 
 
 Makart, Hans (6. 1840, d. 1884), German 
 paiuter, native of Salzburg ; having ac- 
 quired a reputation by his Trilogy of Modern 
 ^morettes, and Plague in Florence, was 
 invited to Vienna, where a studio was built 
 for him at the public expense. He after- 
 wards painted Katharma Cornaro at Venice, 
 
 The Entrance of Charles V. into Antwerp, 
 and Diana^s Chase. 
 
 Makrizi, Ahmed al, " Taki-ed-Din " (b. 
 1360, d. 1442), Arabian writer, whose works 
 were a Description of Egypt, and an Account 
 of iSaladm. 
 
 Malabar!, Behramji Merwanji ifi. 1853), 
 Indian poet and social reformer, son of a 
 Parsee clerk, on whose death he was adopted 
 by a maternal relative ; as editor of the 
 chief native journal and otherwise, wrote 
 against infant marriages and enforced 
 wddowhood, in which cause he visited 
 England in 1870. His chief poems are 
 Viti Ninod, Wilson Virah, and The Indian 
 Muse in an English Garb. 
 
 Malachi, Jewish prophet, flourished about 
 400 B.C. 
 
 Malachy, St. {b. 1094, d. 1148), Irish 
 prelate. Archbishop of Armagh and Bishop 
 of Coimor; visited St. Bernard of Clair- 
 vaux, and died in his arms. 
 
 Malagrida, Gabriel (6. 1689, d. 1761), 
 Italian Jesuit, sent to Portugal by his 
 order; obtained great influence as a con- 
 fessor ; was condemned for complicity in 
 the plot of Due d'Averio against the king, 
 and burnt alive for heresy in 1761, the 
 Jesuits having just previously been ex- 
 pelled by Pombal. 
 
 Malan, Solomon Csesar (6. 1812), English 
 Orientalist, son of Caesar Malan, chief of the 
 "Momiers"; was educated at Oxford, and 
 took orders while in India ; besides his 
 translation from eleven languages of St. 
 John, and criticisms on the Revised Version, 
 with his Original Notes on the Book of 
 Proverbs, he has executed water-colour 
 sketches and composed chants. 
 
 Malaspina, an ancient Italian family, the 
 most noted members of which were :^ 
 Alberto (r2th century), its founder; Coe- 
 EADO, mentioned by Dante as a follower of 
 Frederic II. of Sicily ; Feanceschino (14th 
 century), in whose house some cantos of the 
 Inferno were composed ; and Alessandeo 
 {d. 1809), who led the scientific expedition 
 of 1789-94 to North America and the 
 Pacific. 
 
 Malaspina, Ricordano {d. 1281), Floren- 
 tine historian ; wrote a chronicle, continued 
 by his son Giachetto to 1286, its title being 
 Historta Antica delta Edificatione di Fio- 
 renza. 
 
 Malatesta, an Italian family, who gained 
 their name from their hostility to the 
 Church. The leading members of it were : — 
 GiANCiOTTO, who married Francesca da 
 Rimini, and Sigismondo Panbolfo, Lord 
 of Rimini (1429-68), who served Venice by
 
 Mai 
 
 ( 529 ) 
 
 Mai 
 
 land and sea, introduced many improve- 
 ments in the art of war, was also a great 
 patron and builder, and gave the town of 
 Cesena the collection called Bibliotheca 
 Malatestiana. 
 
 Malcolm, Sir John (b. 1769, d. 1833), 
 British soldier and diplomatist; negotiated 
 treaties with Persia (18U0), Sindia, and 
 Holkar, and again in 1810 thwarted French 
 influence in Persia. After a short time in 
 England he served against the Mahrattas 
 and Pindharris; conducted the annexation 
 of the Peishwa's douunions, and was gov- 
 ernor of Bombay from 1827 to 1831. _He 
 wrote a History of Fersia, and a Life of 
 Lord Clive. 
 
 Malcolm I., King of Scotland {d. 953), 
 succeeded Coustantiue III. in 938 ; made a 
 treaty with Edmund, King of England. He 
 was assassinated in a rebellion. 
 
 Malcolm II. (6. 953, d. 1033), succeeded 
 Kenneth IV. on his defeat in battle (1003), 
 and reigned about thirty years, being en- 
 gaged in continual wars with the Danes. 
 
 Malcolm III. {d. 1093), succeeded Macbeth 
 in 1057, after a period of exile in England, 
 in a war against which country he was 
 afterwards slain at Alnwick. 
 
 Malcolm IV. {d. 1165), ascended the throne 
 in 1153; exchanged his English territories 
 for the earldom of Huntingdon, and founded 
 several monasteries. 
 
 Malcom Klian(6. 1832), Persian statesman ; 
 was at an early age sent to Paris, where he 
 studied European institutions, and on his 
 return became councillor to the Shah, by 
 whom, in 1854, he was sent to conclude 
 treaties with the Emopean states and 
 America. His efforts to introduce reforms 
 in Persia were not at first successful, and 
 from 1865 to 1872 he lived at Constantinople, 
 after which he was recalled and given a 
 high position. He accompanied the Shah 
 to Europe next year, and remained in 
 Europe as Persian envoy at the chief 
 capitals, being present at Berlin in 1878. 
 He resigned the London embassy in 1890. 
 
 Maldachini, Olimpia {h. 1594, d. 1656), 
 Italian lady, favourite of Pope Innocent X., 
 whose election she secured and obtained 
 supreme influence in the Vatican ; but was 
 deprived of her wealth and compelled to 
 retire by his successor, Alexander VII., al- 
 though she had a hand in his election 
 also. 
 
 Malebranche, Nicolas de (*. 1638, d. 1715), 
 French philosopher, follower of Descartes. 
 His chief work, whose teaching was opposed 
 by Bossuet among others, were Recherche de 
 la Virite (1674-5), Les Vraies et Fausses 
 Idees, and Traite de Morale. 
 I I 
 
 Malesherbes, Chi-etien Lamoignon de [b. 
 1721, d. 1794), magistrate and statesman; 
 was appointed president of the Cours des 
 Aides in 1750, and held office till 1771, when 
 the Parlements were suppressed ; was re- 
 called on the accession of Louis XVI., before 
 whom he laid a memorial ou the state of the 
 kingdom, and became minister of the house- 
 hold, but resigned in 1776, being unable to 
 carry out his reforms ; was recalled in 1787, 
 but soon retired, defended Louis XVI. on 
 his trial, and was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 Malet, Sir Edward Baldwin (*. 1836), Eng- 
 lisli diplomatist ; entered the service in 1853, 
 became secretary of legation at Pekin 1871, 
 was charge d'affaires at Athens 1873-5, and 
 plenipotentiary at Constantinople 1878, 
 consul-general in Egj'pt 1879-83, when he 
 became minister at Brussels, and was trans- 
 ferred to Berlin in 1884. He was also 
 plenipotentiary at the Congo and Samoa 
 conferences, and was sworn of the Privy 
 Council in 1885. 
 
 Malibran de Beust, Maria Felicita (*. 
 1808, d. 1836), Freuch singer, daughter of 
 Manuel Garcia; made her debut in the 
 Italian opera in 1825, and soon afterwards 
 married her first husband, from whom she 
 was divorced in 1836, her second being De 
 Beriot, the violinist. She met with much 
 success in Semiramis and other operas, 
 making tours in England, the Continent, 
 and the United States. She died from the 
 consequence of a fall while riding. 
 
 Mallns, Sir Eichard {b. 1805, d. 1882), 
 English judge; called to the bar in 1830, 
 distinguished himself in Festing v. Allen 
 (1843), became Queen's Counsel in 1849, and 
 sat in Parliament as a Conservative for Wal- 
 Ungford from 1852 to 1865, being named 
 vice-chancellor in the following year. 
 He retired in 1881, and was made privy 
 councillor. 
 
 Mallemans, Claude (b. 1653, d. 1723), 
 French physicist, invented a machine for 
 making dials. His brother, Jean {d. 1740), 
 wrote Histoire de VEyiise, etc. 
 
 Mallet, David {d. 1765), Scotch poet; 
 came to London and changed his name 
 from Malloch, was patronised by Pojje, and 
 in his later years wrote for the government 
 against Byng. His chief poems were Wd- 
 Ham and Margaret (1724), and The Excursion. 
 
 Mallet, Sir Louis, C.B. (A. 1823, d. 
 1800), secretary to the President of the 
 Board of Trade 1848-57 ; served on 
 the tariff commissions to Paris (1860) and 
 to Vienna in 1865. In 1872 he was placed 
 on the Indian Council. In 1874 he became 
 Permanent Under-Secretary of State for' 
 India, retiring in 1883, when he was made 
 a Privy Councillor.
 
 Mai 
 
 (630) 
 
 Mam 
 
 [See William of Malmes- 
 
 MaHet, Paiil Heuri {b. 1730, d. 1807), 
 S\viss liistoriau, professor at Copenhagen 
 and Geneva. His chief works were histories 
 of Denmark, the Hanseatic League, and the 
 House of Brunswick. 
 
 Mallet du Pan, Jacques (5. 1749, d. 1800), 
 Swiss publicist, patronised in his early years 
 by Voltaire, and became professor at Cassel 
 in 1772; while at Geneva wrote Annales 
 Folitiqtces and Memoires Historiques ; after- 
 wards went to Paris, and reported for the 
 Mercure de Franee the debates of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly and those which followed 
 it ; was in 1792 sent by Louis XVI. to nego- 
 tiate with Austria and Prussia, and soon 
 after retired to Switzerland , whence he was 
 driven by Bonaparte in 1798. He then 
 came to England, and established, vnth 
 great success, the Mercure Britanniqiie. 
 
 Mallock, WiUiam Hurrell {b. 1849), Eng- 
 lish writer ; was educated at Balliol, and 
 gained the Newdigate in 1871 ; has written 
 The New Republic, Is Life Worth Living ? 
 etc. 
 
 Malmesbury. 
 
 bury.] 
 
 Malmesbury, James Harris, first Earl of 
 (b. 1746, d. 1820), diplomatist, son of the 
 author of Hermes; made a reputation by his 
 conduct of the Falkland Island negotiations 
 in 1770, after which he was ambassador at 
 Berlin (1770-5), St. Petersburg (177o-So), 
 and the Hague (1783-8), when he negotiated 
 the Triple Alliance. On his return he was 
 made baron, and voted with Fox, but 
 joined Pitt in 1794. He was emi^loyed to 
 bring home the Princess Caroline, and his 
 last service was an attempt to bring about 
 peace with the Directory in 1797. He was 
 made an earl in 1800, when he retired from 
 public life. 
 
 Malmesbury, James, third Earl (6. 1807, 
 d. 1889), statesman, grandson of last-named, 
 succeeded to the title in 1841 on the death 
 of his brother, and travelled much on the 
 Continent, till in 1852 he became Foreign 
 Secretary in Lord Derby's first Ministry, 
 which post he held under the same chief 
 when he resumed office in 1858. In 1866 
 he was Lord Privy Seal, and again from 
 1874 to 1876 under Disraeli, after which he 
 took little further part in affairs. He pub- 
 lished his grandfather's diaries and cor- 
 respondence, and in 1884 Memoirs of an 
 Ex-Minister, an account of his own life 
 extending from 1832 to 1873. 
 
 Malombra, Pietro (*. 1556, d. 1618), 
 Venetian painter, pupil of Salviati. His 
 best pictures represent the Miracles of St. 
 Francis de Paula in the church dedicated to 
 that saint at Venice, but he also executed 
 architectural views of the city. 
 
 Malone, Edmund (i. 1741, d. 1812), Irish 
 
 critic, son of an Irish judge; was bom at 
 Dublin, but removed to London, where he 
 became the friend of Burke and Dr. John- 
 son, and devoted himself to literature, his 
 chief works having been his Historical Ac- 
 count of the Rise and Progress of the English 
 Stage and his edition of Shakespeare (1790). 
 
 Malouet, Pierre, Baron {b. 1740, d. 1814), 
 French statesman and publicist; became 
 commissary-general of the navy in 1776, 
 and was sent to investigate plans for the 
 colonisation of Guiana ; advocated the prin- 
 ciples of the English constitution in the 
 Constituent Assembly, and had to retire to 
 England. On his return to France he was 
 employed by Napoleon till 1812, and during 
 the government of the Hundred Days was 
 minister of marine. 
 
 Malpighl, Marcello {b. 1628, d. mi), 
 Italian anatomist and chief physician to 
 Pope Innocent XI. ; lectured in Bologna, 
 Pisa, and other places, and wrote works on 
 the anatomy of plants, the physiology of 
 the silkworm, and medical subjects. His 
 name was given to the Malpighian genus. 
 
 Maltby, Edward {b. 1770, d. 1859), Bishop 
 of Cliichester (1831-6), and Durham (1836- 
 56) ; was a great benefactor to Durham 
 University, to which he left his library. 
 
 Maltebrun, Conrad {b. 1775, d. 1826), 
 French writer of Danish birth ; compelled to 
 leave his country on account of his liberal 
 opinions, first went to Sweden, but, having 
 settled in Paris, contributed to the Journal 
 des Bebats and wrote Geographic MitM- 
 matique, Physique, Politique, Precis de Geo- 
 graphic Universelle, and other works. 
 
 Malthus, Thomas Robert, F.R.S. (b. 1766, 
 d. 1834), English political economist, some 
 time fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge; 
 published in 1798 his Fssag on Population, 
 afterwards took orders, and held from 1804 
 the professorship of history and political 
 economy in the East India Company's col- 
 lege, Haileybury. 
 
 Malus, Etienne Louis (b. 1775, d. 1812), 
 French physicist; went to Egypt with 
 Napoleon in 1798 ; discovered ia 1809 the 
 polarisation of light by reflection, and in- 
 vented a repeating goniometer in 1807. 
 
 Malvasia, Carlo, Marchese di (6. 1616, 
 d. 1693), Italian antiquary, bom at Bologna, 
 where he was professor of jurisprudence; 
 wrote Vite de Pittore Bolognesi, 
 
 Mamlani della Rovere.Terenzio, Conte [h. 
 1800, d. 1885), Italian politician and writer ; 
 headed the rising of 1 831 at Rome, and had to 
 take refuge in France, where he wrote Nuove 
 Poesie, and other works. He became mini- 
 ster of the interior to Pius IX. on his return 
 to Italy, but afterwards vrithdi-ew to Pied- 
 mont, where he held office, and supported
 
 Mam 
 
 (631) 
 
 Man 
 
 CavouT. In 1860 he was made by Victor 
 Emmanuel minister of education. 
 
 Maminsea, Julia {d. 235), Eoman Empress, 
 mother of Alexander Severus, with whom 
 she was murdered by the soldiers. 
 
 Mamoim, Abdul Abdallah III. al (b. 786, 
 d. S34), Abasside Khahf, son of Haroun- 
 al-Rashcid ; obtained power by the defeat 
 of his brother Amin ; headed the sect of the 
 MotasaUs, founded observatories at Bagdad 
 and Damascus, and was apatron of the learned. 
 
 Man, Comille van (6. 1621, d. 1706), 
 Dutch painter ; studied at Venice the works 
 of Titian, and on his return to Delft became 
 a fine portrait-painter, his best work being 
 a portrait of the medical faculty of Delft, 
 now in the Hall of Physicians there. 
 
 Manasseh, King of Judah, flourished 
 about 698-643 B.C. 
 
 Manasseh ben Israel, Joseph {b. 1604, 
 d. 1659), Portuguese rabbi ; fled from the 
 Inquisition to Holland, and became chief 
 of the Amsterdam synagogue ; wrote £1 
 Conciliada Vindicim Judceorum, and an ad- 
 dress to Cromwell praying for the recall of 
 the Jews. 
 
 Manby, George William (6. 1765, d. 1854), 
 English sailor, invented the "life preserver ' 
 for saving life at sea, and also an apparatus 
 for extinguishing fires on board ship ; when 
 fiftj'-six made a voyage to Greenland. He 
 received £1,000 from Parliament. 
 
 Manchester, Edward Montagu, Earl of 
 {b. 1602, d. 1671), fought on the side of the 
 Puritans, taking part in the battles of Edge- 
 hill, Marston Moor, and Newbury. He 
 opposed the trial of the king. At the 
 Restoration was made Lord Chamberlain. 
 
 Mancinl, Hortensia (b. 1646, d. 1699), 
 Italian lady, niece of Mazarin, who refused 
 her hand to Charles II. of England ; was 
 unhappy with her husband, and, after a 
 series of adventures, settled in London on a 
 pension, and died there. 
 
 Mancini, Maria (6. 1640, d. 1715), sister 
 of preceding ; having been sent away from 
 Louis XIV., who was in love with her, 
 was imhappy with the Constable of Naples, 
 whom she married, and fled from him with 
 Hortensia, but was refused an audience by 
 the French king. 
 
 Mancini, Olimpia (6. 1640, d. 1708), 
 another sister, married the Comte de Sois- 
 sons, and became the mother of Prince 
 Eugfene; intrigued much at the French 
 court, and was compelled to retire from it ; 
 was afterwards suspected of poisoning the 
 Spanish queen, Mane Louise. 
 
 Manco Capac IL (d. exrea 1665), the last 
 I i2 
 
 of the Incas of Peru (the first of whom bore 
 the same name, and lived in the 11th 
 centxiry) ; gave himself up to the Spaniards, 
 but escaped, and organised a massacre of 
 them in 1535 ; carried on a guerilla war for 
 many years in the Andes, but was at last 
 assassinated. 
 
 Mandeville, Bernard de (*. 1670, d. 1733), 
 English writer, bom at Dort, whose chief 
 works were The Fable of the Bees (1723), and 
 Free Thoughts on Beligion. 
 
 Mandeville, Jehan de, probably Jehan de 
 Boirrgoigne, a French physician, the author 
 of a notorious book of travels, chiefly com- 
 piled from Friar Odoric, Carpiui, etc., 
 which is fuU of extravagances and absur- 
 dities. The first English version was pub- 
 lished in 1499 by Wynkyn de Worde. 
 
 Manes, or Mani {d. circa 274), Persian 
 writer, painter, and physician; attempted 
 to combme Christianity with the Magian 
 philosophy, and foimded the sect of the 
 Manichseans ; was put to death by Bahram, 
 King of Persia. 
 
 Manetbo (/. circa 300 B.C.), l^h-priest 
 of Heliopolis; wrote in Greek & History of 
 Egypt, of which fragments remain. 
 
 Manetti, Rutilio {b. 1571, d. 1637), Italian 
 painter of the school of Caravaggio, his best 
 work being a riposto of the Holy Family in 
 S. Pietro di Castel Vecchio at Florence, 
 There is a picture at Sienna, his birthplace, 
 by another artist of his name, probably re- 
 lated to him. 
 
 Manfredi, Eustachio (J. 1674, d. 1739), 
 astronomer, bom at Bologna; obtained a 
 degree in law at eighteen, and, after study- 
 ing under Guglielmini, was made professor 
 of mathematics at Bologna, where he was 
 also astronomer to the institute. He was 
 a member of the Royal Society and the 
 Academie des Sciences, and his chief works 
 were Ephemerides (1715-50), Be Transitu 
 Mercurii, and Foems. His brother, Gab- 
 EiELE {d. 1761), was almost as eminent, 
 becoming chancellor of Bologna, and receiv- 
 ing a letter from Leibnitz m praise of his 
 work De Constructione Equationum JJiffer- 
 entialium pritni Gradus. 
 
 Manfredo, or Manfred (6. 1233, d. 1266), 
 Italian adventurer, natural son of the 
 Emperor Frederick II. ; recovered Naples 
 from Pope Innocent IV. , and became King 
 of Sicily in 1258, soon after which, having 
 been excommunicated, he allied himself 
 with the Turks, and was defeated and slain 
 at Benevento by his rival, Charles of Anjou, 
 who had been given the crown of Naples 
 and Sicily by the pope. 
 
 Mangou (*. 1207, d. 1259), Khan of the 
 Moguls, fourth son of Genghis Khan;
 
 Man 
 
 (532 
 
 Man 
 
 succeeded to power in 1251, after a great 
 slaughter of the royal family. He subdued 
 Thibet, took Baghdad from the khalifs, and 
 was killed in battle with the Chinese. 
 
 Manin, Daniele (b. 1804, d. 1857), Vene- 
 tian advocate ; was arrested by the Austrian 
 government in 1848 for favouring the in- 
 dependence of Venice and Lombardy, but 
 freed by the people, and made president of 
 the republic, opposed union with Sardinia ; 
 took a leading part in the defence of Venice, 
 after whose fall he left Italy. 
 
 Maninl, Lodovico (6. 1726, d. circa 1803), 
 the last Doge of Venice, being elected in 
 1789 ; having received the Comte d'Artois 
 and others of the emigres, and refused 
 alliance with the French repubUc, was de- 
 throned, and a republic having been set up, 
 Venice was ceded to Austria. 
 
 Manley, Mary ((i. 1724), English dramatic 
 and political writer; having been deserted 
 by her husband, led an immoral life ; wrote 
 Memoirs of the New Atlantis, a romance, for 
 which the printer and publisher were prose- 
 cuted; also plays, Lucius (dedicated to 
 Steele), Boyal Mischief, etc., and The Vindi- 
 cation of the JDuke of Marlborough, an able 
 pamphlet. She wrote for Steele's Examiner, 
 and conducted it for some time. 
 
 Manlius Capitolinus (d. 384 b.c), Roman 
 hero ; saved the Capitol from the Goths, but 
 was afterwards put to death on a charge of 
 treason. 
 
 Manlius Torquatus (/. 350 B.C.), killed 
 a Gaul in single combat, and took his collar 
 (torques) ; was named dictator 359 B.C. ; 
 put to death his son for disobeying hia 
 orders, though he had been victorious. 
 
 Manners, Lord John. [See Butland, 
 Duke of.] 
 
 Manners -Sutton, Charles {b. 1789, d. 
 1845), politician, son of the Archbishop; 
 was Speaker of the House of Commons 
 from 1817 to 1834, and was created Viscount 
 Canterbury in the following year 
 
 Mannl, Domenico (*. 1690, d. 1788), 
 ItaUau antiquary, bom at Florence ; mem- 
 ber of the Academy della Crusca. His chief 
 works were Series of Florentine Senators, a 
 Historical Treatise on Spectacles, and Historic 
 cal Illustrations of the " Beeameron " of Boc- 
 caccio. 
 
 Manning, Henry Edward, Cardinal (6. 
 1808, d. 1892), English Roman Catholic pre- 
 late, educated at HaiTow and Balliol ; was 
 some time fellow of Merton ; subsequently 
 took orders, and became Archdeacon of Chi- 
 chester in 1840. In 1851, however, he seceded 
 to the Roman Church, publishing Grounds 
 of Faith next year. In 1865 he succeeded 
 
 Wiseman as Archbishop of Westminster, 
 and ten years later was made cardinal. Ha 
 approved the Infallibility dogma of the Vati 
 can Council of 1869, and carried on a con- 
 troversy with Mr. Gladstone on the subject. 
 He sat on several commissions, and took a 
 leading part in bringing to a conclusion the 
 Dock strike of 1889. 
 
 Manny, Sir Walter (d. 1372), English 
 soldier, but a native of Hainault, coming to 
 England with the queen of Edward III. ; 
 was greatly distinguished in the French 
 wars, his chief exploits being the victory of 
 Cadsaut (1337) over the Flemings, his two 
 defences of Hennebon, and the reduction of 
 Gascony. He was one of the first knights 
 of the Garter, and founded a Carthusieui 
 convent, which was the original of the 
 Charterhouse. 
 
 Mansart, Jules Hardouin (*. 1645, d. 
 1708), French architect, nephew of Franqois 
 Mansart, who invented " Mansarde " roofs ; 
 was the favourite of Louis XIV., for whom 
 he designed the palace of Versailles, the 
 chstteaux of Marly, Trianon, and Clugny, 
 the Place Vend6me, and many other build- 
 ings. 
 
 Mansel, Henry Longueville (5. 1820, d. 
 1871), English philosopher and theologian, 
 one of the strongest opponents of the Broad 
 Church school; was educated at Merchant 
 Taylors' and Oxford, where he was succes- 
 sively Waynflete professor of moral philo- 
 sophy and professor of ecclesiastical history, 
 and m 1858 delivered the Bampton lectures 
 on The Limits of Religious Thought. He had 
 previously pubushed an edition of Aldrich's 
 Logic, and several works on metaphysics. 
 His appointment to the deanery of St. Paul's 
 in 1869 was strongly opposed. 
 
 Mansfeld, Ernst, Graf von (i. 1685, d. 
 1626), German soldier of fortune, natural 
 son of Count Peter Mansfeld, a distinguished 
 servant of Charles V., who made him 
 governor of the Low Countries in 1592; 
 took a prominent part in the Thirty Years' 
 war on the Protestant side, serving first the 
 Elector Palatine, and afterwards the Dutch ; 
 after his defeat by Wallenstein, in 1625, 
 he resigned his command, and set out for 
 Italy. 
 
 Mansfield, Charles Blachford (J. 1819, d. 
 1855). English chemist, author of Benzole: 
 its Nature and Utility, and Researches on 
 Coal-tar; died from the effects of bums 
 received when experimenting. 
 
 Mansfield, William Murray, Earl of (*. 
 1704, d. 1793), British lawyer and states- 
 ' man, called for his eloquence " silver-tongued 
 Murray," was a son of Lord Stormont; 
 became Solicitor-General in 1743. Although 
 he had been accused of Jacobitism, ha
 
 Man 
 
 (533 ) 
 
 Mt 
 
 became Attorney- General in 1754, and Lord 
 Chief Justice in 1756, when he received a 
 peerage. A strong Tory, he was attacked 
 by Junius, and was unpopular for his opinion 
 on the law of libel. His library was burnt 
 during the Gordon riots. 
 
 Manso, or Manzo, Giovanni, Marchese di 
 Villa {d. 1645), Italian patron of learning, 
 founded at Naples the Academy degli 
 Oziosi; entertained Milton when in Italy, 
 and was the friend of Marino and Tasso, 
 who dedicated a dialogue to him. 
 
 Mansur, Abdallah II. al {d. 1775), second 
 Abasside Khahf, succeeded his brother in 
 754; founded Baghdad, patronised the 
 learned, and left a large treasure to his son. 
 
 Mantegna, Andrea, " II Cavaliere " {b. 
 1431, d. Io06), Itiilian painter, probably a 
 native of Padua: was adopted by Squar- 
 cione, and married the daughter of Bellini. 
 He was one of the earUest masters of 
 the art of engraving, and his best pictures 
 are the nine called T/ie Triumph of Jiilius 
 Ccesnr, which were painted for the Marquis 
 of Mantua and purchased by Charles I. , and 
 are now at Hampton Court — several others 
 being at the Louvre. His son, Francesco, 
 finished several of his works. 
 
 ManteU, Gideon Algomon {b. 1790, d. 1852), 
 English geologist, practised as a surgeon at 
 Brighton and in London, and wrote Urganic 
 Remains of a Former World, and other 
 similar works, for which he received a pen- 
 sion in 18-51 . His geological collection was 
 bought by the British Museum. 
 
 Manteuffel, Edwin HansKarl,Freiherrvon 
 {h. 1809, d. 1885), Prussian general; entered 
 the Prussian service in 1827, and was ap- 
 pointed in 1857 chief of the military cabinet. 
 He served in the Danish campaign of 1864, 
 was named governor of Schleswig in the 
 following year, and in 1866 drove the 
 Austrians from the province, after which he 
 defeated the Hanoverians and the South 
 German alliance. In the war of 1870 he 
 won the battle of Amiens when in command 
 of the first army, and as commander of the 
 second drove Bourbald into Switzerland. 
 After being head of the army of occupation 
 in France, he was named field-marshal, 
 and in 1879 was appointed governor of 
 Elsass-Lothringen. 
 
 Manteuffel, Otto, Freiherr von (6. 1805, 
 d. 1882), Prussian statesman, cousin of the 
 last named, with whom he was brought up ; 
 was named minister of the interior in 1847, 
 representing the Conservative party. By his 
 conduct at Olmiitz he succeeded in averting 
 war with Austria for sixteen years, but 
 quitted office in 1858. 
 
 Manu, Hindoo legislator, whose Code of 
 
 Lmcs (Smirti) was translated from the 
 Sanscrit by Sir W. Jones in 1794. 
 
 Manuel, Francisco (b. 1734, d. 1819), 
 Portuguese poet ; fled from the Inquisition 
 to Paris, where he lived till his death : wrote 
 odes to Albuquerque and Washington and 
 some satiric verses, and also translated into 
 Portuguese many of the French classics 
 and some German authors. 
 
 Manuel, Don Juan (d. 1347), Castilian 
 writer, grandson of King Fernando, was 
 present at the battle of Salado, and wrote 
 £1 Conde de Lucanor and other works, which 
 are probably the earliest specimens of 
 Castilian prose, 
 
 Manuel, Pierre Louis (b. 1751, d. 1793), 
 French revolutionist; was elected in 1796 
 procureur de la Commune, and organised the 
 insurrection of June 20, 1792 ; supported 
 in the Convention the abolition of royalty, 
 but voted against the death-sentence, after 
 which he resigned his seat, but was guillo- 
 tined for his conduct. On the taking of 
 the Bastille he obtained possession of the 
 letters of Mirabeau and Sophie Euffey, of 
 which, against the wishes of the family, he 
 pubUshed a garbled edition. 
 
 Manuel Comnenus [d. 1180), Emperor of 
 the East, succeeded John II. in 1143 ; is be- 
 lieved to have betrayed the Crusaders in 
 1147, and was engaged in continual wars 
 with the Sultan of Icouium, Raymond of 
 Antioch, Roger II. of Sicily (from whom he 
 took Corfu), and with the Hungarians, 
 Servians, and Turks. 
 
 Manuel Palseologus (d. 1425), Emperor 
 of the East, reigned with his father, John 
 VI., and alone after his death in 1391, at 
 which time, being a hostage at the court 
 of Bajazet, he escaped ; was engaged in 
 continual war with the Turks, visiting 
 Venice, France, and England to obtain help 
 against them ; abdicated in favour of his 
 son, and retired into a monastery. 
 
 Manuzio, or Manutius, Aklo (b. 1449, d. 
 1515), Italian scholar and printer, bringing 
 out editions of the classics as early as 1490, 
 founded the Academia d'Aldo in 1500. 
 
 Manuzio, Paolo (h. 1511, d. 1574), carried 
 on his father's office, but was invited to 
 Rome by Pius IV. to print the Fathers. He 
 also, like his son, Aldo the Younger, gave 
 much attention to Cicero. 
 
 Manzoni, Alessandro, Conte (6. 1785, d. 
 1873), Italian writer, grandson of Beccaria; 
 after living some years at Paris with his 
 mother, married and went to Milan, but, 
 having lost the greater part of his property, 
 was obliged to leave that city. He survived 
 both his wives and seven children^ and 
 during his last forty years lived a very
 
 Man 
 
 (634) 
 
 Mar 
 
 retired life. His chief works were Hymns 
 in Celebration of Church Festivals (1815-22) ; 
 II Oinque Maffffio (1823), an ode on the death 
 of Napoleon I. ; II Conte di Carmagnola and 
 AdeJehi, dramas: I Promessi Sposi (1827), 
 a romance. lu 1860 he was made senator 
 of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Manzuoli, Maso, " Maso di S. Friano" 
 (d. lo36, d. 1575), painter, bom at Florence, 
 his best pictures being The Visitation of the 
 Virgin to Elizabeth, now in the Vatican 
 gallery, and a representation of the resur- 
 rection in the church of San Trinita. 
 
 Map, or Mapes, Walter (12th century), 
 English satirical poet, chaplain to Henry 
 II. and John ; author of satires in Latin, a 
 translation of the romance of Saint Graal, 
 etc. His Poems were edited by Wright in 
 1841. 
 
 Mar, John Erskine, Earl of (d. 1732), 
 Scottish politician, called " Bobbing John " 
 from his trimming proclivities, supported 
 the Scotch union, and was made Secretary 
 of State in 1710 ; afterwards took part in 
 the Fifteen, encountering Argyle at Sheriff- 
 muir; followed James Edward to France, 
 where he became one of his advisers. 
 
 Mara, Gertrude Elizabeth (h. 1749, d. 
 1833), German singer (nee Schm'ahling), be- 
 gan her career as a vioUnist ; made her 
 debut as a singer at Leipzig in 1771, and 
 married soon after; sang before Frederick 
 the Great, and visited England and all parts 
 of the Continent, 
 
 Maraldi, Giacomo {b. 1665, d. 1729), 
 Italian astronomer and natural philosopher, 
 bom at Perinaldo in Nice ; went to Paris in 
 1687 on the invitation of Cassini, his uncle, 
 became member of the Academie des 
 Sciences, and assisted him ; was afterwards 
 consulted by Clement XI. as to the reform 
 of the calendar, and returned to France, but 
 died before finishing his Catalogue of the 
 Stars. 
 
 Marana, Giovanni Paolo (6. 1642, d. 1693), 
 ItaUan writer, whose chief work was 
 L'Espion du Grand Seigneur dans les Cours 
 des Princes Chretiens {The Turkish Spy); 
 wrote also an account of the Delia Torre 
 conspiracy to betray Savona to the Duke of 
 Savoy (1669), for implication in which he 
 had been imprisoned. 
 
 Marat, Jean Paul (6. 1743, d. 1793), 
 French revolutionist, whose early life is 
 obscure ; lived some time in England, prac- 
 tised in France as a doctor, and ,pul3lished 
 in 1779 Becouvertes sur le Feu, PElectricite, 
 etc. About the time of the revolution he 
 took up journalism, and published L^Ami 
 du Peuple, an incendiary print; advocated the 
 massacre of the aristocrats some time before 
 
 September, 1792 ; when elected to the Con- 
 v«ntion became a chief of the Montague, 
 denounced the Girondins, and attempted 
 to arrest them by mob-violence, for which 
 he was prosecuted but acquitted ; was mur- 
 dered by Charlotte Corday in July. 
 
 Maratti, or Maratta, Carlo (6. 1625, d. 
 1713), Italian painter of the Roman school, 
 favourite pupil of Sacchi ; painted many 
 Madonnas, Constantine Bestroying the Idols 
 (in St. John Lateran), Baphne (for Louis 
 XIV.), TheBeath of St. Francis Xavier, The 
 Visitation, and many other works, founded 
 on long study of the old masters, and re- 
 stored Raffaelle's Vatican frescoes, and 
 those of Caracci at the Famese Palace. 
 
 Marbeck, John {d. circa 1585), English 
 musician, organist at the Chapel Royal, 
 Windsor, probably composed the first cathe- 
 dral service. He favoured the Reformation, 
 and was condemned to be burnt for heresy, 
 but was the only one of the accused who 
 was pardoned. His service was called The 
 Book of Common Praier Noted{\bbQi). He also 
 drew up the first English concordance. 
 
 Marca, Pierre de {b. 1594, d. 1662), French 
 prelate, employed by Richelieu to answer 
 Optatus Gallus, which he did in his Be 
 Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii. He also 
 wrote a History of Beam, was minister of 
 state imder Mazarin in 1658, and had been 
 named Archbishop of Paris just before his 
 death. 
 
 Marceau, Francois Senorin Desgraviers (b. 
 1769, d. 1796), French republican general, 
 served under Lafayette in 1792, commandedin 
 La Vendee, captured Mons, and was killed at 
 AltenMrchen in battle with the Austrians. 
 
 Marcel, Etienne {d. 1358), French popular 
 leader, prevot des marrhands at Paris, at- 
 tempted to revive the Etats Generaux after 
 the battle of Poitiers, when he headed the 
 people against the Dauphin and combined 
 with the Jacquerie ; was killed while open- 
 ing the gates of Paris to the King of 
 Navarre. 
 
 Marcellinus. {See Ammianus.] 
 
 MarceUis, Otho {h. 1613, d. 1673), Dutch 
 painter, a native of Amsterdam ; passed 
 many years in Italy, and chose reptiles, in- 
 sects, etc., as his chief subjects. 
 
 Marcello, Benedetto (6. 1686, d. 1739), 
 Italian musician, bom at Venice, studied 
 under Gasparini and Lotti, and composed 
 Estro Poetico-Armonico (1724-6), of which 
 the poetry was by Giustiniani. He also wrote 
 Teatro alia Moda, a satire on the musicians 
 of the time, and other works, and held 
 several ofiices in the Venetian state. 
 
 Marcellus, Marcus Claudius {d. 208 B.C.),
 
 Mar 
 
 ( 535 ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 Roman general, obtained the spolia opima 
 in 224 B.C. from Viridomarus, a king of the 
 Transalpine Gauls ; in the second Punic war 
 checked Hannibal, after Cannae, at Nola ; 
 captured Syracuse in 214, but was killed two 
 years after in a skirmish with Hannibal 
 near Venusium. He was thrice consul. 
 The Marcellus celebrated by Virgil (^?ieid, 
 vi. 883) was a descendant of the above, and 
 Bon of Ootavia, the sister of Augustus. 
 
 Marcellus I. {d. 310), Pope of Rome, suc- 
 ceeded Marcelliuus in 308, but was banished 
 by Maximus two years after. 
 
 Marcellus II. (d. 1555), succeeded Julius 
 III., but, djdng suddenly, was only pope a 
 few weeks ; had been president of the 
 Council of Trent and secretary to Paul III., 
 aaid was an advocate of reform in the 
 church. 
 
 March, Francis Andrew (J. 1825), Ameri- 
 can philologist, bom at Milbury, Massa- 
 chusetts; was made professor of Eughsh 
 language and comparative philology at 
 Lafayette college, Pennsylvania in 1857 ; 
 became president of the American Philo- 
 logical Association in 1873, and took the 
 direction in America of Dr. Murray's Neio 
 English Dictionary on Historical Principles in 
 1879. His chief works are Method of Philo- 
 logical Study of the English Language (1865), 
 Comparative Grammar of Anglo - Saxon 
 (1870), and Introduction to Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 March, Earl of, {See Mortimer.] 
 
 Marchesi, Pompeo (b. 1790, d. 1858), 
 Italian sculptor, pupU of Canova. His best 
 works are statues of Goethe at Frankfort 
 and Charles Emmanuel III. at Novara, and 
 a marble group in Milan cathedral. 
 
 Marchetti, Marco, " Marco da Faenza " 
 {d. 1588), painter of the Bolognese school, 
 whose studies of the grotesque are particu- 
 larly excellent. 
 
 Marchi, Francesco de {d. circa 1600), en- 
 
 fineer, bom at Boloj^ua, served Alessandro 
 e Medici, Paul III., and Margaret of 
 Parma ; designed the fortifications of Ant- 
 werp and Piacenza, and wrote Bella 
 A.rchitectura Militaire, now very rare. 
 
 Marcianus {d. 457), Emperor of the East, 
 a native of Illyria^ married Pulcheria, 
 daughter of Theodosius the Younger, and 
 was crowned in 450 ; helped Valentiuian 
 m. against Attila. 
 
 Marco Polo. [See Polo.] 
 
 Marcus Aurelius. [See Aurelius.] 
 
 Mardonius {d. 479 B.C.), Persian general ; 
 conspired against Smerdis in 521, com- 
 manded for Xerxes in Greece after Salamis, 
 but was defeated and slain at Plataea. 
 
 Maret, Hugues, Due de Bassano (i. 1763, 
 d. 1839), French statesman, published in 
 1789 a Bulletin of the National Assembly ; 
 was after the revolution employed diplo- 
 matically, and in 1804 was made secretary 
 of state by Napoleon, foreign minister in 
 1811, and war minister in 1813. After a 
 period of exile, he returned to France in 
 1820, and after the revolution of 1830 be- 
 came pair de France and minister of the 
 interior. 
 
 Margaret, Saint (i. circa 1047, d. 1093), 
 Scotch queen, wife of Malcolm III. and sister 
 of Edgar Atheliug, with whom she fled to 
 Scotland after the battle of Hastings. 
 
 Margaret Plantagenet {d. 1503), sister of 
 Edward IV. of England ; married Charles 
 the Bold, and supported the Yorkist pre- 
 tenders in the reign of Henry VII. 
 
 Margaret Tudor (*. 1489, d. 1541), 
 daughter of Henry VII., married James 
 IV. of Scotland in 1503, and afterwards 
 Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus — Mary 
 Queen of Scots and Lord Damley beiug 
 descended from the respective marriages. 
 
 Margaret of Anjou {b. 1429, d. 1482), 
 Queen of England, daughter of R^n^ of 
 Anjou, titular King of Naples, married 
 Henry VI. in 1445 ; supported Suffolk 
 against Gloucester aud afterwards Somerset 
 against Richard, Duke of York, whom, after 
 some reverses, she defeated at Wakefield 
 (1460), where he was killed, but lost the 
 battle of Towton next year, and fled to Scot- 
 land ; was defeated at Hexham in 1464, and 
 escaped to Flanders ; was finally crushed 
 by Edward at Tewkesbury, and passed the 
 rest of her hfe in France. 
 
 Margaret of Austria (6. 1480, d. 1530), 
 daughter of the Emperor Maximilian and 
 Mary of Burgundy, married first John of 
 Castile, and secondly Philibert of Savoy ; 
 was made governor of the Low Countries in 
 1507, and negotiated both the League of 
 Cambrai (1508) and the " Paix des Dames " 
 (1529). 
 
 Margaret of Denmark (*. 1353, d. 1412), 
 succeeded her father Waldemar III., be- 
 came queen also of Norway on the death of 
 her husband, Haco VIII. , but was soon ex- 
 pelled ; recovered Norway in 1387, and, 
 having defeated Albert of Mecklenburg in 
 1389, united the three Scandinavian king- 
 doms by the union of Colmar in 1397. 
 
 Margaret of France (*. 1553, d. 1615), 
 first wife of Henri IV. and daughter of 
 Henri II. ; married just before the day of 
 St. Bartholomew, when she had a narrow 
 escape : separated from Henry of Navarre 
 when he came to the French throne, and 
 was divorced in 1599.
 
 Mar 
 
 (636) 
 
 Mar 
 
 Margaret of Parma {d. 1586), natural 
 daughter of Charles V. and husband of 
 Ottavio Famese, Duke of Parma; was 
 appointed regent of the Netherlands in 1559, 
 but retired in 1568. Alexander Famese was 
 her son. 
 
 Margaret of Provence {b. 1221, d. 1295), 
 daughter of Eapnoud III. of Provence, 
 and wife of Louis IX., whom she accom- 
 panied on crusade. 
 
 Margaret of Scotland (*. 1424, d. 1445), 
 daughter of James I. of Scotland, and wife 
 of Louis XI., with whom she lived un- 
 happily. 
 
 Margaret of Valois (b. 1492, d. 1549), 
 sister of Francis I. and grandmother of 
 Henri IV. ; married first the Due d'Alen(^on, 
 and secondly Henri d'Albret, titular King 
 of Navarre; supported^ the reformation, 
 and wrote Miroir de Plme Pecheresse, and 
 Contes et NouveUes (the Heptameron). 
 
 Margaritone d'Arezzo {b. 1236), Italian 
 painter, sculptor, and architect, contempo- 
 rary with Cimabue and Giotto ; is thought 
 to have been instructed by Greek painters. 
 Some of his paintings, notably a Madonna 
 at the church of San Francesco, are to be 
 seen at Arezzo, where also the monument 
 to Gregory XIII, is his work. 
 
 Marggraf, Andreas {b. 1709, d. 1782), 
 Geraian chemist, born at Berlin; studied 
 metallurgy under Henckel, and practised 
 assaying under the direction of Susmith ; 
 discovered phosphoric acid, alimaina, and 
 magnesia, and described many processes in 
 his works. 
 
 Margolionth, David Samuel {b. 1858), 
 English Orientalist, educated at Winchester 
 and NewCollege, Oxford, of which he became 
 fellow and librariau, after carrying off most 
 of the university prizes for classics and 
 oriental languages ; was elected Laudian 
 professor of Arabic in 1889. His chief 
 works are AnaUcta Orientalia ad Poeticam 
 Ar-istoteUam, The Commmtary of Jephel ibn 
 AH on Daniel, and An Essay on the Place of 
 Ecclesiasticus in Semitic Literature. 
 
 Maria Adelaide {b. 1822, d. 1855), wife 
 of Victor Emmanuel, and mother of Hum- 
 bert, King of Italy. 
 
 Maria Christina, Queen of Spain (b. 1806, 
 d 1878), wife of Ferdinand VII., married 
 again Don Fernando Mufioz. In 1840 she 
 was compelled to retire to France, but re- 
 turned in 1843. In 1854 she was again ex- 
 pelled, and finally in 1868. 
 
 Maria Christina, Queen-regent of Spain 
 (b. 1858), daughter of Archduke Charles of 
 Austria, and second wife of Alfonso XII. ; 
 became regent for his son in 1885, when her 
 husband died. 
 
 Maria Lesczinska {b. 1703, d. 1768), 
 
 daughter of Stanislas, King of Poland, and 
 afterwards Duke of Lorraine; married 
 Louis XV., but was very soon neglected. 
 
 Maria Theresa (6. 1717, d. 1780), Queen 
 of Hunganr, and daughter of the Emperor 
 Charles VI. ; married Francis of Lorraine 
 in 1735, and was supported by England 
 against the Elector of Bavaria, who claimed 
 the empire, and was supported by France ; 
 carried on the Seven Years' war, with the 
 help of France, against Prussia, who had 
 obtained part of Silesia ; took part, against 
 her will, in the first partition of Poland. 
 
 Maria Theresa of Spain (A. 1638, d. 1683), 
 Infanta of Spain, and wife of Louis XIV. 
 
 Maria of Austria {b. 1501, d. 1558), sister 
 of Charles V., and wife of Louis II. of 
 Hungary ; was governor of the Netherlands 
 from 1531 to 1555. 
 
 Maria L, Queen of Portugal {b. 1734, d. 
 1816), married Pedro, her uncle, and suc- 
 ceeded her father, Jose I., in 1777, when 
 she inmiediately dismissed Pombal. Her 
 health gave way, and from 1792 her son 
 reigned in her name. 
 
 Maria II. {b. 1819, d. 1853), daughter of 
 Pedro IV. ; became queen on the abdication 
 of her father in 1826, and married first the 
 Duke of Leuchtenberg, and then Ferdinand 
 of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 
 
 Mariamne {d. 28 b.c), Jewish prmcess, 
 wife of Herod the Great, by whose orders 
 she was poisoned. He afterwards bitterly 
 bewailed the result of his suspicions. 
 
 Mariana, Juan de {b. 1536, d. 1624^, 
 Spanish historian, had Bellarmine for his 
 pupil at Rome ; wrote Historia de Mebus 
 HispanicE in thirty books, and translated it 
 into Spanish, and also De Rege et Regis 
 Institutione. 
 
 Marianus Scotus (b. 1028,5?. 1086), Scotch 
 monk ; passed most of his life at Cologne, 
 Fulda, and other places in Germany ; wrote 
 a chronicle from the birth of Christ to 1083. 
 
 Marie Am^lie (b. 1782, d. 1866), daughter 
 of Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies, 
 and wife of Louis Philippe, Due d'Orl^ans, 
 whom she married in 1809. 
 
 Marie Antoinette (*. 1755, d. 1793), Queen 
 of France, daughter of the Empress Maria 
 Theresa; married Louis XVI. when dauphin, 
 becoming queen four years later ; was much 
 calumniated, and became unpopular with 
 the court and people as a foreigner; fled 
 with the king to Varennos in June, 1791, 
 and a year after was imprisoned with him, 
 being finally tried and guillotined in Oc- 
 tober, 1793. 
 
 Marie Loiiise {b. 1791, d. 1849), daughter 
 of Francis I. , Emperor of Austria ; becam*
 
 Mar 
 
 (537) 
 
 Mar 
 
 the second wife of Xapoleon in 1810, and 
 mother of the King of Rome (Napoleon II.) 
 next year; was made regent in 1813, but 
 left France in 1814, obtaining the Duchy of 
 Parma; married Count Neipperg after 
 Napoleon's death. 
 
 Maxie de' Medici (J. 1573, d. 1642), Queen 
 of France, daughter of Francis of Tuscany ; 
 married Henri IV. in 1600, and became 
 mother of Louis XIII., during whose 
 minority she was regent, but was over- 
 thrown by Richelieu after a long contest, 
 and left France ia 1630. 
 
 Marignano, Gian Giacomo Medichino, 
 Marchese di {b. 1497, d. 155.5), Italian 
 soldier of fortune, bom at Milan; with 
 Pozzino assassinated, for Francesco Sforza, 
 Ettore Visconti, a political rival. When 
 Sforza attempted to kill him he left Milaji, 
 and, after a time, took service with Charles 
 v., for whom he commanded in Flanders 
 and Italy, his greatest exploit being the 
 capture of Siena. 
 
 Marigny, Franqois Augier de (d. 1762), 
 French writer, his chief works being Sis- 
 toire du Douzihne Siecle, and Hiatoire dei 
 Arabes. 
 
 Marillac, Louis de {b. 1572, d. 1632), 
 French soldier, served under Henri FV., 
 and became marechal de France in the 
 reign of Louis XIII., but, having conspired 
 with his brother against Richelieu, was 
 tried and beheaded on charges of peculation 
 and extortion. 
 
 Marinas, Enrico de las {b. 1620, d. 1680), 
 Spanish painter, so called from his subjects, 
 which were nautical ; died at Rome. 
 
 Marineo, Lucio (Jl. 1500), Spanish his- 
 torian, bom in Sicify ; became chaplain at 
 the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, and 
 wrote De Aragonice Regibus, De Rebus 
 Hispanic Memorabilibus, etc. 
 
 Marinl, Benedetto (/. 1600), painter, 
 native of Urbino, combined the Lombard 
 and Venetian schools. His best picture is 
 that of The Loaves and Ftskes, in the refec- 
 tory of the Conventuali, Piacenza. 
 
 Marinl, Giambattista {b. 1569, d. 1625), 
 Italian poet, bom at Naples ; having been 
 expelled from his father's house, went first 
 to Rome, and afterwards to France, where 
 he was protected and pensioned by Marie de' 
 Medici, and wrote L Adone, his chief work. 
 His style became proverbial for ita extrava- 
 gance. 
 
 Marino FaUero. [See Faliero.] 
 
 Marinoni, Giovanni di {b. 1676, d. 1755), 
 astronomer, patronised by the Emperor 
 Leopold and his successors, and ennobled; 
 
 invented the planimetric balance, and wrote 
 De Spec'ulA Domesticd, and other works. All 
 his servants were astronomers. 
 
 Mario, Giuseppe, Marchese di Caudia 
 {b. 1808, d. 1883), operatic tenor; entered 
 the Sardinian army in 1830, but soon re- 
 signed his commission and went to Paris, 
 where ia 1838 he made his debut iu Robert 
 le Diable, subsequently visiting England 
 and the chief Continental cities, and making 
 his greatest successes in Ugonotti and La 
 Favorita ; married Giulia Grisi, and left the 
 stage in 1867- 
 
 Maxiotte, Edme {d. 1684), French 
 natural philosopher, prior of St. Martin- 
 sous-Beaune. near Dijon, and one of 
 the earhest members of the Academic des 
 Sciences ; discovered the law of elastic 
 fluids, which was called by his name, and 
 the punctum caelum, and wrote many 
 works. 
 
 Marius, Caius {b. 157 B.C., d. 86 B.C.), 
 Roman general ; served under Scipio in 
 Spain, conquered Jugurtha, and brought 
 him in triumph to Rome (104B.C.) : defeated 
 the Teutones and Cimbri (102-101) ; carried 
 on war with Syha, by whom he was de- 
 feated, and compelled to fly to Carthage 
 (87) ; returned to Rome next year, and 
 proscribed his enemies, and died of fever, 
 after having become consul for the seventh 
 time. He married Julia, aunt of Caesar. 
 
 Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de 
 (i. 1688,6^. 1763), French dramatist and novel- 
 ist; competed successfully against Voltaire 
 in 1742 for entrance to the Academy. His 
 chief works were Le Jeit d''A)nour, Le 
 Paysan Parvenu, Marianne, and travesties 
 of Homer and Telemaqiie. 
 
 Maxkham, Clements Robert, C.B.,F.R.S. 
 {b. 1830), English geographer and writer ; 
 entered the navy in 1844, but left it seven 
 years later for the India Office; joined the 
 Arctic expedition of 1850, and explored 
 Peru in 1852-4 ; was geographer to the 
 Abyssuiian expedition, and wrote several 
 works, the chief of which are Franklin''s 
 Footsteps, Travels in Peru and Lndia, History 
 of the Abijssinian Expedition, a-udi. The War 
 between Chili and Peru, 1S79-81. 
 
 Markham, Gervase {d. circa 1655), poet 
 and linguist ; served as captain in the 
 Royalist army, and wrote Herod and Anti- 
 pater (1622), The Poem of Poems : or, Sion's 
 Muse, as well as pieces on England's Par- 
 nassus, and some prose works on husbandry 
 and horsemanship. 
 
 Marks, Henry Stacy (A. 1829), English 
 painter, studied at the Royal Academy, of 
 which he became an associate in 1871, and 
 fuU member in 1878 ; exhibited at the
 
 Mar 
 
 (53S) 
 
 Mar 
 
 Academy Toothache in the Middle Ages 
 (1856), b't. Francis Freaching to the Birds 
 (1870), Old Friends, and Science in Measure- 
 ment (1879), A Treatise on Parrots (18S5), 
 Xt'irs in the ]'tllage (1889), etc., and held an 
 exhibition of Birds in 1889. 
 
 Maxlborough, John Churchill, first Duke 
 of ('''. 1650, d. 17-2), soldier and diplomatist ; 
 obtained a commission through the influence 
 of his sister with the Duke of York, and 
 first served under Turenne ; deserted James 
 II. at the Revolution, but, though created 
 earl and commauder-ln-chief by William 
 III., intrigued with his former master; 
 after a period of disgrace, went to the 
 Hague to organise the Grand Alliance ; was 
 appointed captain general and duke under 
 Anne, and won the victories of Blenheim 
 (170i), RamUUes (1706), Oudenarde (1708), 
 and Malplaquet (1709), but was recalled in 
 1710, and dismissed on a charge of pecu- 
 lation. He was restored by George I. in 
 1714, but never fully trusted. 
 
 Marlt)orough, Sarah Jennings, Duchess 
 of (J). 1660, d. 1744), married Churchill in 
 1678 : induced Anne to desert her father, 
 and became all-powerful at her accession ; 
 but was supplanted by Abigail Hill in 1710, 
 and compelled to give up her offices ; she 
 left a portion of her f ortirne to the elder Pitt. 
 
 Marlowe, Christopher {b. 1564, d. 1593), 
 English dramatist and poet, bom at Canter- 
 bury, and educated at Cambridge. He wrote 
 Tamburlaine, Faustus, and Edward II. ; also 
 (with Chapman) ]the poem Sei-o and Leander. 
 He was k£led in a tavern brawl at Deptf ord. 
 
 Marmion, Shackerley (b. 1602, d. 1639), 
 EngUsh dramatist; squandered his fortune 
 and entered the army; wrote The Anti- 
 quart/, and other plays, and Cupid and 
 Psyche, an epic poem. 
 
 Marmont, Auguste Frederic Louis Viesse 
 de. Due de Raguse {b. 1774, d. 1852), 
 Marechal de France; after distinguishing 
 himself at Lodi and Marengo, was made 
 governor of lUyria by Napoleon in 1809; 
 was defeated in 1812 at Salamanca by 
 Wellington ; after being with Napoleon till 
 1814, he deserted him on his abdication, 
 and, remaining faithful to the Bourbons, 
 was ambassador to Russia (1826-8), but 
 left France after the fall of Chares X. 
 
 _Mannontel, Jean Franqois {b. 1723, d. 
 1799), French writer, bom of humble 
 parents in the Limousin ; taught philosophy 
 at Toulouse, where he wrote an ode which 
 was praised by Voltaire ; helped in the 
 compilation of the Encychpedie ; was im- 
 prisoned in the Bastille for a satire in the 
 Mercure de France, which he edited, and 
 was appointed historiographer of France in 
 1771. His chief works were Contes Moraux, 
 
 Belisaire, Les Incas, and Elements de Litte- 
 rature. 
 
 Marmora, Alfonso, Marchese della (i. 
 1804, d. 1878), Italian general and states- 
 man ; served in the Sardinian army in the 
 war of 1848-9, and, having put down the 
 revolt of the Mazzinists at Genoa, became 
 lieutenant-general, and, as minister of war 
 and marine, reorganised the army of Italy. 
 He commanded the Sardinian detachment 
 in the Crimea, and on his return became 
 Cavour's war minister. During the years 
 1864-6 he was twice prime minister, and 
 concluded an alliance with Prussia. He 
 was defeated at Custozza in 1866, but was 
 made commander of Rome when the Italians 
 entered it. He retired in 1871, and soon 
 after published Tin Poco Piii di Luce Suffli 
 Eventi Politici deW anno 1866, and / Segreti 
 di Stato nel Governo Vostituzionale. 
 
 Mamiz. [See St. Aldegonde.] 
 
 Maro. [See Virgil.] 
 
 Maro, Johannes (d. 700), Syrian patriarch, 
 founder of the Maronites. 
 
 Maroclietti, Carlo, Baron (4. 1805, d. 
 1868), Italian sculptor; was naturalised in 
 France in 1841, but after the revolution of 
 1848 came to England, where his statue of 
 Richard I. was seen at the Exhibition of 
 1851. Besides his equestrian statue of 
 Emmanuel PhiUbert of Savoy at Paris, he 
 executed the Crimean Memorial, and the 
 statue of Lord Clyde in England, and was 
 elected R.A. in 1866. 
 
 Maxoncelll, Pietro (*. 1795, d. 1846), 
 Italian poet; companion of Silvio Pellico 
 when in prison in the Spielberg, after his 
 release from which he lived first in Paris, 
 and then at New York, where he died. 
 Besides several songs, written and set by 
 himself, he was author of Addizioni alle Mie 
 Prigione di Silvio Pellico. 
 
 Marot, Clement {b. 1496 ?, d. 1544), French 
 poet, patronised by Francis I. and Mar- 
 guerite de Valois, whose page he had been ; 
 was imprisoned for supposed heretical 
 opinions, and eventually went to Geneva. 
 He invented the French rondeau, and intro- 
 duced the madrigal, his chief works being 
 L' Adolescence CUmentine, Cantiques de la 
 Paix, and Psaumes de David. 
 
 Marozia, or Mariuccia (10th century), 
 Roman lady, exercised great influence in 
 Italy ; married first Alberic, Marquis of 
 Camerino, secondly Guide, Duke of Tuscany, 
 and lastly Hugh of Provence, King of Italy ; 
 made her son pope as John XI., and also set 
 up and deposed several others ; was finally 
 shut up in a monastery by her eldest son, 
 who killed her last husband. 
 
 Marpurg, Friedrich (4. 1718, d. 1795),
 
 Mar 
 
 ( 539) 
 
 Mar 
 
 German writer on music, bom at Seehausen, 
 in Brandenburg ; was for some time di- 
 rector of lotteries at Berlin, and wrote A 
 Manual of Harmony and Composition, a 
 History q/ the Organ, and other works. 
 
 Marriott, Right Hon. Sir "William Thacke- 
 ray (Jj. 1834), English poUtician, bom near 
 Manchester, and educated at Cambridge ; 
 he took orders, but gave up the clerical for 
 the legal profession, berag called in 1864, 
 and became Queen's Counsel in 1877. He 
 entered Parliament as a Liberal in 1880, but 
 in 1884 resigned on the Cloture question, and 
 was re-elected as a Conservative, and was 
 Judge Advocate-General iu the first and 
 second Ministries of Lord Salisbury. 
 
 Marryatt, Frederick (jb. 1792, d. 1848), 
 English novelist and saUor ; entered the navy 
 in 1806, served imder Lord Cochrane, and 
 in the Burmese war, and drew up a code of 
 signals for the merchant service ; wrote 
 Peter Simple, Midshipman Easy, Jacob 
 Faithful, and several similar works. 
 
 Marryatt, Florence, English novelist, 
 daughter of the preceding, married first to 
 Mr. Eoss Church, and secondly to Mr. Lean; 
 •wrote many novels. Love's Conflict, Tom 
 Tiddler''s Ground, Gentleman and Courtier, 
 etc., and also appeared on the stage as opera 
 singer and actress. She edited the Life and 
 Letters of her father in 1872. 
 
 Mars, Anne Fran9oise Monvel (fi. Yll^, 
 d. 1847), French actress, daughter of Mon- 
 vel, an actor; first appeared ia 1792, and 
 became societaire of the Comedie Fran^aise 
 in 1799 ; played with great force in L'Abbe 
 de VEpee and in Moliere, Marivaux, and 
 Scribe ; took the chief part in Hernani and 
 Dumas's Madame de Belleisle, and made her 
 last appearance in 1841. 
 
 Marschner, Heinrich (fi. 1796, d. 1861), 
 German musician, made joint kapellmeister 
 of the Dresden opera by the influence of 
 Weber, whose follower he was, his chief 
 compositions being Ber Vampyr, produced 
 at Leipzig in 1828, and Hans Heiling at 
 Hanover in 1831. 
 
 Marsden, Alexander (b. 1832), English 
 sm-geon, son of Dr. W. Marsden, entered 
 the army in 1854, and served in the 
 Scutari hospital, after which he wjis at- 
 tached to the ambulance corps before Se- 
 bastopol, and on his return was appointed 
 surgeon to the Royal Free and Cancer Hos- 
 pitals. His works deal with the treatment 
 of cancer and tumours {A New and Suc- 
 cessful Mode of Treating Certain Forms of 
 Cancer, etc.). 
 
 Marsden, William (*. 1754, d. 1836), 
 British OrientaHst and surgeon ; lived in 
 
 Simiatra for eight years, and published a 
 history of it, as also a Dictionary of the 
 Malayan Language (1812), Numismata Ori- 
 entalia Illustrata, and other works ; left his 
 library to King's College, London, 
 
 Marsn, James (6. 1789, d. 1846), English 
 chemist ; discovered a test for detecting the 
 presence of arsenic. 
 
 Marsh, Narcissus {b. 1638, d. 1713), Irish 
 scholar, provost of Trinity College, Dubhn, 
 and successively Archbishop of Armagh and 
 other Irish sees ; established and endowed 
 the hbrary at Dublin called after him. 
 
 Marsli, Othuiel Charles (*. 1831), American 
 naturalist; after graduating at Yale, studied 
 at Berlin, Heidelberg, and Breslau, and 
 was appointed professor of palaeontology at 
 his old college in 1866. He led many ex- 
 ploring expeditions to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, the result of which was the discovery 
 of many extinct species of vertebrates, 
 monographs on which he contributed to 
 the American Journal of Science. 
 
 Marshal, Andrew (b. 1742, d. 1813), Scotch 
 anatomist and physician, a member of the 
 Speculative Society ; studied theology at 
 Edinburgh, and took up medicine from 
 curiosity; travelled with Lord Balgonie, 
 and afterwards taught anatomy at London. 
 His work, The Morbid Anatomy of the Brain, 
 was published after his death 
 
 Marshall, Alfred {b. 1842), English 
 political economist, educated at Merchant 
 Taylors' and Cambridge, where he was 
 second wrangler and fellow of St. John's, 
 subsequently becoming principal of Univer- 
 sity College, Bristol. After going abroad 
 for his health, he became fellow of Balliol ia 
 1884, and was elected professor of political 
 economy at Cambridge ia the same year. 
 He wrote with his wife (Miss Paley), The 
 Economics of Industry ia 1879, and after- 
 wards The Principles of Economics. 
 
 Marshall, Arthur Mihies, M.D. (i. 1852), 
 EngUsh naturalist, graduated as senior ia 
 the natural science tripos of 1874, entered 
 Bartholomew's Hospital in 1877, and two 
 years later was named professor of zoology at 
 Owens College. He graduated at London 
 as weU as at Cambridge, and was elected 
 F.R.S. in 1885. His chief work is The Frog, 
 and he published, with Mr. Hurst, Practical 
 Zoology. 
 
 Marshall, George William (i. 1839), genea- 
 logist, educated at Eadley and Cambridge ; 
 compiled The Genealogists Guide (1879), and 
 edited several works for the Harleian 
 Society, and A Handbook to the Ancient 
 Courts of Probate. He became rouge croix 
 pursuivant in 1887. 
 
 Marshall, Herbert Menzies {b. 1841).
 
 Mar 
 
 (540) 
 
 Mar 
 
 English painter; educated at Westminster 
 and St. Jolni's College, Cambridge ; obtained 
 the Royal Academy travelling studentship in 
 architecture, but his eyesight having become 
 injured, turned to water-colour painting. He 
 became associate of the Water-Coloui- Society 
 in 1879, and full member in 1882, and held 
 exhibitions in 1886 and 1890 in London. 
 
 Marshall, "William Calder {b. 1813), 
 sculptor, bom in Edinburgh ; studied 
 in London under Chantrey, and settled 
 there about 1839, having already begun to 
 exhibit. He was elected associate of the 
 Scottish Academy in 1842, A.R.A. in 1844, 
 and R.A. in 1852. Good specimens of his 
 art are The Broken Pitcher (1842), Rebecca, 
 and The Dancing Girl Reposing, besides 
 statues in the Houses of Parliament, the 
 Wellington monument, and the agriculture 
 group in the Hyde Park memorial. 
 
 Marslunan, Joshua {b. 1745, d. 1837), 
 English Orientalist, went as Baptist minister 
 to India in 1799, and translated the Scrip- 
 tures into Bengali, Sanscrit, and Chinese, 
 besides writing Clavis Sinica, and a transla- 
 tion of Confucius. His son, J. C. Marsh- 
 man {d. 1877), wrote a History of British 
 India. 
 
 Marsigll, Luigi (b. 1658, d. 1730), Italian 
 writer, bom at Bologna ; was taken prisoner 
 by the Turks and sent to Bosnia, but at- 
 tained the rank of marshal in the imperial 
 army after his ransom. After his dismissal 
 for his part in the surrender of Breisach he 
 retired to his birthplace, where be founded 
 the Institute, and wrote Banubins Pannonico- 
 Mysicas, and other works. He became a 
 member of the Royal Society on the intro- 
 duction of Newton. 
 
 Marsilio of Padua, "Menandrino" (d. 
 1328), Italian publicist ; asserted the demo- 
 cratic principle in his Befcnsor Pacis. 
 
 Marston, John {b. circa 1575, d. 1634), Eng- 
 lish dramatist, wrote several plays [Sopho- 
 nisba, etc.), and some satires; was imprisoned 
 for Easticard Ho ! with Chapman and Ben 
 Jonson, and afterwards quarrelled with the 
 latter, who replied to his attack with The 
 Poetaster, in which he was satirised as 
 Demetrius. 
 
 Marston, John Westland {b. 1820, d. 1890), 
 English dramatist ; came to London in 1834, 
 and was articled to a solicitor, but soon 
 began to write for the stage, his chief plays 
 being The Patrician's Baiightcr (1841), 
 Strathmore(\%'iQ), romantic dramas ; Borough 
 Pcliitcs, a comedy ; Madame de Meranie 
 (1856), The Favourite of Fortune, Life for 
 Life (1868), etc., besides some lyrics and 
 Our Recent Actors (1888). 
 
 Marston, Philip Bourke {b. 1850, d. 1887), 
 
 EngUsh poet, son of the preceding, friend of 
 Swinburne and Rossetti, became totally 
 blind from cataract; wrote Song Tide (1870), 
 All in All (1875), and Wind Voices (1883), 
 and some stories. 
 
 Maxsy, Balthasar (A. 1624, d. 1681), French 
 sculptor, native of Cambrai ; with his 
 brother, Gaspar (who was admitted to the 
 Academy of Painting in 1673, and died the 
 next year), cast in bronze the group of 
 Tritons and other pieces of work at Ver- 
 sailles ; while Balthasar alone executed Mars 
 and Enceladus in the Versailles park, and the 
 bas-relief of the Porte St. Martin and Boreas 
 and Orithyia in the Tuileries gardens. 
 
 Martel. \_See Charles Martel.] 
 
 Marteli^re, Pierre de la (d. 1631), French 
 advocate, called " Princeps Patronorum et 
 Patronus Principum ; " practised at the Paris 
 bar during the reigns of Henri IV. and 
 Louis XIII., and was particularly celebrated 
 for his defence of the University of Paris 
 against the Jesuits in 1611. 
 
 Martelli, Pietro {b. 1665, d. 1727), Italian 
 
 poet ; author of tragedies {Ifigenia in 
 
 Tauridc, etc.), written in a metre after- 
 wards called by his name. 
 
 Martens, Dietrich (d. 1534), Flemish 
 printer, born at Alost, probably introduced 
 printing into the Netherlands ; was the 
 friend of Erasmus and other learned men. 
 
 Martens, Georg Friedrich von [b. 1756, 
 d. 1821), German diplomatist, professor of 
 law at Gottingen, and afterwards secretary 
 to the Congress of Vienna (1814) ; published 
 Precis du Droit dcs Gens de V Europe, Re- 
 cueil des Princvpaux Traites de Paix, and 
 other standard works on international law. 
 
 Martha, Soeur {d. 1824), Frenchwoman, 
 whose real name was Anne Biget ; after 
 having served as a portress in a convent, 
 devoted the rest of her life to the care of 
 wounded soldiers. She was richly rewarded 
 by the allied sovereigns for her services 
 during the Napoleonic wars, and died at 
 Besanijon. 
 
 Martial, Marcus Valerius Martialis (i. 
 circa 41, d. 104?), Roman poet, bom in 
 Spain, to which he returned after the death 
 of his patron, the Emperor Domitian : wrote 
 fourteen books of Epigrammata, and was 
 the friend of Juvenal, QuintiUan, and the 
 younger Pliny. 
 
 Martignac, Jean Baptiste Gaye, Vicomte 
 de {h. 1776, d. 1832), French statesman; 
 sujiported the Bourbon cause during the 
 Hundred Days, and after the restoration 
 entered the Chamber of Deputies, of which 
 he became vice-president, being also coun- 
 sellor of state; became a chief adviser of
 
 Mar 
 
 (541) 
 
 Mar 
 
 Charles X., but was dismissed in favour 
 of Polignac, whom he eloquently defended 
 when put on trial in 1830. 
 
 Martin, Bon Louis Henri (b. 1810, d. 
 1883), French historian, son of a magistrate 
 of St. Quenttn ; published several novels 
 before turuiag to history ; wrote a Histoire 
 de France iu fifteen voliinies ; was elected to 
 the Chamber of Deputies in 1872, and after- 
 wards became senator ; was member both of 
 the Academie Franqaise and the Academie 
 des Sciences, and received a public funeral. 
 
 Maxtin. Claude {b. 1732, d. 1800), French 
 servant of the East India Company, whom 
 he joined after having deserted Lally ; made 
 a large fortune iu the service of the Nabob 
 of Oude, and left benefactions to Calcutta 
 and Lucknow, as well as to Lyons. 
 
 Martin, John (A. 1789, d. 1854), English 
 painter, educated by the father of Musso, 
 the enamel-painter, with whom he came to 
 London in 1806; exhibited both in the 
 Academy and at the British Institution, 
 though he always opposed the former. His 
 chief pictures were Belshazzar^s Feast (1821), 
 T}ie Fall of Nineveh (1828), and The Judg- 
 ment (unfinished, 1854). His brother, 
 Jonathan {d. 1838), tried to set fire to York 
 Minster in 1829. 
 
 Martin, John (b. 1812, d. 1875), Irish 
 politician ; became a member of the Young 
 Ireland party, and married a sister of John 
 Mitchell ; was tried and sentenced to trans- 
 portation for issuing the Irish Felon in 1848, 
 but released in 1S54; was again prosecuted 
 in 1867 for his conduct at the funeral 
 of Allen and Larkin, but acquitted, and, 
 having entered Parliament in 1871, became 
 one of the early Home Rulers, and honorary 
 secretary to the League. 
 
 Martin, John Biddulph, Mrs. , better known 
 as Mrs. Woodhull, her first married name, 
 political and social reformer, was bom in 
 Ohio, her father being Mr. Reuben Claflin. 
 With her sister, now Lady Cook, she took 
 up the cause of the political equality of 
 women, and in 1872 was nominated for the 
 presidency of the United States. She 
 afterwards agitated the social question 
 throughout the States and iti England, 
 and published The Basis of Physical Life, 
 Constitutional Equality, and many similar 
 works. After the death of Dr. Woodhull, 
 she married Mr. J. B. Martin, the banker. 
 
 Martin, Raymond (13th century), Spanish 
 Dominican missionary to the Jews and 
 Mahometans ; was a great oriental scholar, 
 and author of Pugio Fidei Christiani. 
 
 Martin, St. {d. circa 397), bom in Pan- 
 nonia; after having been a soldier, he 
 was converted to Christianity, and in 374 
 
 I became Bishop of Tours. He is known as 
 
 ; the Apostle of Gaul, which in great part 
 
 j he evangeUsed. The legend of the cloak is 
 
 [ well known. 
 I 
 
 j Martin, St. (6th century), Hungarian 
 
 ! prelate ; preached in Spain, and presided at 
 
 I the thii-d Council of Brega. 
 
 j Martin, Sir Samuel {b. 1801, d. 1883), 
 judge, educated at Trinity College, 
 Dublin; practised on the northern circuit, 
 his name becoming known in connection 
 vrith the Bloomsbury case in 1839 ; became 
 Queen's Counsel in 1843, and was Liberal 
 member for Pontefract from 1847 till 1850, 
 when he was named Baron of the Exchequer. 
 
 j He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1874, 
 
 ] when he retired from the bench. 
 
 I Martin, Sarah (b. 1791, d. 1843), prison 
 philanthropist, bom near Great Yarmouth ; 
 supported herself by dress-making, and 
 
 i visited prisons, where she read to the 
 inmates; founded a fimd to supply them 
 with work on their discharge, and organised 
 a workhouse school She died and was 
 buried at Caistor. 
 
 Martin, Sir Theodore {b. 1816), British 
 writer, bom and educated at Edinburgh, 
 where he practised as a soUcitor for some 
 years, but came to London in 1846 ; pub- 
 lished, with Professor Aytoim, the Bon 
 Gaultier Ballads, and soon after transla- 
 tions of Goethe, of Hertz's King Rene's 
 Daughter, and other Danish works ; of 
 Horace, Catullus, Dante's Vita Nuova, 
 Goethe's Faust, and Heine's poems. He 
 also wrote a Life of the Prince Consort, for 
 which he was Imighted, and of Lord Lynd- 
 hurst, his last works having been further 
 translations from the German, chiefly ballads 
 (1889). He married in 1851 Miss Helen 
 Faucit. 
 
 Martin, Thomas Ignace {d. 1834), French 
 visionary ; founded a sect called by his 
 name, asserted that the son of Louis XVI. 
 was still alive, and published a Relation 
 (1817-32). 
 
 Martin I., Pope of Rome {d. 655), suc- 
 ceeded Theodore I. in 649, but was carried 
 to Constantinople by order of Constantius 
 in 653, on account of his condemnation of 
 the Monothelites, whom the emperor 
 favoured, and died in exile. 
 
 Martin II. {d. 884) , called also Marinus I. ; 
 succeeded John VIII. in 882. He condemned 
 Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople (q.v.). 
 
 Martin III., or Marinus II. {d. 946), suc- 
 ceeded Stephen VIII. in 942, and was dis- 
 tinguished for his benevolence to the poor 
 and as a builder of churches. 
 
 Martin TV. (d. 1285) [Simon de Bri«],
 
 Max 
 
 (542) 
 
 Max 
 
 elected in 1281 ; supported Charles of Anjou 
 against Peter III. of Aragon, whom he 
 escommuuicated, as he did also the Emperor 
 Michael Palaeologus. 
 
 Martin V. {d. 1431) [Ottone Colomia], 
 elected at the Council of Constance (1417), 
 when John XXIII. was deposed, the "Great 
 Schism" being thus brought to an end; pro- 
 moted crusades against the Hussites, but 
 did much to restore the city of Rome. 
 
 Maxtineaii, Harriet (i. 1802, d. 1876), Eng- 
 lish writer of Huguenot descent, daughter 
 of a Norwich surgeon ; visited the United 
 States in 18S4, and the East in 1846, pub- 
 lishing descriptive works on her return ; 
 wrote Detrbruok, The Sour and the Man 
 (1840), and other novels, and many tales 
 for children, and was also author of a 
 condensation of Comte (1853), and History 
 of England iJuring the Thirty I'ears^ Peace 
 (1851). She twice refused, from conscien- 
 tious motives, a pension offered her by the 
 Government. 
 
 Martineau, James {b. 1805), theologian, 
 brother of the last-named, educated at 
 Norwich and Manchester New College, 
 York ; after being minister at Little Port- 
 land Street Unitarian Chapel for more than 
 twelve years, became principal of Man- 
 chester New College, London, in 1869. His 
 chief works are Essays, Philosophical and 
 Theological (1868), The Relation Between 
 Ethics and Religion (1881), Types of Ethical 
 Theory (1885), A Study of Religion (1888), 
 and The Seat of Authority in Religion (1890). 
 He has received honorary degrees from 
 Harvard, Leyden, and Oxford (D.C.L.). 
 
 Martinez Campos, Arsenio {b. 1834), 
 general and statesman, served in Morocco, 
 Cuba, and against the Carlists ; particularly 
 distinguished himself at Zurugay (June, 
 1874) ; conspired against the republic (for 
 opposition to which he had before been 
 imprisoned) in favour of Alfonso XII., 
 whom he placed on the throne. He finally 
 crushed Don Carlos in March, 1876, and, 
 having been made captain-general, was 
 sent against the Cuban rebels. On his 
 return, in 1879, he became minister of war 
 and president of the Council, but resigned 
 the same year. In 1881 he formed a coali- 
 tion with Sagasta, and retained office till 
 the autumn of 1883. 
 
 Martinez de la Rosa, Francisco {b. 1789, 
 d. 1862), Spanish statesman and author; 
 was transported to Africa for his Liberahsra 
 under Ferdinand VII., but in 1822 became 
 president of the Council of State and foreign 
 minister; pubHshed the Statuto Real, or 
 definition of the constitution, in 1834, but 
 resigned next year ; took office again under 
 Narvaez in 1843, and was again foreign 
 Becretary in 1857, and president of the 
 
 Cortes in the following year; wrote La 
 Viuda de Padilla, a drama, some lyrics, and 
 El Espiritu del Siglo. 
 
 Martini, Giovanni (*. 1706, d. 1784), 
 Italian Franciscan, " Padre Martini ; " 
 founded a school of music at Bologna, and 
 wrote Storia delta Musica, for which Fred- 
 erick the Great sent him his portrait and a 
 snuff-box. 
 
 Martini, Giuseppe San {d. 1750), Milanese 
 musician ; first brought the hautboy into 
 favour by his playing ; came to England in 
 1723. 
 
 Martinus GaUus (13th century), Polish 
 
 historian ; author of Chronica Polonorwn. 
 
 Martinus Polonus {d. 1278), Polish Do- 
 minican, Archbishop of Gnesen ; wrote 
 Chronicon Martinarum, a history of popes 
 and emperors to the year 1277. 
 
 Martinuzzi, Giorgio {d. 1551), Croatian 
 statesman, Bishop of Grosswardein ; as 
 guardian of John Sigismund, governed 
 Hungary for him, but, having quarrelled 
 with the queen-mother, intrigued with 
 Ferdinand of Austria, and was assassin- 
 ated. 
 
 Mart OS, Ivan Petrovich {d. 1835), Russian 
 sculptor, the best specimens of whose works 
 are Potemkiu's monument at Cherson, that 
 of Alexander I. at Taganrog, the statue of 
 Richelieu at Odessa, and the bronze group 
 of patriots at Moscow. 
 
 Martyn, Henry (*. 1781, d. 1812), English 
 Orientalist, son of a Cornish miner; took 
 honours at Cambridge, and, having obtained 
 a chaplaincy in India, went there in 1803. 
 His Hindustani version of the New Testa- 
 ment and Memoirs were published after his 
 death. 
 
 Martyn, John (*. 1699, d. 1768), EngUsh 
 botanist, friend of Dillennius and Miller, 
 with whom he founded the Society of the 
 Rainbow ; held a professorship at Cam- 
 bridge for some years, and wrote Historia 
 Plantarum Rariorum, leaving a library and 
 valuable collection to the university. 
 
 Martyn, Thomas {b. 1735, d. 1825), his 
 son, was educated at Cambridge, where he 
 succeeded his father in the botanical chair 
 in 1761 ; took orders, and held several bene- 
 fices ; wrote Plantce Cantabrigienses, Flora 
 Rustica, The Antiquities of Herculaneum 
 (with J. Lettice), and several books of 
 travel. 
 
 Martyr. [See Justin and Peter.] 
 
 Marum, Martin van (6. 1750, d. 1837), 
 Dutch physicist ; made a powerful electrical 
 machine in 1785, and wrote Dissertatio de 
 
 Moiu Fluidorum in Plantis.
 
 Mar 
 
 (543) 
 
 Mas 
 
 MaxveU, Andrew (J. 1621, d. 1678), Eng- 
 lish politician and poet, bom at Hull, which 
 he afterwards represented in Parliament; 
 was secretary to Milton in 1657, wrote 
 letters to his constituents (who paid him for 
 his services) from 1665 to 1674, and many 
 controversial tracts of great wit, besides 
 poems. 
 
 Marvin, Charles {b. 1854, d. 1891), traveller 
 and writer ; having spent his youth in Eussia, 
 entered the English Civil Service in 1875, 
 which he quitted in 1878 on the disclosure 
 of the Anglo-Russian agreement. He after- 
 wards travelled iu the Caucasus, and wrote 
 several works on the Central Asian question 
 {The Russians at the Gate of Herat, etc.), 
 and Our Public Offices. 
 
 Maxx, Karl {b. 1818, d. 1883), German 
 Socialist, bom at Treves, where his father 
 was a lawyer; educated at Bonn and 
 Berlin ; took an active part in the Liberal 
 movement of 1840, and, after the suppres- 
 sion of the Jthenish Gazette (edited by him), 
 he went to Paris, but had to leave it for 
 Brussels on the demand of the Prussian 
 government. Here, with Engels, he drew 
 up the Communist Manifesto, which was 
 circulated throughout Europe in 1848. 
 Having been expelled from Belgium, he 
 was invited to Paris, but soon went to 
 Cologne, where he attempted to revive the 
 Rhenish Gazette. He now settled in Lon- 
 don, where he was engaged in literary 
 work, and took an active part in the Inter- 
 national Working Men's Association. After 
 the secession of the Anarchist section in 
 1873, he took little further part in affairs, 
 and died at Hampstead ten years later. 
 His chief work was I)as Kapital, but he 
 wrote also many able pamphlets on Hegelian 
 philosophy and economical subjects. 
 
 Mary Stewart, Queen of Scots (b. 1542, 
 d. 1587), daughter of James V. of Scot- 
 land ; was educated in France, and be- 
 trothed to the dauphin, afterwards Francis 
 II., after whose death in 1560 she returned 
 to Scotland. She refused to renounce her 
 claim to the Enghsh succession, but at first 
 temporised with the reformation ; married 
 Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, in 1565, but 
 became alienated from him, and probably 
 connived at his murder two years later, 
 after which she was carried off, ostensibly 
 against her will, and married by Both- 
 well ; was compelled to abdicate, and 
 imprisoned in Lochleven ; escaped, but 
 was defeated at Langside, and fled to 
 England (May, 1568), where she was im- 
 prisoned and executed for complicity in the 
 Babington Plot, her connection with former 
 conspiracies haviag been, though known, 
 not susceptible of proof. 
 
 Slaxy Tudor, Queen of France (fi. 1497, 
 
 d. 1534), daughter of Henry VII. : married 
 Louis XII. in 1514, and, after his death in 
 the following year, Charles Brandon, Duke 
 of Suffolk, their daughter being the mother 
 of Lady Jane Grey. 
 
 Mary of Burgundy {b. 1457, d. 1482), 
 daughter of Charles the Bold ; resisted the 
 attempt of Louis XL to dispossess her, and 
 married Maximilian of Austria in 1477 ; died 
 through a fall from her horse. 
 
 Maxy of Guise {b. 1515, d. 1560), daughter 
 of Claude, Due de Guise; married James 
 V. of Scotland in 1538, and became mother 
 of Mary, Queen of Scots ; as regent of Scot- 
 land, after her husband's death, opposed the 
 reformation, till deposed in 1559 by the 
 Lords of the Congregation. 
 
 Mary I., Queen of England (b. 1516, 
 d. 1558), daughter of Henry VIII. by 
 Kathaiiae of Aragon ; came to the throne 
 in 1553, after a short struggle with North- 
 umberland ; restored the abbey lands taken 
 by Henry VIII. and first-fruits to the 
 Papacy ; deprived and imprisoned the Pro- 
 testant bishops, and, having married Philip 
 n. of Spain, persecuted the Protestants, 
 contrary to the promises made before her 
 accession. The end of her reign was 
 marked by a war, in conjimction with Spain, 
 against France, when Calais was lost by 
 England. 
 
 Mary II. (b. 1662, d. 1694), elder daughter 
 of James II. ; married William of Orange 
 in 1677, and reigned with him as queen for 
 five years. 
 
 Masaccio. \_See Guidi.] 
 
 Masaniello (Tommaso Aniello) {b. 1623, 
 d. 1647), Neapolitan demagogue; a fisher- 
 man, who was made chief magistrate of the 
 city by the populace, which had risen 
 against the Spanish administration. His 
 conduct became overbearing, and he was 
 assassinated eight days after. 
 
 Masclef, Fran(^ois {b. 1662, d. 1728), 
 French Orientalist, published a Hebrew 
 grammar, and applied a system of reading 
 without vowel points to Hebrew, Chaldaic, 
 Syriac, and Samaritan. 
 
 Masham {tiee Hill), AbigaU, Lady (d. 
 1734), favourite of Queen Anne, and Tory 
 rival of the Duchess of Marlborough, whom 
 she supplanted in 1711, when her husband 
 was raised to the peerage. They afterwards 
 intrigued with the Stewarts. 
 
 Masinissa {d. 149 b.c), King of Numidia, 
 and ally of the Romans against Carthage ; 
 poisoned his wife Sophonisba, to prevent her 
 being taken from him by Scipio. 
 
 Maskelyne, Nevil (/-. 1732. d. 1811),
 
 Mas 
 
 (644) 
 
 Ma.s 
 
 English mathematician ; astronomer -royal 
 from 17ti5 till his death; observed the 
 transit of Venus at St. Helena in 1761, and 
 calculated the density of the earth at 
 Schiehallien ; published the British Ma- 
 rtiier's Guide (1763). 
 
 Mason, James MuiTay {b. 1798, d. 1871), 
 American senator, whose arrest by Captain 
 Wilkes of the Trent, when proceeding to 
 England as Confederate commissioner, 
 caused much commotion at the time as a 
 breach of international law. 
 
 Mason, Sir John {d. 1566), English states- 
 man, son of a monk of Abingdon, where he 
 endowed a hospital ; was much employed 
 diplomatically by Henry VIII. , and made a 
 member of the Privy Council, and, after 
 serving her predecessors, became treasurer 
 of the chamber to Elizabeth. 
 
 Mason, Sir Josiah (b. 1795, d. 1881), manu- 
 factui-er, born at Kidderminster. After 
 being engaged in many humble occupations, 
 set up in Birmingham about 1824 as a maker 
 of split rings and steel pens, of which he 
 became the largest manufacturer. Having 
 amassed a fortune, he estabUshed in 1860 
 the orphanage at Erdington, for which he 
 was knighted in 1872. He was also the 
 founder of the Science college at Birming- 
 ham and other institutions. 
 
 Mason, William {h. 1725, d. 1797), English 
 poet, canon of York, and author of Carae- 
 tacus, Isis, and other poems. 
 
 Masoudi {d. 956), Arab writer and tra- 
 veller, the reputed author of Ketab-al- 
 Adjayb, or, Book of Wonders. 
 
 Maspero, Gaston Camille Charles {b. 
 1846), French Egyptologist ; after studying 
 at the Lycee and the Ecole Normale, was 
 appointed in 1874 assistant professor of 
 Egyptian archaeology at the College de 
 France, and subsequently succeeded Mariette 
 Bey as keeper of the Boulak Museum. Among 
 his works are Histoire Ancienne des Peuples 
 de r Orient, Les Contes Populaires de VEgypte 
 Ancienne, and several monographs. 
 
 Mass6na, Andre, Due de Eivoli and 
 Prince of EssUng (*. 1758, d. 1817), French 
 marshal, bom at Nice; served in Italy 
 under Bonaparte, his conduct at RivoU 
 (1797) and as commander of Eome (1798) 
 being particularly brilUant; defeated the 
 Russians at Zurich in 1799, and gallantly 
 defended Genoa in the next year. Having 
 served in Germany, went to the Peninsula, 
 where he was defeated at Busaco and 
 Fuentes d'Onoro, after which he was dis- 
 graced by Napoleon ; was afterwards em- 
 ployed by the Bourbons, and ably defended 
 his career in the Assembly. 
 
 Massenet, Jules {b. 1842), French com- 
 poser; obtained first prizes at the Paris 
 
 Conservatoire for pianoforte and fugue, and 
 the Prix de Rome for David Mizzio (1863); 
 made his debut at the Opera Comique with Le 
 Grande Xante (1868), and became professor 
 of composition at the Conservatoire in 1878. 
 Among his chief works are Suite d^Orchestre 
 (Pasdeloup concerts), Bon Cesar de Bazan 
 (Opera Comique, 1873), Eve, an oratorio 
 (1S74), La Vierge, sacred legend (1880), 
 Herodiade, opera (Italian opera), and 
 Mano7i, comic opera (1883), Esclarmonde, 
 romantic opera (1889), besides popular melo- 
 dies, stage music, etc. 
 
 Massey, Gerald {b. 1828), English writer, 
 bom of poor parents in Hertfordshire; 
 came to London as an errand-boy at fifteen, 
 and as secretary of the Christian Socialists 
 became intimate with Kingsley and Maurice; 
 wrote for literaiy papers, and lectured in 
 America and the colonies, obtaining much 
 popularity. Chief among his works are My 
 Lyrical Life (poems), and The Secret Drama 
 of Shakespcre's Sonnets. 
 
 Massey, William N. {b. 1809, d. 1S81), 
 statesman and historian ; author of History 
 of England under George III., was called 
 to the bar in 1844, and was in Parlia- 
 ment from 1852 till 1865 (having been 
 under- secretary for the Home Department 
 and Chairman of Committee), when finance 
 member of the Council of India and Privy 
 Councillor. After his retirement he repre- 
 sented Tiverton as a Liberal from 1872 till 
 his death. 
 
 MassiUon, Jean Baptiste {b. 1663, d. 
 1742), French preacher; made Bishop of 
 Clermont in 1717 by the Duke of Orleans, 
 after having preached very eloquently be- 
 fore Louis XIV. on several occasions. 
 
 Massinger, Philip (b. 1583, d. 1640), Eng- 
 lish dramatist, educated at Oxford ; worked 
 with Fletcher, Middleton, and others, but 
 lived in great poverty ; his chief plays were 
 A New Way to Pay Old Debts, The City 
 Madam, The Fatal Dowry, The Maid of 
 Honotir, etc. 
 
 Masson, Antoine(i. 1636, d. 1702), French 
 engraver, member of the Academy of Paint- 
 ing, his chief works being The Travellers of 
 Emmaus, called The Table Cloth, after 
 Titian. 
 
 Masson, David {b. 1822), Scotch vnriter, 
 edited a paper at nineteen ; held the chair 
 of English literature at University College 
 from 1852 to 1865, when he became pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric and English literature in 
 Edinburgh University. Chief among his 
 writings may be named Essays : Biographical 
 and Critical (1856), A Life of John Milton 
 (1858-78), an edition oi Milton's works 
 (1877), and Drummond of Hawthornden 
 (1874).
 
 Mas 
 
 ( 545 
 
 Mat 
 
 Mastellata, IL [See DonduccL] 
 
 Masters, Maxwell Tylden, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 (b. ia3o), English botanist ; practised as a 
 doctor in London for some years, and was 
 lecturer on botany at St. George's Hospital 
 from 1855 to 18G8. His chief works are 
 Botany for Beginners, Flant Life (which 
 have been translated into French, Dutch, 
 and Russian), and Vegetable Teratology. 
 
 Masters, Thomas {d. 1643), Enghsh poet, 
 author of Meiisa Lubrica (describing the 
 game of shovelboard), and a Greek poem, 
 which was translated by Cowley. Lord 
 Herbert of Cherbury wrote an epitaph for 
 him. 
 
 Mather, Cotton {b. 1663, d. 1728), Puritan 
 minister at Boston, where he carried on a 
 witchcraft persecution, and wrote Memor- 
 able Frovid'.-nces Relating to Witchcraft and 
 other works. 
 
 Mather, Increase (b. 1639, d. 1723), father 
 of preceding, bom at Dorchester, Massa- 
 chusetts, where his father had been pastor ; 
 became president of Harvard in 1685, and 
 visited England to obtain a new charter for 
 his colony in 1688. He also wrote many 
 works. 
 
 Matheson, George, D.D., E.R.S.E. [b. 
 
 1842), Scottish theologian and philosopher, 
 although he had lost his sight when a boy, 
 graduated with great distinction at Glasgow, 
 and afterwards took orders in the Church of 
 Scotland. His chief works are. Aids to the 
 Study of German Theology (1877), Natural 
 Elements of Revealed Theology (Baird lecture, 
 1882), Confucianism (from the Giles lecture, 
 1882), Can the Old Faith Live with the New ? 
 (1885), and Sacred Songs (1890). 
 
 Mathew, Hon. Sir James Charles, LL.D. 
 {b. 1830), English judge, educated at Trinity 
 College, Dublin, where he was senior mode- 
 rator in 1860 ; was called to the bar ia 1854, 
 ajid went on the south-eastern circuit ; was 
 appointed judge of the Queen's Bench in 
 1881, having some time previously been a 
 member of the Committee on the Costs of 
 Legal Proceedings. 
 
 Mathew, Theobald (6. 1790, d. 1856), 
 "Father Mathew," Irish temperance advo- 
 cate ; preached temperance in Ireland and 
 America with great success, and earned the 
 title of the " Apostle of Temperance." 
 
 Mathews, Charles (6. 1776. <l. 1835), 
 •comedian, son of a bookseller iii tiie Strand, 
 educated at Merchant Taylors' ; tirst ap- 
 peared professionally in Dublin in 1794 ; 
 played Don Manuel in She Would and She 
 Would Not at Drury Lane in 1804 ; from 
 1808 gave entortiiinTiioiits and "at homes" in 
 London and New York, and in 1828 became 
 1 J 
 
 joint proprietor of the Adelphi. His Me- 
 moirs were published after his death. 
 
 Mathews, Charles .Tames {b. 1803, d. 1878), 
 his son, followed the same profession ; 
 married Madame Vestris in 1838, and with 
 her managed the Olympic, being afterwards 
 unfortunate as lessee of Covent Garden 
 (1838-41), and the Lyceum (1847-55). In 
 1858 he went to America, where he married 
 Miss Davenport, and henceforth gave up 
 managing. He made a tour of the world 
 (1869-72), and acted till within a few days 
 of his death, his favourite plays being 
 Used Up, As Cool as a Cucumber, and My 
 Awful Dad. 
 
 Mathilde Bonaparte, Princesse {b. 1820), 
 daughter of Jerome Bonaparte and cousin 
 of Napoleon III. ; married Prince Anatole 
 Demidoff, but was separated four years 
 after, and lived with Louis Napoleon tiU 
 his marriage ; obtained honourable mention 
 in 1861 for pictures at the Salon de Pein- 
 ture. 
 
 Matilda, or Maud, Queen of England (d. 
 1083), daughter of Baldwin, Count of Flan- 
 ders, married her cousin William, Duke of 
 Normandy, in 1U54, and became Queen of 
 England in 1066. 
 
 Matilda {d, 1151), daughter of Eustace, 
 Count of Boulogne, and wife of King 
 Stephen of England. 
 
 Matilda (rf. 1118), daughter of Malcolm, 
 King, of Scotland, and Margaret, sister of 
 Edgar the Atheling. Her marriage with 
 Henry I. united the Saxon and Norman 
 lines. 
 
 Matilda {d. 1165), her daughter; married 
 Henry V. of Germany in 1114, and after his 
 death Geoffrey Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou ; 
 carried on a war with Stephen for the crown 
 which Henry I. had designed for her, the 
 contest terminating in the Treaty of WalUng- 
 ford, by which her son Henry's succession 
 was recognised. 
 
 Matilda, Saint, Empress of Germany {d. 
 968), married Henry the Fowler in 909, and 
 became the mother of Otho the Great. 
 
 MatUda of Tuscany (A. 1046, d. 1115), 
 "the Great Coimtess," daughter of Bom- 
 face II., Duke of Tuscany; married first 
 Godfrey of Lorraine, and secondly Guelf, 
 Duke of Bavaria; supported Gregory VII. 
 against the Emperor Henry IV. , who made 
 his celebrated submission at her castle of 
 Canossa ; afterwards took part with Conrad, 
 his son, against him, sepii^ated from her 
 husband in 1095, and afterwards made over 
 her estates to the Papacy. 
 
 Matsys, or Messis, Quentin {b. circa 1466, 
 d. 1530 or 1531), Flemish painter, originally
 
 Mat 
 
 (546) 
 
 Mat 
 
 a blacksmith, his best known pictures being 
 The Descent from the Cross at Antwerp, and 
 The Usurers at Windsor. 
 
 Mattathias (r/. 166 b.c), Jewish priest, 
 fatlier of the Maccabees ; successfully op- 
 posed the introduction of idolatry into 
 Jerusalem by Antiochus Epiphanes. 
 
 Mattel, Paolo da, "Paoluccio" {b. 1662, 
 d. 1728), Neapolitan painter, skilful imi- 
 tator of the great masters ; was invited to 
 Rome by Benedict XIII., and painted 
 several pictures there. Other works of his 
 are at Genoa, and in St. Xavier, Naples. 
 
 Matteo da Sienna (b. 1420, d. 1495), 
 painter, " the Masaccio of the Siennese 
 school." Besides his Virgin with Saints and 
 Angels in the Sienna museum, and some 
 Madonne now at Berlin, he executed some 
 of the mosaic work in Sienna cathedral 
 
 Matter, Jacques {b. 1791, <^. 1864), French 
 philosophical writer, received from the 
 Academie 10,000 francs for his Be V Influence 
 des Moeurs sur les Lois in 1832. He also 
 wrote Histoire du Gnosticisme, SchelUng 
 (1842), and Histoire de la Philosophic dans 
 ses Rapports avec la Beligion. 
 
 Matteucci, Carlo (6. 1811, c?. 1868), Italian 
 physicist ; was several times minister of 
 public instruction, and also member of the 
 Florence council of education. As professor 
 of physics at Pisa he made many experi- 
 ments and discoveries in animal electricity, 
 and published Mannuale di Telegrafia 
 Elettrica (1850). 
 
 Matthseus Cantacuzenus {d. circa 1390), 
 eldest son and coadjutor of John VI., Em- 
 peror of the East, abdicated in 1355 ; wrote 
 commentaries on the Canticles. 
 
 Mattheson, Johann (6. 1681, d. 1764), 
 German musician, and friend of Handel, 
 whom, however, he nearly killed in a duel 
 in 1704 ; composed several operas {The 
 Fleiades, etc.), and some sacred pieces for 
 the organ. 
 
 Matthew Paris {d. 1259), English Bene- 
 dictine of St. Albans ; verote A History of 
 England from 1066 to the year of his death; 
 he was a great favourite with Henry III. 
 
 Matthew of Westminster (14th century), 
 Benedictin possibly the author of Flores 
 Historiarutn ab Exordia Mundi usque ad 
 annum 1307. 
 
 Matthews, Right Hon. Henry (6. 1826), 
 statesman, bom m Ceylon, where his father 
 was a judge ; was educated at Paris and 
 London, and, having been called to the bar, 
 made a reputation as a barrister in the 
 Home, Tichborne, and Crawford cases ; re- 
 presented Dungarvan from 1868 to 1874, 
 
 and, having been elected as a Conservative 
 for Birmingham in 1886, was appointed 
 Home Secretary in Lord Salisbury's second 
 Ministry. 
 
 Matthews, Thomas (6. 1681, d. 1751), 
 admiral ; distinguished himself at Cape 
 Passaro in 1718, and in an expedition 
 against the pirates of the Indian Ocean; 
 compelled Charles III. of Naples to sign a 
 declaration of neutrality under threat of 
 bombardment (1742), but was deprived of 
 his command for his conduct in the action 
 off Toulon in 1744. 
 
 MattWae, August (*. 1769, d. 1835), Ger- 
 man philologist ; author of Encyclopedic von 
 Fhilologie, a Greek grammar, and similar 
 works. 
 
 Matthias, Emperor of Germany {b. 1557, 
 d. 1619), son of MaximiHan II. After having 
 been governor of the Low Countries, and 
 Austria, and Himgary, where he was 
 obhged to tolerate the Protestants, he took 
 up arms against his brother, the Emperor 
 Rudolph, who ceded him Hungary and 
 Austria in 1608. Three years later he re- 
 ceived the Bohemian crown, and was elected 
 emperor in 1611. His conduct under Jesuit 
 influence precipitated the Thirty Years' 
 war. 
 
 Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary 
 (6. 1443, d. 149U), was proclaimed king ia 
 1458, soon after his release from imprison- 
 ment at Prague ; maintained the throne 
 against the emperor, and, after having en- 
 gaged in successful wars with the Turks, 
 received the Bohemian crown from the Pope 
 on condition of extirpating the Hus'^tes. 
 While thus engaged a revolt took place in 
 Hungary, supported by Poland and other 
 powers, which combination he routed. After 
 this he engaged in two wars with the em- 
 peror, and captured Vienna in 1485, living 
 there till his death. 
 
 Matthieu, Pierre {b. 1563, d. 1621), French 
 writer, historiographer to Henri IV. ; author 
 of Histoire de Louis XI. , Histoire des Guerres 
 depuxs 1515 jusque d 1598, and La Guisiade 
 (a poem). 
 
 Matthisson, Friedrich von {b. 1761, d. 
 1831), German poet, bom near Magdeburg; 
 resided at the courts of Anhalt- Dessau and 
 of Wurtemberg. His chief work was Ade- 
 laide (1788), which was set to music by 
 Beethoven, but he also published poems, 
 songs, and accounts of his travels. 
 
 Maturin, Charles Robert {b. 1782, d. 
 1824), Irish writer, bom and educated at 
 Dublin, friend of Scott and Byron; wrote 
 Melmoth and other romances, Bertram 
 (tragedy), produced with success at Drury 
 Lane in 1816, and some poems.
 
 Mat 
 
 (547) 
 
 Mau 
 
 Maturlno da Firenze (d. circa 1528), 
 painter of the Florentine school, pupil of 
 Raffaelle, and friend of Caravaggio. Most 
 of his works on the fac^ades of Roman 
 palaces and churches have fallen into neg- 
 lect, and are known only by prints taken 
 from them. 
 
 Maty, Matthew {h. 1718, d. 1776), Dutch 
 physician ; came to England in l740, and, 
 having entered the British Museum, became 
 chief librarian iu 1772. His son, Paul {d. 
 1787), was secretary to the Royal Society 
 for some years. 
 
 Maud. [^See MatUda.] 
 
 Maudsley, Henry, M.D. (b. 1835), Eng- 
 lish physician ; became F.R.C.P. in 1869, 
 and was Gulstonian lecturer next year ; was 
 professor of medical jurisprudence at Uni- 
 versity College, 1869-79, and edited for some 
 years the Journal of Medical Science, His 
 chief works are The Physiology and Path- 
 ology of Mind (1867), and Natural Causes 
 and Supernatural Seeming s (1886). 
 
 Maunder, Samuel {b. circa 1790, d. 1849), 
 English compiler of educational works, the 
 chief of which were Biographical Treasury 
 and Treasury of Useful Knoivledge. 
 
 Maupassant, Henri Guy de (J. 1850), 
 French novelist, pupil and follower of Flau- 
 bert, under whom he studied for seven 
 years, beginning to write ia 1880. His 
 chief works are La Maison Tellier, Les 
 Contes de la Bicasse, Yvette, Contes du Jour 
 et de Nuit, Pierre et Jean, and Afloat. In 
 1891 his mind became deranged. 
 
 Maupeou, Rene Nicolas Augusta {b. 1714, 
 d. 1 792) , politician ; succeeded his father as 
 chancellor, but reversed his policy by be- 
 coming the instrument in the suppression of 
 the parlements in 1771 and the estabUsh- 
 ment of the " Parlement Maupeou " iu their 
 place, incurring great impopularity. 
 
 Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de (5. 
 1698, d. 1759), geometrician; went to Lap- 
 land in 1736 to measure a degree of the 
 meridian, and published on his return Figure 
 de la Terre Determinee ; went to the court of 
 Frederick the Great in 1740, and re-organised 
 the Academy of Berlin, of which he be- 
 came president ; had an historical quarrel 
 with Voltaire, who was jealous of his in- 
 fluence. 
 
 Maur, Saint {d. 584) French Benedictine ; 
 founded many French monasteries, and the 
 order called by his name. 
 
 Maurepas, Jean Fredi'ric Phc'lippeux, 
 Comto de (b. 1701, d. 1781), 8ta,tesman ; 
 became secretary of state in 1715, and 
 afterwards as minister of marine brought 
 about many reforms in the French navy ; 
 J J 2 
 
 was disgraced by the influence of Madame 
 de Pompadour in 1749, but recalled to 
 power by Louis XVI., with whom he had 
 much influence in his early years. 
 
 Matirice, " the Elector," Duke of Saxony 
 Q). 1521, d. 1553), German prince, son of 
 Henry the Pious ; served imder Charles V. 
 against the Turks in 1542, and at first sup- 
 ported him against the Smalcaldic League, 
 being made Elector of Saxony after Miihl- 
 berg in place of his cousin in 1547 ; after- 
 wards broke with the emperor, and sided 
 with France and the league against him, 
 obtaining from him the peace of Passau 
 which secured toleration, but was mortally 
 wounded at Siverhausen in the following 
 year. 
 
 Maurice, John Frederick Denison (J. 1805, 
 d. 1872), English theologian and social re- 
 former, son of a Suffolk Unitarian minister; 
 was educated at Cambridge and Oxford, and 
 came to Loudon in 1827, where he for some 
 time edited the Athencemn. He afterwards 
 went to Oxford, where he first graduated, 
 took orders in the English Church, and began 
 to vmte. He became chaplain at Guy's 
 Hospital in 1836, professor of English Utera- 
 ture at Cambridge in 1840, and of theology 
 at King's College, London, in 1846, and in 
 1847, with Kingsley and others, entered 
 upon the Christian Socialist movement. His 
 Theological Essays (1853) caused his re- 
 moval from King's College, and he then 
 organised the Great Ormond Street Working 
 Men's College. For some years, from 1860, 
 he held a London living, and in 1866 suc- 
 ceeded Grote as Knightbridge professor of 
 moral science at Cambridge. He was twice 
 married. His Life, by his son, was pub- 
 lished in 1884, His chief works were Moral 
 and Metaphysical Philosophy, and several 
 tracts. Subscription no Bondage, The Kingdom 
 of Christ, What is lierelation ? etc. 
 
 Maurice of Hesse -Cassel, Augustus (p. 
 \bTl, d. 1632), founded the "Collegium 
 Mauritianum," and wrote several learned 
 works. 
 
 Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange {b. 
 1567, d. 1625), son of William of Orange, 
 "the Silent;" became Stadtholder of the 
 United Provinces and head of the army in 
 1587, and successfully carried on the struggle 
 against Spain ; refused peace in 1698, but 
 consented to a truce in 1609 ; afterwards 
 supported the Romanists agamst the Remon- 
 strants, and put to death Bameveldt, and 
 concluded a treaty witk France and England 
 just before his death. 
 
 Mauricius, Flavins Tiberius {b. 539, d. 
 602), Emperor of the East; after distin- 
 guished military service under Tiberius II. 
 m Persia and the East, married Constantia, 
 his daughter, and succeeded him in 682 ;
 
 Man 
 
 (648) 
 
 Max 
 
 carried on successful wars against the Lom- 
 bai'ds and Avars, but was tiiiially dethroned 
 and murdered by Phocas. 
 
 Mauro (loth century), Itahan geographer, 
 a monk of Venice ; made a planisphere for 
 Alfonso V. of Portugal in 14.57, and the 
 celebrated Mappamondo some time after- 
 wards. 
 
 _Maury, Jean Siffrein, "the Abbe" {b. 
 174t5, d. 1817), French ecclesiastic and poli- 
 tician, son of a bootmaker ; became the 
 most eloquent debater among the Royalists 
 of the Constituent Assembly (1789-91), but 
 was subsequently obhged to retire to Rome, 
 whore he was made cardinal ; returned to 
 Paris in 1806, and became archbishop in 
 1810, but was disgraced by the Bourbons at 
 the restoration. 
 
 Maury, Matthew Fontaine {b. 1806, d. 
 1873), American hydrographer and naval 
 officer, of Fi-ench descent; made a voyage 
 roimd the world in 1826, and was afterwards 
 astronomer to the South Sea expedition of 
 Thomas Jones and superintendent of the 
 Washington observatory, where he pubUshed 
 marine charts and sailing directions. At the 
 Brussels Conference in 1853 his system was 
 adopted by the several nations. His chief 
 work was The Physical Geography of the Sea. 
 
 Mausolus {d. circa 353 B.C.), King of 
 Caria, kno\\Ti to posterity by the mauso- 
 leum of Halicaruassus, erected to his memory 
 by Artemisia, his wife. 
 
 Mavrocordato, Alessandro {b. 1791, d. 
 1865), Greek statesman and diplomatist ; 
 was prominent in the war of Independence, 
 after which he was made president of the 
 Executive Council ; became president of the 
 Assembly in 1843, when a constitution was 
 established ; was envoy at Paris from 1850 
 to 1854, when he again became minister, 
 but died two years later. He was a friend 
 of Lord Byron, who died in his arms. 
 
 Mavromichalis, Petros {b. 1775, d. 1848), 
 Maniote chief (" Petro Bey") ; took a lead- 
 ing part in the Greek war of Independence, 
 driving the Turks from the Morea. He was, 
 however, thrown into prison by Capo d'Istria, 
 but was released, reinstated, and made sena- 
 tor and admiral by King Otho. 
 
 Mawe, John {b. 1764, d. 1829), English 
 mmeralogist; collected specimens in South 
 America, and published Treatise on Dia- 
 monds and Precious Stones, Travels in Brazil, 
 etc. 
 
 Maxentius, Marcus Valerius (d. 312), 
 Roman Emperor, son of Maximianus (Aure- 
 hus) ; reigned some time with his father, 
 but compelled him to resign, put to death 
 Severus, quelled a revolt "in Africa, and 
 acted with great cruelty, but was at length 
 
 defeated by Constantino and drowned in the 
 Tiber. 
 
 Maximianus, Galerius (^d. 311), Emperor 
 of the East, originaUy a Dacian shepherd ; 
 was successful as a soldier against the Goths 
 and Persians, and married the daughter of 
 Diocletian, on whose abdication he was 
 proclaimed Augustus, but, having alienated 
 the Romans by his cruelty, was compelled 
 to Hy before his rival, Maxentius. 
 
 Maximianus, Marcus Aurelius (310), 
 Emperor of Rome, by origin a peasant; 
 persecuted the Christians, and carried on 
 successful wars in Germany, but his army 
 revolted on his return to Italy, and he was 
 murdered in his sleep. 
 
 Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico {b. 1832, 
 d. 1867) ; having been commander of the 
 Austrian navy and governor of Venice, was 
 made Emperor of Mexico in 1864, but was 
 soon engaged in quelLLng his opponents 
 under Juarez, by whom he was captured 
 and shot in 1867. He was buried at Vienna 
 in the following year. 
 
 Maximilian I., Emperor (b. 1459, d. 1519), 
 son of Frederick III., and grandfather of 
 Charles V. , elected King of the Romans in 
 1486, and emperor in 1493, but not crowned ; 
 married Mary of Burgundy in 1477, and 
 thus obtained the Netherlands. His second 
 wife was Biauca Sforza, after the marriage 
 with whom he formed with the Pope, Spain, 
 and Venice a league against France. He 
 afterwards carried on unsuccessfid wars 
 with Venice and the Swiss, but in 1513 
 joined that repubUc and Henry VIII. in a 
 Holy League against France. His last act was 
 the attempt to induce the Diet of Augsburg 
 to support him against the Turks. 
 
 MaximiUan II. (b. 1527, d. 1576), Emperor, 
 son of Ferdinand I., married a daughter of 
 Charles v., and was made regent in 1548; 
 was elected King of Bohemia (1562) and of 
 Hungary (1563), and became emperor in the 
 following year ; showed great toleration in 
 his religious policy, and tried to unite the 
 German Protestants, besides remonstrating 
 with Philip II. on the subject of his per- 
 secutions in the Netherlands. 
 
 Maximilian I., Elector of Bavaria, " the 
 Great Duke" (h. 1573, d. 1651), became 
 chief of the Catholic League of Wurzburg 
 in 1609, and defeated the Protestants at 
 Prague ; was made elector in 1623, and 
 confirmed at the Peace of Westphalia. 
 
 Maximilian IL (*. 1662, d. 1726), son of 
 Ferdinand became elector in 1679; joined 
 France against the Grand Alhance, and was 
 put to the ban of the empire, but recovered 
 his estates at the Treaty of Badeu (1714). 
 
 Maximilian Joseph L, first King of
 
 Max 
 
 ( 549 ) 
 
 May 
 
 Bavaria (b. 1756, d. 1825), succeeded Charles 
 Theodore as elector in 1799 ; improved the 
 criminal law, and granted freedom of wor- 
 ship to his subjects ; was made king by 
 Napoleon in 1805, but deserted him after 
 Leipzig. He granted a charter in 1818. 
 
 Maximilian Joseph II. (b. 1811, (^.1864), 
 son of Louis' I., on whose abdication, ia 
 1848, he succeeded. He showed himself a 
 strong partisan of Austria, and opposed the 
 reconstruction of Germany. 
 
 Maximinus I. (Maximin), Emperor of 
 Rome (d. circa 238), by birth a Thracian 
 shepherd and giant; was employed by 
 Alexander Severus to organise the army, 
 and obtained the purple after his assassia- 
 ation ; defeated the incursions of the Ger- 
 mans in 236-7, but behaved with great 
 cruelty at Rome, and was murdered with 
 his son. 
 
 Maximinus II. (d. circa 315), an niyrian 
 shejiherd ; was made Csesar on the abdication 
 of Diocletian and Augustus in 308 ; shared 
 the East with Licinius, and, attempting to 
 conquer the whole, was defeated. 
 
 Maximus. [See Fabius Maximus.] 
 
 Maximus I. (Pupienus), Emperor of 
 Rome ; was elected emperor on the death of 
 the Gordians in 238, but soon after mur- 
 dered by the Praetorians. 
 
 Maximus II. (Clemens) (d. circa 388), 
 rebelled against Gratian, and, having been 
 proclaimed emperor in Britain, conquered 
 Gaul, and was recognised in 383 ; subdued 
 Italy in 387, but was defeated and beheaded 
 by Theodosius soon after. 
 
 Maximus III. (Petronius) {d. 455), con- 
 tributed to the ruin of Aetius in 454; 
 caused the murder of Valentinian III. in 
 the following year, and succeeded him, 
 marrying his widow, Eudoxia ; fled from 
 Rome on the approach of the Vandals, and 
 was killed by his troops. 
 
 Max-Miiller, Frederick {b. 1823), phi- 
 lologist, of German birth, son of Miiller the 
 poet ; was bom at De«sau, and gradu- 
 ated at Lei])zig and Berlin, studying xmder 
 Bopp, Schelling, and Fleischer. He went 
 to Paris in 1845, and next year to England, 
 where he was persuaded to remain by 
 Bunsen. He settled at Oxford in 1848, was 
 elected Taylorian professor of comparative 
 philology in 1854, fellow of All Souls' 1858, 
 and professor of a new chair of philology in 
 1868, besides holding several offices, curator 
 of the Bodleian, etc. In 1873 he lectured in 
 Westminster Abbey on the Rclifiiowt of the 
 World, delivered the first Hibbert lecture 
 in 1878, and the GilTord lectures (Glasgow) 
 in 1888 and 1801. Among his works may 
 be named editions of the Rig- Veda and 
 
 other sacred books of the East, History oj 
 Ancient Sanskrit Literature, The Science 
 of Language, Introduction to the Science 
 of Religion, and essays on mythology, bio- 
 graphy, etc. 
 
 Max O'Rell, mm de plume of Paul Blouet 
 {b. 1848), French writer, who graduated at 
 Paris in 1864-5; entered the army in 1869, 
 was taken prisoner at Sedan, and fought 
 against the Commune, after which he came 
 to England as a correspondent ; was French 
 master at St. Paul's school from 1876 to 
 1884, and lectured in England and America. 
 He has written John Bull et son lie, Les 
 Filles de John Bull, etc. 
 
 Maxwell, James Clerk, F.R.S. (b. 1831, d. 
 1879), physicist, bom at Kirkcudbright ; 
 after being second wrangler and Smith's 
 prizeman, became professor of natural 
 philosophy at Aberdeen, and of phj^sics 
 and astronomy at King's College (1860-8). 
 In 1871 he was elected professor of physics 
 at Cambridge, where he made numerous 
 researches, resulting in The Kinetic Theory 
 of Gases, Electricity and Magnetism, etc. 
 
 Maxwell, Mrs. [_See Braddon.] 
 
 Maxwell, William Hamilton {b. 1795, d. 
 1850), Irish writer ; author of a Life of the 
 Dtihe of Wellington and several novels. 
 
 Maxwell, Sir William StirUng- {b. 1818, d. 
 1878), Scottish writer (assumed the name of 
 Maxwell in 1866), son of Mr. Archibald 
 Stirling, of Keir, Perthshire : after gradu- 
 ating at Cambridge, travelled in France and 
 Spain, and represented Perthshire as a Con- 
 servative for several years. Married Hon. 
 Mrs. Norton in 1877. His chief works were 
 Annals o/" the Artists of Spain, and The 
 CM ster Life of Ch arles V. He died at Venice. 
 
 May, George Augustus Chichester {b. 
 1815), Irish judge, educated at Shrewsbuiy 
 and Cambridge ; was called to the Irish bar 
 in 1844, was law adviser of the Crown in 
 Ireland 1874-5, and Attorney -General from 
 then till 1877, when he became Lord Chief 
 Justice of Ireland. 
 
 May, Thomas (J.1594, d. 1650), English his- 
 torical writer ; after having been favoured 
 by Charles I. , became secretary and histori- 
 ographer to the Long Parliament, and 
 wrote History of the Parliament of England. 
 
 May, Sir Thomas ErsMne, Right Hon. 
 {b. 1815, d. 1886), historian; was called to 
 the bar in 1838, and became clerk to the 
 House of Commons in 1871. He wrote ^ 
 Treatise on the Latvs, Privileges, Proceedings, 
 and Usage of Parliament, The Constitutional 
 History of England from 1760 to 1860, and 
 several other works, and was created a peer 
 (Baron Famborough) a few days before hif 
 death.
 
 May 
 
 (550-) 
 
 Maz 
 
 Mayenne, Chai-les de Lorraine, Due de (b. 
 I5i)i, d. kill), French politician, son of 
 rraii9ois, Due de Guise ; became head of 
 the Catholic League on the death of his 
 brother, Henri, in I088 ; was defeated at 
 Arques and Ivxy by Henri de Navarre, and 
 defended Paris against him ; convoked the 
 States -General in 1593, but three years after 
 submitted to his rivad as Henri lY., and 
 dissolved the League. 
 
 Mayer, Johann Simon (b. 1763, d. 1845), 
 German musician, bom in Bavaria, but 
 lived chiefly in Italy, where he composed 
 Medea, Misteri Eleusini, and other operas. 
 
 Mayer, Johann Tobias {b. 1723, d. 1762), 
 German astronomer ; taught himself mathe- 
 matics, and made machines at the age of 
 fourteen , was made professor of mathe- 
 matics at Gbttingen in 1750, and prepared 
 longitudinal tables for use at sea, for which 
 his widow received £3,000 from the Enghsh 
 Government. He also invented the repeat- 
 ing circle. His son {d. 1830) was author of 
 Jtesearches in Heat. 
 
 Mayer, Julius Robert von {b. 1814, d. 
 1878), German physicist; after walking the 
 hospitals in Munich and Paris, embarked 
 as ship's surgeon in the service of the Dutch 
 East India Company. After his return he 
 elaborated his observations, and in 1845 pub- 
 lished Organic Movement in Connection with 
 the Transformation of Matter. Among his 
 other works were Remarks on the Mechanical 
 Equivalent of Heat, Die Mechanik der TFdrine, 
 etc. His mind was at times affected. 
 
 Mayliew, Henry {b. 1812, d. 1887), EngUsh 
 writer ; author of London Labour and the 
 London Foor, The Mormons, and other 
 works ; was one of the founders of Punch, 
 
 Maynard, Sir John {b. 1602, d. 1690), 
 English lawyer ; was manager of the prose- 
 cutions of Strafford and Laud, but after 
 this withdrew from political hfe ; became 
 king's Serjeant at the Restoration, and was 
 a member of Parliament for many years, 
 being made Commissioner of the Great Seal 
 after the abdication of James II., when 
 nearly ninety years old. 
 
 Mayo, Richard Southwell Bourke, Earl of 
 (b. 1822, d. 1872), statesman, educated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin; entered Parliament 
 as Conservative in 1847, and as Lord Naas 
 (from 1849) continued to sit in the Commons 
 till 1867, when he succeeded to the peerage. 
 He was Chief Secretary for Ireland three 
 times under Lord Derby, and under Disraeli, 
 till in 1868 he became Governor-General 
 of India, while serving in which capacity, 
 though universally respected and highly suc- 
 cessful, he was assassinated by a Punjab 
 fanatic whilst visiting the convict settle- 
 laeut in the Andaman Islands. 
 
 Mayor, John Eyton Bickersteth (b. 1825), 
 English scholar, bom in Ceylon, and edu- 
 cated at Slirewsbury and St. John's, Cam- 
 bridge, of which he became fellow in 1849 ; 
 was university librarian from 1863 to 1867, 
 and was elected professor of Latin in 1872. 
 Among his works are an edition of Juvenal. 
 'Two Lives of Nicholas Ferrar, and Roger 
 Ascham's Schoolmaster, 
 
 Mazarin, Giulio, Cardinal (b. 1602, d. 
 1661), French statesman, of Italian birth. 
 After being in the diplomatic service of 
 Spain, he came to France in 1634 as nimeio- 
 extraordiuary of the pope, and, having been 
 favoured by Richelieu, joined him five 
 years later in opposition to the papacy, and 
 became naturalised in France. In 1641 he 
 was created cardinal, and, having succeeded 
 to the place of Richelieu soon after, sup- 
 ported Anne of Austria, and after having 
 twice been exiled by his enemies' influence, 
 was recalled by Louis XIV. iu 1653, and 
 remained supreme till his death. He had a 
 share in the Treaty of Westphalia, and 
 negotiated the Treaty of the Pyrenees 
 between France and Spain. 
 
 Mazel, Abraham (d. 1710), a Frenchman, 
 chief of the Camisards, whose revolt in the 
 Cevennes he organised ; after his defeat he 
 escaped from prison, but, having engaged 
 in a fresh revolt, was killed. 
 
 Mazeppa, Ivan Stefanovitch (b. 1644, d. 
 1709), Cossack hetman ; for an intrigue with 
 the wife of a Pohsh noble is said to have 
 been bound to a wild horse by his master, 
 and preserved by the Cossacks, among 
 whom he found himself ; afterwards served 
 Peter the Great, but deserted him for 
 Charles XII., on whose defeat he took 
 poison. 
 
 Mazzinghi, Joseph (b. 1765, d. 1844), Eng- 
 hsh musician of Corsican family, was pupil 
 of J. Christoph Bach, and an organist at 
 ten ; became director of music at the King's 
 Theatre in 1784, and had the (then) Princess 
 of Wales among his pianoforte pupils. The 
 trio Ye Shepherds Tell .Sfewashis only com- 
 position of mark. 
 
 Mazzini, Giuseppe (b. 1805, d. 1872), 
 Italian patriot, son of a professor at Genoa, 
 joined but abandoned the Carbonari ; was 
 arrested in 1830 by the Sardinian govern- 
 ment, and confined at Savona; went to 
 France after his release, and from Mar- 
 seilles organised " La Giovine Italia" (the 
 Young Italy party), in consequence of 
 which he was obliged to retire to Switzer- 
 land ; carried on at Geneva a cosmopolitan 
 agitation, and was expelled in 1836 by the 
 Swiss government, after which he came to 
 London. After the revolution of 1848 he 
 again went to Italy, served under Gari- 
 baldi, and on the flight of Pius IX. became
 
 Maz 
 
 ( 551 ) 
 
 Med 
 
 a member of the Triumvirate. The coming 
 of the French, however, compelled him to 
 return to England ; but from London he 
 organised more than one rising. In the 
 events of 1859-60 he did not concur, and 
 when elected to the Italian parliament 
 refused to sit. He also in 1866 refused his 
 pardon. In 1869 and 1870 he vainly 
 attempted to excite fresh revolts, and died 
 at Pisa in 1872. He wrote much, chiefly 
 political and social pamphlets, which were 
 collected by Safii in ten volumes. 
 
 Mazzolini, Ludovico, " U Ferrarese" (b, 
 1481, d. 1530), Italian painter, pupil of 
 Lorenzo Costa. Three of his pictures are in 
 the National Gallery, but his best, Christ 
 Disputing with the Doctors, is at Berlin. 
 
 Mazzuchelli, Ker Francesco, " il Moraz- 
 zone" (i. 1571, d. 1622), painter, bom at 
 Morazzone, in the Milanese ; became an 
 imitator of Tintoretto and Titian. Fine 
 altar-pieces by him are at Milan and in the 
 Chartreuse at Paris. 
 
 Mazzuoli, Francesco. \_See Parmigianc] 
 
 Mazzuoli, Giuseppe, "il Bastaruolo" (d. 
 1589), Italian painter of the Famese school, 
 pupil of Dossi ; was drowned while bathing. 
 His pictures are in the cathedral and 
 churches of Ferrara. 
 
 Meade, George Gordon (5. 1815, rf._1872), 
 American general ; after serving in the 
 Mexican army, commanded for the Federals 
 in the Civil war, superseding Butterfield in 
 1863 on the Potomac. He also commanded 
 at Gettysburg, and afterwards served under 
 Grant, and at his death was at the head of 
 the Atlantic division. 
 
 Meagher, Thomas Francis (3.1823,(^.1867), 
 Irish agitator, " Meagher of the Sword," 
 was bom at Waterf ord ; as a member of the 
 Young Ireland party denounced O'Connell, 
 and in 1848 was tried and condemned to 
 death for participation in the Ballingarry 
 rising, but the sentence was conunuted to 
 transportation. Having escaped from Van 
 Diemen's Land in 1852, he lectiired in 
 America, and was called to the New York 
 bar in 1855. During the Civil war he 
 raised and commanded an Irish brigade for 
 the North, and had been acting-governor of 
 Montana for two years when he was 
 drowned in the Missouri at Fort Benton. 
 
 Mecherino. [See Beccafumi.] 
 
 MecM, John Joseph {b. 1802, d. 1880), 
 British agriculturist, son of a naturaUsed 
 Italian ; set up as a cutler, and patented a 
 razor strop. Having bought some land in 
 Essex, he tried upon it with success deep 
 drainage and steam-power, and wrote 
 several works descriptive of his improve- 
 ments (JSoto to Farm Profitably, etc.). In 
 
 1856 he became sheriff of London, in whict 
 year he also received a testimonial from 
 agriculturists. The difBculties of his later 
 years were not due to failure in farming. 
 
 I Meckel, Johann Friedrich {b. 1781, d. 
 
 ! 1833), held several professorships at Halle; 
 was one of the founders of teratology, and 
 
 ' wrote several works on comparative ana- 
 tomy, Handbuch der Tathologischen Ana- 
 
 \ tomie, etc. 
 
 Mede, or Mead, Joseph {b. 1586, <f. 1638), 
 EngUsh theologian, professor of Greek at 
 Cambridge, and author of Clovis Apoca- 
 lyptica. 
 
 Medici, Grand Dukes of Tuscany : — 
 
 Cosmo I. (b. 1519, d. 1574), a descendant 
 of Cosimo de' Medici ; became duke in 
 1537, and was created Grand Duke by Pope 
 Pius V. in 1569. He acquired Sienna, and 
 re-established the university of Pisa and the 
 Laurentiau Ubrary. 
 
 Francesco I. (b. 1541, d. 1587), son of 
 Cosimo, whom he succeeded ; ruled tyran- 
 nically, and quarrelled with France, Venice, 
 and Genoa ; was assassinated with Bianca 
 Capello, and succeeded by his son, the Car 
 dinal Francesco. 
 
 Cosimo II. [b. 1590, d. 1621), succeeded 
 Ferdinando I. in 1609, and aided the 
 Emperor Ferdinand III. in his war with 
 the Turks. He was succeeded by Fer- 
 dinando II. 
 
 Cosimo III. [b. 1642, d. 1723), succeeded 
 Ferdinando II. in 1670 ; made an unhappy 
 marriage with Marguerite Louise d'Orleans, 
 who, united with his son, caused him great 
 trouble. 
 
 Giovanni, or Giangastajbe {d. 1737), was 
 the last Grand Duke of Tuscany, which, by 
 the Treaty of Seville, passed to Francis of 
 Lorraine. 
 
 Medici, Alessandro [b. 1510, d. 1537), 
 natural son of Lorenzo, or of Clement VII. ; 
 was expelled in 1527, but restored by 
 Charles V. three years later, and created 
 
 I duke or doge in 1532 ; was assassinated by 
 
 I Lorenzino in 1537. 
 
 Medici, Cattarina dei (*. 1519, d. 1589), 
 Queen of France, daughter of Lorenzo, 
 Duke of Urbino; married Henri II., when 
 Duke of Orleans (1533), after whose death 
 she was regent for their sons, Francis II. 
 and Charles IX., over whom she exercised 
 great influence. Her great aim was to hold 
 the balance between the Guises and the 
 Huguenots, and her hostility to the latter 
 has been much exaggerated. 
 
 Medici, Cosimo (the Elder) (b. 1389, d. 
 1464), called " Padre della Patria," headed 
 the popular party against the Albizzi, and 
 aiter his return from exile became real 
 ruler of Florence, where he was a great
 
 aHed 
 
 (652) 
 
 Meh 
 
 patron of literature and art, and established 
 a library. His son, Pietro (</. 14G9), though 
 secure in his position, vras not a successful 
 ruler. 
 
 Medici, Giovanni {b. 1360, d. 1428), son of 
 Salvestro, and founder of the greatness of 
 his family ; served Florence as a dii^lomatist, 
 and became gonfaloniere in 1421. He made 
 a large fortune as a banker. 
 
 Medici, Giuliano (the Yoimger) (Jb. 1478, 
 d. 1516), brother of Pietro ; returned to 
 Florence by the help of the Spaniards in 
 1512, and became chief of the state, after 
 which he continued subject to the Papacy, 
 now in the hands of his brother, Leo X. 
 
 Medici, Lorenzo, "ilMagnifico" {b. 1448, 
 d, 1492), son of Pietro, became dominant in 
 Florence after the suppression of the Pazzi, 
 by whom his brother, Giuliano, had been 
 murdered (1478). His alliance with Venice 
 and Milan excited the jealousy of the 
 Papacy, and Sixtus TV. excommunicated 
 Florence on his account. He was recon- 
 ciled, however, with Innocent VIII., and 
 his son, Giovanni, was made cardinal. He 
 was a great patron and collector of manu- 
 scripts. 
 
 Medici, Lorenzo (the Younger), son of 
 Pietro ; ruled in Florence from 1513, and 
 was created Duke of Urbino in 1516. 
 
 Medici, Lorenzo di Pier Francesco, or 
 Lorenzino (d. 1548), related to Alessan- 
 dro, and called "the Tuscan Brutus" 
 for his.murder of him ; was killed at Venice 
 by order of the Grand Duke Cosimo I. 
 
 Medici, Pietro (the Younger) {b. 1471, d. 
 1503), son of Lorenzo ; was educated by 
 Politian, and succeeded his father in 1492, 
 but ruled badly, and, having surrendered 
 Florence to Charles VIII. of France, was 
 compelled to leave the city (1494). After 
 an unsuccessful attempt, three years later, 
 to seize it, he joined the French at Naples, 
 and was drowned in the Garigliano in 
 1503. 
 
 Medina, Sir John Baptist (b. 1659, d. 1711), 
 Belgian portrait-painter ; came to London in 
 1686, and was knighted in Scotland. His 
 portrait of himself is in the Florence gal- 
 lery, and in the Surgeons' Hall at Edin- 
 burgh there are paintings by him. 
 
 Meding, Oskar {b. 1829), German novelist 
 (" Gregor Samarow") ; was for some time 
 a Prussian administrator, but in 1859 
 entered the service of Hanover, accompany- 
 ing the king to Frankfort in 1863. After the 
 deposition of the king he took no further 
 part in affairs, and finally settled at Berlin. 
 His chief works are For 'Sceptre and Crown, 
 a romance (1872-6), Heights and Depths 
 (1879-80), and others, under his nom de 
 
 plume, as well as Memorien ziir Zeit- 
 geschtchte, A Biography of William J., 
 Umperor, etc. , under his own name. 
 
 Medlicott, Henry Benedict (b. 1829), Irish 
 geologist, educated in France, and at Trbiity 
 College, Dublin; was elected F.R.S. in 
 1877, and received the Woolaston medal in 
 1888. He was engaged in the Irish, English, 
 and Indian geological surveys, and was 
 director of the Geological Society of India 
 from 1876 to 1887. His works include A 
 Manual of the Geology of India, papers iu 
 the Journal of the Geological Society 
 (Indian), records of the survey, and Ag- 
 nosticism and Faith (1888). 
 
 Meel, Jan (J>. 1599, d. 1664), Flemish 
 painter, pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and one of 
 the first painters of secular subjects, his 
 best works being hunting-pieces executed 
 for the Duke of Savoy. 
 
 Meer, Jan Van der, or Meeren, "the 
 Old" (Jb. 1627, d. 1691), Flemish painter, 
 bom at Schoonhoven, his chief subjects 
 having been sea-pieces and battle-pieces. 
 
 Meer, Jan Van der, "the Younger" (Jb. 
 1665, d. 1698), Flemish painter, perhaps a 
 son of the last-named ; belonged to the 
 school of Berghem, and is considered his 
 best pupil. He is sometimes known as De 
 Jonghe. 
 
 Meer Allum {d. 1809), mioister of the 
 Nizam ; was taken prisoner by the Mahrattas 
 after the battle of Kvu-dla, and after his 
 release made treaties with Lord Wellesley 
 against them. A reservoir near Hyderabad 
 was made by him, and his family have 
 become hereditary prime ministers. 
 
 Meer Cassim became Nabob of Bengal 
 on the deposition of Meer Jaffier in 1760, 
 having to cede three provinces for the 
 office. He afterwards raised an army 
 against the English, and allied himself with 
 the Vizier of Oude, but was defeated by 
 Hector Munro, and disappeared soon after. 
 
 Meer Jaffier, Subadar of Bengal (d. 
 1765), created nawab by Clive after the 
 battle of Plassey, when he had deserted 
 Suraja Doula and joined the English ; was 
 deposed in 1760, but reinstated after the 
 rebellion of Meer Cassim, his son-in-law. 
 
 Meer Joomba (d. 1662), Mahometan 
 general and statesman, of humble birth ; 
 after having been a diamond merchant at 
 Golconda, became prime minister there, 
 and was subsequently grand-vizier at Delhi 
 under Aumngzebe. 
 
 Mehemed (Ahmohade dynasty) (d. 1213), 
 succeeded Yakub Almansur in 1199 as ruler 
 of Spain and North Africa ; proclaimed war 
 against the Christians in 1209, and wa»
 
 Meh 
 
 { 553) 
 
 Mel 
 
 defeated at Las Navas de Tolosa three 
 years later by the kings of Castile, Aragon, 
 and Navarre. 
 
 Mehemed I., Ominiad Khalif of Spain 
 {b. 822, ci. 866), succeeded Abderahinan II. 
 in 852 ; carried on iinsuccessf ul wars with 
 Alfonso III. of Leon. 
 
 Mehemed IL (d. 1010), usurped the throne 
 in lOO'J, but was next year deposed and 
 beheaded. 
 
 Mehemed III. (d. 1025), dethroned and 
 killed Abderahman V. in 1024, but was 
 deposed and poisoned soon after. 
 
 Mehemed All (Mohammed Ah), Pasha of 
 Egypt (3. 1769, d. 1849), Albanian by birth; 
 went to Egypt to support Abercromby 
 agamst the Erench, and some years after- 
 wards (1805) assumed the government 
 in defiance of the Turkish pasha. He 
 treacherously massacred the Mamelukes 
 both in 1805 and 1811, conquered Nubia 
 and Arabia, and assisted the sultan against 
 the Greeks, while he also reformed the 
 Egyptian administration. After the Greek 
 war he rebelled against the sultan, and 
 his son Ibrahim conquered SjTia in 
 1831. However, the European Powers 
 interfered when he claimed hereditary 
 rights, and, though the pasha treacherously 
 obtained possession of the Turkish fleet in 
 1839, he was driven out of Syria in the fol- 
 lowing year, when the EngUsh took Acre, 
 and compelled him by treaty to recognise 
 the suzerainty of the sultan in Egypt. He 
 became imbecile a year before his death. 
 
 Mehemet All Pasha {b. 1827, d. 1878), 
 Turkish general and statesman, of German 
 birth (Charles Detroit) ; deserted the Meck- 
 lenburg merchant-service, and became a 
 Mahometan at Constantinople He served 
 under Omar Pasha in the Crimean war, 
 became pasha in 1867, and in 1873 sup- 
 pressed the brigands on the Greek frontier. 
 He was commander-in-chief during part of 
 the Russo-Turkish war, and was Turkish , 
 plenipotentiary at the Berlin Congress, but I 
 was assassinated in Albania in the same 
 year. 
 
 Mehemed AsMa {b. 1462, d. 1537), Sultan 
 of Timhuctoo : formed the whole of the 
 Soudan into a Mahometan state. 
 
 M^hul, fiticnne Nicolas {b. 1763, d. 1817), 
 Belgian musician, pupil of Gluck at Paris ; 
 composed Joseph, an oratorio, J-Aiphrosine et 
 Coradin, and several other operas, besides 
 Betting several republican songs, Le Chant 
 dti Depart, etc. 
 
 MeUhac, Henri (b. 1832), French dra- 
 matist, collaborated vrith L. Halevy. 
 
 Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest (fi. 1813, 
 
 d. 1891), painter, born at Lyons; attracted 
 attention by his Little Messenger in 1836, 
 and continued to exhibit at the Paris Salon 
 for many years; his best pictures dis- 
 tmguished for minute detail being the 
 JSapoleon Cycle, among which the picture 
 called 1814 was sold in 1887 for the highest 
 price ever obtained during an artist's Ufe- 
 time (£34,000). An exhibition of his works 
 was held m Paris in 1884, and was largely 
 attended, Meissonier served in the Itahan 
 campaign and the early part of the Franco- 
 Prussian war, and was colonel at the siege 
 of Paris. 
 
 Mela, Pomponius (1st century), Eoman 
 geographer, perhaps identical with Aniiffius 
 Mela mentioned in Tacitus and Pliny as a 
 conspirator against Nero; was bom in 
 Spam, and wi-ote De Situ Orbis. which has 
 been many times translated (into English by 
 Arthur Golding in 1585). 
 
 Melancthon, Philip (b. 1497, d. 1560), 
 German reformer ; studied under Reuchlin, 
 and was appointed professor of Greek at 
 Wittemberg at an early age, thus becoming 
 acquainted with Luther. He drew up the 
 Confession of Augsburg, of which he sent a 
 copy to the patriarch of Constantinople 
 inviting his adhesion ; and by his moderation 
 as well as his writings (Loci Communes 'Iheo- 
 loffici, etc.) did much to help the refor- 
 mation. Melancthon is the Greek form of 
 Schwarzerd ( = black earth). 
 
 Melbourne, William Lamb, second Vis- 
 count {b. 1779, d. 1848), British statesman, 
 educated at Cambridge and Glasgow Uni- 
 versities; was called to the bar in 1804, and 
 entered Parliament in the following year as 
 a supporter of Fox. He was Chief Secretary 
 for Ireland under Canning in 1827, and, 
 having succeeded to the peerage, was Home 
 Secretary under Earl Grey from 1830 to 
 1834, in which year he became Premier. 
 After a few months in Opposition, he again 
 held that position tiU 1841, but from that 
 year took httle further part in affairs. His 
 brother, a diplomatist of some distinction, 
 who had been created Baron Beauville in 
 1839, succeeded as third viscount (d. 1853). 
 
 MeleMades, or Miltiades, Saint (d. 314), 
 was elected pope in 311, and condemned the 
 Donatists in 313. 
 
 Melchthal, Arnold von {d. 1317), Swiss 
 patriot ; by the conspiracy of Griitli pre- 
 pared the way for "Wilhelm Tell, the imme- 
 diate cause of the movement being cruelty 
 inflicted on the elder Melchthal by the 
 Austrians. 
 
 Meldola, Raphael (b. 1849), chemist, of 
 Jewish descent, grandson of a chief rabbi 
 of the pame name ; was sent by the Royal 
 Society in 1875 in charge of the Nicobar
 
 Mel 
 
 (554) 
 
 Mel 
 
 Island expedition to observe the total 
 eclipse. He was appointed professor of 
 chemistry iu the Finsbury Technical College 
 in 1SS5, and elected F.R.S. iu 1886. His 
 chief works are Inorganic Chemistry, an 
 annotated translation of Weismann's Theory 
 of Descent, and a Report on the East Anglian 
 earthquake of 1884. 
 
 Melek Chah, surnamed Djelal Eddyn (d. 
 1093), Seljukide Sultan of Persia ; founded 
 an observatory at Bagdad, and built many 
 towns throughout lujs empire, which he 
 greatly extended. 
 
 Melek el Adel {b. 1143, d. 1218), Sultan 
 of Egypt and Damascus, and younger 
 brother of Saladin, to whom he was of great 
 assistance in his struggle with the Cru- 
 saders. By a treaty with Richard I. he 
 was to have married that king's sister, but 
 she refused her consent, and in 1217 he 
 ■was defeated and carried to Damietta by 
 Andrew II. of Hungary. 
 
 Melek el Afdahl {d. 1225), King of Damas- 
 cxis and Jerusalem ; succeeding his father 
 Saladin, having previously annihilated a 
 body of TempIai-3 near Tiberiaa, was de- 
 posed by his brother. 
 
 Melek el Kamel (Meledin) {d. 1239), son 
 of El Adel, whom he succeeded on the 
 throne of Egypt ; was obliged to cede 
 Jerusalem to the Emperor Frederick II., 
 whom he had called in to help him against 
 his brother ; was a great patron of science 
 and art, and built the grand college at 
 Caii'O. 
 
 Melek el Moadham Touran Cbah {d. 12-50), 
 brother of Meledin, whom he assassinated 
 and succeeded ; defeated the Crusaders under 
 St. Louis, but afterwards alienated the 
 Mamelukes, and ended by his fall the dy- 
 nasty of Ayoub. 
 
 Melendez Valdez {b. 1753, d. 1817), Span- 
 ish poet, founder of the Salamanca school ; 
 was professor of philosophy in that imiver- 
 sity, and subsequently obtained several 
 regal offices ; was exiled on the fall of 
 Jovellanos, and, though restored by the 
 revolution of Aranjuez, died in great poverty 
 at Montpellier. Among his poems were 
 odes to Truth and Winter. 
 
 Melho, Philip de {h. 1723, d. 1790), Cinga- 
 lese, the first who was converted, preached 
 in Dutch, Portuguese, and Tamil, and 
 translated into the latter dialect the New 
 Testament and part of the Old. 
 
 Meli, Giovanni {b. 1740, d. 1815), Sicilian 
 poet, who has been called the modern Theo- 
 critus, his chief works (some of which have 
 been translated into EngUsh and German) 
 being La Fata Galante, Bucoliche, and 
 Ekgie, Epistole, and Favole. 
 
 MeUkoff, Loris, Count (6. 1824, d. 1888), 
 Russian general, greatly distinguished m 
 Armenia during the Crimean war ; as com- 
 mander of the army of the Caucasus, com- 
 pelled the Turks to evacuate Kars, and was 
 created governor of Astrakhan in 1878. As 
 minister of the interior he attempted to 
 crush the NihiLists by repression mingled 
 with moderate reforms, but resigned after 
 the assassination of the Tzar in 1881. 
 
 Melissus (5th century B.C.), Eleatic phi- 
 losopher, mentioned by Aristotle and others ; 
 commanded the Samian fleet against Athena 
 in the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 Mellon, Harriet {d. 1837), English actress ; 
 played Lydia Languish at Drury Lane in 
 1795, and ten years later made a gi-eat hit 
 as Violante in The Honeymoon. In 1815 
 she married Mr. Coutts, the banker, and 
 retired from the stage. Her second husband 
 was the Duke of St. Albans. The bulk of 
 her property was left to the present Baroness 
 Burdett- Coutts. 
 
 Melloni, Macedonio (J. 1798, d, 1854), 
 Italian physicist ; lived in exile for many 
 years on account of his liberal opinions, but 
 on his return to Italy became professor of 
 physics at Naples and director of the Vesu- 
 vius observatory. He discovered " diather- 
 mancy " (transmission of heat). 
 
 Melmoth, WilUam (J. 1710, d. 1799), Eng- 
 lish scholar ; pubUshed in 1747 a translation 
 of the Letters of Pliny, and afterwards those 
 of Cicero. Ilis father {d. 1743) was the 
 author of the once popular work, Tlte Im- 
 portance of a Religions Life. 
 
 Melozzo, or Melozzi da Forii {Jl. eirca 
 1470), painter of the Bolognese school, dis- 
 tinguished as one of the earliest masters of 
 perspective. One of his best pictures, The 
 Ascension, is in the Quirinal, having been 
 removed thither from the vault of the Church 
 of the Apostles. 
 
 Melvil, or Melville, Sir James (i. 1535, 
 d. 1607), Scotch statesman; after serving 
 several foreign princes, followed Mary 
 Stewart on her return to Scotland, and 
 gave her much sound advice, being also 
 entrusted with missions to the court of 
 Elizabeth, which he described, inter alia, in 
 his Memoirs. 
 
 Melville, Andrew (h. 1545, d. circa 1622), 
 Scotch reformer ; after having been pro- 
 fessor at Geneva, returned to Scotland, 
 where he became principal of St. Andrews. 
 Having been imprisoned for his opposition 
 to Episcopacy, he fled to Berwick, and 
 was committed to the Tower of London 
 for similar proceedings in England, after his 
 liberation from which he became a professor 
 at Sedan.
 
 Mel 
 
 (555 ) 
 
 Men 
 
 Melville, George John Whyte (b. 1821, d. 
 1878), noveUst and song writer; entered the 
 army in 1839, and retired ten years later, 
 but served in the Turkish contingent during 
 the Crimean war. Amoug liis works were 
 Kate Coventry, The Interpreter, etc. 
 
 Melville, Henry Dundas, Viscount {b. 
 1740, d. 1811), statesman; held various 
 offices under Pitt, on whose resignation he 
 was raised to the peerage. He was im- 
 peached, but acquitted, on a charge of 
 peculation. 
 
 Melzi d'Eril, Francesco, Due de Lodi {b. 
 1753, d. 181(5), Italian statesman; after 
 having been chamberlain to Maria Theresa, 
 became vice-president of the Italian re- 
 pubhc, but retired into private life on the 
 abdication of Napoleon. 
 
 Memling or Memlinc, Hans {d. 1494), 
 Flemish painter of the school of van Eyck, 
 bom in or near Bruges, is said to have 
 served Charles the Bold as soldier and 
 painter. His chef-d^wuvre is the Shrine of 
 St. Ursula in St. John's Hospital, Bruges, 
 where he Uved some time after the death of 
 his patron. 
 
 Memmi, Sunone {b. 1284, d. 1344), Italian 
 painter in the manner of Giotto, born at 
 Sienna, painted for his friend, Petrarch, a 
 portrait of Laura. Frescoes by his hand are 
 at Florence (Santa Novella) and Pisa, in 
 the Campo Santo. 
 
 Menabrea, Luigi, Marchese di Val-Dora 
 (J>. 1809), ItaUan general and statesman; 
 was employed diplomatically by Charles 
 Albert, and became chief officer in the 
 ministries of war and foreign affairs. In 
 the war of Independence, as head of the 
 engineers, he conducted the siege of Pes- 
 chiera, and was present at Solferino. He 
 was made senator by Victor Emmanuel, and 
 as heutenant-general directed the operations 
 at Gaeta and Capua; was minister of marine 
 in 1861, and plenipotentiary to Germany in 
 1866. From 1867 to 1869 he was head of 
 the Italian government, and was afterwards 
 ambassador in Vienna, London, and Paris. 
 He was created marquis in 1875. 
 
 Menahem {d. 761 b.c), Bang of Israel, 
 became tributary to Pul, King of Assyria, 
 in 771 B.C. 
 
 Menander (b. 342, d. 291 b.c), Athenian 
 poet, founder of the new school of comedy, 
 to which Plautus and Terence belonged. 
 Fragments only of his works remain. 
 
 Mendelssohn, Moses {b. 1729, d. 1786), 
 German Jewish philosopher, friend and 
 pupil of Lessing; wrote Phacdo (1767), 
 Letters on the Sensations, and other works. 
 
 Mendelssohn-Bartlioldy, Felix {b. 1809, 
 d. 1847), German musical composer, son of 
 
 a Hamburg merchant, and grandson of 
 Moses ; was educated by Zelter and Berger, 
 and produced an opera at eighteen. Ha 
 first came to London in 1829, and after a 
 course of travel became musical director at 
 Diisseldorf, which he left for Leipzig in 
 1837. In 1841 he became kapellmeister to 
 the King of Prussia, and he was much in 
 England from time to time. His chief com- 
 positions are St. Paul and Elijah, oratorios ; 
 the Lobgesang ; and Lieder ohne Worter. 
 
 Mend^s, Catulle {b. 1843), French poet, 
 bom at Bordeaux, was fined and imprisoned 
 for publishing when under age ; afterwards 
 wrote Philomela (lyrics), Contes Epiques, 
 Poesies, and some novels — Les Folies Amou- 
 reuses, Les Mires Ennemies, Mephistophila, 
 etc. 
 
 Mendizabal, Juan Alvarez j (d. 1853), 
 Spanish statesman ; after the failure of the 
 conspiracy of 1819 came to England, and 
 became a merchant, but returned to Spain 
 in 1835, and was made minister of finance. 
 He convoked the Cortes, suppressed the re- 
 maining monasteries, and after a brief re- 
 tirement resumed office till 1837. From 
 1841 to 1843 he was again, under Espartero, 
 finance minister. 
 
 Mendoza, Diego Hurtada da (b. 1503, d, 
 1575), Spanish statesman and writer ; waa 
 governor of Siena, and ambassador at 
 Rome under Charles V., but was expelled 
 from court by Philip II. While at Venice 
 he icollected Greek MSS., which he left to 
 the Escurial, and pubhshed the first com- 
 plete edition of Josephus. His chief original 
 works were Lazarillo de Tonnes, a satirical 
 romance, and La Guerra de Granada. 
 
 Mendoza, Inigo, Marques da Santillana 
 {b. 1398, d. 1458), Spanish poet, founder of 
 the Italian school of poetry ; distinguished 
 himself in battle against Navarre, and wrote 
 Comedieta da Ponza, Una Serranilla, and 
 other works. 
 
 Mendoza, Pedro {d. 1537), Spanish cap- 
 tain, who sailed to South Ajnerica and 
 founded Buenos Ayres in 1535, but died on 
 the return voyage. 
 
 Mendoza, Pedro Gonzalez da (b. 1428, d. 
 1495), statesman, son of Inigo, was chan- 
 cellor of Castile and Leon in the time of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella ; was called " the 
 great cardinal of Spain." 
 
 Menedemus {d. circa 211 b.o.), Greek 
 philosopher, founder of the Eretrian school ; 
 is said to have helped to translate the Sep- 
 tuagint. 
 
 Meng-Tseu (4th century b.c), Chinese 
 philosopher, grandson of Confucius ; visited 
 the courts of several princes, and wrote a 
 work called by hia name.
 
 Men 
 
 ( 556 ) 
 
 Mer 
 
 Mengotti, Francesco. Conte {b. 1743, d. 
 1830), Italian economist ; employed by the 
 Venetian government and Napoleon, sup- 
 ported free trade in com, and wrote a 
 treatise on hydraulics. 
 
 Mengs, Anton Rafael {b. 1728, d. 1779), 
 German painter ; studied at the Vatican 
 under his father, and was court-painter to 
 Augustus of Saxony, after whose death he 
 was employed by the King of Spain and 
 Clement XIV. His Apollo and the Muses, 
 in the Villa Albani, and the Apotheosis 
 of Trajan, at Madrid, are his best works. 
 The altar-piece at All Souls', Oxford, is 
 by him. 
 
 Menno, Simonis (*. 1496, d. 1561), Dutch 
 Anabaptist, founded the sect called after 
 him ; was proscribed by Charles V. , but 
 escaped. 
 
 Menou, Jacques, Baron de {b. 1750, d. 
 1810), French general, supported the revo- 
 lution, and advocated the arming of the 
 National Guard ; after his defeat by La 
 Rophejaquelein in La Vendue he was 
 cashiered, and narrowly escaped death at 
 the hands of the Convention. Having ac- 
 companied Bonaparte to Egypt, he took 
 the name of Abdallah, and became a Ma- 
 hometan, and, succeeding to the command 
 of the French troops, was defeated by Aber- 
 cromby in 1804, after which he returned to 
 France. 
 
 Menschikoff, Alexander Danilovitch (*. 
 1672, d. I'l'l'J), Russian statesman, by birth 
 a pastry-cook ; served as aide-de-camp to 
 Peter the Great, and, among other ser- 
 vices, won the victory of Kalisch (1706) 
 over the Swedes ; helped to place on the 
 throne Catherine I., after whose death he 
 was banished to Siberia, where he died, 
 
 Menschikoff, Alexander Sergeivitch {b, 
 1789, d. 1869), Russian general, descendant 
 of last-named ; entered the army in 1812, 
 and went through the close of the Napo- 
 leonic war as aide-de-camp ; was disgraced 
 by Alexander I. , but restored by Nicholas, 
 who employed him against Persia. He was 
 wounded in Turkey in 1828, and was am- 
 bassador at Constantinople at the time of 
 the Crimean war, in which he was com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Russian forces. On 
 the death of Nicholas he retired. 
 
 Mental, Johann {d. 1478), is said to have 
 begun to print books at Strasburg in 1458. 
 
 Menzel, Adolf Erdmann (*. 1815), Ger- 
 man pamter, was appointed in 1856 to a 
 professorship at the BerUn Academy. His 
 chief subjects are drawn from the period of 
 Fredenck the Great, and include The Round 
 Table of Frederick the Great (1850), Frederick 
 »t the Batth of Hochkirchen (1856), etc. 
 
 Among his other pictures, of which an ex- 
 hibition was held at Paris in 1885, may be 
 named Blucher and Wellington at Waterloo 
 and The Modern Cyclops (1872-5). 
 
 Menzel, Wolfgang (b. 1798, d. 1873), 
 German critic, son of a Silesian doctor ; was 
 a leader of the Burschenschaft movement at 
 Jeua, which he was obliged to leave after 
 the death of Kotzebue. He attacked in his 
 Streckverse Goethe and all the great names 
 of the preceding generation, and also Heine 
 and the leaders of the young German group 
 of writers. 
 
 Mercadante, Saverio {b. 1797, d. 1870), 
 Italian composer, bom near Ban ; was 
 maestro di capella at Novara, and after- 
 wards director of the Naples conservatorio. 
 His chief works were VApotheosi d'Ercole, 
 cantata, Elisa e Claudio, I Brigantx (Paris, 
 1836), and II Giuramento (Milan, 1837), 
 operas ; and some opera bouffes. 
 
 Mercator (Kremer), Gerard {b. 1512, d. 
 1594), German geographer; made globes 
 for Charles V. , and the marine charts which 
 bear his name. 
 
 Mercie, Marcus Antoine {b. 1845), French 
 sculptor, in 1868 obtained theprix de Rome. 
 His Gloria Victis (1874) was purchased by 
 the government, and among his other works 
 may be named The Genius of the Arts, ex- 
 hibited in 1877, the plaster model of the 
 bas-relief for Michelet's tomb in P^re La- 
 chaise, and a statue of Arago. 
 
 Mercier, Louis Sebastien {fi. 1740, d. 1814), 
 French writer, called ' ' Le Singe de Jean 
 Jacques," for his attacks on philosophy and 
 science, wrote Tableau de Paris (1781-8), 
 Essai sur VArt Dramatique publier PAn 
 S44O, and some plays and novels. 
 
 Meredith, George (b. 1828), novelist and 
 poet, was bom in Hampshire, and edu- 
 cated chiefly in Germany. He left law for 
 hterature, publishing Foems in 1851, The 
 Shaving of Shagpat (1855), The Ordeal of 
 Richard 'Fevere'l (1859), E^mn Harrington 
 (186n, Rhoda Fleming (1865), The Egoist 
 (1879), Diana of the Crossways (1885), and 
 One of Our Conquerors (1891), besides several 
 volumes of poems and other works of 
 fiction. 
 
 Meredith, Owen. [See Lyiton.] 
 
 Merian, Maria Sybilla (*. 1647, d. 1717), 
 Swiss painter and entomologist, daughter of 
 an engraver at Frankfort ; wrote Histoirt 
 des Insectes de VEurope et de PAmerique. 
 Many of her drawings are in the Sloane 
 collection, British Museum. 
 
 M^rini6e. Prosper (b. 1803, d. 1870), 
 French writer, and son of the author of 
 De la Peinture d riTuile; he was made
 
 Mer 
 
 (557) 
 
 Met 
 
 inspector-general of historic monuments in 
 1831, and elected to the Academy in 1844. 
 He wi-ote Le Tiiidtre de Clara Gazul, etc., 
 a collection of pretended lUyrian songs, La 
 Jacquerie, Un Chronique de Charles IX., 
 Monuments Ristoriques, Melanges His- 
 toriques et Litteraires, several collections of 
 romances, and after his death appeared 
 Lettres d une Incunnue, and Lettres a une 
 Autre Inconnue. He was a strong Bona- 
 partist, and in 1853 became senator and 
 chief of the ministry of marine. 
 
 Merivale, Charles, D.D. {b. 1808), his- 
 torian and divine, gi-aduated in high honours 
 at Cambridge in 1830, and became fellow 
 of St. John's College. He was chaplain to 
 the Speaker from 1863 to 18u9, and was 
 appointed Dean of Ely in that year. 
 Beoides his Hoyle Lectures, he published 
 Mistory of the Romans under the Empire 
 (1850-62), and General Mistory of Rome 
 (1875). 
 
 Merivale, Herman [b. 1806, d. 1874), his 
 brother ; was educated at Harrow and 
 Oxford, where he was fellow of BaUiol, and 
 became professor of political economy in 
 1837. Having entered the Civil Service he 
 became imder-secretary for the Colonies, 
 and afterwards for India. His chief works 
 were Historical Studies (1868) and the com- 
 pletion of Parkes's Life of Sir Fhilip 
 Francis. 
 
 Merivale, Herman Charles (6. 1839), dra- 
 matist, son of last-named, was called to the 
 bar in 1864 ; edited the Annual Register 
 from 1874 to 1880, and wrote All for Her, 
 The Cynic, Fedora (adaptation), and other 
 plays, besides The White Pilgrim and other 
 volumes of verse and essays. 
 
 Merlin de Donai, Philippe, Comte (A. 
 1754, d. 1838), French la^vyer and poli- 
 tician ; endeavoTired to maintain the royal 
 authority during the revolution, but 
 acquiesced in the republic, and became 
 minister of justice in 1795, and one of the 
 directors in 1797. Having been employed 
 by Napoleon in the compilation of the code, 
 he was exiled in 1815, but allowed to return 
 in 1830. 
 
 Merlin de Thlonville, Antoine {h. 1762, d. 
 1833), revolutionist, was one of the chiefs of 
 the Jacobin Club in 1791 ; defended Mainz 
 against the Prussians 1792-3, tried to con- 
 ciliate La "Vendee in 1793, and lost his 
 influence in the Convention through his 
 moderation. 
 
 Merry, William Walter, D.D. {h. 1835), 
 English scholar ; after being fellow and 
 tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford, for many 
 years, succeeded Mark Pattison as rector in 
 1884, having also been elected pu>>lic orator 
 in 1880. Among his editions of the classics 
 
 the chief are Homer's Odyssey and Aristo- 
 phanes. 
 
 Merton, Walter de (d. 1277), English 
 statesman ; was chancellor vuider Henry 
 III. and Edward I., and became Bishop 
 of Rochester in 1274. He founded (1264) 
 Merton College, the first strictly collegiate 
 foundation at Oxford. 
 
 Morula, Paul (Van Merle) (*. 1558, d. 
 1607), Dutch writer, bom at Dort ; succeeded 
 Lipsius as professor of history at Leyden, 
 and wrote Tresor des Temps and other 
 works. 
 
 Meryon, Charles (Jb. 1821, d. 1868), French 
 etcher, son of an English physician and a 
 ballet-dancer ; after making a tour of the 
 world in a French corvette, settled in Paris, 
 and produced Abside de Notre I)anie, Rue 
 des Mauvais Garqons, etc. Want of success 
 during his lifetime broke down his reason, 
 and he died in the Charenton Asylum. 
 After his death his works began to be 
 highly esteemed. 
 
 Mesmer, Anton {b. 1734, d. 1815), German 
 physician, bom at Merseburg, Suabia ; pub- 
 lished at Vienna in 1766 his I)e Flanetarum 
 Injluxu on the supposed celestial fluid ; went 
 to Paris in 1778, and gained such notoriety 
 that a government commission was ap- 
 pointed to inquire into his theories, Frank- 
 lin being a member. The report drawn up 
 by BaiUy declared them to be delusions. 
 
 Messalina, Valeria {d. 48), Roman Em- 
 press, notorious for her licentiousness ; was 
 put to death by her husband, Claudius. 
 
 Messenius, Arnold {d. 1651), Swedish 
 statesman ; having been imprisoned for 
 fourteen years by Gustavus Adolphus, waa 
 released and employed by Christina, but 
 conspired against her, and was beheaded. 
 
 Messis. \_See Matsys.] 
 
 Metastasio (Trapassi), Pietro (A. 1698, (i, 
 1782), Italian poet and dramatist, was edu- 
 cated by Gravina, the jurist, who left him 
 his fortune ; attracted the notice of Signora 
 Bulgarini. who sang in his Gli OrtiEsperidi, 
 and took him into her house. At Rome he 
 produced Artaserse, Semiramide, and other 
 operas. He was afterwards patronised by 
 Charles VI., and his successors, and wrote 
 L'Olimpiade, La Clemenza di Tito (1734), 
 and some cantatas, La Frimavera, etc. 
 
 Metcalf, John {b. 1717, d. 1810), though 
 blind, made surveys and roads for twenty- 
 five years, having previously served at 
 Culloden. 
 
 Metcalfe, Sir Charles Theophilus (Lord) 
 (J). 1785, d. 1846). English administrator, 
 son of a director of the East India Company, 
 whose service he entered at an early age.
 
 Met 
 
 (558) 
 
 Mia 
 
 After fulfilling a difficult mission to Eun- 
 
 i'eet Sing iu 1808, and being resident at 
 )elhi and Hyderabad, be became Governor- 
 General in 1835, but his act giving freedom 
 to the press was resented by the Company, 
 and he returned next year to England. A 
 few years later he was sent to Jamaica, and 
 was Governor-General of Canada from 1843 
 till 1845, when his health obhged him to 
 retire. 
 
 Metellus, Quintus Caecilius {d. circa 95 
 B.C.), Roman general, called Numidicus 
 from his triumph over Jugurtha ; was 
 exiled (100 B.C.) for his opposition to Satur- 
 ninus, the frieud of Marius, but recalled 
 two years later. His son {d. 63 B.C.) was 
 consul with Sulla (80 B.C.), and afterwards 
 the colleague of Pompeius. 
 
 Meteren, Emmanuel Van {*. 1535, d. 
 1615), Flemish historian ; author of a. His- 
 tory of the Netherlands, on which Motley's 
 work is largely based. 
 
 Methodius, Saint {d. circa 900), Greek 
 monk and missionary ; evangelised Bulgaria 
 about 850, and Bohemia some forty years 
 later, besides assisting in the formation of 
 a Slavonian translation of the Bible. 
 
 Methuen, John, Lord (d. 1706), English 
 statesman, Lord Chancellor of Ireland in 
 1697 and 1702. His name is best known by 
 the commercial treaty which he concluded 
 with Portugal in 1703. 
 
 Metius, Jacob (J>. 1575), a Dutchman, who 
 is said to have invented refracting telescopes 
 about 1609. His brother, Adrian, a dis- 
 tinguished astronomer, took part in the 
 defence of Alkmaar. 
 
 Meton (5th century B.C.), Athenian as- 
 tronomer, inventor of the cycle of nineteen 
 years which bears his name. 
 
 Mettemich, Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk 
 Lothar Fiirst von {b. 1773, d. 1859), Austrian 
 statesman, married a granddaughter of 
 Kaunitz, and after having been ambassador 
 at Dresden, Berlin, and Paris, became chan- 
 cellor and foreign minister in 1809, when he 
 made peace with Napoleon, with whom he 
 temporised for several years, attempting to 
 mediate between him and the Allies in 1813. 
 At last he took an open part, but, at the 
 Congress of Vienna and afterwards, con- 
 tinued to oppose Prussia and the aspirations 
 of the Liberals. After the restoration of the 
 Bourbons he organised the Holy Alliance, 
 by which the old Neapolitan despotism was 
 restored, and the Spanish constitution sup- 
 pressed. After 1830 he was obliged to con- 
 fine his efforts to Germany, and in 1848 
 resigned, and came to England. He never 
 again held office, though occasionally con- 
 sulted. His son (J). 1829) pursued the same 
 
 career, being sent on a special mission to 
 Paris in 1S59, and afterwards representing 
 Austria there. 
 
 Meung, Jean de, or Jean Clopinel (b. 
 circa 1250), French poet, author of Le Roman 
 de la Hose ; was a favourite at the court of 
 Philippe le Bel. 
 
 Meyer, Hans {b. 1858), German tra- 
 veller, studied at Leipzig, Berlin, and 
 Strasburg, where he prepared a work on 
 the guild of goldsmiths; joined his father 
 as a pubUsher at Leipzig in 1884, having 
 previously written Mne Weltreise, an 
 account of his travels in India and the 
 PhiUppines. In 1886 he went to Africa, 
 and travelled extensively, being the first to 
 ascend KiUmandjaro, to which he organised 
 an expedition in 1888, but was stopped by 
 an insurrection. Both he and Baumann, 
 his companion, were made prisoners, and 
 robbed by the Arabs, and after his release 
 he returned to Europe and published Zum 
 Schneedom des KiUmandjaro. In 1889 he 
 made a fresh expedition, which was success- 
 ful, the great feature of it being the dis- 
 covery of the first African glacier. 
 
 Meyer, Heinrich {b. 1759, d. 1832), Swiss 
 painter and writer on art ; was director of 
 the Weimar gallery, and a friend of Goethe. 
 He edited the works of Winckelmann, and 
 wrote Geschichte der Bildenden Kiinste be* 
 den Griechen. 
 
 Meyerbeer, Jacob (J. 1791, d. 1864), 
 German musical composer, son of a banker 
 at Berlin ; produced an oratorio, Gott und 
 Die Natur, at Darmstadt, when very young, 
 and in 1813 went to Vienna as a pianist. 
 He then went to Italy, where he composed 
 II Crociato in Egitto, which was brought 
 out at Venice. Chief among his other 
 works are Robert le Diable (1830), the result 
 of two years' work, Zes Huguenots (1836), 
 Le Prophete (1849), and Le Pardon de 
 Ploermel, or Dinorah (1859). After his 
 death L'Africaine was produced, the li- 
 bretto of which was written by Scribe. 
 
 Meyrick, Sir Samuel Eush (J. 1783, d. 
 1848), English antiquary ; arranged the 
 armour in the Tower and at Windsor, and 
 published Engraved Illustrations of Ancient 
 Arms and Armour, etc. 
 
 Mezzofanti, Giuseppe {b. 1774, d. 1849), 
 Italian linguist, bom at Bologna, where he 
 was for some time professor, but afterwards 
 went to Rome ; became librarian of the 
 Vatican and cardinal. He knew forty- 
 eight languages and many dialects. 
 
 Miall, Edward (b. 1809, d. 1881), English 
 politician ; was a Congregationalist min- 
 ister until 1841, when he went to London; 
 founded the Nonconformist and two years
 
 Mia 
 
 ( 659) 
 
 Mic 
 
 later became the chief initiator of the British 
 Anti-State-Church Association, afterwards 
 the Liberation Society. He represented 
 Rochdale from 1852 to 1857, and Bradford 
 from LStJ9 till 1874, when he retii-ed from 
 public life. He wrote View of the Voluntary 
 Principle and several similar works. 
 
 Miaoulis, Andreas {b. 1772, d. 1835), 
 Greekadmiral, originally a merchant; joined 
 the rising of 1821, served vmder Cochrane in 
 1826, and five years later was sent to offer 
 the crown of Greece to Otho of Bavaria. 
 
 Michael, the Grand Duke {b. 1832), 
 brother of the Tsar Alexander II. ; com- 
 manded the army of the Caucasus during 
 the war of 1877-8, and became governor- 
 general afterwards. 
 
 Michael Angelo. [See Michelangelo.] 
 
 Michael I., Emperor of the East (d. eirca 
 844), succeeded Nicephorus I. in 811 ; was 
 defeated by the Bulgarians and deposed in 
 813, and died in a convent. 
 
 Michael II. (d. 829), conspired against 
 Michael I. , and become emperor in 820 ; 
 lost Crete in 824. 
 
 Michael III. {d. 867) succeeded Theo- 
 philus in 842, his mother, Theodora, being 
 regent ; was notorious for his licentious- 
 ness, and was murdered while in a state of 
 intoxication. 
 
 Michael IV. [the Paplagonian] {d. 1041), 
 married the Empress Zoe, and was pro- 
 claimed emperor in 1034 ; left the chief 
 power in the hands of John the Eunuch, 
 reconquered Bulgaria in 1041. 
 
 Michael V. [Calaphates] (d. circa 1050), 
 succeeded his \mcle, Michael TV., banished 
 the Empress Zoe, and was afterwards de- 
 throned, and died in a convent. 
 
 Michael VI. [Stratioticus] {d. circa 1059), 
 having been chosen by the Empress Theo- 
 dora, succeeded her in 1056, but resigned the 
 following year. 
 
 Michael VII. {d. circa 1090), son of Con- 
 stantine XI. ; shut up his mother, Eudoxia, 
 the regent, in a convent in 1071, and, having 
 been much disturbed by rebellions, abdi- 
 cated in 1078, becoming afterwards Arch- 
 bishop of Ephesus. 
 
 Michael VIII. [Palseologus] {*. 1224, d. 
 1282), having been crowned emperor at 
 Nicaea with John Lascaris, regained Con- 
 stantinople from the Latins in 1261, and 
 ordered his colleague to be blinded, for 
 which he was excommunicated and did 
 public penance ; attempted to unite the 
 Eastern and Western Churches at the Coun- 
 cil of Lyon (1274), and subsequently de- 
 feated a French invasion. 
 
 Michallon, Achilles Etna (*. 1796, d. 1822), 
 French artist, pupil of David; received a 
 pension for a picture painted at the age of 
 twelve. The Combat of the Centaurs and 
 Lapithce is the best knovni of his works. 
 
 Michaud, Joseph (b. 1767, d. 1839), French 
 historian; conducted the Quotidienne , a 
 royalist newspaper, during the revolution 
 and after the restoration ; wrote Histoire des 
 Croisades, and with his brother Louis {d. 
 1858) founded the Biographic Universelle. 
 
 _ Michel, Louise {b. 1830), French revolu- 
 tionist ; took an active part with the Com- 
 mune in 1870, for which she was sentenced 
 to transportation for life, but returned in 
 1880 on the proclamation of the amnesty, 
 and was imprisoned several times afterwards 
 for political offences. She showed some 
 literary talent, which was recognised by 
 Victor Hugo. 
 
 Michelangelo Buonarroti {b. 1475, d. 
 1564), ItaUan painter, poet, architect, and 
 sculptor, was born near Arezzo and died at 
 Rome. His early years were passed at 
 Florence, where he was patronised by 
 Lorenzo the Magnificent, and he worked in 
 Venice in 1494, frequently visiting Rome 
 during the pontificate of Julius II., after 
 whose death he returned to Florence. He 
 directed the defence of the city against the 
 Imperialists in 1529, and was proscribed at 
 its capture, and was also employed in the 
 fortifications of Rome, where he lived 
 chiefly after 1533. His chief architectural 
 achievement was the plan for the church 
 and dome of St. Peter. His best sculptures 
 were David, at Arezzo, and Moses, in the 
 Sistine chapel, the roof of which he painted. 
 Among his pictures the most celebrated is 
 The Last Judgment (exhibited in 1541), 
 which occupied him eight years. He wrote 
 some sonnets, which have been translated 
 by J. A. Symonds, and a few also by "Words- 
 worth. 
 
 Michelet, Jules (b. 1798, d. 1874), his- 
 torian ; became in 1838 professor of history 
 at the College de France, from which he was 
 dismissed by Napoleon III., and lived after- 
 wards chiefly in Italy. His chief works 
 were a History of France in seventeen vol- 
 umes (1833-60), Histoire de la Herolution 
 Frangaise (1847-53), several books against 
 the Jesuits, and ZWisean, La Mer, and 
 other works on natural history. His second 
 wife was a writer of some ability. 
 
 Michelet, Karl Ludwig (b. 1801), German 
 philosopher, bom at Berlin, where he was 
 made extraordinary professor in 1829. He 
 took an active interest in the events of 1848, 
 publishing several pamphlets. In addition 
 to his editions of Aristotle's Ethics and of 
 Hegel's works he wrote History of Man- 
 kind's Development since 1775 (1859), Hey el,
 
 Mic 
 
 (660) 
 
 Mig 
 
 der TTnuidtrltffte Philosoph (1870), and 
 System of Fhilosophy as an Exact Science 
 (1876-81). 
 
 Michelozzi, Michelozzo {d. 1470), Floreu- 
 tiue architect and sculptor, studied under 
 Donatello, and designed for Cosimo de' 
 Me^lici the Palazzo Riccardi and several 
 other buildings, besides restoring the Palazzo 
 Vecchio. 
 
 Mickiewicz, Adam {b. 1798, d. 1855), 
 Pohsh poet; having been exiled in 1824, 
 went to Paris, and became professor of 
 Slavonic in 1839, but was suspended for 
 fanaticism five years later. His chief works 
 were Grnjina, Bzkidy, and Wallenrod. 
 
 MicMe, WiUiam Julius {b. 1734, d. 1788), 
 Scotch poet ; having failed in trade, came to 
 London, where he attracted the attention of 
 Lord Lyttelton, and produced a translation 
 of Camoen's Os Lusiadas, as well as some 
 original ballads {Cumnor Hall, The Mariner'' s 
 Wife, etc.). 
 
 Micraelius, Johannes (J. 1597, d. 1658), 
 German writer, protege of Christina of 
 Sweden, and author of Lexicon Fhilosophi- 
 cum, etc. 
 
 Middleton, Conyers, D.D. (*. 1683, d. 
 1750), English scholar, fellow of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge ; had a lawsuit with 
 Beutley on the subject of his fees for the 
 doctor's degree. His chief works were A 
 Free Inquiry into Miraculous Powers (1749), 
 and a Life of Cicero. 
 
 Middleton, Sir Hugh {d. 1631), mining 
 engineer; when a goldsmith in London, 
 made the New River from Amwell and 
 Chadwell to London, for which he was 
 knighted and afterwards received a baron- 
 etcy. He left much property to the Gold- 
 smiths' Company. 
 
 Middleton, John Henry, D.C.L. {b. 1846), 
 writer on art ; after being educated in Italy 
 and at Oxford, was appointed in 1886 Slade 
 professor at Cambridge. His chief works 
 are Ancient Rome (1885), and many articles 
 in the Encyclopcedia Britannica and art 
 journals in England and Italy. 
 
 Middleton, Thomas {d. 1627), dramatist: 
 collaborated with Jonson, Massinger, and 
 other contemporaries, and wrote numer- 
 ous plays by himself, among which the chief 
 were A Mad World, my Masters, The Roar- 
 ing Girl, and The Witch. 
 
 Middleton, Thomas Fanshawe, F.R.S. 
 (J). 1769, d. 1822), the first English Bishop 
 of Calcutta, where he founded a college for 
 the education of missionaries. 
 
 Midhat Pasha {b. 1822, d. 1884), Turkish 
 statesman, suppressed brigandage in Rou- 
 
 melia and a rebellion in Bulgaria, and became 
 secretary of the Grand Council in 1860. He 
 was governor of Bulgaria, where he intro- 
 duced reforms, from 1864 to 18o6, and put 
 down a second rebelhon. He took a chief 
 part in the deposition and murder of Abd- 
 el-Aziz in 1876, and having been made 
 grand -vizier by Abd-el-Hamid, attempted to 
 introduce parliamentary government into 
 Turkey. He failed, however, and was sent 
 into exile as governor of Syria in 1878, 
 where he was arrested on a charge of com- 
 plicity in the murder of Abd-el-Aziz and 
 condemned to death, but the sentence was 
 commuted to banishment, and he died in 
 Arabia three years later. 
 
 Mieris, Franz van (b. 1635, d. 1681), 
 Flemish painter, pupil of Gerard Dow, was 
 bom at Leydeu. His chief pictures were 
 'Flie Silk Merchants, The Assembly of Ladies 
 and Mieris and his Wife. He is known as 
 "the Elder," to distinguish him from his 
 grandson. 
 
 Mieris, Franz, "the Younger" (J. 1689, d. 
 1763), son of Willem, a painter ; abandoned 
 art for literature, his chief works being 
 Historie der Nederlandsche Vorsten, and 
 Groot Charterhoek der Graven van Holland. 
 
 Mieroslauski, Louis (6. 1814, d. 1878), 
 Polish revolutionist ; having taken a promi- 
 nent part in the risings of 1830 and 1844, 
 was condemned to death at Berlin in 1848, 
 but liberated by the mob. He then headed 
 the peasants of Posen, afterwards led the 
 revolution in Sicily, and aided the move- 
 ment in Baden, and was made dictator of 
 Poland in 1863, but superseded, owing to the 
 jealousy of the nobles. 
 
 Mignet, Francois Auguste Alexis {b. 1796, 
 d. 1834), French historian, friend of Thiers ; 
 was director of the archives at the Foreign 
 Office from 1830 to 1848, when he was 
 removed by Lamartine. He was elected to 
 the Academie Frangaise in 1836, and his 
 chief works were a History of the French 
 Revolution (1824), Negotiations' Relatives d la 
 Succession d'Espagne sous Louis XIV., 
 Histoire de Marie Stuart (1851), a.nA.RivaUte 
 de Franqois I«f et de Charles Quint (1875). 
 
 Mignon, or Minjon, Abraham (J. 1639, d. 
 1679), German painter, born at Frankfort; 
 studied under Van Heem at Utrecht, and 
 excelled, like his master, in flower and fruit- 
 pieces. 
 
 Miguel, Dom Maria Evarist {b. 1802, d. 
 1866), Portuguese prince, younger son of 
 John VI., by whom he was exiled in 1824 
 for an attempt to overthrow the govern- 
 ment. His brother, Dom Pedro, renounced 
 the throne in favour of his daughter, Maria 
 da Gloria, on condition she should marry 
 Miguel, who, however, in 1828 declared
 
 Mil 
 
 (661) 
 
 Mil 
 
 himself Jang. By his tyramiy he caused a 
 rebellion, which was supported by England, 
 and he capitulated at Evora in 1834, and 
 never returned to Portugal. 
 
 Milan Obrenovitcli {b. 1854), ex -King of 
 Servia ; having beeu educated at Paris, was 
 sent for to Servia in 1868 on the assassina- 
 tion of his cousin, Prince Michael. He was 
 crowned in 1872, joined the revolt of the 
 Slavs against Turkey in 1876, and, joiuiug 
 with Russia in the war which followed, 
 obtained the independence of his country, of 
 which he was proclaimed the tirst king in 
 1882. In 1885 he declared war against 
 Bulgaria, but was signally defeated, and in 
 1889 abdicated in favour of his sou, his 
 quarrel with Queen Nathalie having become 
 a public question iu the country. 
 
 Milano, Giovanni da (b. 1350), Italian 
 painter ; bom at Milan, studied under 
 Gaddi at Florence, and imitated Giotto, his 
 best paintings being the frescoes at Assist. 
 
 Mildmay, Sir Walter {h. 1522, d. 1589), 
 English statesman ; employed by Henry 
 VIII. and his successors, being Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer for twenty-three years 
 under Elizabeth; founded Emmanuel Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. 
 
 Mill, James {b. 1773, d. 1836), Scotch 
 economist, son of a shoemaker at Forfar ; 
 was licensed as a preacher iu 1798, but gave 
 up the profession on conscientious grounds, 
 and in 1802 came to London. In 1809 he 
 obtained an appointment in the India House, 
 and with Beutham became the founder of 
 "Philosophic Radicalism," being also in- 
 timate with Ricardo. His chief works were 
 a History of British India (1818), and Ele- 
 ments of Political Economy (1821-22). 
 
 Mill, John Stuart (*. 1806, d. 1873), 
 philosopher, son of preceding, by whom he 
 was educated ; obtained a clerkship in the 
 India House in 1823, and remained there 
 until the transfer of the Indian government 
 to the Crown, to which he was strongly op- 
 posed. He early began to contribute to the 
 IVestminster Review, which he afterwards 
 edited. He contemplated writing a history of 
 the French revolution, but left the work to 
 his friend, Carlyle, with whom and Sterling 
 he was very intimate. He was returned for 
 Westminster as a Radical in 1865, but was 
 defeated in 1868 by Mr. W. H. Smith. His 
 chief works were System of Logic (1843), 
 Essay on Liberty (1859), Itepresentative Gov- 
 ernment (1860), tfiilitarianism (1861), and 
 Principles of Political Economy (1848). 
 
 Millais, Sir John Everett, Bart. (b. 1829), 
 English painter ; was educated at the Royal 
 Academy, gaining a medal at the Society of 
 Arts when only nine. He first exhibited at 
 the Royal Academy in 1846, and became a 
 
 leading member of the Pre-Raphaelito 
 school. He was elected A.R.A. in 1853 and 
 R.A. in 1863, and received a baronetcy in 
 1885. Among his pictures may be named 
 The Widoic's Mite (1847), Eeafs ''Isabella'' 
 (1849), Mariana in the Moated Grange (1851), 
 Ophelia (1852), Souvenir of Velasquez 
 (1868), A Bream at Dawn (1869), Scotch Firs 
 (1874), etc., and portraits of Mr. Gladstone, 
 Lord SaUsbury, Mr. Bright, Lord Beacons- 
 field, and many other public men. 
 
 Miller, Hugh (b. 1802, d. 1856), Scotch 
 geologist and writer, bom in Cromarty ; 
 after working as a stonemason, became a 
 journaUst and edited at Edinburgh The 
 Witness, in which appeared The (Jld Red 
 Sandstone, Footprints of the Creator, etc. 
 He also wrote The Testimony of the Rocks, as 
 well as many pamphlets, chiefly in the 
 interest of the Free Church movement. 
 
 Miller, James {b. 1703, d. 1744), dramatist; 
 while at Oxford wrote Humours of Oxford, 
 and afterwards pamphlets against Walpole, 
 and several plays, the chief of which was the 
 tragedy Mahomet. 
 
 Miller, " Joaquin " (Cincinnatus Hiner) 
 (b. 1841), American poet; worked iu Oregon 
 and California as editor, lawyer's clerk, 
 miner, and county judge, and came to Eng- 
 land in 1870, when his wife had obtained a 
 divorce. Songs from the Sierras was pub- 
 lished in London, and on his return to 
 America he produced The One Fair Woman 
 (1876), Memorie and Rime (1884), So7igs of 
 the Mexican Seas (1887), and several other 
 works. 
 
 Miller, Joe (^1. 1684, d. 1738), comedian; 
 born probably in London, played in the 
 comedies of Congreve, his other favourite 
 parts being Sir Joseph Whittol in TJie Old 
 Bachelor and Teague iu The Committee. 
 His Book of Jests was first published in 1739. 
 
 Miller, PhiUp, F.R.S. {b. 1691, d. 1771) 
 botanist and gardener, called "Hortulano- 
 rum Princeps " ; was a friend and corre- 
 spondent of Linnasus, and wrote Gardeners' 
 Dictionary and other works. 
 
 Miller, Thomas (*. 1808, d. 1874), poet, 
 son of a wharfinger at Gainsborough ; com- 
 posed poems while apprentice to a basket- 
 maker, and was helped by Rogers. He 
 afterwards contributed much to journals 
 and periodicals. A Bay in the Woods 
 (1836) was perhaps his best work. 
 
 Miller, William {b. 1810, d. 1872), Scotch 
 poet, bom near Glasgow ; became a wood- 
 turner, and wrote Scottish Nursery Songs ind 
 Other Poems, containing Willie Winkie, itc. 
 
 Miller, William Allen, M.D., F.R.S. {b. 
 1817, d. 1870), chemist; educated under 
 Daniell in London and Liebig at Giessen;
 
 Mil 
 
 (562) 
 
 Mil 
 
 became professor of chemistry at King's 
 College, vice-president of the Royal Society 
 and assayer to the Mint, and wrote Elements 
 of Chemistry. 
 
 Miller, William Hallows, F.R.S., D.C.L. 
 {b. 1801, d. 1880), crystallographer and 
 mineralogist; was bom near Llandovery, 
 and graduated at Cambridge, where he 
 became fellow of St. John's, and in 1832 
 professor of mineralogy. He served on 
 several royal commissions, was foreign 
 secretary for seventeen years to the Royal 
 Society, and published (with "VV. H. Brooke) 
 an edition of Phillip's Mineralogy. 
 
 MiUer, William Harrison {b. 1840), 
 American statesman ; was admitted to the 
 bar in 1865, and practised in Peru and 
 Indiana, being the partner from 1874 of 
 President Harrison, by whom he was made 
 attorney-general in 1889. 
 
 Millet, Jean Francois {b. 1814, d. 1875), 
 French artist, of peasant birth; studied 
 under Delaroche, and became the friend of 
 Theodore Rousseau. His chief pictures 
 are The Brothers (now iu the Louvre), The 
 Milkwoman (1844), The Angelus (1859), Po- 
 tato Planters (1863), and Butter-making 
 (1871), etc. 
 
 Millingen, James {b. niA,d. 1845), Eng- 
 lish archffiologist ; was imprisoned at Paris 
 in 1794 while travelling; wrote Ancient 
 Unedited Monuments and other works, for 
 which he received a pension from the 
 Government. 
 
 Millot, Claude Xavier {b. 1726, d. 1785), 
 French writer ; author of Historie Litteraire 
 des Troiibadours, Elements de VHistoire de 
 France, etc. ; was preceptor to the Due 
 d'Enghien. 
 
 MiUs, Charles {b. 1788, d. 1825), historian, 
 son of a Greenwich physician ; was educated 
 as a solicitor, but gave up his profession, 
 and wrote a history of Mohammedanism 
 (1817), of the Crusades, and of Chivalry. 
 
 MiUs, Edmund James, D.Sc, F.R.S. {b. 
 1840), English chemist, educated at Chel- 
 tenham and the Royal School of Mines ; was 
 appointed professor of technical chemistry 
 at Glasgow in 1875. His chief works, besides 
 important technical memoirs, are Destructive 
 Distillation and (with F. J. Rowan) Fuel 
 and its Applications. 
 
 MLUy, Nicolas de Thy, Comte de (*. 1728, 
 d. 1 784) , French chemist ; published a 
 treatise on the manufacture of Dresden 
 china, and effected improvements in enamel 
 colours. 
 
 Milman, Henry Hart, D.D. (*. 1791, d. 
 1868), English historian, son of Sir Francis 
 Milman, physician to George III. ; was 
 educated at Eton and Brasenose College, 
 
 Oxford, of which he became fellow. He 
 took orders in 1816, was Bampton lecturer 
 in 1827, became Canon of Westminster in 
 1835, and in 1849 Dean of St. Paul's. His 
 chief works are a History of Latin Christi- 
 anity to the Pontificate of Nicholas V., A 
 History of the Jews, and editions of Gibbon 
 and Horace. In 1815 Fazio, a tragedy 
 written by him, was produced with success 
 at Covent Garden. 
 
 Milne, Sir Alexander Milne, G.C.B., 
 F.R.S.E. {b. 1806), admiral, son of Admiral 
 Sir David Milne ; entered the navy in 
 1817, having served under his father. 
 Admiral Bowles, Sir C. Ogle, and Sir 
 Charles Napier in various parts of the 
 world, was a jimior lord of the Admiralty 
 from 1847 to 1858, senior naval lord 1866-8 
 and 1872-6, when he retired with a 
 baronetcy. During the years 1869-70 he 
 commanded the Mediterranean and Channel 
 squadrons. 
 
 Milne, Colin {d. 1815), Scottish clergy- 
 man ; author of a Botanical Dictionary and 
 other works dealing with the science of 
 botany. 
 
 Milne, Sir David {b. 1763, d. 1845), father 
 of the above; entered the navy in 1778, 
 distinguished himself by the capture from 
 the French of Za Pique (1795), La Seine 
 (1798), and the Vengeance (1800), and served 
 as rear-admiral under Lord Exmouth in the 
 attack on Algiers. 
 
 Milne-Edwards, Henri (b. 1800, d. 1885), 
 French zoologist, born at Bruges, of English 
 parents ; succeeded Cuvier in 1838 at the 
 Academic des Sciences, became professor of 
 entomology at the Museum in 1841, and of 
 entomology and physiology in the Faculte 
 des Sciences in 1843. He gained the Copley 
 medal in 1856, and wrote, besides text- 
 books, Lemons sur la Physiologic et I'Anatomie 
 pomparev (1857-81) in fourteen volumes. 
 His son, Alphonse (b. 1835), succeeded him 
 at the Museum. 
 
 Milne-Edwards, Frederick William {b. 
 mi, d. 1842), physiologist, brother of Henri, 
 was born in Jamaica. He was one of the 
 founders of the Societe Ethnologique, and 
 wrote De r Influence des Agents Physiques 
 sur la Vie (1824), and other works. 
 
 Milner, Isaac, D.D. {b. 1751, d. 1820), 
 EngUsh divine; was bom at Leeds, and 
 brought up as a weaver, but subsequently 
 entered at Queen's College, Cambridge, and 
 became professor of natural philosophy in 
 1783, vice-chancellor in 1792 and 1809, and 
 Lucasian professor in 1798, being also in 
 1791 appointed Dean of Carlisle. His 
 brother, Joseph {d. 1797), was head master 
 of Hull, and author oi History of the Church 
 of Christ, which was finished by Isaac.
 
 Mil 
 
 (563) 
 
 Mio 
 
 Milo, Titus Annius {d. 48 B.C.), Roman 
 tribune, banished for killing Clodius at 
 Rome in 52 B.C. His name has become 
 known from the defence which Cicero wrote 
 for him, but did not deliver ; having joined 
 the faction of Sextus Pompeius, he was 
 killed near Thurium. 
 
 MUosch Obrenovitch {b. 1780, d. 1860), 
 Prince of Servia ; submitted to the Turks, 
 and became governor after the revolt of 
 Kara George ; rebelled in 1817, and was 
 recognised in 1829 as hereditary prince ; 
 was compelled to abdicate ten years later, 
 but recalled in 1858. 
 
 Miltiades. \_See Melchiades.] 
 
 Miltiades (5th century B.C.), Athenian 
 general, tyraut of the Thracian Chersonese ; 
 commanded at Marathon (490 B.C.), but was 
 afterwards condemned for treason, and died 
 in prison. 
 
 Milton, John (6. 1608, d. 1674), EngUsh 
 poet, son of a London scrivener of some 
 culture, who sent him to St. Paul's school 
 and Cambridge (Christ's College), after 
 leaving which he lived with his father in 
 Buckinghamshire, and then travelled in 
 France and Italy. In 1644 he published 
 Areopagitica, a speech for the liberty of un- 
 licensed printing, among his other prose 
 works being EiJconoklastes and Difensio pro 
 Populo Anglicano (in answer to Salmasius), 
 this last work being the immediate cause of 
 his loss of sight. He was appointed foreign 
 secretary to the Council of State in 1649, and 
 some years after became blind. The Allegro, 
 Penseroso, Comus, Lycidas, etc., were written 
 in his early days, and his greatest work. 
 Paradise Lost, was published in 1667, and 
 Paradise Eegained in 1671. He was married 
 three times. 
 
 Minmermus (ca. 600 B.C.), Greek poet, 
 fragments of whose works only remain ; is 
 said to have invented the elegiac metre. 
 
 Mina, Francisco Espozy (*. 1781, d. 1836), 
 Spanish guerilla chief, son of a husbandman ; 
 harassed the armies of Napoleon in Spain, 
 and after the restoration of the Bourbons 
 made two attempts, in 1820 and 1830, to 
 restore the constitution. In 1835 he com- 
 manded the royal army against the Carlists. 
 His nephew, Xavtee (b. 1789), was captured 
 by the French during the Peninsular war, 
 and having, after his release from Vincennes, 
 joined in the efEorts to free Mexico, was 
 captured and shot (1817). 
 
 Mind, Gottfried (J. 1768, d. 1814), Swiss 
 painter, called by Madame Le Brun the 
 "Raphael of Cats," his subjects being 
 these and other animals. 
 
 Minghetti, Marco {b. 1818, d. 1886), 
 
 Italian statesman, minister of public works 
 
 to Pius IX. in 1848 ; afterwards entered the 
 
 •ervice of Sardinia, and became the friend 
 
 EE 2 
 
 of Cavour, being minister of the interior in 
 his last cabinet. In 1861 he became vice- 
 president of the Italian parliament, and 
 was president of the cormcU and minister 
 of finance from 1861 to 1868, and again, 
 after being ambassador in London, from 
 1873 to 1876. He was author of JJella 
 Economia Publica, published in 1859. 
 
 Minie, Claude Etienne {b. 1814, d. 1879), 
 French mechanic, improved for the French 
 government the rifle invented by Captain 
 Devigne, whose pupil he had been. 
 
 Mino da Fiesole {h. 1400, d. 1486), Italian 
 sculptor, among whose best productions 
 were the marble pulpit in the cathedral of 
 Prato, and the monimient of Paul II. in the 
 Vatican. 
 
 Minot, Laurence (14th century), English 
 poet, whose works were discovered by 
 Tyrwhit and edited by Ritson in 1794. 
 
 Minto, Gilbert EUiot, Earl of {b. 1751, d. 
 1814), statesman, was viceroy of Corsica 
 1794-6, ambassador at Vienna in 1799, 
 president of the Board of Control in 1806, 
 and Governor-General of India from 1807 
 to 1812, being created an earl in the follow- 
 ing year. His son, the second Earl {d. 
 1859), was Lord Privy Seal from 1846 to 
 1852. 
 
 Minto, WilMam {b. 1845), Scotch writer ; 
 graduated with distinction at Aberdeen in 
 1865, and having for some years acted as 
 assistant there to Professor Bain, was ap- 
 pointed to the chair of logic in 1 880. Among 
 his works are English Prose Writers and 
 English Poets ; Bejoe, in the " English Men 
 of Letters'''' series, and several novels— 7%c 
 Crack of Boom, The Mediation of Ralph 
 Hardelot, etc. 
 
 Minucius Felix, Marctis (3rd century), an 
 African, celebrated as a rhetorician at 
 Rome, where he was converted, and vrrote 
 Octavius, a dialogue in defence of Chris- 
 tianity, of which there is a translation by 
 Lord Hailes. 
 
 Miolan-Carvallio, Marie Caroline {b. 
 1827), French vocalist, bom at Marseilles, 
 and educated at the Paris Conservatoire 
 under Duprez ; after a brilliant provincial 
 tour, made her debut at Paris at the Grand 
 Opera in Lucia di Lammermoor. At the 
 Opera Comique she appeared in Auber's 
 Ambassadrice. and in several operas com- 
 posed expressly for her, and in 1853 mar- 
 ried M. Carvalho (Carvaille), director of the 
 Theatre Lyrique, where she became prima 
 donna. In England she was very successful, 
 singing as Marguerite in Gounod's Faust at 
 the Italian Opera in 1863. 
 
 Miot de Melito, Andre, Comte (6. 1762, 
 d. 1841), French statesman ; after having a 
 narrow escape from death in 1794, was 
 ambassador at Florence in the following
 
 Mir 
 
 (564) 
 
 Mit 
 
 year, and afterwards cantinually employed 
 by Napoleon. His Mi moires were published 
 in I85S. 
 
 Mirabeau, Honore Gabriel Eiquetti, 
 Conite de (6. 1749, d. 1791), French orator 
 and statesman, son of the Marquis de 
 Mirabeau, author of VAmi des Hommes ; 
 after a stormy youth, culminating in an 
 imprisonment in the Bastille for nearly two 
 years, was sent by Calonne on a secret 
 mission to Berlin. At the opening of the 
 revolution he was elected deputy bj' the 
 Tiers-£tat of Aix, and took a leading part 
 in the proceedings of the Constituent As- 
 sembly, but attached himself to no party in 
 it. During the last few months of his life 
 he had an understanding with the queen, 
 and at his death was engaged in organising 
 a movement in favour of constitutional 
 monarchy, having previously on several 
 occasions supported the royal prerogative. 
 His brother, the Vicomte ("Barrel Mira- 
 beau "), was a reactionary royalist. 
 
 Miramon, Miguel (jb. 1833, d. 1867), 
 Mexican statesman; commanded the army 
 of the Clerical party against Juarez, and 
 was named president in 1859, but was soon 
 after deposed and defeated, and having 
 afterwards supported Maximilian was shot 
 with him in 1867. 
 
 Miranda, Francisco {b. 1750, d. 1816), 
 Spanish-American general; after having 
 been in the army of his own country, went 
 to France and served under Dumouriez in 
 Flanders, but having been accused by the 
 Jacobins of treason was banished. In 1806 
 he went to Guatemala, where he had before 
 taken part in a rising, and now resumed his 
 revolutionary operations; was arrested in 
 1812, and died in a dungeon at Cadiz four 
 year3 later. 
 
 Mirandola. [^See Pico della MLrandola.] 
 
 Mireveldt, Michel Jansen (6. 1568, d. 
 1641), Dutch painter, bom at Delft ; gained 
 great reputation as a painter of portraits, of 
 which he is said to have executed several 
 thousand. 
 
 Misliweczek, Joseph, "II Boemo" (b. 
 1737, d. 1781), Bohemian composer ; com- 
 posed several operas, of which Bellerofonte 
 was the phief. 
 
 Mitchel, John {b. 1815, d. 1875), Irish 
 pohticiau, son of a Nonconformist minister ; 
 after leaving Trinity College, Dublin, 
 practised as a solicitor, but in 1845 became 
 editor of the Xation, and two years later of 
 the United Irishnien, a "physical force" 
 paper. For his writings in the latter he 
 was convicted for sedition and transported, 
 but escaped in 1862 to the United States, 
 where he edited the Citizen. In 1875 he 
 
 was returned for Tipperary, and died while 
 the petition against him was under discus- 
 sion. He wrote a Life of Hugh O^Neil, 
 and Jail Journal, an account of his life in 
 Van Diemen's Land. 
 
 Mitcbell, Sir Andrew {d. 1771), British 
 diplomatist ; became ambassador at Brussels 
 in 1751, and afterwards envoy-extraordinary 
 to Berlin, where he won the friendship of 
 Frederick, and drew him from the French to 
 the English alUance. 
 
 Mitchell, Donald Grant {b. 1822), Ameri- 
 can writer; graduated at Yale in 1841, and 
 afterwards travelled in Europe, being 
 United States consul at Venice from 1853 to 
 1855. Under the signature ' ' Ik Marvel ' ' he 
 published Fresh Gleanings : or, a New Sheaf 
 from the Old Fields of Continental Europe 
 (1847), and under his own name, Fudge 
 JDoings, Out of Town Places, and various 
 other works. 
 
 MitcheU, Peter {b. 1824), Canadian 
 statesman, bom and educated at Newcastle, 
 New Brunswick, of the Executive Govern- 
 ment of which province he was a member 
 from 1858 to 1865. He did much to pro- 
 mote confederation, and on the formation 
 of the first Dominion Government (1867) 
 became minister of marine, which ofiice he 
 held tiU 1873. In 1878 he took an active 
 part in the settlement of the fisheries dis- 
 pute with the United States. 
 
 Mitchell, Sir Thomas Livingstone (6. 
 1792, d. 1855), British explorer; served in 
 the army during the Peninsular war, and 
 was appointed surveyor-general of New 
 South Wales in 1830. He wrote accounts 
 of his explorations in Three Fxpeditions into 
 the Interior of Australia (1838), and Journal 
 of an Australian Explorer (1848), and also 
 wrote Australian Geography. In 1851 he 
 made an expedition to the Bathurst gold- 
 fields. 
 
 Mitford. {See Eedesdale.] 
 
 Mitford, Mary Eussell (6. 1786, rf. 1855), 
 English dramatic writer and novelist ; after 
 some early poems, produced Julian, Fos- 
 cari, and several other plays, one of which 
 {Charles I.) was suppressed, Atherton and 
 other novels, Our Village, and Reminiscen- 
 ces (1824). 
 
 Mitford, William {b. 1744, d. 1827), his- 
 torian ; sat for several years in the House of 
 Commons as a Tory, and from that stand- 
 point wrote his Ifistori/ of Greece (1780- 
 1818), to which that of Grote was in a 
 measui'e a reply. 
 
 Mithridates [Eupator] (/. 63 B.C.), King 
 of Pontus, called the " Great," was sixth of 
 the name, and succeeded his father (Euer- 
 getes) in 120 B.C. He reversed his policy,
 
 Mit 
 
 (565) 
 
 Mol 
 
 however, causing a general massacre of the 
 Bomans after his capture of Bithynia and 
 Phrygia; was defeated by Fimbria (85), but 
 was victorious over Mursena in 81, and 
 conquered Cappadocia ; after being con- 
 quered by Lucullus (73-68), recovered his 
 domiuions in 67, but was finally defeated 
 by Pompey and compelled to flee. When 
 meditating marching into Europe he was 
 opposed by his son, Pharnaces, and put an 
 end to his life by taking poison. 
 
 Mitre, Bartolomeo [b. 1821), South Ameri- 
 can general ; after a contest with Urquiza, 
 caused the abdication of Derqui in 1861, and 
 was next year elected president of the 
 Argentine republic. In 1865 he formed an 
 alliance with Brazil against Lopez of Para- 
 guay. In 1874 he attempted to excite a 
 military rising at Bueuos Ajtcs, and, having 
 failed, was pardoned, but compelled to leave 
 Argentine territory. 
 
 MitsclierUcli, Eilhard (6. 1794, d. 1863), 
 German chemist, bom in Oldenburg; dis- 
 covered the "law of isomorphism," and 
 wrote a Lehrhuch der Chemie. After study- 
 ing under Berzelius at Stockholm, he was 
 appointed to a professorship at BerHn in 
 1822, and six years later was elected foreign 
 fellow of the Eoyal Society. 
 
 Mivart, St. George, M.D., F.R.S. (fi. 
 1827), English naturalist and philosopher; 
 was called to the bar in 1851 ; was secretary 
 of the Linnaean Society 1874-80, and re- 
 ceived the degrees of Ph.D. from Rome, 
 and M.D. from Louvain. In 1874 he be- 
 came professor of biology at University 
 College, Kensington. His chief works are 
 The Genesis of Species (1871), an attack on 
 Darwinism so far as it is applied to mind, 
 Man and Apes (1873), Nature and Thought 
 (1883J, The Origin of Human Reason (1889), 
 On Truth, as well as numerous zoological 
 monographs and contributions to the leading 
 periodicals, 
 
 Mnesikles (/. 430 b.c), Athenian archi- 
 tect, contemporary of Perikles ; designed the 
 Propylasum, an entrance to the Akropolis. 
 
 Mochnacki, Maurice (*. 1804, d. 1834), 
 Polish writer and patriot; took a leading 
 part in the rising of 1831, of which he wrote 
 an account, and was also author of O 
 
 Litcraturze Tohkiej. 
 
 Mocquard, Jean Constant (J. 1791, d. 
 1864), French lawyer : after having attained 
 greatsuccess in his profession, lost his voice, 
 but in 1848 became secretary to Louis 
 Napoleon and chief of his cabinet. 
 
 Modjeska, Helena {h. 1844), Polish ac- 
 tress ; first appeared professionally in 
 1862, and attracted much attention by her 
 playing in Adrienne Zecouvreur at Warsaw 
 
 in 1868. In 1876 she emigrated with her 
 second husband, who worked as a farmer 
 in California; but having learnt English 
 appeared on the San Francisco stage in her 
 old part. She afterwards played at New 
 York in La Lame aux Camelias, and at 
 London in 1880 in Romeo and Juliet, Frou- 
 Frou, and her old favourites. In 1882 she 
 created a sensation in Sardou's Odette, and 
 after playing Rosalind in America, appeared 
 in 1885 at the Lyceum. 
 
 Moffat, Robert, D.D. {b. 1795, d. 1883), 
 Scotch missionary ; after working some time 
 as a gardener at Manchester, was ordained 
 in 1816, and went out to Africa, where he 
 was a missionary for twenty-three years. 
 He reduced the Bechuana language into 
 written form, and translated the Bible into 
 it. One of his daughters married Living- 
 stone. 
 
 Mohammed. {Sec Mahomet.] 
 
 Mohl, Juhus {b. 1800, d. 1876), German 
 Orientalist ; in 1823 went to Paris, where he 
 became the pupil of De Sacy and Remusat, 
 and the friend of Cuvier and Humboldt. 
 Although appointed professor at Tiibingen in 
 1826 he remained in Paris, where, in 1852, 
 he became oriental inspector of the imperial 
 press. He was frequently in England, and 
 married an English lady, Mary Clarke, by 
 whom, his J'lngt-sept Ans d'Htstoire 
 des Etudes Orientales was published after 
 his death (1879-80). He also published edi- 
 tions of many Persian and Chinese classics. 
 
 Moi, Pieter van {b. 1590, d. 1650), Flem- 
 ish historical painter of the school of 
 Rubens, whose works are in Antwerp cathe- 
 dral and other chirrches in Flanders, some 
 also being in the Louvre. 
 
 Moira, Lord. [See Hastings.] 
 
 Moivre, Abraham de {b. 1667, d. 1754), 
 French mathematician, friend of Leibnitz 
 and Newton; published in 1716 The Doctrine 
 of Chances. 
 
 Mola, Pietro Francesco (d. 1665), Italian 
 painter ; was trained in the school of Albano, 
 but afterwards studied the Venetian masters. 
 His pictures are in churches at Rome, and 
 at Milan, in Santa Maria della Vittoria, are 
 St. John in the Desert and St. Paul the Her- 
 mit. There is another painter of the name, 
 some of whose pictures, in the manner of 
 Albano, are in the Palazzo Salviati, Rome. 
 
 Molay, Jacques de {d. 1314), last grand 
 master of the Templars, who was burned to 
 death by order of Clement V. and Philip 
 the Fair, who fabricated charges against 
 him in order to obtain the property of the 
 order. 
 
 Mol^, Franqois Rene {b. 1734, d. 1802),
 
 Mol 
 
 (566) 
 
 Mol 
 
 French comedian of some talent ; joined the 
 Jacobins during the revolution, and offici- 
 ated in St. Roch as priest of the goddess of 
 Reason. 
 
 M0I6, Louis Matthieu, Comte de {b. 1780, 
 d. 1855), French statesman, whose father 
 was a victim to the revolution ; having at- 
 tracted the notice of Napoleon in 1806 by a 
 volume of absolutist essays, was made 
 minister of justice in 1813. After the resto- 
 ration he for a short time held office under 
 Louis XVIII., and after the second revo- 
 lution was premier from 1836 to 1839. 
 
 Molesworth, Mrs. (Mary Louisa Stewart), 
 novelist aud wiiter of stories for children, 
 including Carrots (1876), Herr Baby (1881), 
 etc. 
 
 Molesworth, Sir William (b.l%lO,d. 1855), 
 English politician and writer ; having been 
 educated at Edinburgh and in Germany, 
 entered Parliament in 1832, and in 1853 
 became Commissioner of Works, and soon 
 after Colonial Secretary. With Roebuck he 
 established the London Meview, and was also 
 for a time proprietor and editor of the 
 Westminster Review. He issued a reprint 
 of the works of Hobbes, and was engaged 
 on his Life when he died. 
 
 Molesworth, Rev. William Nassau (b. 
 1816, d. 1890), English writer, son of Rev. 
 J. N. Molesworth ; took an active part in 
 politics as a Liberal, from which point of 
 view his History of England from 1830 was 
 written. Among his other works were A 
 History of the Reform Bill of 1832 and Eng- 
 land and France, a prize essay. 
 
 Molesworth, Sir Guildford Lindsey {b. 
 1828), civil engineer, brother of thepreceding. 
 He went out to Ceylon in 1859, where he be- 
 came director-general of the railway in 
 1865, and of public works in 1867, and in 
 1871 was appointed consulting engineer to 
 the government of India. His PoiTcetbookof 
 Engineering Formiilce is a standard work. ' 
 
 Molevme, Bertrand de (b. 1744, d. 1S18), 
 French statesman ; was appointed minister 
 of marine in 1791, and tried to organise a 
 royal party in the Assembly, but after the 
 10th of Au^st (1792) was obliged to seek 
 refuge in England, where he wrote his 
 Memoires. 
 
 Moliere, Jean Baptiste [Poquelin] {b. 
 1622, d. 1672), dramatist; was educated by 
 the Jesuits, and studied law, but about 
 1645 changed his name, and became an 
 actor. He began to write plays in 1653, 
 and took part in them himself, first per- 
 forming before Louis XIV. in 1658. In 
 1673, while playing Argan in Le Malade 
 Imaginaire, he was seized with convulsions, 
 and died soon after. It was only by the 
 
 intervention of the king that the Chui-ch 
 alhrwed him burial. ,His chief plays were 
 L'Etourdi (^1658), V Ecole des Femmes (1662), 
 Le Mixnntlirope, Le Medecin Malgre Lui, 
 Tartiijfe (1669), Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. 
 
 Molina, Luis (b. 1535, d. 1600), Spanish 
 Jesuit ; author of De Liberi Arbitrii cum 
 Gratice JJonis Concordia, a work aroimd 
 which much controversy raged. 
 
 Molinet, Claude du (*. 1620, d. 1687), 
 French archaeologist, librarian of Saint 
 Genevieve, and author of a History of the 
 Popes from Martin V. to Lnnocent XL, illus- 
 trated by their coins. 
 
 Molinos, Miguel {b. 1640, d. 1697), Span- 
 ish theologian, founded the sect of the 
 Quietists, and wrote The Spiritual Guide, 
 which was condemned by the Inquisition, 
 and its author condemned to imprisonment 
 for life. The book was translated into 
 French, Latin, and Dutch. 
 
 Mbllendorf, Richard, Graf von {b. 1724, 
 d. 1816), Prussian general ; was page to 
 Frederick the Great throughout the Silesian 
 campaigns, and afterwards had a distin- 
 guished miUtary career, becoming tield- 
 marshal in 1793. He won the battle of 
 Kaiser's-Lautern in the following year, aud 
 was woimded at Auerstadt. 
 
 Mollien, Nicholas, Comte (b. 1758, d. 
 1850), French statesman ; was employed by 
 Calonne, and had a share in negotiating the 
 peace of 1 786 ; entered the service of Na- 
 poleon in 1801, and was minister of finance 
 from 1806-15. 
 
 Moltke, Helmuth Karl, Graf von (J. 1800, 
 d. 1891), German strategist, was born in 
 Mecklenbiu'g, and after serving three j^ears 
 in the Danish army, and passing through 
 the army school at Berlin, entered the 
 Prussian army, and from 1835 to 1839 was 
 military adviser to the Turkish pashas at 
 Constantinople. On his return he married his 
 niece. Miss Burt, and in 1848 became chief 
 of the staff at Magdeburg. He attended 
 the Crown Prince (the Emperor William) 
 as equerry for several years, and was one of 
 the chief agents in the reorganisation of 
 the army which preceded the Danish war. 
 He took a leading part in the war against 
 Austria which followed, and at its close be- 
 came immediately engaged in preparations 
 for mobilising the army in view of a struggle 
 with France. When the rupture came it 
 was he who planned the campaigns which 
 led to the overthrow of that country and 
 the unification of Germany. He was created 
 field-marshal in 1871, a life-member of the 
 Upper House in 1872, and in 1888 resigned 
 the office of chief of the staff. He wrote a 
 treatise on Poland and several autobio- 
 graphical works.
 
 Mol 
 
 (567) 
 
 Mon 
 
 Molza, Francesco {b. 1489, d. 1544), | 
 Italian poet ; author of Ninfa Tiberina, and 
 some good imitationsof TibuUus. His grand- 
 daughter, Tarquinia, was highly praised by 
 Tasso, and was presented with the citizen- 
 ship of Rome. 
 
 Mommsen, Theodor (J. 1817), German 
 historian, son of a Schleswig clerg\-man ; 
 having travelled in France and Italy col- 
 lecting inscriptions for thi'ee years, obtained 
 a professorship at Leipzig in 1848, but was 
 removed on political grounds. He subse- 
 quently held chairs at Zurich and Breslau, 
 and in 1858 was appointed professor at 
 Berlin, where he became secretary of the 
 Academy of Sciences. In 1880 his library, 
 with most of his notes and manuscripts, was 
 destroyed by fire. His chief works are his 
 History of Rome, which has been translated 
 into English, as also has his Early Inhabitants 
 of Italy, the correction and supervision of 
 the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinaricm, Oscan 
 Studies, and several political pamphlets. 
 
 Monaldeschi {d. 1657), one of the suite of 
 Christina, Queen of Sweden ; was assassi- 
 nated by her orders at Paris for betraying 
 her confidence. 
 
 Monbeillard, PhiUbert {b. 1720, d. 1785), 
 French naturalist ; author of Collection 
 Academique and the ornithological part of 
 Buffon's Histoire Naturelle, 
 
 Monboddo, James Burnett, Lord {b. 1714, 
 d. 1799), Scotch judge ; came to London in 
 1745, and subsequently published Ancient 
 Metaphysics and The Origin and Progress of 
 Language. 
 
 Moncey, Bon Adrien, Due de Conegliano 
 (i. 1754, d. 1842), marshal of France; dis- 
 tinguished himself in Spain, and commanded 
 the gendarmerie of Paris under Napoleon, 
 but accepted the Bourbons and retained his 
 command, after undergoing imprisonment 
 for refusing to preside at the trial of Ney ; 
 had command of the expedition of 1823 
 against Spain. 
 
 Monck, Right Hon. Charles, Viscount {b. 
 1819), British statesman, sat for Portsmouth 
 as a Liberal from 1852 to 1857, and was a 
 lord of the Treasury from 1855 to 1858 ; was 
 Governor-General of British America from 
 1861 to 1868, and was one of the commis- 
 aioners appointed to carry out the Irish 
 Church Act. He was made a peer of the 
 United Kingdom in 1866, having been an 
 Irish viscount since 1849. 
 
 Moncrieff, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., F.R S. 
 
 (J 1829), engineer, colonel in the Edin- 
 burgh Royal Artillery ; travelled extensively 
 in all parts of the world, and supplied topo- 
 graphical information to the Colonial Office, 
 and was present as a militia oiScer at the 
 
 bombardment of Sebastopol, when first 
 occurred to him the idea of his invention of 
 the disappearing system (for mounting guns), 
 afterwards improved in the hydro-pneumatio 
 system. 
 
 Moncrieff, James, Lord (i. 1811), Scotch 
 judge of an old family, educated at Edin- 
 burgh, and admitted to the bar in 1833 ; was 
 Solicitor-General for Scotland (1850-51) and 
 Lord Advocate tiU the change of ministry 
 in March, 1852, being reappointed in De- 
 cember of that year, and holding office till 
 1858, and again from 1859 to 1866, and in 
 1868-69, in which year he became lord 
 justice clerk. He was created a baronet in 
 1871, and a peer of the United Kingdom in 
 1874, and was one of the commissioners 
 under the Endowed Institutions (Scotland) 
 Act of 1878. 
 
 Monge, Gaspard, Comte de Peluse {b. 
 1746, d. 1818), French mathematician, the 
 chief founder of the Ecole Polytechnique, 
 taught natural philosophy at Lyons when 
 only sixteen ; became minister of marine in 
 1792, and accompanied the Egyptian expe- 
 dition in 1798, on his return from which he 
 was ennobled, and given an estate by Na- 
 poleon, on whose fall he was expelled the 
 institute, and soon after lost his reason. He 
 wrote several mathematical worksi 
 
 Monica, Saint {b. 332, d. 387), mother of 
 Saint Augustine. 
 
 Monier-WtUiams, Sir Monier, D.C.L., 
 LL.D. (b. 1819), Orientalist, was bom at 
 Bombay, and educated at King's College 
 and Balliol, Oxford ; after holdiug the pro- 
 fessorship of Sanscrit at Haileybury College 
 for fourteen years, was elected to the same 
 chair at Oxford in 1860. He visited India 
 three times after this, the result being the 
 foundation of the Indian Institute at Ox- 
 ford, which was opened in 1884. He was 
 knighted in 1886. Besides many editions 
 and translations of Sanscrit classics, he is 
 author of A Practical Grammar of the Sans- 
 crit Language arranged with the Classical 
 Languages of Europe, English-Sanscrit and 
 Sanscrit-English dictionaries, A Hindustani 
 Primer, etc., axxd. Religious Thought and Life 
 in India. 
 
 Monk, George (A. 1608, d. 1670), English 
 general ; served in the Royalist army in 
 England and Ireland, but was made 
 prisoner at Nantwich, and remained five 
 years in the Tower. After his I'elease he 
 again commanded in Ireland, and was 
 Cromwell's lieutenant in Scotland, but soon 
 after the latter's death took the chief part in 
 restoring Charles II., for which he received 
 the dukedom of Albemarle. As admiral, 
 he gained a great victory over the Dutch 
 in 1666. He was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey.
 
 Mon 
 
 (568 1 
 
 Mon 
 
 MonS-Bretton, Lord, Right Hon. {b. 
 1825). statesman, son of Sir John Dodson, 
 represented East Sussex as a Liberal from 
 18o7 to 1874, and Chester from that year 
 till 1880, when he was unseated on petition, 
 but sat for Scarborough till 1885, when he 
 received a peerage. Mr. Dodson was chair- 
 man of Committees from 1865 to 1872, 
 financial secretary to the Treasuiy 1873-4, 
 President of the Local Government Board 
 1880-2, and Chancellor of the Duchy of 
 Lancaster 1882-5. 
 
 Monmouth, James, Duke of (b. 1649, d. 
 1685), natural son of Charles II. by Lucy 
 Walters, was bom at Rotterdam, created 
 duke at the age of fourteen ; served in the 
 French army against the Dutch in 1673, and 
 defeated the Covenanters at BothweU Brigg 
 in 1678. He had been the Whig candidate 
 for the succession against the Duke of 
 York, and soon after the accession of the 
 latter headed a rebellion, was defeated at 
 Sedgemoor, and executed. 
 
 Monnler, Henri Bonaventure (b. 1799, d. 
 1877), French writer, actor, and caricaturist ; 
 author of Memoires de Joseph Frudhomme, La 
 Grandeur et la Decadence de Joseph Frud- 
 homme, a comedy, in which he played the 
 title-r6le, Scenes Fopulaires Dessinees d la 
 Flume, etc. 
 
 Monnoyer. {See Baptiste.] 
 
 Monro, Alexander {b. 1697, d. 1767), 
 Scotch physician, pupil of Cheselden and 
 Boerhaave ; became professor of anatomy to 
 the Edinburgh Company of Surgeons, and 
 instituted the medical school there, besides 
 publishing Osteology and several other 
 works. His son, Alexander {d. 1817), suc- 
 ceeded to his professorship, and was author 
 of several medical works, as was also a 
 grandson of the same name. 
 
 Monro, James, C.B. {h. 1838), British 
 administrator ; educated at Edinburgh and 
 Berlin ; entered the Bengal Civil Office in 
 1857, and retired in 1884, when he was 
 appointed assistant-commissioner of metro- 
 poUtau police. From 1888 to 1890 he was 
 chief commissioner, when he retired, owing 
 to a disagreement with the Home Office. 
 
 Monroe, James {h. 1751, d. 1831), fifth 
 President of the United States ; served with 
 distinction in the war of Independence, 
 being wounded at Trenton, and in 1783 was 
 el_ected member of Congress. From 1794 to 
 1796 he was American plenipotentiary in 
 France, after which he went to London in a 
 similar capacity. From 1811 to 1817 he 
 was secretary of state, and was chosen pre- 
 sident in the latter year, being re-elected in 
 1821. A message to Congress in 1823 con- 
 tained what has since been known as the 
 " Monroe doctrine." 
 
 Monroe, Right Hon. Justice (6. 1839), 
 
 Irish judge, graduated at Queen's College, 
 Galway, and was called to the Irish bar in 
 1863. Having taken silk in 1S77, he waa 
 law-adviser to the Irish Government 1878- 
 80, and Solicitor-General for Ireland 1884-5, 
 when he was appointed judge of the Chan- 
 cery division, being created privy coub- 
 cillor next year. 
 
 Monstrelet, Euguerrand de {d. 1453), 
 French historian, provost of Cambrai, 
 wi'ote a Cltronique of the years 1400-53, of 
 which an English translation appeared in 
 1810. 
 
 Mont, Deodato del {h. 1581, d. 1634), 
 Flemish painter, pupil of Rubens, who 
 procured for him the appointment of 
 painter and architect to Duke Albert and 
 the Infanta Isabella. Two of his best pic- 
 tures are at Antwerp, in the chiu'ches of the 
 Jesuits and Notre Dame. 
 
 Montagu, Basil [b. 1770, d. 1851), English 
 writer, son of Lord Sandwich and Miss 
 Ray ; was called to the bar, and published 
 treatises on the law of bankruptcy ; worked 
 with Romilly and others for the mitigation 
 of the penal code, and was an intimate 
 friend of Coleridge. He published an 
 edition of Bacon, with biography, and 
 several other works. 
 
 Montagu (Montacute), John Neville. Lord 
 {d. 1471), brother of Warwick, the "King- 
 maker"; was ennobled by Edward IV. in 
 1461, and won the battle of Hexham in 
 1464, but deserted the Yorkists in 1470, and 
 was killed at Barnet in the following year. 
 
 Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley {h. circa 
 1690, d. 1762), was daughter of the Duke of 
 Kingston, and went with her husband to Con- 
 stantinople in 1716, whence she wrote her 
 Letters to Pope, Addison, and others. She 
 introduced inoculation into England. An 
 edition of her works was published in 1861. 
 Her son, Edwaed {d. 1776), ran away from 
 Westminster, became a chimney-sweep, and 
 afterwards a muleteer in Spain, and after 
 sitting in ParUament some years, went 
 abroad again, and became a Mahometan. 
 
 Montagu, Right Hon. Lord Robert {b. 
 1825), English politician and writer. After 
 graduating at Cambridge, entered Parlia- 
 ment in 1859 as member for Huntingdon- 
 shire, which he represented as a Con- 
 servative till 1874, when he was returned 
 as a Conservative Home Ruler for West 
 Meath. He left the Home Rulers, how- 
 ever, in 1877, and Parliament tliree years 
 later. He was vice-president of the Coun- 
 cil and Charity commissioner 1867-8 : be- 
 came a Romanist in 1870, but left the 
 Catholics in 1882. He wrote numerous 
 works, among which may be named Some 
 Popular Errors ' Concerning Folitics and
 
 Mon 
 
 (569) 
 
 ItHon 
 
 Religion (1874), Remarks on Mr. Gladstone's 
 Political Expostulations on the Vatican De- 
 crees (1874), Recent Events, with a Clite to 
 their Solution. 
 
 Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de (i. 1533, d. 
 1592), French writer, was educated at the 
 College de Guienne at Bordeaux, partly 
 under George Buchanan, and became a j udge 
 of the Parlement there in 1554. He took no 
 part in affairs, but was driven from his 
 chateau for two years by the wars of the 
 League, during which time he formed his 
 friendship with Marie de Goumay. In 1588 
 he was chosen to negotiate a treaty between 
 Guise and Navarre at Blois. His Essais, 
 of which Shakespeare and Ben Jonson 
 possessed translations, were first published 
 m 1580. 
 
 Montalembert, Charles Forbes de Tryon, 
 Comte de (b. 1810, d. 1870). French writer 
 and politician, son of an English colonel, 
 who was created peer of France, and was 
 ambassador at Stockholm ; was born in 
 London, but educated chiefly in Paris. He 
 became one of the followers of Lamenuais, 
 and first attracted notice by a speech iu the 
 Chamber (1831) in favour of free Catholic 
 schools. Having visited England and the 
 East, he became a leader of the Ultra- 
 montane party, but also on one point a 
 strong Liberal, yet he made a great speech 
 in favour of the Sonderbund in 1847. Hav- 
 ing been a member of the Assemblies of 1848 
 and 1849, and been received at the French 
 Academy in 1852, he retired from public life 
 Boon afterwards. His chief works were La 
 Vie de St. Elisabeth de Hongrie (1835-6), Bit 
 Vandalisme, et du Catholicisme dins I' Art 
 (1839), VEglise Libre dans VEtat Libre 
 (1863). 
 
 Montalivet, Marthe Camille, Comte de 
 {b. 1801, d. 1880), statesman, from an early 
 age took part in public affairs ; opposed the 
 Polignac ministry, and after the revolution 
 of 1830 was several times minister of the 
 interior between that year and 1840, and 
 continued to be an adviser unofficially of 
 Louis Philippe, whom he endeavoured to 
 persuade to dismiss Guizot. After the 
 establishment of the second republic he 
 pubhshed several works in defence of the 
 Orleanist monarchy, and was elected 
 senator only a year before his death. 
 
 Montanus (2nd century), a Phrygian, 
 founder of the sect of the Montanists, 
 whose principles Tertullian favoured. 
 
 Montcalm de Saint V^ran, Louis Joseph, 
 Marquis de (i. 1712, (/. 175')),Freuch general; 
 was named commander of the French forces 
 in Canada in 175G, where he won several 
 victories, and fortified Quebec, but was de- 
 feated by Wolfe in 1759, and mortally 
 woimded. 
 
 Monteagle, Thomas Spring Rice, Lord (>. 
 1790, d. Ib66), statesman, bom at Limerick, 
 which he represented from 1820 till 1832, 
 when he was elected for Cambridge. He 
 became Colonial Secretary in 1834, and 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer in the follow- 
 ing year, resigning that office in 1839, when 
 he became a peer. He was a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and sat on several royal 
 commissions on art. 
 
 Montebello, Due de. [See Lannes.] 
 
 Montecucculi, Raimondo, Count (J. 1608, 
 d. 1681), Italian general in the service of 
 the empire. During the Thirty Years' war he 
 defeated the Swedes, and drove them out of 
 Bohemia in 1646, but was taken prisoner 
 in 1639 ; was made marshal in 1648, and 
 distinguished himself in Poland and against 
 the Turks, winning the victory of the Raab 
 in 1664, and was afterwards an able 
 opponent of Turenne and Conde in Holland 
 and on the Rhine. He was author of 
 Memorie inferno all' Arte BelUea, 
 
 Montefiore, Sir Moses, Bart. (J). 1784, d, 
 188-3), Jewish philanthropist; having made 
 a fortune on the Stock Exchange, founded 
 the Alliance Assurance Company and the 
 Provincial Bank of Ireland, and devoted 
 his great wealth to the relief of his co- 
 religionists and others. 
 
 Montegut, Emile {b. 1826), French writer, 
 bom at Limoges ; author of Les Pays Bas, 
 Impressions de Vot/nge et d'Art (1869), 
 L'Angleterreet les Colonies Australes, Poetes 
 et Artistes de V Italic, Le Marechal Eavoilt, 
 and translations of Emerson's Essays, 
 Macaulay's History, and Shakespeare's 
 plays. 
 
 Montelupo, Rafi'aelo da [d. circa 1570), 
 Italian sculptor, pupil and assistant of 
 Lorenzetti at Rome ; after serving as bom- 
 bardier at San Augelo, made bas-reliefs at 
 Loretto. He afterwards assisted Michel- 
 angelo, and was architect of the Duomo at 
 Orvieto, but his monument to Baldassare 
 Turini at Pescia was his best work. 
 
 Monten, Dietrich (*. 1799, d. 1843), Ger- 
 man miUtary painter, his chief works being 
 The Storming of Belgrade, The Battle of 
 Liitzen, etc. 
 
 Montepin, Xavier de {b. 1824), French 
 writer, conspicuous in 1848 as an auti- 
 revolutionary journalist ; became the author 
 of numerous novels, Confessions d'un Bo- 
 hhne (1849), Les Viveurs de Paris (1852-6), 
 Le Medecin des Folles (1879), etc., and of 
 Pauline, La Slrene de Paris, and other plays. 
 
 Months, Lola {d. 1861), adventuress, 
 whose real name is supposed to have been 
 Gilbert. Having run away with a captain, 
 and for some time appeared on the stage, she
 
 Mon 
 
 ( ^^'^ ) 
 
 Mon 
 
 became through her beauty a political power 
 in Europe, being for some time the mistress 
 of King Lewis of Bavaria, who created her a 
 couutess. After the revolution she con- 
 tinued to be a notorious character, and at 
 last died in New York. 
 
 Montespan, Fran^oise Athenais de Roche- 
 chouart, Marquise de {b. 1641, d. 1707), mis- 
 tress of Louis XIV., having been dame de 
 palais to the queen. After being gradually- 
 supplanted by Madame de Maintenon, she 
 withdrew from court in 1814, and became 
 devote. 
 
 Montesquieu, Charles le Secondat, Baron 
 de {b. 1689, d. 1755), French philosopher, 
 became president of the Bordeaux Parle - 
 ment in 1716, and member of the French 
 Academy in 1728. Having given up his 
 appointments, he visited England in the 
 course of his travels, and was elected a 
 fellow of the Royal Society. He first at- 
 tained celebrity by his Lettres Fersanes, a 
 picture of contemporary life, but his chief 
 work was Z' Esprit des Lois (1748), which 
 was preceded by Les Causes de la Grandeur 
 des Romains et de leur Decadence, and other 
 works. 
 
 Monteverde, Claudio (*. 1568, d. 1643), 
 Venetian composer ; said to have been the 
 first who published operas and to have in- 
 troduced the tremolo. Ariana (1607) and 
 L'Offeo were his chief productions. 
 
 Montezuma I., Emperor of Mexico {d. 
 1471), after having been the victorious 
 general of his uncle, succeeded him in 1436. 
 He defeated the people of Chalis, and em- 
 banked the lake of Tezcuco. 
 
 Montezuma II. (b. 1466, d. 1520), his 
 grandson, became emperor in 1502, and 
 governed with gi-eat cruelty. His dominions 
 having been attacked and conquered by 
 Cortez, he was killed by his subjects while 
 persuading them to submit to the Spaniards. 
 
 Montfaucon, Bernard de {b. 1655, d. 
 1741), French scholar; having served in the 
 army under Turenne, entered the con- 
 gregation of St. Maur in 1675, and after- 
 wards wrote many works, the chief of which 
 was L'Antiquite Expliqiiee et Representee en 
 Figures. 
 
 Montfort, Simon de {d. 1218), fourth 
 Count, is chiefly remembered as the leader 
 of the cruel crusade against the Albigenses 
 (1208). He afterwards took Toulouse from 
 Count Raymond, and was killed while 
 trjing to recover it after its recapture. He 
 was made Earl of Leicester by King John. 
 
 iilontfort, Simon de {d. 1265), Earl of 
 Leicester, and son of the preceding, was 
 bom in France, but came to London in 
 1231, and married the king's sister ; was 
 appointed governor of Guienne in 1246, but 
 
 provoked much complaint from the severity 
 of his rule, and resigned in 1253. Soon 
 after his return he headed the constitutional 
 party against Henry III., and gained the 
 practical control of the government after 
 the battle of Lewes, but part of the 
 baronage, being jealous of ms influence, 
 joined the Royalists against him, and he 
 was defeated and slain at Evesham. The 
 people, however, canonised him ; hymns 
 were composed in his honour, and miracles 
 wrought at his tomb. 
 
 Montgolfler, Jacques Etienne {h. 1745, 
 d. I7yi>)' French paper-maker, inventor of 
 the balloon, the idea of which is said to 
 have been suggested by a study of Piiest- 
 ley's works. The first experiment was 
 made in 1783 at Annonay, the birthplace of 
 the Montgolfiers, and it was afterwards 
 repeated at Versailles. Joseph, his elder 
 brother {fi. 1810), had a share in the in- 
 vention, and also devised a hydraulic 
 machine, called a water-ram. 
 
 Montgomery, Alexander {d. circa 1615), 
 Scotch poet ; author of The Cherrie and the 
 Slae ; was a favourite of James VL, who 
 gave him a pension. 
 
 Montgomery, Florence {b. 1847), daughter 
 of Sir A. Montgomery, and author of Mis- 
 understood (1869), Thrown Together, and 
 many similar tales. 
 
 Montgomery, Gabriel de {b. 1530, d, 
 1574), while captain of the Scots Guard 
 killed Henry II. in a tournament ; became 
 a Huguenot, and fought bravely against the 
 Catholics till taken at Matignon and exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 Montgomery, James {b. 1771, d. 1854), 
 Scotch poet; made his way on foot to 
 London, where he became a journalist, and 
 was several times imprisoned for his 
 writings. His chief poems were The World 
 Before the Flood and Greenland. He re- 
 ceived a Civil List pension of £150 by 
 recommendation of Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 Montgomery, Robert (b. 1807, d. 1855), 
 poetaster, whose works are now unknown 
 and unread, and were immortalised by Ma- 
 caulay's onslaught in the Edinburgh Review, 
 
 Montholon, Charles Tristan, Comte de (J. 
 1782, d. 1853), chamberlain of Napoleon I. ; 
 was severely wounded at Waterloo, after 
 which he accompanied his master to St. 
 Helena, and published, in the form of 
 Memoires, the documents written by him 
 there. He was afterwards imprisoned for 
 his share in the descent of Louis Napoleon 
 on Boulogne in 1840. 
 
 Monti, Raffaelle {b. 1818, d. 1881), Italian 
 sculptor, bom at Milan ; visited Vienna and 
 England in 1847, and, having taken part 
 in the popular movement in Italy in tha
 
 Mou 
 
 (571) 
 
 Moo 
 
 following year, returned to England. His 
 chief works were The Veiled Vestal and The 
 Sleep of Sorrow and the Bream of Joy. 
 
 Montluc, Blaise de {b. 1501, d. 1677), 
 French marshal ; distinguished for his 
 services under Francis I. in Italy, and 
 afterwards notorious for his cruelty to the 
 Huguenots ; wrote Memoires, which were 
 called by Henri I V. the • ' Soldier' s Breviary. ' ' 
 
 Montmorency, Anne Due de [b. 1492, d. 
 1567), French marshal and Constable of 
 France, descended from Matthieu, "the 
 Great Constable," and minister of Philip 
 Augustus, Louis VIII., and Blanche of 
 Castile. After serving Francis I. , and being 
 taken prisoner at Pavia, he was made con- 
 stable in 1538, but afterwards exiled; was 
 restored by Henri II., in whose reign he 
 suppressed the rebellion in Guienne, but 
 was captured at St. Quentin ; afterwards 
 endeavoui-ed to hold the balance between 
 the Guises and the Huguenots, but ulti- 
 mately joined the former. He was made 
 prisoner at Dreux, but won the victory at 
 St. Denis, where, however, he was mortally 
 wounded. His brother, Henri, who had 
 been governor of Languedoc fifty years, 
 and afterwards joined Henri of Navarre, 
 succeeded him as duke. 
 
 Montmorency, Henri, Due de (,i. 1595, d. 
 1632), son of Henri and nephew of Anne, 
 was made admiral of France in his eighteenth 
 year; defeated De Eohau, the Huguenot 
 leader, in 16:28, and the Spaniards vmder 
 Doria in 1630, and was created marshal, 
 but being jealous of the power exercised by 
 Eichelieu, raised a rebelUon in Languedoc, 
 and having been captured, was put to death 
 by his orders. 
 
 Montorsoli, Fra Giovan Angelo (/?. 1563), 
 Italian sculptor, bom near Florence, was 
 employed by Clement VII. to restore 
 statues, and assisted Michelangelo at 
 Florence. He executed, among other works, 
 the statue of Andrea Doria at Genoa. 
 
 Montpensier, Anne Marie of Orleans 
 (Mademoiselle de Montpensier) {h. 1627, d. 
 1693). daughter of Gaston, Due d' Orleans 
 and niece of Louis XIII. ; was a bold and 
 able partisan of Conde, opposing Richelieu 
 and aiming at marriage with Louis XIV. ; 
 was secretly married to the Comte de 
 Lauzun. whose liberation from prison she 
 effected after ten years, but was badly 
 treated by him. She left copious MSmoircs. 
 
 Montpensier, Antoine Louis d' Orleans, 
 Due de ib. 1824, d. 1S90), fifth son of Louis 
 Philippe ; having distinguished himself as a 
 soldier in Africa, married the sister of Isa- 
 bella, Queen of Spain, and came to England 
 after the revolution of 1848. Twenty years 
 later he was a candidate for the Spanish 
 throne, and in 1870 he killed Enrique de 
 
 Bourbon in a duel. After the abdication 
 of Amadeus I., he supported the claims of 
 his nephew, AKonso, to whom one of his 
 daughters was married, another becoming 
 the wife of the Comte de Paris, 
 
 Montpetit, Armand de {b. 1713, c?. 1800), 
 French artist ; invented the "eludonic" style 
 of painting, on which he wrote an essay, 
 and also made some improvements in the 
 steam-engine. 
 
 Montrose, James Graham, Marquis of {b. 
 1612, d. 1650), Royalist leader ; was born in 
 Eduiburg:h, and lived some time in France as 
 an officer iu the Scottish Guard. Onhis return 
 he first joined the Covenanters, but after- 
 wards became a zealous Royalist, gaining 
 several battles for the king, but was de- 
 feated by Lesley at Philiphaugh in 1645. 
 and four years later, having been captured 
 in Orkney, was brought to Edinburgh and 
 executed. 
 
 Montucla, Jean Etienne (b. 1725, d. 1799), 
 French mathematician ; accompanied Turgot 
 to Cayenne as secretary and astronomer in 
 1764, and was intimate with Lalande, 
 D'Alembert, and others ; wi-ote Histoire des 
 Mathematiques and other works. 
 
 Moody, Dwight Lynian {b. 1837), Ameri» 
 can preacher, born in Massachusetts ; re- 
 nounced Unitarianism and became a Con- 
 gregatioualist, served during the Civil war 
 on the Christian Commission, and from 1865 
 entirely abandoned business. His church 
 and school-house at Chicago having been 
 burnt down in 1871, he came to England to 
 raise finids for rebuilding them, and was 
 successful in his object. He had previously 
 visited the country iu 1864, and paid two 
 later visits, accompanied by Sankey, in 1873 
 and 1883. 
 
 Moolraj, governor of Mooltan ; succeeded 
 Sawan Mull in 1844, and some time after- 
 wards caused to be treacherously murdered 
 Mr. Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, who 
 had come to enforce payment of his suc- 
 cession fee. In 1848 his capital was stomied, 
 and having surrendered he was imprisoned 
 for life. 
 
 Moor, Karl van {b. 1656, d. 1738), Dutch 
 painter, bom at Leyden ; painted portraits 
 and historical pictures, among them being 
 one of Marlborough and Prince Eugene for 
 the emperor. 
 
 Moore, Sir John {b. 1761, <^. 1809), soldier ; 
 son of a doctor at Glasgow, who edited 
 Smollett's works; served in the American 
 war, in Corsica (1794), in the attack on St. 
 Lucia, of which he became governor, and 
 subsequently in Ireland, Holland, Egypt, 
 aud Sicily (1806). On his return from an 
 expedition in aid of Sweden he was sent to 
 Portugal to command an army to cooperate 
 with the Spaniards. He was obliged to
 
 Moo 
 
 ( 572 ) 
 
 Mor 
 
 retreat from Salamanca to the sea, and won 
 the victory of Coriuma (1809), hut fell in the 
 hattle. 
 
 Moore, John, D.D. {h. 1662, d. 1714), 
 Bishop successively of Norwich and Ely. 
 His valuable library was purchased by 
 George I., and presented to Cambridge 
 
 University. 
 
 Moore, Sir Jonas (*. 1617, d. 1681), 
 mathematician ; patronised by Charles I., 
 and made surveyor- general of ordnance by 
 Charles II., founded a mathematical school 
 at Christ's Hospital, and wrote several 
 mathematical works. 
 
 Moore, Thomas (b. 1779, d. 1852), Irish 
 writer, son of a grocer at Dublin ; graduated 
 at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1779, and went 
 to London soon after, where he obtained 
 the entree to Holland House. In 1804 he 
 went to Bermuda as registrar to the Ad- 
 miralty Court, but after a tour in Canada 
 and the States returned to England in 1806. 
 After nearly having a duel with Jeffrey he 
 became his friend, as also that of Bjrron and 
 Sheridan, both of whose hves he wi-ote. A 
 pension of £300 was conferred on him in 
 1835. Chief among his works were Lal/a 
 Mookh (1817), Irish Melodies and Sacred 
 Songs, The Epicurean, A Life of Lord E. 
 Fitzgerald, etc. 
 
 Moore, Thomas (b. 1821, d. 1887), English 
 botanist ; author of the Treasure of Botany 
 and editor of Ferns of Great Britain, Nature- 
 printed. 
 
 Moorhouse, James, D.D. {b. 1826), divine, 
 son of a Manchester merchant, was educated 
 at St. John's College, Cambridge ; became 
 Bishop of Melbourne in 1876, and of Man- 
 chester in 1885. 
 
 Moorshed Koolee Khan {d. 1725), viceroy 
 of Bengal under Aurungzebe. Having been 
 originally a slave, left the province in a high 
 state of cultivation, and founded Moors- 
 hedabad, but persistently opposed the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 Morales, Luis de {d. 1586), Spanish 
 painter, called "El Divino," from his 
 Bubiects being sacred : was pensioned by 
 Philip II. 
 
 Moran, Patrick, Cardinal (i. 1830), 
 Eomanist Archbishop of Sydney, was bom 
 in Ireland, and educated in Rome ; after 
 being professor of Hebrew to the propa- 
 ganda and secretary to Cardinal Cullen, 
 became Bishop of Ossory, and Archbishop 
 of Sj'dney in 1884. Among his numerous 
 works are Historical Sketches of the Persecu- 
 tions under Cromwell and the Puritans, Irish 
 Saints in Great Britain, and The Federal, 
 Government in Australasia. 
 
 Moratin, Leandro Fernando de {b. 1760, 
 
 d. 1828). Spanish dramatist, patronised by 
 Florida Blanca and Godoy; produced El 
 Vicjo y la Nina, Escuela de los Maridos, and 
 other plays, besides a translation of Hamlet 
 and some lyrics. His father, Nicolo {d. 
 178U), was also a dramatist, his chief works 
 being Lucretia and La Petimetra. 
 
 Moray. [See Murray.] 
 
 Mordaunt. {See Peterborough.] 
 
 More, Hannah {b. 1745, d. 1833), English 
 vn-iter, born near Bristol, where, with her 
 sister, she kept a school ; became acquainted 
 with Johnson, Burke, and their circle when 
 in London, but returned to the country in 
 1786. Her chief works were Sacred Dramas 
 (1782), Practical Piety (1811), and several 
 poems and successful plays, Percy being 
 brought out by Garrick at Drury Lane. 
 
 More, Henry, D.D. {b. 1614, d. 1687), 
 Cambridge Platonist philosopher, was one 
 of the original members of the Royal Society, 
 and wrote Divine Dialogues and Psychozoia : 
 the Life of the Soul (1640). 
 
 More, Sir Thomas {b. 1478, d. 1535), 
 statesman and writer, son of Sir J. More, 
 a judge : was educated in the household of 
 Archbishop Morton, who sent him to Oxford, 
 where he made the acquaintance of Eras- 
 mus. He entered Parliament in 1504, where 
 he took an independent course, refusing a 
 pension from the king, whose favour, how- 
 ever, and that of Wolsey, he enjoyed ; was 
 knighted in 1522, became Speaker in 1523, 
 and on the fall of Wolsey, Chancellor, but 
 resigned in 1532, and was committed to the 
 Tower two years later for refusing to take 
 the oath of supremacy. He was then con- 
 demned by attainder, and executed on a 
 charge of treasou. He wrote Utopia and 
 several other works, most of them in Latin. 
 
 Moreau, Jean Victor {b. 1761, d. 1813), 
 general ; commanded the army of the Rhine 
 in 1796, and after defeating the Archduke 
 Charles, made a masterly retreat ; after- 
 wards gained victories at Biberach and 
 Hoheuliuden (1800), and took Salzburg. 
 Bonaparte became jealous of his fame and 
 distrustful of his political principles, and he 
 was sent into exile in 1804 on a charge of 
 conspiracy. On his return to Europe he 
 joined the allies, and was soon after mortally 
 woiuided at Dresden. 
 
 Moreau de la Sarthe, Jacques {b. 1771, d. 
 1826), French physician; smthox oi Histoire 
 
 Natnrelle de la Femme (1803). I 
 
 Moreau de Saint Mery, Mederic filie ) 
 (b. 1750, d. 1819). French administrator and 
 founder of the Musee de Paris, published 
 Lois et Constittitions des Colonies Fran<;aise 
 de VAmerique, 1550 A 1785.
 
 Mor 
 
 (573) 
 
 Mor 
 
 MoreU, Thomas {b. 1703, d. 1784), Eng- 
 lish scholar, fellow of King's College, Cam- 
 bridge, author of Thesaurus Grcecce Poeseos 
 and the hbretto of several of Handel's 
 oratorios. He also assisted Hogarth in his 
 Analysis of Beauty. 
 
 MoreUet, Andre, Abbe (b. 1727, d. 1819), 
 French economist, friend of Franklin, the 
 philosopher ; was imprisoned in the Bastille 
 at the opening of the revolution for a 
 pamphlet against the court. He -wrote 
 Theorie du Faradoxe, and translated Bec- 
 caria's work on Crimes and Funishments. 
 
 Moreto y Cabana, Augustin {d. 1669), 
 Spanish dramatist, contemporary with Cal- 
 deron, his best work being the comedy 
 El Desden con el Desden. His Guardar una 
 Muger no Fuede Ser has been thought to 
 have been the model of L' Ecole des Maris. 
 
 Morgan. {See De Morgan.] 
 
 Morgan, Right Hon. George Osborne {b. 
 1826), English politician, born at Conway; 
 after a distinguished career at Oxford, was 
 called to the bar in 1853, and became 
 Queen's Counsel in 1869. He entered Par- 
 liament as a Liberal in 1868 for Denbigh- 
 shire, was Judge Advocate General from 
 1880 to 1885, and uuder-secretary for the 
 colonies in 1886, having been prominent 
 in the carrying of the Burials Act, the 
 Married Women's Property Act, and the 
 Abolition of Corporal Punishment in the 
 Army. He is also author of a standard 
 work on Chancery practice, and several 
 political pamphlets. 
 
 Morgan, Sir Hemy {d. 1690), Welsh 
 buccaneer ; ravaged the Spanish colonies 
 and plimdered Puerto Bello in 1668, and 
 was knighted by Charles II. 
 
 Morgan, Sydney, Lady \nee Owenson], 
 {b. 1783, d. 1859), Irish novelist, daughter 
 of an actor ; author of The Wild Irish Girl, 
 Woman and her Master, Passages from my 
 Autobiography, and other works. Afterthe 
 death of Sir C. Morgan she received a Civil 
 List pension. 
 
 Morghen, Raffaelle San2ao Cavaliers {b. 
 17oS, (/. 1833), Italian engraver, bom at 
 Naples ; reproduced most of Raffaelle's 
 works, and The Last Supper of Leonardo da 
 Vinci. He was invited to Paris in 1812 by 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Morier, James (J. 1780, d. 1849), author of 
 books of travels in the East, and of Ilajji 
 Baba of Ispahan, and other novels. 
 
 Morier, Sir Robert Burnett, G.C.B., 
 D.C.L. {b. 1826), diplomatist; after gra- 
 duating at Oxford, served in the Education 
 Department, and as attache at Vienna and 
 Berlin, and after having been a member of 
 the Tariff Commission of 1865, secretary of 
 
 legation at Athens, charge d'affaires at 
 Frankfort, Darmstadt, Stuttgardt and Mu- 
 nich, was appointed minister-plenipotentiary 
 to Portugal in 1876, to Spain in 1881, to 
 Russia in 1884, and to Rome in 1892. 
 
 Morin, Jean (6. 1591, d. 1659), French 
 Orientalist, chaplain to Henrietta Maria ; 
 was noted for his knowledge of the Samari- 
 tan language, of which he published a 
 gi'ammar and lexicon. 
 
 MorlaccM, Francesco (b. 1784, d. 1841), 
 Italian composer, whose works include ora- 
 torios {Gil Angeli al Sepolchro, 1802, etc.), 
 operas {II Ritratto), and masses. 
 
 Morland, George {b. 1763, d. 1804), English 
 painter, whose subjects were generally 
 chosen from low life and rustic scenery 
 (farmyards, scenes at village alehouses, 
 etc.), lived a very irregular life, and died in 
 a sponging-house in Loudon. 
 
 Morland, Sir Samuel {d. 1695), engineer ; 
 was employed diplomatically in Savoy by 
 Cromwell, and received a baronetcy from 
 Charles II., in whose reign he invented the 
 speaking - trumpet, and an arithmetical 
 machine. 
 
 Morley, Right Hon. Albert Parker, 3rd 
 Earl of {b. 1843), statesman, educated at 
 Eton and Balliol, was a lord-in-waiting 
 from 1868 to 1874, under-secretary for war 
 under Mr. Gladstone (1880-5), but resigned 
 the office of First Commissioner of Works in 
 1886 owing to disagreement with the policy 
 of Home Rule. In 1889 he was elected 
 chairman of committees in the House of 
 Lords. 
 
 Morley, Henry {b. 1822), biographer and 
 writer ; after practising as a doctor in Shrop- 
 shire for four years, came to London in 
 1851 as a joiirnalist and edited Household 
 Words; was English lecturer at King's 
 College from 1857 to 1865, and professor of 
 English from 1865 to 1889 at University 
 College, when he became Emeritus professor. 
 He edited for Routledge the Universal 
 Library, and for Cassell The National 
 Library, and wrote besides numerous bio- 
 graphies {Clement Marot, etc.), A First 
 Sketch of English Literature, Tables of Eng- 
 lish Literature, and edited Florio's Mon- 
 taigne, BosweU's Johnson, etc. 
 
 Morley, Right Hon. John {b. 1838), states- 
 man and writer, bom at Blackburn and 
 educated at Cheltenham and Oxford ; was 
 called to the bar in 1859, but devoted his 
 time to writing. He edited, among other 
 publications, the Fortnightly Review from 
 1867 to 1882, the Fall Mall Gazette fram 1S80 
 to 1883, and Macmillan 1883-85. and after 
 two imsuccessful candidatures (in 1869 and 
 1880) entered Parliament in 1883 as member
 
 Lor 
 
 (574 
 
 Mor 
 
 for Newcastle. He from the first adopted 
 Home Kiile, and in IbSti became Chief 
 Secretary for Ireland, and again in 1892. His 
 chief works are Edmund Burke ; an Histori- 
 cal Study, Voltaire, Jtousseau, Diderot, On 
 Compromise, Life of Cobden, Walpole and 
 Chatham, in the ^^ Statesmen " series ; and he 
 edited the " English Men of Letters" series. 
 
 Money, Samuel {b. 1809, d. 1886), Non- 
 conformist philanthropist, devoting his 
 wealth to all good works, the chief result 
 of his munificence being the Memorial Hall, 
 Farringdon Street. He represented Bristol 
 from 1868 to 1885, and declined a peerage 
 on retiring from public life. His son, 
 Aenold Moelet (J). 1849), having been 
 called to the bar in 1873, was returned for 
 Nottingham in 1880, and in 1886 became 
 patronage secretary to the Treasury, and 
 chief Liberal whip. 
 
 Momay, Philippe de {b. 1549, d. 1623), 
 French statesman, fled to England after the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew; afterwards 
 joined Henry of Navarre, and became his 
 chief counsellor, reconciling him with 
 Henri III. in 1589 ; obtained from Hemi 
 IV. the Edict of Nantes, but was dismissed 
 by him in 1600 as an over-zealous Huguenot. 
 
 ^Momin^on, Garrett Wesley, Earl of (b. 
 1735, d. 1781), Irish musician and composer, 
 professor of music at Dublin ; composed, 
 besides sacred music, many glees (0 Bird of 
 Eve, Come, Fairest Nymph, etc.) 
 
 Momy, Charles Auguste Lotiis Joseph, 
 Due de {b. 1811, d. I860), French statesman, 
 said to be half -brother of Napoleon III., was 
 adopted by the Due de Morny, and served 
 some time in the French army, after which 
 he became a speculator. Having had a share 
 in the coup d'etat of 1851, he became minister 
 of the interior, but resigned on account of 
 the decrees confiscating the Orleans property. 
 From 1854 till his death he was president of 
 the Corps Legislative, 
 
 Morosini, Francesco (6. 1611, d. 1694), 
 Doge of Venice, called "H Peloponesiaco," 
 from his conquest of the Morea from the 
 Turks in 1651 ; afterwards lost Candia, and 
 was tried for misconduct, but acquitted, 
 and, after being elected Doge in 1688, de- 
 feated the Turks on several occasions. 
 
 Morpeth, George William Howard, 
 Viscount, and Earl of Carlisle {b. 1802, d. 
 1864), entered Parliament in 1826, and be- 
 came Chief Secretary for Ireland in 183o- 
 In 1855 he was appointed Lord Lieutenant. 
 
 Morris, Francis Orpen (6. 1810), British 
 naturalist, son of Rear-Admiral H. G. 
 Morris; graduated at Oxford in 1833, and 
 soon after took orders, and became chaplain 
 to the Duke of Cleveland; wrote History 
 
 of British Birds (1851-7), Natural History 
 of British Butte^fties, An Essay on Scientific 
 Nomenclature, etc. 
 
 Morris, Gouvemeur (h. 1752, d. 1816), 
 American statesman ; became a member of 
 the Provincial Congress of New York, and 
 was one of those who drew up the state 
 constitution in 1776; was a prominent mem- 
 ber of the Continental Congress 1777-SO, 
 being the colleague of R. Morris as 
 superintendent of finance. He was one of 
 the draughters of the federal constitution 
 in 1787, after which he passed many years 
 in Europe, being minister to France 'during 
 the revolution, and became United States 
 senator on his return. He wrote Observa- 
 tions on the Amei'ican Revolution, and his 
 Correspondence throws much light on the 
 French revolution. 
 
 Morris, Rev. John (*. 1826), Catholic 
 biographer and writer, bom in India, was 
 secretary to Cardinals Wiseman and Man- 
 ning, and joined the Society of Jesus in 
 1867. Among bis works are Lfe of S. 
 Thomas of Canterbury, The Letter Books of 
 Sir Amyas Paulet, and The Troubles of Our 
 Catholic Forefathers. 
 
 Morris, Lewis {b. 1833), poet, grandson of 
 the Welsh poet of the same name, was bom 
 in Carmarthen, and educated at Sherborne 
 and Oxford, and having been called to the 
 bar practised as a conveyancer for several 
 years. He was several times an unsuccesf ul 
 Liberal candidate, and was some time vice- 
 chairman of the Reform Club. His chief 
 works are The Epic of Hades (1876-7), Given: 
 a Brama in Monologue (1878), The Ode of 
 Life (1880), Songs of Britain (containing the 
 Jubilee Ode), and A Vision of Saints. 
 
 Morris, Right Hon. Michael, Lord [b. 
 1827), Irish judge, bom in Galway, and 
 educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was 
 called to the Irish bar in 1849, and became 
 Queen's Counsel in 1863. He entered Par- 
 liament as an Independent in 1865 for 
 Galway, was successively Solicitor- and 
 Attorney- General for Ireland in 1866, was 
 appointed a judge of the Common Pleas in 
 1867, Lord Chi«f Justice in 1876, and in 
 1889 Lord of Appeal, receiving a life peer- 
 age in 1890. He was a member of several 
 commissions on Irish Primary Education. 
 
 Morris, Philip Richard (i. 1838), artist; 
 at first engaged as an iron-founder, but 
 having attracted the notice of Holman 
 Hunt, studied at the Royal Academy, 
 where in 1858 he won the gold medal for 
 his Good Samaritan, and won a travelling 
 studentship. He was elected A.R.A. in 
 1877, and exhibited at the Academy and the 
 Grosvenor Gallery The Shadow of the Cross, 
 A Procession at Bieppe (1877), Home ; A 
 Family Group (1886), etc.
 
 Mor 
 
 (575) 
 
 Mor 
 
 Morris, Eev. Kichard, LL.D. (i. 1S33), 
 philologist and -writer ; after being lecturer 
 on English at King's College school, was 
 elected in 1875 headmaster of the Royal 
 Masonic Institute for Boys. In 1874 he 
 was president of the Philological Society. 
 Among his works are The Etymology of 
 Local Saines, Specimens of Early English, 
 &ud Historical Outlines of English Accidetwe, 
 and editions of Early English Alliterative 
 I'oems. Chaucer's Bo'ethius, etc. 
 
 Morris, Sobert (6. 1734, d. 1806), Ameri- 
 can financier, bom in Liverpool : emigrated 
 at an early age and settled in Philadelphia, 
 becoming a partner in the counting-house 
 of C. Willing ; opposed the Stamp Act, and 
 signed the Non -importation Agreement 
 (17(35). Having become a member of the 
 Continental Congress, he signed the De- 
 claration of Independence, and greatly 
 helped the American cause from his own 
 purse, both dirring the war and afterwards. 
 He founded the Bank of North America, 
 was superintendent of finemce from 1781 to 
 1784, but declined the secretaryship of the 
 treasury ; was finally ruined by his specu- 
 lations, and died in prison for debt. 
 
 Morris, William (J. 1834), English poet 
 and Socialist, son of a London merchant ; 
 was educated at Marlborough and Oxford, 
 and in 1863, with D. G. Rossetti, Bume 
 Jones and others, engaged in the manufac- 
 ture of artistic wall-paper and household 
 decorations. During his leisure hours he 
 gave Socialist lectures, and wrote poetry, 
 his chief productions having been The Life 
 and Death of Jason (1867), The Earthly 
 Paradise (1868-70), The Story of Sigurd 
 the Tolsung (1877), besides translations of 
 the JEnetd and the Odyssey, and some prose 
 works, of which the chief is A Tale of the 
 House of the Wolfings (1889). 
 
 Morrison, Richard, D.D. (*. 1782, d. 
 1834), Orientalist ; went to China as a mis- 
 sionary in 1807, and was chief founder of 
 the Anglo-Chinese college at Malacca. He 
 published a Chinese version of the Bible, 
 and a Chinese dictionary and grammar. 
 
 Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (jb. 1791, rf. 
 1872), American electrician, sou of a Con- 
 gregatiouaUst mmister in Massachusetts; 
 having graduated at Yale, came to England 
 in 1810, and, becoming a pupil of West, ex- 
 hibited The Dying Hercules at the Academy 
 ia 1813. He afterwards abandoned art for 
 science, and in 1837 took out a patent for 
 his electric telegraph, the first overhead 
 message being sent from Washington to 
 Baltimore in 1844. It was afterwards gene- 
 rally adopted, the inventor receiving an 
 international testimonial in 1858. Disputes 
 subsequently arose as to priority of invention 
 with Professor Henry, and on account of 
 the infringement of Morse's patent. 
 
 Mortier, fidouard Adolphe, Due de Tre- 
 vise {b. 1768, d. 1835), marshal of France; 
 was sent by Napoleon to occupy Hanover in 
 1803, gained some victories in Spain ia 
 1809, was defeated at Montmartre in 1814 ; 
 also distinguished himself at Friedland and 
 in Russia. He gave in his adhesion at the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, and was war 
 minister to Louis Philippe for several 
 months, being soon after killed by an in< 
 femal machine. 
 
 Mortimer, Edmund {d. 1381), son of 
 Roger, married Philippa, daughter of 
 Lionel, Duke of Clarence. Their grand- 
 daughter, Anne, married Richard, Earl of 
 Cambridge, grandfather of Edward IV. 
 
 Mortimer, Roger, Ear^ of March (*. 1287, 
 d. 1330), the favourite of Isabella, wife of 
 Edward II., whom he assisted to overthrow 
 the Despencers, and afterwards ruled Eng- 
 land ; was arrested by Edward III. for the 
 murder of his father, and hanged at Tyburn. 
 His grandson, Roger, was restored to the 
 earldom in 1354. 
 
 Morton, James Douglas, fourth Earl of 
 (d. 1581), Scotch statesman, favoured the 
 reformation, and was made chancellor in 
 1563 ; fled to England after the miurder of 
 Rizzio, for his share in which he received a 
 
 Eardon by the influence of Bothwell, whom, 
 owever, he afterwards opposed, becoming 
 again Chancellor, and in 1572 Regent of 
 Scotland. In 1581 he was executed as an 
 accomplice in the murder of Damley, the 
 accusation being probably imtrue. 
 
 Morton, John, Cardinal (6. 1410, d. 1500), 
 statesman, became Bishop of Ely in 1478, 
 and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1486 ; was 
 employed diplomatically by Edward IV., 
 plotted against Richard III., and became 
 Lord Chancellor under Henry VII., when he 
 devised the well-known dilemma of " Mor- 
 ton's fork." 
 
 Morton, Levi Parsons (b. 1824), American 
 statesman, bom at Shoreham, Vermont ; 
 foxmded in 1863 the banking-house of 
 Morton, Bliss and Co. (New York), and 
 Morton, Rose and Co. (London) ; dechned 
 the Republican nomination as vice-president 
 in 1880, but accepted it and was elected ia 
 1888, ha\'ing in the intervening years been 
 American minister in France. 
 
 Morton, Samuel George (6. 1799, d. 1851), 
 American physician, professor of anatomy 
 at Philadelphia ; latterly gave his chief at- 
 tention to ethnological researches, the re- 
 sults of which were published in his works. 
 Crania Americana, Crania JEyyptiaca, Types 
 of Mankind (posthumous). 
 
 Moryson, Fynes {b. 1566), English tra- 
 veller, secretary to Lord Mountjoy, deputy
 
 Mos 
 
 (576) 
 
 Mou 
 
 of Irelaud ; published an Itinerary (1617), 
 and several works on Ireland. 
 
 Moscheles, Ignaz (b. 1794, d. 1870), Ger- 
 man pianist and composer, bom at Prague, 
 where he studied before going to Vienna ; 
 became a great pianist, visiting all the prin- 
 cipal Coutiuental towns, and coming to 
 England in 1820. He settled in London, 
 and became in 1825 professor at the 
 Academy, but in 1846 was appointed to a 
 professorship at Leipzig. Among his pupils 
 were Thalberg and Mendelssolm, and his 
 Life, edited by his wife, appeared in 1873. 
 
 Moschus (/. circa 250 B.C.), Greek pas- 
 toral poet, a native of Syracuse. 
 
 Moseilama (Jl. 632), Arab chief; set up 
 himself as a rival of Mahomet, with whom 
 he proposed a partition of the earth ; was 
 defeated by Khaled and slain, and his party 
 was soon suppressed. 
 
 Moseley, Henry Nottidge, F.R.S. (b. 1844, 
 d. 1891), scientific writer, son of Rev. H. 
 Moseley, F.R.S. ; after leaving Oxford, 
 studied medicine in London, Vienna, and 
 Leipzig, and in 1871 was a member of the 
 £clipse expedition to Ceylon and southern 
 India. During the years 1872-6 he was 
 with the Challenger expedition as naturalist, 
 and on his return became fellow of Exeter 
 College, Oxford, and in 1881 Linacre pro- 
 fessor of human and comparative anatomy. 
 He wrote Notes by a Naturalist on the 
 ^^ Challenger^' (1879), and many scientific 
 memoirs. 
 
 Moser, George Michael (*. 1705, d. 1783), 
 Swiss artist, bom at Schaffhausen; came 
 to England and became a goldsmith and 
 enameller; was appointed keeper of the 
 Royal Academy in 1768. His daughter, 
 Mary {b. 1744), a flower-painter, became an 
 Academician. 
 
 Moses, the lawgiver of Israel, flourished 
 probably about 1500 B.C. 
 
 Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von {b. 1694, 
 d. 1755), German writer, bom at Lttbeck of 
 noble parents, professor of theology at 
 Gottingen ; wrote Institutionum Ecclesiasticce 
 Historice Libri V. and other works, and also 
 translated Cudworth's Intellectual System of 
 the Universe, with annotations. 
 
 Moss, Robert, D.D. {b. 1666, d. 1729), 
 Dean of Ely and chaplain-iu-ordinary to 
 William III., Anne, and George I., being 
 dismissed in 1718 for his share in the 
 Bangorian controversy ; wrote The Report 
 Vindicated from Mis-reports, a defence of 
 Convocation. 
 
 Mossop, Henry (*. 1729, d. 1773), tra- 
 getliau, bom in Connaught, and educated at 
 Dublin, where he appeared as Zanga in 
 
 Young's Revenge. He played in London 
 with success, but was tinally ruined by the 
 management of a Dublin theatre. 
 
 Motenabbi, Abul Ahmed {b. 915, d. 965), 
 Arabian poet, attempted to form a Moham- 
 medan sect ; afterwards went to Egjrpt, and 
 was killed by robbers on his return to 
 Damascus. French and German translations 
 of some of his poems are extant. 
 
 Motherwell, WilUam {b. 1797, d. 1835), 
 Scotch poet and journalist; made a collection 
 of ballads, called Minstrelsy .• Ancient and 
 Modern. 
 
 Motley, John Lothrop {b. 1814, d. 1877), 
 American historian, educated under Ban- 
 croft, and at Harvard, Berlin, and Gottin- 
 gen, being intimate with Bismarck at the 
 German universities ; published in 1856 his 
 Rise of the Butch Republic, the result of ten 
 years' labour. This was published at his 
 own expense, but was very successful, and 
 the History of the United Netherlands was 
 finished in 1868. Motley was American 
 minister at Vienna 1861-7, and in London 
 1869-70. He afterwards published The 
 Life and Death of John of Barneveldt 
 (1874), living chiefly in Holland and 
 England, where he died. His Correspond- 
 ence appeared in 1889. 
 
 Motte. \_See Lamotte.j 
 
 Motteville, Frances, Dame de {d. 1689), 
 French lady, favourite of Anne of Austria 
 and friend of Henrietta Maria ; was banished 
 from court by the influence of Richelieu, 
 after whose death she was recalled, and 
 wrote Memoires pour servir A fHistoire 
 d'Anne d^ Autriche. 
 
 Mottley, John {d. 1750), English writer, 
 said to have been the real author of Joe 
 Miller'' s Jests; wrote several plays, and 
 Uves of Peter the Great and the Empress 
 Catherine I. 
 
 Mouchy, Philippe de Noailles, Due de {b. 
 1715, d. 1794), French marshal; defended 
 the Tuileries on June 20, 1792, and was two 
 years later guillotined with his wife, called 
 by Marie Antoinette " Madame L'Eti- 
 quette." 
 
 Moukhtax Pasha, Ahmed {b. 1837), Turk- 
 ish general ; served in Montenegro and in 
 the Yemen campaign of 1869, and was tutor 
 to Prince Ysouf in 1864. After having 
 held the governorships of Crete and Erze- 
 roum, he was engaged in suppressing the 
 revolts of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1875, 
 and on the outbreak of the war with Russia 
 was appointed commander-m-chief in Asia 
 Minor, but was badly supported, and forced 
 to retire from Erzeroum. In 1878 he was 
 special commissioner to Crete and governor
 
 Mon 
 
 ( 577 ) 
 
 HLoz 
 
 of Janina, and in 18S5 was appointed to 
 cooperate with Sir H. D. Wolff in Egyi^t 
 as commissioner under the Auglo-Turkish 
 convention. 
 
 Mouley el Hassan, Sultan of Morocco (b. 
 1831), succeeded his father, Sidi-Muley 
 Muhamraed, in 1873, although not the 
 eldest son. 
 
 Moulton, John Fletcher (b. 1844), mathe- 
 matician, born at Madeley, and educated at 
 Kingswood school, Bath, and at Cambridge, 
 where, having been a pupil of Dr. Routh, he 
 became senior wrangler and Smith's pnze- 
 man, obtaining the gold medal at Loudon 
 University the same year (186S). In 1873 
 he resigned his fellowship at Christ's College, 
 and was called to the bar, becomiug Queen's 
 Counsel ia 1885, being also ia Parliament for 
 a few months. In 1880 he was elected 
 F.R.S. for the papers written in conjunction 
 with Dr. Spottiswoode, in 1879, upon the 
 discharge of electricity in vacuum tubes. 
 
 Moulton, William Eiddian (6. 1835), brother 
 of the last, English theologian, born at Leek ; 
 graduated at London in 1856 with great dis- 
 tinction, and soon after entered the Wesleyan 
 ministry. He was a member of the New 
 Testament Revision Company, wrote a His- 
 toryoftheE^iglish Bible (1878) , and translated 
 and edited Wiener's Grammar and Neio 
 Testament Greek. In 1890 he was president 
 of the Wesleyan Conference. He has been 
 for nearly twenty years Principal of the 
 Leys school, Cambridge. 
 
 Moultrie, John {b. 1799, d. 1874). English 
 poet ; having taken orders, obtained the 
 living of Rugby in 1828, and became inti- 
 mate with Dr. Arnold. He wrote The 
 Bream of Life (1843), and My Brother''s 
 Grave, and Godiva, which originally ap- 
 peared in The Etotiian, of which, with 
 Praed, he was the chief support. 
 
 Mountfort, WilUam {h. 1659, d. 1692), 
 EugUsh actor, a protege of Judge Jefferies ; 
 was assassinated when growing in repu- 
 tation by Lord Mohun and Captain Hill, 
 who were jealous for a preference supposed 
 to be shown him by Mrs. Bracegirdle. He 
 wrote a few plays. 
 
 Mount-Temple, William, Lord {b. 1811, 
 d. 1888), statesman, second son of Earl 
 Cowper; was a lord of the Admiralty, 
 1846-52, President of the Board of Health 
 1853-55, and subsequently vice-president of 
 the Education Committee, and Commissioner 
 of Works. He introduced the Cowper- 
 Temple clause in the Education Act of 1870, 
 and received a peerage ten years later. 
 
 Mouton, Georges, Comte de Lobau, (6. 
 1770, d. 1838), French soldier, rose from the 
 ranks to be a general. Fought in the 
 Napoleonic campaigns, and took part in the 
 revolution of 1830. 
 LL 
 
 Mowat, Hon. Oliver {b. 1820), Canadian 
 statesman, bom at Kingston, Upper Canada ; 
 was called to the bar in 1842, and became 
 Queen's Counsel in 1856. He was elected 
 for South Ontario as a Liberal in 1858, and 
 became provincial secretary the same year, 
 was postmaster-general 1863-64, and vice- 
 chancellor of Upper Canada 1864-72, when 
 he became premier and attorney-general of 
 Ontario. 
 
 Mowbray, Right Hon. Sir John Robert 
 {b. 1815), EngUsh politician; educated at 
 Westminster and Christ Church, represented 
 Durham as a Conservative from 1853 to 1868, 
 when he became member for Oxford Uni- 
 versity. He was Judge Advocate- General 
 in Lord Derby's second and third ministries, 
 and was swoni of the Privy Council in 1858. 
 He assumed the name of Mowbray (in heu 
 of Cornish) on his marriage in 1847, and re- 
 ceived a baronetcy in 1880. His son, Mr. 
 R. G. Mowbray, fellow of All Souls', entered 
 Parliament in 1886 as member for the Prest- 
 wich division of Lancashire. 
 
 Moyses, David {b. 1653, d. 1630), Scotch 
 writer, accompanied James VI. to England 
 as his page, and kept a diary of the occur- 
 rences at court, the MS. of which is in the 
 Advocate's Library, Edinburgh. It was 
 printed in 1753 under the title of Memoirs of 
 the Affairs of Scotland, 1577-1603, with a 
 Discourse on the Conspiracy of Goiorie. 
 
 Mozart, Johann Chrysostom Wolfgang 
 Amadeus (6. 1756, d. 1791), German com- 
 poser, was bom at Salzburg; composed some 
 pieces at the age of five, when he was taken 
 to Munich, and performed with his sister 
 before the Elector of Bavaria. In 1763 the 
 children went on a tour to all the principal 
 German towns, as well as Brussels and 
 Palis, and in April, 1764, gave concerts in 
 Loudon. On his return to Salzburg in 1769, 
 Mozart became director of the Archbishop's 
 concerts, and soon after made a tour in 
 Italy, after his return from which, at the 
 end of 1778, he settled at Vienna. Here, 
 in his twenty-fifth year, he wrote Idomeneo 
 on the occasion of the first rejection of his 
 suit to Constance Weber, whom he manied 
 in 1782. V Enlevement du Serail was com- 
 posed in 1782, Ifozze di Figaro 1786, Don 
 Giovanni 1787, Die Zauberflote and La 
 Clemenza di Tito 1791, and Va.& Requiem ox\. 
 his death-bed, in addition to which he pro- 
 duced many masses, symphonies, concertos, 
 etc. 
 
 Mozley, James Bowling, D.D. (i. 1813, d. 
 1878), English theologian, was educated at 
 Oxford, where he became fellow of Mag- 
 dalen in 1837, when he waa ordained, and 
 Regius professor of divinity in 1871, having 
 been made canon of Worcester in 1869. He 
 published, among other works, The Augus- 
 tinian Doctrine of Predestination, A Revieiu
 
 Moz 
 
 (578) 
 
 Mill 
 
 of the Baptismal Controverstj, and Bampton 
 lectures On Mirades (1865). 
 
 Mozley, Thomas {h. 1806), brother of the 
 above, became fellow of Oriel iu 1829, and 
 was for mauy years on the stafE of the Times, 
 and wrote Retniniscences, chiefly of Oriel 
 College and the Oxford Movement (188'2), 
 and Meminiscences, chiefly of Towns, Villages, 
 and Schools (1885). 
 
 Mudge, Thomas (*. 1715, d. 1794), watch- 
 maker, born at Exeter ; published Thoughts 
 on Improving Watches (1765), and obtained a 
 parliamentary grant of £3,000 for his chro- 
 nometers. 
 
 Mueller [Muller], Sir Ferdinand von, 
 M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. [b. 1825), Austra- 
 lian botanist of German extraction ; was 
 born at Rostock, but emigrated to Australia 
 in 18i7, and after travelling in South Aus- 
 tralia for four years collecting plants, was 
 made Government botanist of Victoria. He 
 afterwards accompanied Gregory's expe- 
 dition, and was one of those who reached 
 Termination Lake in 1856. From 1857 to 
 1873 he was director of the Melbourne 
 Botanic Gardens, and was one of the com- 
 missioners for the industrial exhibitions 
 held there in 1854, 1862, and 1867. Among 
 his works are Fragmenta Phytographica 
 Australice, and The Plants of Victoria. 
 
 Muggleton, Ludowick (A. 1607, d. 1697), a 
 tailor, founded with John Reeve, about 
 1651, the sect called "Muggletonians," 
 whose doctrines were contained in The In- 
 terpretations of Revelation XL, and Neivs 
 from Heaven, Muggleton was opposed by 
 George Fox and Penn, and convicted of 
 blasphemy in 1676. 
 
 Muir, John (b. 1810, d. 1882), Sanscrit 
 scholar ; having graduated at Glasgow, was 
 in the service of the East India Company 
 from 1828 to 1853, and published Original 
 Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of 
 the People of India, their Religion and Insti- 
 tutions (1858-70), and other works, besides 
 a translation of Kuenen's live Rooks of 
 Moses. 
 
 Muir, Matthew Pattison (*. 1848), chem- 
 ist, born and educated at Glasgow ; having 
 held several posts iu which university, was 
 elected fellow of Gonville and Caius College, 
 Cambridge, in 1881, and became examiner 
 on the natural science tripos. Among his 
 works are Chemists l^^ Heroes of Science^' 
 series), A Treatise on the Principles of Chem- 
 istry, and several chem'ical works wiitten in 
 collaboration. 
 
 Muir, Sir William, K.C.S.I., D.C.L. {b. 
 
 1819), his brother, entered the Bengal civil 
 service in 1837, became governor of the 
 North-West Provinces in 1868, and was a 
 member of the CouncU of India from that 
 
 year till 1885, when he became principal of 
 Edinburgh University. His chief works 
 are Life of Mahomet (1858-61), and an 
 Abridgment (1877), Annals of the Early 
 Khahfate (1883), and The Khalifate : its 
 Rise, Decline, and Fall (1891). 
 
 Mulgrave, Lord. [See Normauby.] 
 
 MulhaU, Michael G. (b. 1836), statistician, 
 born in Dublin and educated at the Irish 
 college, Rome ; author of Progress of the 
 /ro)/f/ (1880), Dictionary of Statistics, His- 
 tory of Prices, etc. His wife received a 
 complimentary diploma from the Italian 
 Geographical Society for her work Between 
 the Amazon and the Andes (1883). 
 
 Muller, George {b. 1805), German preacher, 
 born near Halberstadt, came to England in 
 1829, and in 1835 first proposed the establish- 
 ment of the Bristol orphanage. He pub- 
 lished his Narrative at first in 1837, con- 
 tinuing it in 1841, 1844, and 1856. In 1886 
 he went to Queensland to preach, 
 
 MiiUer, Gerard Friedrich (6. 1705, d. 1783), 
 German writer and traveller, born in West- 
 phalia, settled in Russia in 1725, and ex- 
 plored Siberia with Gmelin and Delisle in 
 1733 ; was made councillor of state and 
 F.R.S. , and published Collections for the 
 History of Russia, and other works. 
 
 Miiller, Johann von (b. 1752, d. 1809), 
 Swiss historian, bom at Schaffhausen, where 
 he was professor of Greek , was subsequently 
 professor of history at Cassel, councillor of 
 the imperial chancery and secretary of state 
 for the Bonapartist kingdom of WestphaUa, 
 He wrote History of the Swiss Confederation^ 
 and A Course of Universal History (Tii- 
 bingen). 
 
 Miiller, Johaim Gotthard von (b. 1747, d. 
 1830), German engraver, patronised by the 
 sovereigns of Wiirtemberg ; was a member 
 of both French and German academies, and 
 engraved portraits of Schiller, Louis XVI., 
 and Wille, the Madonna delta Seggiola, and 
 other works. His son, Christian Feied- 
 EiCH (d. 1816), was an artist of great 
 promise, his chief production having been 
 the print of RaifaeUe's Madonna di San 
 Sisto. 
 
 Muller, Johannes (*. 1801, d. 1858), Ger- 
 man physiologist, bom and educated at 
 Coblentz ; was appointed professor of physi- 
 ology at Bonn in 1830, and held the same 
 chair at Berlin from 1833 till his death. 
 His Flements of Physiology was translated in 
 1842 into English, and gave a great impetus 
 to the study, though itself soon superseded. 
 
 Miiller, Karl Ottfried {b. 1797, d. 1840), 
 historian, bom at Brieg (Silesia), became 
 professor at Gottingen; visited Italy and
 
 Mill 
 
 (579) 
 
 Man 
 
 Greece in 1839, and died at Athens. His 
 chief works were Geschichte Hellenischen 
 Sta^nme imd Stddte and Die Dorier (1820-4), 
 translated and edited by Sir G. C. Lewis 
 and H. Tufnell in 1880, Geschichte Grie- 
 chiaclien Litter atur, translated by Lewis 
 and completed by Donaldson, Die ]£trnskei\ 
 and an account of the life and works of 
 Pheidias. 
 
 Muller, Wilhelm {b. 1794, d. 1827), Ger- 
 man poet, born at Dessau, studied under 
 Wolf and Buttman at Berlin, and served iu 
 the war of Liberation. Besides a translation 
 of Marlowe's Faustns and two novels, he 
 published Griechenlieder, Gedichte aus dem 
 hinterlassenen Fapiei-en eines reisenden Wald- 
 hornisten, and I>ie schone 3IuUerin, and 
 Winto-reise, which were set to music by 
 Schubert. A statue to him in his native 
 place was unveiled in 1884 by his son Max 
 Muller. 
 
 MiiUer, William James [b. 1812, d. 1845), 
 English landscape - painter of German 
 parentage, exhibited Peasants on the Banks 
 of the Mhine at the Academy in 1836. In 
 1838 he travelled in Greece and Egypt, and 
 leaving Bristol for London on his return 
 produced The Age of Francis I. (twenty-six 
 folio designs). His masterpieces, the Lycian 
 sketches, were exhibited in 1843 as the re- 
 sult of several years travel in Asia Minor. 
 He died suddenly at Bristol in the midst of 
 his fame. 
 
 MuUick Umber (d. 1626), minister of 
 Ahmedmugger, cheeked the Moguls, founded 
 Aurungabad, and recovered several pro- 
 vinces ; settled landed property by regis- 
 tration, and directed an assessment after its 
 survey. 
 
 MuUinger, James Bass (b. 1834), English 
 historical writer ; after graduating with dis- 
 tinction at Cambridge, became lecturer on 
 history at Bedford College, and subsequently 
 at St. John's and Trinity, Cambridge. His 
 chief works are The Ihiiversity of Cambridge 
 from the Earliest Times to the Accession of 
 Charles I. (1873-84), and, with Professor 
 Gardiner, An Introduction to English His- 
 tory. 
 
 Mulock, Dinah [Craik] {b. 1826, d. 1887), 
 English writer, daughter of a clergyman of 
 Stoke-on-Trent ; married Mr. G. L. Craik 
 in 1865, having in the previous year received 
 a Civil List pension. Her chief works were 
 Olive (ISoO), John JffaUfax, Gentleman (1856), 
 A life for a life (1860), etc. 
 
 Mulready, William, R.A. (b. 1786, d. 
 1863), Irish painter of the school of Wilkie, 
 bom at Ennis; came to London ia 1792, 
 studied at the Royal Academy and vmder 
 John Varley, whose sister he married, and 
 at first occupied himself in illustrating books 
 ll2 
 
 and in scene-painting. He designed for the 
 Post Office the envelope called after him, 
 and among his chief pictures may be named 
 The Judgment of Solomon, The Wolf and the 
 Lamb (1820), Choosing the Wedding Gown 
 (1845), and The Fight Interrupted (1815). 
 
 Mummius, Lucius, Achaicus (;?. 150 e.g.), 
 Roman consul, notorious for his despoiling 
 of Corinth (146 B.C.) after his victories over 
 the Achtean League. 
 
 Miinchausen, Karl Friedrich Jerome, 
 
 Baron vou {h. 1720, d.YlTi), German soldier, 
 
 a native of Hanover ; served several years 
 
 i in the Russian army against the Tartars. 
 
 I The well-known exploits and adventures of 
 
 I the Baron were published in English in 1785. 
 
 Mundella, Right Hon. Anthony John (i. 
 1825), statesman, of Itahau ancestry ; became 
 engaged in trade at Nottingham, and in 
 1859 organised courts of arbitration for the 
 settlement of labour disputes. He was 
 elected as a Radical for Sheffield in 1868, 
 j was vice-president of the Education Com- 
 I mittee and Charity commissioner from 1880 
 to 1885, and president of the Board of 
 Trade from February to July, 1886, and 1892. 
 
 Munk, William, M.D., physician, educated 
 at University College and at Leyden, became 
 F.R.C.P. in 18')4, also consulting physician 
 to the Roj^al Hospital for Incurables. He 
 made diseases of the lung and heart his 
 speciality, and compiled The Roll of the 
 Jtogal College of Fhystcians of Lotidon (1861). 
 
 Munkacsy, Mikhail (*. 1846), Hungarian 
 painter, of poor parentage ; was at first 
 apprenticed to a carpenter, but made a 
 name in 1870 by his Last Bay of a Con- 
 demned Frisoner, exhibited at the Paris 
 Salon. Among his best pictures are The 
 Night Roamers, Christ before Pilate (1882), 
 Christ on Calvary (1884), and The Last 
 Moments of Mozart (1886). 
 
 Muimich, Burchard Christoph, Graf von 
 (6. 1683, d. 1767), Russian general ; having 
 been a chief agent in the elevation of the 
 Tsarina Anne, obtained great influence ; 
 destroyed the Tartar fortress of Perekof 
 (1736), captured Oczakoff, and after de- 
 feating the Turks, invaded Moldavia. In 
 1740 he deposed the regent, Biren, but was 
 himself supplanted and sent to Siberia in the 
 following year, being recalled thence, how- 
 ever, in 1762. He completed the Ladoga 
 canal. 
 
 Munro, Hugh Andrew Johnstone (6. 1819, 
 d. 1885), scholar, bom at Elgin, and educated 
 at Shrewsbury and at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, of which he became fellow in 1843 ; 
 was from 1869 to 1872 professor of Latin, 
 the first edition of his Lucretius having 
 appeared in 1864. He was also author of
 
 Mun 
 
 (580) 
 
 Mur 
 
 Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus 
 (ISTS). aud several other works, which gave 
 him the reputatiou of the best Latin scholar 
 of his daj'. 
 
 Munro, Sir Thomas (J. 1760, d. 1827), 
 general and statesman. After several years' 
 service in the Indian army, was appointed 
 administrator of the territories gained from 
 Tippoo Sahib, and in 1820 governor of 
 Madras, in which capacity he successfully 
 directed the Burmese war. 
 
 Munster, Georg, Graf von {b. 1820), 
 Gennan diplomatist, sou of a Hanoverian 
 statesman ; entered the Prussian service after 
 the annexation of Hanover, and was named 
 ambassador to England in 1873, having been 
 previously the author of several politico- 
 historical works. 
 
 Munster, George Fitzclarence, Earl of {b. 
 1794, d. 1842), son of William IV. by Mrs. 
 Jordan ; served with distinction in the Penin- 
 sular war and in India, and was ennobled 
 on the accession of hi^ father, but com- 
 mitted suicide in 1842. 
 
 Munter, Balthasar (i. 1735, d. 1793), 
 German divine, whose name has become 
 known by his Narrative of the Conversion 
 and Death of Count Struensee (1773). 
 
 Miinzer, Thomas {d. 1525), founder of the 
 Anabaptists; headed a popular rising in 
 western Germany in 1524, but having been 
 defeated was captured and beheaded. 
 
 Murad Bey (d. 1801), Mameluke chief, 
 opposed the French, but was defeated at the 
 battle of the Pyramids in 1798; burnt the 
 French fleet in the following year, but re- 
 mained neutral at the action at Heliopolis 
 in 1800, and finally submitted to Kleber. 
 
 Murat, Joachim, King of Naples (b. 1768, 
 d. 1815), French cavalry ofiicer, son of an 
 innkeeper; became aide-de-camp to Bona- 
 parte in 1796, and four years later married 
 his sister, Marie Caroline; commanded the 
 cavalry at Marengo, became marechal de 
 France in 1805, and Grand Duke of Berg 
 after Austerlitz. He invaded Spain in 1808, 
 and was made King of Naples for his ser- 
 vices. In 1812 he followed the emperor to 
 Russia, but in 1813 intrigued with his 
 enemies, who guaranteed his kingdom to 
 him; but the Bourbons refusing to recog- 
 nise him, he attacked Austria, and when 
 defeated went to France. In a final at- 
 tempt to regain his kingdom he was captured 
 and shot. His elder son (Napoleon Achille) 
 settled in Florida, married a grand niece of 
 Washington, and died in 1847 ; and the 
 second, Napoleon Lucien Chaeles {d. 
 1875), having returned to France, became 
 senator in 1852, and was recognised as a 
 member of the imperial family in 1353. 
 
 Muratori, Ludovico Antonio {b. 1672, 
 d. 1750), Italian antiquary, librarian and 
 professor of history at Milan, his chief 
 works having been Antiquitates Itaiicoe 
 Medii j^vi, Annali d' Italia, and Scriptores 
 liernin Italicrum. 
 
 Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, Bart., 
 F.R.S. {b. 1792, d. 1871), geologist, born 
 in Ross-shire, North Biitain ; served in the 
 Peninsula, but resigned after Waterloo, 
 and began a course of travels, exploring the 
 Auvergne district, studied the structui'e of 
 the Alps with Sedgwick, and in 1839 pub- 
 lished his Silurian System, the result of his 
 investigations in Wales. In 1845 appeared 
 Russia and the Ural Mountams, the result 
 of similar investigations. In 1855 he became 
 director of the Geological Survey and of the 
 School of Mines, and in 1870 estabUshed at 
 Edinburgh a chair of geology and min- 
 eralogy. 
 
 Mure, David, Lord (Jb. 1810), Scotch 
 judge, brother of W. Mure, having been 
 called to the Scottish bar, was made Sohcitor- 
 General in 1858, Lord Advocate 1859, and a 
 judge of session 1865. 
 
 Mure, WiUiam, D.C.L. (b. 1799, d. 1860), 
 historian, bom in Ayrshire, and educated at 
 Westminster, Edinburgh, aud Bonn, repre- 
 sented Renfrew as a Conservative from 1845 
 to 1855. His chief work was A Critical 
 History of the Language and Literature of 
 Ancient Greece (1850-7). He also wrote 
 monographs on Egyptian subjects. 
 
 MuriUo, Bartolome Esteban (b. 1618, d. 
 1682), Spanish painter, pupU of Juan del 
 Castillo ; after living in great poverty, made 
 the acquaintance of Velasquez, who intro- 
 duced him to the Escorial. He made a 
 reputation by his pictures in the " Claustro 
 Chico " of the Seville Franciscan Convent, 
 and afterwards painted Madonnas and Holy 
 Families, his chef-d'ceiivre being The Im- 
 maculate Conception, now in the Louvre. 
 Murillo died from the effects of a fall from 
 scaffolding when engaged on a picture of 
 The Espoiisals of St. Catherine. 
 
 Murphy, Arthur {b. 1727, d. 1805), Irish 
 dramatist, and for a short time an actor, 
 wrote several plays, the chief of which are 
 The Way to Keep Him and The Grecian 
 Ba'ighter ; also a life of Garrick. 
 
 Murray, Alexander, D.D. (b. 1775, d. 
 1S13), scholar, almost self-taught, son of a 
 Highland shepherd ; acquired a knowledge 
 of the classical, French, and Abyssinian 
 tongues, and held the chair of oriental lan- 
 guages at Edinburgh. He wrote a History 
 of the European Languages. 
 
 Murray, Alexander S., LL.D. {b. 1841); 
 was educated at Edinburgh and Berlin, and
 
 Mnr 
 
 (581) 
 
 Mus 
 
 having been assistant keeper, became keeper 
 of Greek and Roman antiquities at the 
 British Museum in 1886. He is author of a 
 work on the history of Greek sculpture. 
 
 Murray, Right Hon. Sir Charles A., 
 K.C.B. {*. 1816), diplomatist and writer. 
 Having been master of the royal household 
 and groom-in-waiting, entered the diplo- 
 matic service in 1844, and was subsequently 
 consul-general in Egypt, minister iu Swit- 
 zerland, envoy to Persia, minister in Saxony, 
 and envoy to Denmark and Portugal. He 
 became privy councillor in 1875, and wrote 
 The Frairie Bird, Travels in North America, 
 etc. 
 
 Murray, David Christie {b. 1847), novelist, 
 bom at West Bromwich ; began life as a 
 journalist, coming to London in 1873, but, 
 after having been special correspondent to 
 the Tunes in the Russo-Turkish war, de- 
 voted himself to fiction, and produced 
 Joseph's Coat (1880), By the Gate of the Lea, 
 The Way of the World, Aunt Rachel, Wild 
 Dorrie, etc. 
 
 Murray, Eustace Clare Grenville (b. 1819, 
 d. ISSl), journalist and novelist, wrote 
 The Boving Itiglishman, The Member for 
 Paris, Young Brown, etc. 
 
 Murray, Sir George (*. 1772, d. 1846), 
 English officer; served with distinction in 
 the Peninsular war, became governor of the 
 military college, Woolwich, in 1809, and 
 was master-general of the ordnance in 
 1834-.5. He was also, ia 1828, Colonial 
 Secretary, and edited Marlborough's de- 
 spatches. 
 
 Murray, G. G. A. {b. 1866), scholar, bom ia 
 Sydney, the son of Sir T. A. Murray, Speaker 
 of New South Wales; was educated at 
 Merchant Taylors' school and St. John's Col- 
 lege, Oxford, where, having carried off all 
 the classical prizes, he was elected fellow of 
 New College, and in 1889, at the age of 
 twenty-three, became professor of Greek at 
 Glasgow. In 1891 he published Gobi or 
 Shamo, a novel. 
 
 Murray, James Stewart, Earl of [b. 1570), 
 Scotch statesman, natural son of James V. ; 
 became a Calvinist, protected his sister 
 Mary in the exercise of her religion, but 
 afterwards opposed her in hopes of help 
 from Elizabeth ; joined in the murder of 
 Rizzio, and, after some years in France, be- 
 came regent on the deposition of the queen, 
 and ruled well, but was assassinated by one 
 of the Hamiltons. 
 
 Murray, John (b. 1778, d. 1843), publisher; 
 succeeded to the management of the busi- 
 ness founded by his father in Fleet Street. 
 In 1803 he dissolved partnership with Mr. 
 Highly, and, having come into contact with 
 Canning, started the Quarterly Beview. He 
 afterwards published the works of Byron, 
 
 Heber, and others, acting with great muni- 
 ficence in aU his dealings, and the business 
 was removed, in 1812, to Albemarle Street. 
 The Life of John Murray was published in 
 1891. "John Murray the third died in 1892. 
 
 Murray, Liudley (b. 1745, d. 1826), 
 American writer, son of a New York 
 merchant, from whom he ran away, but 
 afterwards returned, and practised as a 
 lawyer. After the revolution he made a 
 fortune iu busmess, and came to England, 
 where he published his English Grammar. 
 
 Musa-Ibn-Nosse3rr (b. 640, d. 717), Arab 
 general ; conquered Spain, but after his re- 
 turn from Syria was ill-treated by the 
 khalif , and died in great poverty. 
 
 Musseus (5th century), Athenian poet, 
 the " Grammarian ; " supposed author of 
 the original poem on The Lores of Hero and 
 Lmnder. 
 
 Musaeus, Johann Karl August {b. 1735, 
 d. 1787), German writer, professor at Wei- 
 mar, wrote Yolksmarchen der Leutscher 
 (1782), Grandison der Zweite, and a satirical 
 work on Lavater. 
 
 Muspratt, James Sheridan [b. 1821), 
 chemist, born iu Dubhn ; was a pupil of 
 Liebig, and worked with Hofmann, dis- 
 covering tomiline and nitraniliue, the two 
 organic bases. He also wrote The Dictionary 
 of Chemistry, and foimded the Liverpool 
 College. 
 
 Musset, Alfred de (*. 1810, d. 1857), 
 French poet; became a follower of Victor 
 Hugo, and produced Contes d'Espagne et 
 d'ltalie (1830), Les Nuits (1835-7), having 
 in the previous years been in Italy with 
 George Sand. He was librarian to the 
 minister of the interior under Louis Philippe 
 and the empire, and was admitted to the 
 Academy in 1852. Besides his verse, he 
 wrote stories (Co7ifession d''un Etfant du 
 Siicle, Lui et EUc, etc.) and plays, such as 
 La Nuit Venetienne and Lorenzaccio, A.ndre 
 del Sarto, Fantasio, Barberine, On ne badine 
 pas avec r Amour, etc. 
 
 Musset-Pathay, Victor de {b. 1768, d. 
 1832), French biographer ; took part in the 
 Biographie Universelle, and wrote Ststoire 
 de la Vie et des Ouvrages de J. J. Bousseau, 
 and other works. 
 
 Mustapha I., Sultan of Turkey (J. 1591, 
 d. 1639) ; succeeded Ahmed I. in 1617, be- 
 came imbecile, and was twice deposed and 
 finally strangled. 
 
 Mustapha II. (b. 1664, d. 1703), succeeded 
 Ahmed II. iu 1695 ; defeated the Russians 
 and Venetians, but lost the battle of Zenta 
 to Prince Eugene, and was obliged to con- 
 clude the Peace of Carlo witz (1699). He 
 was compelled to abdicate soon after tho 
 loss of Kiuprih, his vizier.
 
 Mus 
 
 (582) 
 
 Nai 
 
 Mustapha IIL {b. 1717, d. 1774) succeeded 
 Osmau III. iu 1757 ; lost the Crimea in a 
 war with Russia, but repelled an attack on 
 Moldavia ; was a patron of the learned. 
 
 Mustapha IV. {b. 1779, d. 1808), suc- 
 ceeded Selim III., but ruled cruelly, and 
 was deposed and strangled. 
 
 Musurus Pasha, Constautiue {b. 1807, d. 
 1891), Turkish diplomatist; was well 
 educated in the classics and European 
 languages, and in 1834 was sent to pacify 
 Sanies, in which he was very successful. In 
 1840 he became plenipotentiary at Athens, 
 whence, after an attempt on his Ufe, he was 
 recalled iu 1848, and sent to Austria, and 
 three years later went to London, whei-e he 
 remained as ambassador till 1885. A trans- 
 lation into Greek verse, by him, of Dante's 
 Dk'ina Commedia was published in London 
 (1882-4-5). 
 
 MutsuHito (S. 1852), Mikado of Japan; 
 ascended the throne in 1867, and soon after 
 abolished the feudal system, and gave his 
 country a parliamentary constitution. 
 
 Muziano, Girolamo {d. circa 1590), Italian 
 painter, born near Brescia ; went to Rome 
 in 1559, where he was patronised by Gregory 
 XIII. His Resurrection of Lazarus is lost ; 
 but the picture of Christ Washitig the Dis- 
 ciples^ Feet is in Rheims cathedral. 
 
 Muzio, Girolamo (b. 1496, <^. 1576), Italian 
 scholar, author of Lettere Cattoliche, etc.; 
 
 gained the name of "Malleus Hsereti- 
 corum " from his attacks on Luther. 
 
 Muzuffer Jung {d. 1751), Soubadar of the 
 Deccau ; was supported by the French and 
 Cliimda Sahib against Nasir Jung and the 
 English, by whom he was defeated. He was 
 again in power in 1749, but was killed two 
 years later in a personal encounter with the 
 Nawab of Karnool, a disaffected Patau chief. 
 
 Muzuflfer Shah I. (b. 1342, d. 1411), after 
 having for five years been viceroy of Guzerat 
 for the Emperor Feroze Toghluk, he usurped 
 the throne, and founded a dynasty wMch 
 ruled till 1583. 
 
 Myddleton. {See Middleton.] 
 
 Myron {b. circa 480 B.C.), Greek sculptor, 
 bom iu Boeotia, was the rival of Polycletus. 
 His Cow Lowing was extant at Athens in 
 Cicero's time, but all his productions have 
 now perished, though the Discobolus at the 
 British Museum, which was found near 
 TivoU in 1791, is supposed to be a copy of 
 his statue. 
 
 Myronides, Athenian general; defeated 
 the Corinthians at Megara 457 B.C., and the 
 Boeotians at .Slnophyta 456 B.C. 
 
 Mytens, Daniel {b. circa 1590), Flemish 
 portrait-painter, many of whose works are 
 at Hampton Court; was patronised by 
 James I. and Charles I. before the rise of 
 Vandyck. 
 
 N 
 
 Naas, Lord. [See Mayo.] 
 
 Nabis {d. 192 B.C.), Tyrant of Sparta, ruled 
 with great cruelty from about 205 B.C., and 
 was finally defeated by Philopoemen, general 
 of the Achaean League, and killed in at- 
 tempting to escape. 
 
 Nachtigal, Gustav {b. 1834, d. 1885), 
 German explorer ; went to Africa, and be- 
 came physician to the Bey of Tunis, and 
 having been in 1868 entrusted by the King 
 of Prussia with a mission to the Sultau of 
 Boruu, made extensive explorations in the 
 Eastern Soudan, which he described in 
 Sahara und Sudan (1879-81). In 1883 he 
 was commissioner to inquire into the state 
 of German commerce in Western Africa. 
 
 Nadab ((/. 953 b.c). King of Israel: suc- 
 ceeded Jeroboam in 954 B.C., and was killed 
 by Baasha next year. 
 
 Nadir Shah [Thamas-Kouli-Khan], ruler 
 
 of Persia (fi. 1688, d. 1747), having been a 
 chief of banditti, entered the service of Shah 
 Thamas II., and having driven out the 
 Afghans restored him to his throne (1730), 
 but afterwards deposed him and usurped 
 the sovereignty (1736). He subsequently 
 invaded Afghanistan and Hindostan, taking 
 Delhi (1740), and was finally assassinated by 
 a conspiracy of his generals, who dreaded 
 his cruelty. 
 
 NSBvius, Cneius {d. circa 202 B.C.), Roman 
 poet, fragments only of whose chief work 
 (an epic on the first Punic war) are extant. 
 
 Nahum, Jewish prophet, lived about 700 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Nairne, Caroline Oliphant, Baroness (b. 
 1766, d. 1845), Scottish song-writer, called 
 "the Flower of Stratheam," pubUshed The 
 Scottish Minstrel (1822-4). Caller Herrin\ 
 Land o' the Leal, and The Laird o' Cockpen, 
 are among her best-known songs.
 
 Nan 
 
 (583) 
 
 Nap 
 
 Nana Sahib {b. circa 1821, <f. uncertaiu), 
 origiually known as Seereek Dhondo Puuth, 
 claimed the possessions of his adopted father, 
 Bajee Rao, Peishwah of Poonah, on his 
 death in 1851, and on his failure to obtain a 
 pension determined on revenge. He caused 
 the massacre of the garrison of Cawnpore 
 on June 29, 1857, and was proclaimed 
 peishwah, but was defeated by Havelock on 
 July 17, after which he fled into Nepaul. A 
 person pretending to be he was in 1874 
 delivered to the Government by Scindia. 
 
 Nanek, or Nanuk {b. 1469, d. 1539), founder 
 of the Sikhs ("Followers "), was a native of 
 the Punjab, and travelled about India 
 preaching, visiting also Mecca and Medina. 
 He tried to reconcile Buddhism and Moham- 
 medanism, and his doctrines are contained 
 in the book Adi-gratith, an English trans- 
 lation of which appeared in 1877. 
 
 Nangis, GuiUaume de (13th century), 
 French writer ; was keeper of the records 
 at St. Denis from 1289 to 1299, and wrote a 
 LatLu chronicle to the year 1300, a French 
 chronicle, and a life of St. Louis. 
 
 Nani, Giovanni Battista {b. 1616. d. 1678), 
 Venetian writer and diplomatist, was 
 twenty-five years ambassador at Paris, and 
 author of Istoria della Republica Veneta. 
 
 Nansen, Fridjof, Ph.D. {b. 1861), Norwe- 
 gian explorer, after a previous voyage to 
 the northern seas in 1882, went to Green- 
 land in 1889, and published an account of 
 his voyage in Across Greenland. He was 
 made curator of the Christiania museum on 
 his return, and the Storthing voted 200,000 
 kroner for a fresh expedition to the North 
 Pole to be led by him in 1892. 
 
 Naoroji, Dadabhai {b. 1825), the son of a 
 Parsee priest, educated at Elphiustone Col- 
 lege, Bombay, where he became professor of 
 Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. In 
 1867 founded the East India association, 
 and in 1874 became minister to the Gaekwar 
 of Baroda, and member of the legislative 
 council of Bombay 1885-88. Stood for 
 Parliament in 1886, and again in 1892, when 
 he was elected. 
 
 Napier, Sir Charles James {b. 1782, d. 
 1853), British general, brother of Sir "W. 
 Napier, and grandson of the fifth Lord 
 Napier, served in Ireland in 1798, was 
 wounded and captured at Corunna, but in 
 1811 returned to the Peninsula, and was 
 wounded at Busaco. He held command in 
 the American war (1S12-15), went to the 
 Ionian Islands in 1819, and in 1841 was 
 natmed commander of the Bombay army. 
 He conducted tlie war agaiust Scinde, 
 wiiiiiiii!^ the battles of Meeanee and Hyder- 
 abad, and on its annexation became governor 
 
 of the coimtry. In 1849 he was sent to 
 take the chief command in the second Sikh 
 war. 
 
 Napier, Sir Charles John {b. 1786, d. 1860), 
 admiral, cousin of the above, distinguished 
 himself in an action with the French in 1807, 
 and served in the Peninsula and agiinst 
 the United States in the succeeding year. 
 In 1833, when in the Portuguese service, he 
 destroyed the fleet of Dom Miguel, served 
 against Mehemet Ali in 1850, commanded 
 the Channel fleet 1846-8, and was com- 
 mander of the Baltic fleet in 1854, captured 
 Bomarsund, but refused to attack Cronstadt. 
 He was a member of Parliament for some 
 years, and vrrote books on the wars in 
 Portugal and Syria, and Tlie Navy (1851). 
 
 Napier, or Neper, Laird of Merchiston, 
 John (b. 1550, d. 1617), Scottish mathema- 
 tician, invented logarithms (1614). 
 
 Napier, Right Hon. Sir Joseph, Bart. {b. 
 1804, d. 1882), Irish judge, represented 
 DubHn University 1848-58, became Attorney- 
 General for Ireland in 1852, and Lord 
 Chancellor of Ireland in 1858. Ten years 
 later he was named a member of the judicial 
 committee of the Privy Council. 
 
 Napier, Macvey (i. 1776, d. 1847), con- 
 ducted the Edinburgh Review for eighteen 
 years, edited the seventh edition of the 
 Encyclopcedia Brittanica, and was intimate 
 with Macaulay, Jeffrey, and Lytton. 
 
 Napier, Mark (d. 1879), Scotch writer, 
 author of Memorials of John Napier of 
 Merchistoun, Life and Times of Montrose, 
 and Memorials of the Tune of Grahaine of 
 Claverhouse, besides legal works. 
 
 Napier, Sir William (b. 1785, d. 1860), 
 military historian, entered the army in 1800, 
 served in the Peninsula and elsewhere till 
 1814, and in the aiTny of occupation in 
 France till 1819. He was governor of 
 Guernsey from 1841 to 1847, his iZw^ory of 
 the Peninsular War having appeared be- 
 tween 1828 and 1840. He also wrote a life 
 of his brother. Sir Charles James Napier 
 (q.v.), and other works. 
 
 Napier, William, Lord (/;. 1787, d. 1834), 
 admiral, served as a midshipman atTraialgar, 
 and in 1833 was appointed sui)eriutendent of 
 British interests in China, in which capacity 
 he sailed up the Canton river in the follow- 
 ing July, but died at Macao two months 
 later. 
 
 Napier of Magdala, Robert, Baron {b. 
 1810, d. 1890), general, took part in the 
 Sutlej campaign (1^)45), was chief engineer at 
 the siege of Mooltan and at Goojerat during 
 the second Sikh war, and in 1852 was em- 
 ployed against the Afreedee tribes. He was
 
 Nap 
 
 (584) 
 
 Naq. 
 
 chief of the staff to Sir James Outram at 
 Luckuow, commanded a brigade at the 
 capture of Gwalior, and defeated Tantia 
 Topee at Alipore. After serving in the 
 Chinese war, he was member of the Indian 
 Council (1861-5), commander of the Bombay 
 army (1862-7), and received a peerage for 
 his conduct of the Abyssinian war. He was 
 commander-iu-chief in India 1870-6, be- 
 came Field-Marshal in 1882, and would 
 have held the chief command had war with 
 Russia broken out in 1878. He was buried 
 in St. Paul's cathedral. 
 
 Napier and Ettrick, Right Hon. Francis, 
 Lord, K.T. (b. 1819), administrator: was 
 British minister at Washington, the Hague, 
 St. Petersburg, and Berlin successively, 
 and governor of Madras from 1866 
 to 1872. After his return to England 
 he was chairman of the Crofter Com- 
 mission. 
 
 Napoleon I. {b. 1769, d. 1821) was bom at 
 Ajaccio, being the second sou of Charles 
 Bonaparte, a Corsican advocate. He was 
 educated at Brieone, entered the French 
 army in 1785, and first became notable for 
 his conduct at the siege of Toulon in 1793, 
 when he commanded the artillery. Two 
 years later he led the troops of the Con- 
 vention against the Sections, and in 1796, 
 soon after his first marriage, received the 
 command of the army of Italy. After his 
 great successes in this war, he in May, 1798, 
 set out for Egypt, where he defeated the 
 Mamelukes and invaded Syria, but was 
 checked at Acre. Having left Egypt 
 secretly he reached France in October, 1799, 
 overthrew the Directory, aud became first 
 consul. He now again invaded Italy, and 
 made peace with Austria aud England in 
 1801 aud 1802, reconstructing the German 
 empii'e in the interests of France, while he 
 also concluded a concordat with the pope, 
 and remodelled the French constitution aud 
 legal system. War broke out again with 
 England in 1803 and Austria in 1805. He 
 crushed the latter at Ulm and Austerlitz, 
 but failed iu his designs on the former. 
 Next year Prussia was conquered at Jena 
 and Auerstadt, aud iu 1807, after an inde- 
 cisive campaign, the Peace of Tilsit was 
 made with Russia. The Continental system 
 was now organised against England, and 
 the crown of Spain given to Joseph 
 Bonaparte. The second great attempt 
 of Austria ended with the defeat of 
 Wagram (1809) ; after which Napoleon 
 divorced Josephine Beauharnais, and mar- 
 ried Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor. 
 Meanwhile, however, in the Iberian Pen- 
 insula, the French arms had been held in 
 check, and a breach vdth Russia occurred 
 in 1812, the results of which were the in- 
 vasion of that country, the disastrous retreat 
 
 of the Grand Army aud the rising of Ger- 
 many. After the battle of Leipzig, France 
 was invaded from east aud south, and on 
 April 11, 1814, Napoleon abdicated, and 
 was banished to Elba. Next year he 
 escaped, held France at his feet, biit after a 
 hundred days met his final defeat at Water- 
 loo (June 18, 1815). He passed the rest of 
 his life in exile at St. Helena, where he 
 dictated his Memoirs. 
 
 Napoleon II. {b. 1811, d. 1832), generally 
 known as the King of Rome, sou of Napo- 
 leou I by Maria Louisa, died of consumption 
 at Schonbrunn. 
 
 Napoleon III. (b. 1808, d. 1873), the 
 third sou of Louis Bonaparte, King of 
 Holland, and Hortense de Beauharnais, be- 
 came head of the house after the death of 
 his elder brothers and of the King of Rome, 
 and iu 1836 made a first attempt to assert 
 his claims, the result of which was exile to 
 the United States. In 1840 he made another 
 attempt, for which he was imprisoned in the 
 castle of Ham, whence he escaped to Eng- 
 land in May, 1846. He was elected to the 
 Assembly in 1848, and soon after became 
 president of the republic. Afer the coup 
 d'etat of December, 1851, his term of office 
 was prolonged to ten years, and less than a 
 year later a plebiscite was held, and Louis 
 Napoleon became Emperor of the French. 
 He joined England in the Crimean war, and 
 in 1859 (in which year his life was attempted 
 by Orsini) helped Sardinia against the 
 Austriaus, and also took part in the opera- 
 tions against China (1858-60) and Mehemet 
 Ah (1860-1), but he failed m Mexico in 
 1861, and his government becoming in- 
 creasingly unpopular in France, he sought 
 a remedy in the quarrel with Prussia. 
 The result was his defeat and capture at 
 Sedan (September 1, 1870), after which he 
 was deposed, and on his release lived in 
 England till his death. Napoleon III. was 
 the author of several works, the chief of 
 which were La Vie de Cesar (1865), and 
 Bes Idees Napoleoniennes (1839). 
 
 Napoleon, Prince Eugene Louis, Prince 
 Imi^erial {b. 1856, d. 1879), son of the above, 
 served in the Prussian war, entered at 
 Woolwich iu 1872, and in 1879 lost his life 
 in the Zulu war. 
 
 Napoleon, Prince [See Bonaparte.] 
 
 Naquet, Joseph AUred, M.D. {b. 1834), 
 French politician, author of Principes de 
 Chimiefondes sur les Theories Modernes ; was 
 imprisoned for conspiracy against the Empire 
 in 1867, and iu 1870 became secretary to the 
 committee of National Defence. He suc- 
 ceeded in legaUsing divorce in 1886, and
 
 Nar 
 
 (585) 
 
 Nan 
 
 •was one of the chief supporters of General 
 Boul anger. 
 
 Narbonne, Louis, Comte de (b. Hob, d. 
 1813), French soldier and statesman; was 
 minister for war in 1791, but incurred the 
 wrath of the Jacobins by his moderation, 
 and was with difficulty saved by his friend, 
 Madame de Stael. He was afterwards 
 aide-de-camp to Napoleon, and in the year 
 of his death ambassador at Vienna. 
 
 Naxdi, Jacopo (b. 1476), Italian historian ; 
 was exiled from Florence for opposition to 
 the Medici, and retired to Venice, where he 
 wrote a History of I'lorvnce and translated 
 Livy. 
 
 Nares, Sir George Strong, K.C.B., F.R.S. 
 (b. 1831), Arctic explorer, accompanied the 
 expedition of 1852, served in the Crimean 
 war, and commanded the ClwUenger (\.%l'l-h), 
 contributing Reports on Ocean Soundings to 
 the account of the voyage. In 1875, when 
 in command of the Alert, he penetrated to 
 a point farther north than had been yet 
 reached, publishing both an Official Report 
 and a Narrative of the Expedition in 1876, in 
 which year he was knighted. 
 
 Nares, Robert (6. 1753, <f. 1829), philologist; 
 became assistant librarian at the British 
 Museum in 1795, and afterwards canon of 
 Lichfield. He was also vice-president of I 
 the Royal Society in 1823. His chief work j 
 was A Glossary of Words, Fhrases, etc., of 
 Elizabethan Authors, a new edition of which 
 appeared in 1867. 
 
 Narses (6th century), a eunuch in the 
 service of Justinian, who rose to be general ; 
 defeated Totila the Goth in 552, freed Italy 
 from the Ostrogoths, and ruled the country 
 for fifteen years, dying some time after 568. 
 
 Naruszewicz, Adam Stanislaus {d. 1796), 
 Polish writer ; left an unfinished History of 
 Poland. 
 
 Narvaez, Pamphila de (16th century), 
 Spanish general ; commanded the expedition 
 against Cortez in 1520, and some years later 
 discovered the Bay of Pensacola, after which 
 no more was heard of him, 
 
 Narvaez, Ramon Maria (b. 1800, d. 
 1868), Spanish statesman; defeated the 
 Carlists at Arcos in 1836, and in 1838 became 
 captain-general of Old Castile. He con- 
 spired iu the interest of Christina against 
 Espartero two years later, and fled to 
 France, but iu 1843 displaced his opponent, 
 and was subsequently several times prime 
 minister, his policy being strongly re- 
 actionary. 
 
 Nash, John {d. 1835), English architect, 
 designed Buckingham Palace and the Hay- 
 market theatre, the present form of Regent 
 
 Street and great part of western London 
 being also his work. 
 
 Nash, Richard, "Beau Nash" (J). 1674, rf. 
 1761 j, leader of fashion at Bath, where he 
 was master of the ceremonies for fifty years ; 
 was ultimately ruined by gambling. 
 
 Nash, Thomas {d. circa 1601), dramatist 
 and satirist ; author of Dido, Queen of Car- 
 thage (1594), Fierce Penilesse, his Supplica- 
 tion to the Bivell (1592), etc. 
 
 Nasmith, David (*. 1799, d. 1839), Scotch 
 pliilautliropist ; foxmded city missions at 
 London, Glasgow, and other places. 
 
 Nasmjrth, Alexander (6. 1757, d. 1840), 
 founder of the Scottish school of landscape- 
 painting, and a pupil of Allan Ramsay. 
 There is a portrait of Burns by him in the 
 National Portrait Gallery, London. 
 
 Nasmyth, Charles {b. 1825, d. 1861), a 
 major in the British army, who, with 
 Captain Butler, defended Silistria in 1853. 
 
 Nasmyth, James {b. 1808, d. 1890), en- 
 gineer, son of Alexander ; was some time 
 assistant to Henry Maudslay, after whose 
 death he settled at Manchester. Here he 
 invented the steam-hammer, which was 
 adopted by Government in 1843. His auto- 
 biography, edited by S. Smiles, contains an 
 account of the torpedo-ram and his other 
 iaventions. 
 
 Nasmyth, Patrick or Peter {b. 1786, d. 
 1831) , brother of James ; followed his father's 
 profession, and was called " the English 
 Hobbema." Two of his landscapes are in 
 the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Nasr-ed-Deen. {See Persia, Shah of.] 
 
 Nast, Thomas {b. 1840), American carica- 
 turist, bom at London ; while in Italy with 
 Garibaldi sent sketches to English and 
 American papers, and during the American 
 Civil war gained the name of " Destroyer of 
 the Tammany Ring" by his caricatures 
 against that association. He afterwards 
 gave lectures with illustrations executed in 
 face of the audience, and also painted in 
 oils. 
 
 Natalie, Queen of Servia {b. 1859), married 
 King Milan in 1875, and was divorced in 
 1888, the validity of the divorce being, how- 
 ever, more than doubtful. 
 
 Nathan, Isaac or Mordecai (fl. 1450), 
 Jewish rabbi ; published the first Hebrew 
 concordance of the Old Testament. 
 
 Naud6, Gabriel {b. 1600, d. 1653), French 
 physician, librarian to Cardinal jNIazarin, 
 and afterwards to Christina of Sweden. His 
 chief work was Apology for the Great Men 
 who have been Accused of Magic.
 
 Nau 
 
 ( 586) 
 
 Nen 
 
 Naudet, Joseph (*. 1786, d. 1878), French 
 writer, professor of poetry at the College de 
 France (,1821-30), and director of the royal 
 library (1840-57), published Klstoire de 
 VEtahUssemt'nts, des Progres, et de la Decadence 
 de la MonarcJiie des Goths en Italie (1811), 
 and other historical works, besides editions 
 of Tacitus and Catullus, and a translation 
 of Plautus. 
 
 Naunton, Sir Robert (d. 1635), English 
 statesman, employed as a diplomatist in 
 France and Scotland under EUzabeth ; re- 
 ceived several offices from James I., and in 
 1618 became Secretary of State. He was 
 also public orator at Cambridge, and author 
 of I'ragmenta Regalia. 
 
 Navarette, Martin Fernandez de (b. 1765, 
 d. 1844), Spanish sailor and writer, author 
 of Collection of Voyages and Maritime Dis- 
 coveries made by the Spaniards mice the Close 
 of the Fifteenth Century and Collection of 
 Unpublished Documents for the History of 
 Spain, which was continued after his death. 
 
 Naylor, James (d. 1660), fanatic, joined 
 George Fox, but was afterwards disowned 
 by the Quakers; was declared guilty of 
 blasphemy by Parliament, and barbarously 
 punished. 
 
 Neal, Daniel (b. 1678, d. 1743), Noncon- 
 formist divine ; author of History of the 
 Puritans and History of New England. 
 
 Neander, Johana August Wilhelm {b. 
 
 1789, d. 1850) (David Mendel), German 
 theologian of Jewish parentage, professor 
 of theology at Berlin. Many of his works 
 have been translated, the chief of them 
 being History of the Christian Religion and 
 Church, Life of Jesus Christ, and The 
 Emperor Julian and his Age. 
 
 Nearchus (4th century B.C.), a Cretan, 
 was naval commander under Alexander the 
 Great. Fragments are extant of his voyage 
 from India to Babylon. 
 
 Necker, Jacques (i. 1732, d. 1804), French 
 statesman, of Geuevese birth ; made a repu- 
 tation when a banker at Paris by his work 
 Sur la Legislation et la Commerce des Grains, 
 and was appointed comptroller-general in 
 1777, retiring in 1781 after vain attempts at 
 reform. In 1788 he retiuned to office, and 
 when dismissed by the court in July, 1789, 
 was the most popular man in France, but 
 after his recall gradually lost his reputation, 
 and returned to Switzerland in September, 
 
 1790. His Administration des Finances de la 
 France (1784) had a large sale. Madame 
 Neckee {nee Susanne Curchod) was cele- 
 brated for her benevolence and her salon 
 and her early love affair with Gibbon. 
 
 Needham, Marchmont (J, 1620, d. 1678), 
 English political writer, edited Mercurius 
 
 Britannicus (Parliamentarian), Mercurius 
 Pragmaticus (Royalist), and Mercurius 
 Politicus for the Commonwealth (1649-60). 
 
 Neefs, Peter, the Elder {b. 1570, d. 1651), 
 Flemish painter, pupil of Steenwyck, his 
 subjects being chiefly arcliitectural. -He 
 had a son, a painter, who was known as 
 " Young Neefs." 
 
 Near, Aart {b. circa 1619), Dutch painter, 
 chiefly of marine subjects. Several of his 
 works are in the National Gallery. His 
 son, EoLON Hendeick (d. 1703), was a 
 historical and portrait painter. 
 
 NeiU, James George (b. 1810, d. 1857), 
 English general ; was second in command of 
 the Turkish contingent during the Crimean 
 war, and in the Indian Mutiny took and held 
 Allahabad, avenged the massacre of Cawn- 
 pore, but was shot by a mutineer when 
 before Lucknow. 
 
 Neilson, Lilian Adelaide {b. 1850, d. 1880), 
 actress, distinguished for her rendering of 
 Shakesperean characters, Juliet being, per- 
 haps, her best part. In 1872 she made a tour 
 in America. 
 
 N6laton, Auguste {b. 1807, d. 1873), French 
 siirgeon and physician, professor of clinical 
 surgery at Paris (1851-67), and surgeon-iu- 
 ordinary to Napoleon III. ; is best known 
 from his having extracted a bu?let from 
 Garibaldi's foot after Aspromonte (^860). 
 
 Nelson, Horatio, Viscount (A. 1758, d. 
 1805), English admiral, son of a Norfolk 
 clergyman ; entered the navy in 1770,,'^rved 
 in the American war, and under Lord Hood 
 in the war with revolutionary Franct', be- 
 coming commodore in 1796, and rear-adr ural 
 after the battle of Cape St. Vincent 1 '97. 
 In the following year he won the battle of 
 the Nile, for which he was made baron, aid 
 in 1801 brilliantly disobeyed Sir Hyde Park'^r 
 by attacking Copenhagen. After this hq 
 commanded in the Mediterranean, and o\- 
 October 21, 1805, saved England from in- 
 vasion by his defeat of the combined French 
 and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar, but fell in 
 the action. 
 
 Nemours, Louis Philippe d' Orleans, Due 
 de {b. 1814), second son of King Louis 
 Philippe, was elected King of the Belgians 
 in 1831, and afterwards offered the crown of 
 Greece, but both were declined for him by 
 his father. After serving in Algeria, he 
 became regent on the death of his elder 
 brother in 1842, left France in 1848, returned 
 in 1870, and in 1873 had an interview with 
 the Comte de Chambord. 
 
 Nennius, reputed author of Historia 
 Britonum, a chronicle extending from Brut 
 the Trojan to 680.
 
 Nep 
 
 (587) 
 
 New 
 
 Nepomui, John of {b. circa 1330, d. 1383), 
 confessor to Sophia, wife of Wenceslaus IV. 
 of Bohemia, by which Mng he was thrown 
 into the Moldan. Many hold this story to 
 be mythical. 
 
 Nepos, Cornelius {d. circa 24), Latin writer, 
 friend of Cicero. To him is attributed Vitm 
 Ezcellentium Imperatorum, etc. 
 
 Neri.Filippo de {b. 1515, d. 1595), Catholic 
 saint, founded in 1556 Congregation of the 
 Priests of the Oratory, which was introduced 
 into England by Cardinal Newman. 
 
 Nero, Lucius Domitius {b. 37, d. 68), 
 Emperor of Rome, grandson of Germanicus ; 
 was adopted by Claudius in the year 50, and 
 succeeded him in 54. He caused his mother, 
 Agrippiua, to be murdered for opposing his 
 divorce from Octavia and marriage with 
 Poppasa Sabina, this being accomplished by 
 the murder of the former. He persecuted 
 the Christians, whom he charged with the 
 burning of Rome in 64, and married Messa- 
 lina after the death of his second wife. The 
 conspiracy of Piso was discovered, but on 
 the success of that of Galba Nero put an end 
 to his life. 
 
 Nerva, Marcus Cocceius {d. 98), Roman 
 emperor, succeeded Domitian in 96, and 
 reigned two years. 
 
 N^mda. [See Norman-Neruda.] 
 
 Nesselrode, Karl Hobert, Count (b. 1780, 
 d. 1862), Russian statesman ; while attached 
 to the embassy in Paris obtained informa- 
 tion of Napoleon's designs, took part in the 
 Congress of Vienna (1814-15), and was 
 foreign minister under Alexander I., 
 Nicholas, and Alexander II. till 18.56. He 
 left an Autobiography in French. 
 
 Nestor (/l. 1116), a monk of Kief: left a 
 chronicle, which is the earUest work on 
 Russian history. 
 
 Nestorius {d. circa 450), was deposed from 
 the patriarchate of Constantinople by the 
 influence of Cyril, and banished to the 
 Libyan desert. He founded the sect of the 
 Nestorians. 
 
 Netscher, Kaspar {b. 1639, d. 1GS4), 
 German painter, who excelled in depicting 
 costume and draperies. His sons, Theodore 
 (d. 1732) and Constantine {d. 1722), were 
 portrait-painters of merit. 
 
 Nettleship, Henry (*. 1839), English 
 scholar. After a distinguished career at 
 Oxford, was elected fellow of Lincoln in 
 1861, of Coi-pus in 1873, and in 1878 became 
 professor of Latin. His chief work is 
 Lectures and Essai/s on Subjects Connected 
 with Latin Literature and Scholarship (1885). 
 
 Neulioflf, Baron Theodore von {d. 1756), 
 
 German adventurer. Having been obliged 
 to leave his country on account of a duel, 
 served in the Spanish army against the 
 Moors, and in 1735 was crowned King of 
 Corsica, but being unable to achieve its 
 independence came to England. Here he 
 was imprisoned for debt for some years, 
 his liberation being at last effected by 
 Horace Walpole. 
 
 Neumann, Karl Friedrich (J. 1798, d. 
 1870), German Orientalist ; was deprived 
 of his professorship at Munich in 1852 on 
 account of his Liberalism, and settled at 
 Berlin, where he published Memoirs of 
 David, an Armenian Philosopher, and 
 several historical works dealing with China. 
 
 Neville, George {d. 1476), ecclesiastical 
 statesman, brother of Warwick the King- 
 maker ; was made Bishop of Exeter when 
 imder age, and became Lord Chancellor in 
 1469, in which year he pronounced judg- 
 ment in favour of the Yorkist claim to the 
 throne. On the rupture with Edward IV. 
 he was deprived of the seals, but had 
 meanwhile become Archbishop of York. 
 He had the custody of Edward in 1470, and 
 was subsequently confined in the Tower 
 and at Calais. 
 
 Neville, Henry, actor ; played with 
 Fechter in No Thoroughfare, took a 
 leadmg part at the Vaudeville in The 
 School for Scandal, London Assurance, etc., 
 and was subsequently lessee of the Olympic. 
 He published The Stage ; its Fast and 
 Present, in Relation to Fine Art. 
 
 Newcastle [-under-Lyme], Thomas Pel- 
 ham, Duke of {b. 1693, d. 1768), statesman ; 
 was a great favourite of George I., who made 
 him Privy Councillor in 1717, and a lord 
 justice during his absence in Hanover. In 
 1724 he became a Secretary of State, and 
 was Prime Minister from 1754 to 1756, and 
 again from 1757 to 1762. 
 
 Newcastle, Henry Pelham-Clinton, fifth 
 Dukeof {h. 1811, <^. 1864), statesman; entered 
 Parliament (as Lord Lincoln) in 1832, be- 
 came Commissioner of Woods and Forests 
 1841, and in 1846 Chief Secretary for Ire- 
 land. He succeeded to the peerage in 1851 ; 
 was, as a Peelite, Colonial Secretary and 
 Secretary for War successively in the Aber- 
 deen Ministry, and again held the lormer 
 oflfice from 1859 to 1864. 
 
 Newcastle[-upon-Tyne], William Caven- 
 dish, first Duke (b. \')'^1, d. 1676), did good 
 service to the Royalist cause during the 
 Great Rebellion, and was created marquis 
 in 1643, and duke in 1664. 
 
 Newdigate, Sir Roger, Bart. {b. 1719, d. 
 1806), rejiresented Oxford University for 
 many years, and founded the prize for an 
 English poem winch is annually awarded.
 
 New 
 
 (688) 
 
 Nic 
 
 Newdigate - Newdegate, Edward (b. 
 1825), eutered the army iu 1842, and be- 
 came lieutenant-general in 1887, and gover- 
 nor of the Bermudas, having served in the 
 Crimea and in the Zulu war of 1879. 
 
 Newman, Edward (6. 1801, d. 1876), 
 naturalist ; author of Grammar of Ento- 
 mology (1835), History of British Ferns 
 (1845), and History of British Moths 
 (1869). 
 
 Newman, Francis WilHam {b. 1805), 
 philosophical writer, brother of Cardinal 
 Newman ; resigned his fellowship at 
 Balliol in 1830 on conscientious grounds, 
 and travelled iu the East, and was pro- 
 fessor of Latin in the University of London 
 from 1846 to 1863. Among his chief works 
 are The Soul : its Sorrows and Aspirations 
 (1849), Phases of Faith (1850), and Theism, 
 jDoctrtnal and Practical (1858), besides 
 translations of the Iliad and the Odes of 
 Horace. 
 
 Newman, John Henry, Caj-dinal (b. 1801, 
 d. 1890), theologian, sou of a London ban- 
 ker ; graduated from Trinity College, Ox- 
 ford, in 1820, and was elected fellow of 
 Oriel. He took orders in 1824, when he 
 became vice-principal of St. Albau's Hall, 
 and in 1828 became vicar of St. Mary's. 
 He took a leading part in the Tractarian 
 movement, and in 1841 wi'ote Tract XC, 
 which was severely condemned. After 
 living at Littlemore for some years in 
 seclusion, he was received into the Roman 
 Church in 1845 ; founded the Brompton 
 oratory in 1850, and directed the Edg- 
 baston oratory for the greater part of his 
 remaining years. He took part in contro- 
 versies with Kingsley in 1864 and Mr. 
 Gladstone in 1874, and accepted the Infalli- 
 bility dogma vrith some reservations. He 
 was created cardinal in 1879. Chief among 
 his works were Apologia pro Vttd Sua, An 
 Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent 
 (1870), and The Dream of Gerontius. 
 
 Newton, Alfred, F.R.S. (6. 1829), 
 zoologist ; went to Spitzbergen iu 1864, 
 and also visited Iceland and North America. 
 In 1866 he became professor of zoology and 
 comparative anatomy at Cambridge, and, 
 besides other works, was author of The 
 Zoology of Ancient Europe. 
 
 Newton, Charles Thomas, D.C.L., Ph.D , 
 
 etc. (J). 1816), archaeologist ; was assistant 
 in the antiquities department of the 
 British Museum 1840-52, when he became 
 vice-consul at Mitylene, and made the 
 important discoveries described in his 
 Travels and Discoveries in the Levant. From 
 1861 to 1885 he was keeper of Greek and 
 Koman antiquities, and edited the collection 
 of ancient Greek inscriptions in the British 
 Museum. His wife, a daughter of Joseph 
 
 Severn, was an artist of merit, and died in 
 1866. 
 
 Newton, Gilbert Stuart {b. 1794, d. 1835), 
 painter, friend of Washington Irving. He 
 became A.R.A. in 1828, and R.A. in 1832, 
 and became insane soon after. His Yoi'ick 
 and the Grisette is in the National Gallery, 
 London. 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac {b. 1642, d. 1727), 
 natural philosopher ; was bom at Wools- 
 thorpe, Lincolnshire, and educated at Gran- 
 tham and Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 After going dovni for some years, during 
 which he published his theory of light and 
 discovered the law of gravitation, he be- 
 came fellow of his college in 1667, and pro- 
 fessor of mathematics two years later. He 
 was chosen fellow of the Royal Society ia 
 1671, was president for twenty-five years 
 from 1703, and became also master of the 
 Mint, being knighted in 1705. He repre- 
 sented the University in Parliament. His 
 PhilosopJna Xaturalis Principia appeared 
 in 1687. He was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey, his epitaph being written by Pope, 
 and a full account of his life and writings 
 by Sir D. Brewster was published in 1855. 
 
 Newton, John {b. 1725, d. 1807), divine, 
 the friend of Cowper, with whom he pro- 
 duced Olney Hymns. He wrote also several 
 other works. 
 
 Newton, John (b. 1823), American 
 general ; served with credit at Washington, 
 Gettysburg, and elsewhere during the Civil 
 war, and was appointed commissioner of 
 public works at New York in 1886. 
 
 Newton, Thomas (*. 1704, d. 1782), 
 divine ; author of Dissertations on the 
 Prophecies ; became Bishop of Bristol in 
 1761. 
 
 Ney, Michel, Prince de la Moskowa (6. 
 1769, d. 181.5), marshal of France; entered 
 the army in 1787, and first distinguished 
 himself as general of division under Moreau 
 (1799-1800). He was minister in Switzer- 
 land in 1803, but iu 1805 gained his title of 
 Due d'Elchingeu by his capture of that 
 village when in command of the 8th corps. 
 A gi-eat part of the success of the campaign 
 against Prussia was due to him, as was also 
 the victory of Friedland. He was recalled 
 from Spain on accoimt of a quarrel with 
 Masseua, and in the retreat from Moscow 
 commanded the rear-guard of the Grande 
 Armee. He was active in the campaign of 
 1813, but was defeated at Deunewitz. He 
 was continued in the command of his 
 division by the Bourbon government, but 
 soon joined Napoleon, and led the charge of 
 the Old Guard at Waterloo, after which he 
 was shot as a traitor. 
 
 Niccolini, Giovanni Battista {b. 1785, d.
 
 Nic 
 
 (589 ) 
 
 Nic 
 
 ]861), Italian poet, librarian and secretary 
 to the Florence Academy of Fine Arts ; 
 author of Arnaldo da Brescia (1845), Gio- 
 vanni da Procida, and Nahiwco (printed in 
 London 1819), which were directed against 
 Austrian domination. 
 
 Niccolo da Pisa. [See Pisano.] 
 
 Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople 
 (i. 758, d. 828), was deposed and banished 
 in 815 by Leo the Armenian for refusing to 
 accept lus decree against images. He wrote 
 Breviarium Histortcum, a history of Con- 
 stantinople in Greek. 
 
 Nicephorus I., Emperor of the East {d. 
 811), conspired against Irene in 802, and 
 banished her to Lesbos ; made a treaty with 
 Charlemagne in 803, but was compelled to 
 pay tribute to Haroun al Raschid. He 
 governed with great cruelty, and was sur- 
 prised and slain in his camp by the Bul- 
 garians. 
 
 Nicephorus XL [Phocas] {b. 912, d. 969), 
 recovered Cihcia, Syria, and Cyprus from 
 the Saracens ; was crowned in 963, and 
 murdered by John Zimisces in 969. 
 
 Nicephorus III. succeeded Michael VII. 
 in 1078 ; defeated Bryennius, but was 
 deposed by Alexis Comnenus in 1081, and 
 became a monk. 
 
 Niceron, Jean Pierre {b. 1685, d. 1738), 
 French vmter ; author of Memoires pour 
 servir a VHistoire des Hommes Illustres de la 
 Republiqtce des Lettres (forty-four volumes). 
 
 Nichol, John Pringle {b. 1804, d. 1859), 
 Scottish clergyman and astronomer ; author 
 of Views of the Architecture of the Heavens, 
 Cyclopcedia of the Physical Sciences, and 
 other works. 
 
 Nichol, John, LL.D. {b. 1833), his son ; 
 was professor of English literature at Glas- 
 gow from 1861 to 1889, and wrote Tables of 
 European Literature and History, Byron 
 {'■'■Men of Letters" series). Bacon's Life 
 and Philosophy {"Philosophical Writers''^) 
 and other works. 
 
 Nicholas, the Tsar {b. 1796, d. 1855), 
 third son of Paul ; succeeded Alexander I. 
 in 1825, after repressing a miUtary insur- 
 rection, the object of which was to make 
 Constantino emperor, with a constitution. 
 He carried on wars with Persia and Turkey, 
 and crushed the rising of the Poles in 1830. 
 He died during the Crimean, or second 
 Turkish war. 
 
 Nicholas, the Grand Duke {b. 1831), 
 third son of the above ; saw some service in 
 the Crimea, and commanded the Russian 
 troops in Europe up to April, 1878, in the 
 Eusso-Turkish war. In 1890 he lost his 
 reason, but partially recovered. 
 
 Nicholas I., Prince of Montenegro {b. 
 1841), succeeded his uncle in 1860. 
 
 Nicholas I., Pope of Rome (d. 867), was 
 consecrated in 858 ; excommunicated Pho- 
 tius, and attempted to induce the Eastern 
 bishops to obey him, the result being the 
 final schism between the East and West. 
 He condemned the divorce and marriage of 
 Lothaire, and was attacked in consequence, 
 but in a conflict with the chief bishops of 
 the West he maintained the papal su- 
 premacy. 
 
 Nicholas II. {d. 1061), was elected in 
 1058, and introduced reforms. 
 
 Nicholas III. {d. 1280), elected in 1277 ; 
 imduly favoured his family, the Orsini, but 
 attempted a reconciliation with the Greek 
 Church. 
 
 Nicholas IV. {d. 1292), elected in 1288 ; 
 busied himself in the adornment of Rome, 
 but was unsuccessful in his attempt to pro- 
 mote a fresh crusade. 
 
 Nicholas v., "Da Sarzana" {b. 1389, 
 d. 1455), was elected iu 1447 (the abdi- 
 cation of the anti-pope, two years later, 
 bringing to an end the "Great Schism"), 
 and defeated the conspiracy of Porcari in 
 1452. He was a great scholar, was chief 
 founder of the Vatican library, and of 
 several Italian universities, and offered an 
 asylum to the Greeks driven out of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 Nichols, John {b. 1745, d. 1826), printer 
 and editor; conducted the Gentleman's 
 Magazine for many years, and pubUshed 
 Literary Anecdotes of the Eiyh teenth Century, 
 and Lllmtrations of the Literary History of 
 the Eighteenth Century, the latter of which 
 was continued by his son, John Bowtee 
 Nichols {d. 1863). 
 
 Nichols, John Gough {b. 1806, d. 1873), 
 antiquary ; edited the Gentleman'' s Maga- 
 zine, and pubUshed Facsimiles of Auto- 
 graphs of Personages Conspicuous in English 
 History, tvith Biographical Memoirs (1829), 
 Literary Remains of King Edward VI., etc. 
 
 Nicholson, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L. {b. 
 
 1808), was Speaker in New South Wales 
 from 1846 to 1856, and some time chancellor 
 of the university of Sydney. 
 
 Nicholson, Henry Alleyne, M.D., D.Sc, 
 etc. {b. 1844), zoologist ; was appointed pro- 
 fessor of natural history at Toronto iu 1871, 
 of biology at Durham (1874), of natural his- 
 tory at St. Andrews (1875), and at Aber- 
 deen in 1882, being also Swiney lecturer on 
 geology at the British Museum. Among his 
 works are manuals of zoology and palaeon- 
 tology. 
 
 Nicholson, John (6. 1822, d. 1857),Britiah
 
 Nic 
 
 (590 ) 
 
 Ifit 
 
 Boldier ; served with distinction in the first 
 Afghan war, the Sutlej camijaign, and the 
 second Sikh war, and during the Mutiny 
 disarmed the Sepoys at Peshawur, and was 
 mortally wounded at the siege of Delhi. 
 
 Nicholson, Margaret, a mad woman, at- 
 tempted the Hfe of George III. August 2, 1786. 
 
 Nicias (d. 413 b.c), Athenian statesman 
 and general, leader of the Oligarchical 
 party ; was one of the commanders of the 
 Sicilian expedition, in the course of which 
 he was defeated, captured, and put to death. 
 
 Nicol, Erskine, Hon., A.R.A. (b. 1825), 
 painter, was born at Leith, and Hved much 
 in Ireland, scenes from which country form 
 the majority of his subjects. 
 
 Nicolai, Christoph Friedrich {b. 1733, d. 
 1811), German bookseller and writer : estab- 
 lished the Allgememe Deutsche Biblothek, and 
 published ie<<e?'s on Modern Literature, etc. 
 
 Nicolai, Otto {b. 1810, d. 1849), Gei-man 
 composer, wrote TJie Merry Wives of Wind- 
 sor, etc. 
 
 Nicolas, Sir Nicholas Harris {b. 1799, d. 
 1848), antiquary, author of History of the 
 Orders of Knighthood, Despatches of Lord 
 Nelson, and other works. He served when 
 young in the navy, and was called to the 
 bar in 1825. 
 
 Nicot, Jean (b. 1530, d. 1600), when 
 ambassador to Portugal in 1559 brought 
 back the tobacco plant, which was called 
 " herba nicotiana " after him. 
 
 Niebuhr, Carsten (b. 1733. d. 1815), tra- 
 veller, born at Hanover ; was geographer to 
 the Danish expedition to Arabia of 1761-2, 
 and returned alone from India through 
 Persia and Turkey, publishing an account 
 of the expedition in Description of Arabia 
 and Travels in Arabia. 
 
 Niebuhr, Barthold Georg {b. 1776, d. 
 1831), his son, historian and philologist; 
 was bom at Copenhagen, but in 1805 en- 
 tered the Prussian service, and became privy 
 councillor. He was several years minister 
 at Rome, and negotiated the concordat of 
 1821. In 1823 he obtained a chair at Bonn, 
 and his Homische Geschichte appeared in 
 enlarged form in 1827. It was translated by 
 Hare and Thirlwall. He was also author of 
 Corpus Scriptorum Histories Byzantinm and 
 other works, and discovered at Verona the 
 fragments of Gaius. 
 
 Niel, Adolphe (*. 1802, d. 1869), marshal 
 of France ; served with credit in Algeria 
 and at Rome (1849), and as chief of 
 engineers captured Bomarsund in the Cri- 
 mean war, while he afterwards directed for 
 the French the siege of Sebastopol. He also 
 took part in the war with Austria in 1859, 
 and was minister of war from 1867 to 1869. 
 
 Niemcewicz, Julian Ursin {b. Ylbl, d. 
 1841), Polish statesman and writer ; was 
 aide-de-camp to Kosciusko in 1794, and 
 after two years' imprisonment went with 
 him to America. On the establishment of 
 the Grand Duchy of Warsaw he became 
 secretary to the Senate, a post which he 
 lost on account of his support of the rising 
 of 1830, having also taken part in the fram- 
 ing of a new constitution after the Con- 
 gress of Vienna. His chief work was His- 
 torical Ballads. 
 
 Niepce de Saint Victor, Claude Marie 
 Francois {b. 1805, d. 1870), inventor of j)hoto- 
 graphy on glass, was bom at Saint Cyr, and 
 served some years in the French army. In 
 1847 he announced his discovery, and after- 
 wards invented the " heliochrome " process 
 and "heliography" (1853). In 1855 his 
 Iteeherches Fhotographiques appeared, but 
 he refused to patent his inventions. 
 
 Nightingale, Florence {b. 1829), was bom 
 at Florence, and in 1851 entered an institu- 
 tion of sisters of mercy at Kaisers werth. 
 On November 4, 1854, she arrived with 
 ninety-two women at Scutari, and brought 
 the hospital there to a high state of effici- 
 ency. A testimonial was offered her but 
 dechned. She wrote Notes on Hospitals, 
 Notes on Nursing, and other works. 
 
 Nigra, Constantino, Comit {b. 1827), 
 Italian diplomatist, was badly wounded at 
 Rivoh, and afterwards entered the diploma- 
 tic service. He was secretary to Cavour at 
 the Paris Congress in 1856, and as Itahan 
 minister there ia 1870 endeavoured to avert 
 the war with Prussia. In 1876 he was 
 transferred to St. Petersburg, and in 1882 
 to Loudon, where he remained three years. 
 
 Nikita. [See Nicholas I. of Montenegro.] 
 
 Nilsson, Christine {b. 1843), Swedish 
 singer, daughter of a farmer ; went to Paris 
 in 1860, and on October 27, 1864, made 
 her debut at the Theatre Lyrique in La 
 Traviata. Her first appearance in England 
 was in 1867, and in 1870-2 she made her 
 first tour in the United States, her retire- 
 ment taking place in 1888. She married 
 M. Rouzaud in 1872, and in 1887 Count de 
 Miranda. 
 
 Nimrod, nom de plume of Charles Appee- 
 LEY {b. 1778, d. 1843), author of Hunting 
 Tours (1835), The Turf, the Chase, and the 
 Itoad (1837), etc. 
 
 Ninon de I'Enclos. [See L'Enclos.] 
 
 Nithsdale, William Maxwell, fifth Earl of 
 {b. 1676, d. 1744), Scottish nobleman, cele- 
 brated for his escape from the Tower, which 
 was effected by his wife in 1716, after the 
 rebeUion of the previous year.
 
 Ni2s 
 
 (591) 
 
 Nor 
 
 Nizam al MiQuk [d. 1092), Grand Vizier of 
 Persia for nearly thirty years ; founded and 
 endowed the college of Bagdad, and wrote 
 a history of his times. He was killed by an 
 assassin. 
 
 Nizami, Abu Mohammed Nizam Eddyn 
 (12th century), Persian poet, the German 
 memoir of whose life and writings was 
 translated into Enghsh in 1873. His prin- 
 cipal work is KhaniHah, consisting of five 
 poems, one of which is Iskander-Nameh — 
 the " Alexander Booky 
 
 NoaiUes, Adrien Maurice, Due de (6. 
 1(378, d. 1766), French general ; was pre- 
 sident of the council during the minority of 
 Louis XV., but lost his place for a time 
 through the influence of Dubois. He com- 
 manded at Dettiugen, and in old age again 
 became a minister. Two of his sons were 
 marshals of France. 
 
 Noble John Willock {p. 1831), American 
 statesman ; rose from the ranks to be 
 brigadier-general during the Civil war, 
 and, after practising many years as a law- 
 yer, was named secretary of the interior in 
 1889. 
 
 Noble, Mark {h. 1784, d. 1827), clergyman 
 and antiquary, author of History of the 
 College of Arms, Lives of the English Regi- 
 cides, Memoirs of the Protectorate House of 
 Cromicell, etc. 
 
 Nodier, Charles {b. 1780, d. 1844), French 
 ■writer, became librarian of the Bibliotheque 
 de 1' Arsenal in 1823. Among his works 
 were Le Eoi de Boheme (1830), and Lies de 
 las Sierras (romances). 
 
 Noel, Baptist Wriothesley {b. 1798, d. 
 1873), divine, left the Church soon after the 
 Gorham decision (1848), and joined the 
 Baptists, defending his position in his 
 Essay on the Union of Church and State. 
 He wrote also several other works. 
 
 Nolan, Captain Lewis Edward {b. 1817, d. 
 1854), British officer. After serving in the 
 Austrian army and in India, was sent to 
 Turkey on the outbreak of the Crimean war 
 to purchase horses, and was killed at Bala- 
 clava while carrying the fatal order for the 
 charge to Lord Lucan. 
 
 Nollekens, Joseph {b. 1737, d. 1823), Eng- 
 lish sculptor, son of a Dutch landscape-pain- 
 ter : was the friend of Blake and Flaxman, 
 and made a large fortune by his art, speci- 
 mens of which are the bust of Goldsmith in 
 Westminster Abbey, and those of Pitt and 
 Fox in the National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 Noodt, Gerard {b. 1647, d. 1725), Dutch 
 civilian, rector and professor of law of 
 Leyden, whose works were published in 
 1716. 
 
 Norbury, John Toler, Earl of (*. 1745, d. 
 1831), Irish judge, celebrated for his wit; as 
 Attorney- General prosecuted the rebels of 
 1798, and in 1800 became Chief Justice of 
 the Common Pleas, being created an earl on 
 his retirement in 1827. 
 
 Nordberg, Georg {b. 1677, d. 1744), Swe- 
 dish historian ; accompanied Charles XII. 
 in his campaigns as chaplain, and was cap- 
 tured at Pultowa. He wrote a Life of 
 Charles XI L. 
 
 NordensMbld, Nilo Adolf Erik, Baron (6. 
 1832), Arctic explorer, bom at Helsingfors, 
 Finland, made voyages of exploration to 
 Spitzbergen in 1861, 1864, and 1866, and 
 visited Greenland in 1870. After several 
 preparatory voyages he started in 1878, 
 under the auspices of the KiKg of Sweden, 
 to discover a north-east passage, and his 
 Voyage of^ the Vega round Asia and Europe 
 appeared in an English version in 1883. 
 
 Nordica, Madame [Mrs. Gower], singer, 
 was bom and educated in America, and 
 afterwards went to Italy. She acquired 
 a reputation by her rendering of Mar- 
 guerite. 
 
 Norfolk, Roger Bigod, Earl of (<f. 1270), 
 Earl Marshal of England ; headed the em- 
 bassy of 1245 to the Council of Lyons to 
 complain of the exactions of Innocent IV., 
 and took a prominent part in the reign of 
 Henry III., at first against but later in 
 favour of the king. 
 
 Norfolk, Roger Bigod, Earl of {d. 1307), 
 nephew of preceding ; inherited the dignity 
 of marshal in 1270, and took an active part 
 in the Welsh wars, and in obtaining the 
 confirmation of the charter from Edward I. 
 
 Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray, Duke of (d. 
 1399), was created duke by Richard II. in 
 return for his support against Gloucester, 
 but was banished for life after the quarrel 
 with Henry of Hereford. 
 
 Norfolk, Thomas Howard, Duke of (d. 
 1524), was made prisoner at Bosworth, 
 where his father (" Jack of Norfolk ") was 
 killed; became lord treasurer in 1501, and 
 next year arranged the marriage of Mar- 
 garet Tudor with James IV. of Scotland. 
 He commanded at Flodden, and negotiated 
 the peace with France in 1514. 
 
 Norfolk, Thomas Howard, Duke of {d. 
 1554), son of last-named, rendered great 
 services to Henry VIII. as a soldier in 
 France and Scotland, and was chiefly in- 
 strumental in putting an end to the Pil- 
 grimage of Grace (1.536). He was lord 
 deputy of Ireland (1520-2) ; opposed the 
 Reformation, bringing about the fall of 
 Cromwell, but, having incurred the dis- 
 pleasure of the king, was condemned to
 
 Nor 
 
 (592) 
 
 Nor 
 
 death, and only escaped by the death of 
 
 Henry. 
 
 Norfolli, Thomas Howard, Duke of (d. 
 1572), grandson of last-named, was for long 
 greatly favoured by Elizabeth, but was 
 sent to the Tower in 1569 on the discovery 
 of his views with regard to Mary Stuart. 
 He was soon released, but having broken 
 his pledges, was found guilty of treason and 
 executed. 
 
 Norman, Sir Henry Wylie, G.C.B., etc. 
 (I). 182G), entered the Bengal anny in 1844 ; 
 was for seven years a member of the Council 
 of India, and, having held various mihtary 
 appointments and been governor of Jamaica, 
 became governor of Queensland in 1888. 
 He served in the Punjab campaign and 
 throughout the Mutiny. 
 
 Norman, John Paxton {b. 1819, d. 1871), 
 judge of the High Court of Bengal, was 
 assassinated when entering the court at 
 Calcutta. He was author of a treatise on 
 Law and Practice Relating to Letters. Patent 
 for Inventions. 
 
 Norman, Eobert (16th century), dis- 
 covered the dip of the magnetic needle, and 
 made improvements in the compass. 
 
 Nonuan-N^ruda, Wilhelmine [Lady 
 Halle] {b. 1840), violinist, was bom at 
 Brtin ; made her first appearance in 1846, 
 and from 1870 visited England every winter. 
 Her first husband was Ludwig Norman. 
 
 Normanby, Constantine Phipps, Marquis 
 of {b. 1797, d. 1863), statesman and diplo- 
 matist, son of the first Earl of Mulgrave ; 
 entered Parliament as a Whig in 1819, be- 
 came governor of Jamaica in 1831, Lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland 1835, and was created 
 marquis in 1838. He was Colonial Secre- 
 tary (1839) and Home Secretary (1839-40), 
 and in 1846 became ambassador at Paris, 
 whence he went to Florence in 1854. He 
 had controversies with Louis Blanc, Lord 
 Palmerston, and Mr. Gladstone. 
 
 Normanby, George, second Marquis, 
 G.C.B. {b. 1819), sat for some years in 
 the House of Commons ; was governor of 
 Nova Scotia (1858-1866), of Queensland 
 (1871-74), of New Zealand (1874-78), and 
 Victoria (1878-84). 
 
 Norris, Edwin {b. 1795, d. 1872), philol- 
 ogist ; compiled the first Assyrian diction- 
 ary, and published a grammar of the Bornu 
 language, etc. 
 
 Norris, Sir John (" Foulweather Jack ") 
 {d. 1749), admiral, served under Rooke, 
 Russell, and Sir Cloudesley Shovel ; was 
 joint -admiral with Peterborough in 1705, 
 and in 1710 commander iu the Mediter- 
 ranean. He led expeditions to the Baltic in 
 
 1715 and 1717, in which year he was sent aa 
 special envoy to the Tsar. In 1744 he com- 
 manded against the French. 
 
 Norris, John (b. 1657, d. 1711), English 
 Platonist ; author of The Theory and Regula- 
 tion of Love, etc. 
 
 North, Christopher. [^See WilsDn.] 
 
 North, Hon. Sir Ford (b. 1830), judge; 
 was called to the bar in 1856, became 
 Queen's Counsel in 1877, and in 1881 was 
 appointed a judge of the Queen's Bench, 
 beiug transferred to the Chancery Division 
 in 1883. 
 
 North, Francis, Baron Guilford {b. 1637, 
 d. 1685), EngUsh judge, grandson of Lord 
 Dudley North (d. 1666), the poet, and son 
 of the biographer of the same name ; became 
 Solicitor-General in 1671, Attorney-General 
 1673, and Lord Keeper in 1682, when he 
 was made a peer. He wrote a Philosophical 
 Essay on Music. 
 
 North, Roger {d. 1733), lawyer and bio- 
 grapher, son of Sir Dudley North {d. 1691), 
 author of Observations on the Manners, Cus- 
 toms, and Jurisprudence of the Turks ; wrote 
 lives of his brothers and The Examen : or, 
 Inquiry into the Credit and Veracity of a 
 Pretended Complete History (Kennefs His- 
 tory of England). 
 
 North, Frederick, Earl of Guilford, com- 
 monly known as Lord North {b. 1732, d. 
 1792), statesman, of the same family as the 
 preceding ; became Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer in 1769, and from 1770 to 1782 was 
 Prime Minister, after which he formed a 
 coalition with Fox, and was joint secretary 
 with him for a few months. He was the 
 favourite minister of George III., but to- 
 wards the end of his administration wished 
 to conclude peace with the colonies. 
 
 Northhrook, Francis Baring, Lord {b. 
 1796, d. 1866), statesman, represented 
 Portsmouth as a Whig from 1826 to 1865 ; 
 held subordinate offices under Earl Grey and 
 Lord Melbourne ; was Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer 1839-41, and First Lord of the 
 Admiralty 1849-52, being created ajpeer in 
 1865. 
 
 Northbrook, Right Hon. Thomas, Earl 
 of, K.G. (b. 1826), grandson of preced- 
 ing; entered Parliament in 1857, and held 
 various subordinate offices between that 
 date and 1866, when he became a peer. 
 From 1868 to 1872 he was imder-secretary 
 for war, and was Governor-General of 
 India from the latter year till 1876, when he 
 resigned on the Afghan question. He was 
 First Lord of the Admiralty imder Mr. Glad- 
 stone from 1880 to 1885, and in 1884 went 
 to E^pt as High Commissioner. He broke 
 with nis chief on the Home Rule question.
 
 Nor 
 
 (593) 
 
 Nov 
 
 NortllCOte, James (6. 1746, d. 1831), pain- 
 ter, sou of a Plymouth watchmaker ; was 
 a pupil of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose 
 Memoirs he published (1813-15), and also 
 wrote a Life of Titian. Among his pictures 
 were The Young Frinces Murdered in the 
 Tower, and numerous portraits. 
 
 NortllCOte, Sir Stafford. [See Iddesleigh.] 
 
 Northumberland, Henry Percy, Earl of 
 (d. 1408), distinguished himself in the wars 
 of Edward III., and received his title from 
 Richard II., but joined Henry of Lancaster 
 against him. In 1402 he won the victory of 
 Honuldon Hill and captured Douglas, but 
 he twice rebelled against Henry IV. and 
 was killed in battle. 
 
 Northumberland, John Dudley, Duke of 
 (b. 1502, d. 1553), son of the minister of 
 Henry VII. , was ennobled by Henry VIII. , 
 and obtained wealth from the spoils of the 
 monasteries ; was made high admiral 1545, 
 and Earl of Warwick two years later, and 
 in 1551 obtained his dukedom. He in- 
 trigued against Somerset, procured an 
 alteration of the succession in favour of his 
 daughter-in-law, Jane Grey, and was be- 
 headed for treason by Queen Mary. 
 
 Northumberland, Sir Hugh Smithson, 
 Duke of {d. 1786), intermarried with the 
 old family, assumed the name of Percy, and 
 was created duke in 1766. 
 
 Northumberland, Algernon Percy, Duke 
 of {b. 1792, d. 1865), served in the navy till 
 1815 ; was created Lord Prudhoe next year, 
 and succeeded his brother as duke in 1847. 
 He was First Lord of the Admiralty 
 1852-3, president of the Royal Institution 
 1842-65, and was a great benefactor to the 
 navy. 
 
 Northiunberland, Algernon, Duke of {b. 
 1810), sat in the Commons as a Conservative 
 for several years, and, having held several 
 subordinate offices, was Lord Privy Seal 
 under Lord Beaconsfield 1878-80. 
 
 Norton, Hon. Caroline [Mrs.] (b. 1808, 
 d. 1877), granddaughter of Sheridan, 
 novelist and poet, her chief works being 
 Stuart of Bunleath (1851), Lost and Saved 
 (1863), and The Lady of La Garaye (1870). A 
 divorce suit, with Lord Melbourne as co- 
 respondent, was brought against her in 
 1836, but the charge was disproved. In 
 1877 she married Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell. 
 
 Norton, Right Hon. Sir Charles Adder- 
 ley, Lord (6. 1814), statesman ; represented 
 North Staffordshire as a Conservative for 
 thirty-seven years ; was vice-president of 
 the Education Committee in 1858-9, under- 
 secretary for the Colonies 1866-8, and 
 president of the Board of Trade 1874-8, 
 being created a peer in the latter year, and 
 
 subsequently was a member of several royal 
 commissions. 
 
 Nostradamus, Michel {b. 1503, d. 1566), 
 French astrologer and physician, bom in 
 Provence; published in 1555 Prophetical 
 Centuries, which acquired such vogue 
 that the author was made physician to 
 Charies IX. 
 
 Nott, Josiah Clark (i. 1804, d. 1878), 
 American ethnologist and physician ; author 
 of Physical History of the Jewish Race 
 (1850), and, with G. R. Gliddon, Types of 
 Mankind (1854), and Indigenous Races of the 
 Earth (1857). 
 
 Nott, Sir William {b. 1782, d. 1845), 
 general ; held Candahar in 1841, and next 
 year marched on Cabul, won the victory of 
 Ghuznee, and carried oil' the gates of Som- 
 uauth. Ill-health obliged him to return 
 home, where he died. 
 
 Nottingham. {See Finch and Howard of 
 
 Effingham.] 
 
 Noue, Fraugois de la, "Bras de Fer" 
 (J). 1531, d. 1591), French Calvinist soldier ; 
 derived his nick-name from his having had an 
 iron arm made for him in place of one 
 which had been amputated ; was dis- 
 tinguished at Jamac (1569) and Valen- 
 ciennes (1571), but joined the Huguenots 
 after the massacre of 1572, and sub- 
 sequently served the Dutch, and was 
 killed at Lamballe during the wars of the 
 League. 
 
 Noureddin-Malmioud, Sultan of Egypt 
 and Syria {b. 1118, d. 1173), defeated the 
 second Crusade, and afterwards took Da- 
 mascus and Edessa; was defeated by the 
 Christians in 1159, but afterwai-ds con- 
 quered Egypt, where Saladin was ai m ing 
 at independence, when the sultan died. 
 Noureddin is a Moslem saint. 
 
 Novalis, pen-name of Friedrich von 
 Hardenberg (*. 1772, d. 1801), German poet 
 and philosopher, a native of Saxony. His 
 chief works, edited by his friends, Tieck 
 and Schlegel, consist of The Pupil at Sais 
 &ndi Heinrich von Ofterdingen — philosophical 
 romances, the latter unfinished, and Hymns 
 to the Night. 
 
 Novatianus (3rd century), heresiarch 
 and founder of the sect called after him ; 
 was elected Bishop of Rome in 251, but waa 
 soon deposed. 
 
 Novello, Clara Anastasia {b. 1818), English 
 vocalist, married Count Gigliucci in 1843, 
 and retired in 1860. 
 
 Novello, Joseph Alfred (b. 1810), organist 
 and music publisher, friend of Mendelssohn. 
 He settled in Italy in 1856.
 
 Nov 
 
 (594) 
 
 O'Br 
 
 NoveUo, Vincent (b. 1781, d. 1861), mu- 
 rical composer and publisher. Died at 
 Nice. 
 
 Noy, William {d. 1634), English lawyer ; 
 as Attorney- General recommended the im- 
 position of ship-money. 
 
 Nubar Pasba (i. 1825), Egyptian states- 
 man, bom at Smyrna, but educated in 
 Europe ; was secretary to Mehemet Ali and 
 Ibrahim Pasha, and became minister of 
 public works in 1864, and of foreign affairs 
 in 1867. He introduced reforms in the 
 admioistration of justice, and his last term 
 of office was under Tewfik from 1884 to 
 1888. 
 
 Nugent, George Grenville, Lord (b. 1788, 
 d. 1850), poUtician and writer, brother of 
 the Duke of Buckingham ; represented 
 Aylesbury as a Whig for many years, and 
 was a lord of the Treasury in 1830. He was 
 high commissioner of the Ionian Islands 
 1832-5, and was again returned for Ayles- 
 bu^ in 1847. His chief work was Memorials 
 of Mampden and his Times (1831). 
 
 Nugent, Lavall, Count {b. 1777, d. 1862), 
 soldier ; served first in the Austrian and 
 then in the English army, and after being 
 
 captain-general at Naples, returned to the 
 former service ; took part in the wars in 
 Hungary (1848), and Italy (1848 and 1S60), 
 rising to the rank of field-marshal. 
 
 Numa Pompilius, second [mythical] King 
 and reputed law-giver of Rome. 
 
 Numerianus, Marcus Aurelius {d. 284),, 
 Roman emperor ; reigned eight months 
 with Carinus, and was murdered by his 
 father-in-law. 
 
 Nunez -Pereira {b. circa 1360), Constable 
 of Portugal, and rounder of the house of 
 Braganza ; after rendering great services 
 against Castile and Ceuta, retired to a 
 monastery about 1420. 
 
 Nunez de Axce, Gaspar (Jb. 1834), Spanish 
 poet, called the " Tennyson of Spain " ; 
 author of several comedies besides his 
 lyrics. 
 
 Nuvolone, Carlo (J. 1608, d. 1651), 
 Milanese painter in the manner of Guido. 
 His brother, Giuseppe {d. 1703), executed 
 a fine picture of St. Dominic raising a dead 
 man. 
 
 Nuzzi, Mario [Mario da Fiori] {b. 1603, d* 
 1673), NeapoUtan flower-painter. 
 
 Oakeley, Sir Herbert Stanley (i. 1830), 
 was elected professor of music in the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh in 1865. 
 
 Gates, Titus {b. circa 1650, d. 1705), son of 
 a ribbon weaver; in 1677 became a Roman 
 Catholic, and entered the order of Jesuits, 
 but soon afterwards recanted and pre- 
 tended he had discovered a " Popish plot. " 
 In consequence of his representations Lord 
 Stailord and others were executed. He re- 
 ceived a pension of £1,200 a year, but on 
 the accession of James II. was condemned 
 to the pillory, and suffered other indignities. 
 William III. granted him a pension. 
 
 Obadiah, a Hebrew prophet. Supposed by 
 some to have lived in the 6th century B.C. 
 
 Oberlin, Jeremias Jakob {b. 1735, d. 1806), 
 was bom at Metz, where he became pro- 
 fessor of logic and metaphysics in 1782. He 
 was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror. 
 He edited Csesar, Horace, Ovid, and Tacitus. 
 
 Oberlin, Johann Friedrich (b. 1740, d. 
 1826), brother of the preceding: was ap- 
 pointed Lutheran pastor of the Ban de la 
 
 Roche in 1767, and devoted his life to im- 
 proving the moral and physical condition of 
 the rude inhabitants. His agricultural 
 schemes were especially successful. 
 
 O'Brien, Sir J, Terence N. (b. 1830), 
 served on the north-west frontier of India 
 and in the Mutiny ; became governor o£ 
 Newfoundland in 1888. 
 
 O'Brien, Lucius {b. 1832), president of the 
 Royal Canadian Academy of Arts. 
 
 _ O'Brien, William (6. 
 tionaUst ; represented 
 South Tyrone 1885-6; 
 Cork since 1886. 
 
 1852), Irish Na- 
 Mallow 1883-5, 
 and North-east 
 
 O'Brien, William Smith {b. 1803, d. 1864), 
 Irish agitator, represented County Limerick 
 as a moderate Conservative 1826-43 ; joined 
 O'Connell in 1843, but separated from him 
 in 1846, and formed the "Young Ireland" 
 party; in 1847 founded the "Confedera- 
 tion ; " was tried for sedition in March, 
 1848, but acquitted : attempted to create a 
 rising in Thurles, but was arrested and 
 condemned to death. Hip sentence wa*
 
 Occ 
 
 (695) 
 
 Odo 
 
 afterwards commuted to transportation for 
 life. In 1856 he received a full pardon. 
 He died at Bangor. 
 
 Occam, William of (d. circa 1349), school- 
 man, bom in Surrey ; studied imder Duns 
 Scotus in Peiris, but afterwards opposed his 
 master, and founded the "Nominalist" 
 school: upheld the power of temporal 
 sovereigns agaiust the claims of the popes, 
 and was patronised by Louis of Bavaria ; 
 wrote Disputatio super Potestate Ecclesias- 
 tica, and Summa Totius Logicce. 
 
 Occleve, Thomas (6. nrca 1370), an Eng- 
 lish lawyer and poet; wrote the Story of 
 Jonathan, etc. 
 
 Ochino, Bernardino (*. 1487, d. 1564), 
 ItaUan reformer ; entered the Capuchin 
 order in 1534 ; through the influence of 
 Juan de Valdez changed his religious views ; 
 fled to Switzerland, and thence to England, 
 where he remained 1547-53 ; on the acces- 
 sion of Mary returned to Switzerland, and 
 became a pastor at Zurich ; died in Moravia. 
 He published Prediche, etc. 
 
 Ochterlony, Sir David {b. 1758, d. 1825), 
 general, defended Delhi against Holkar 
 (1804), and conducted a successful campaign 
 against the Nepaulese (1816). 
 
 Ockley, Simon (*. 1678, d. 1720), divine 
 and OrientaHst, bom at Exeter; was ap- 
 pointed professor of Arabic at Cambridge in 
 1711. His chief work is a History of the 
 Saracens (1718). 
 
 O'ConneU, Daniel Q>. 1775, d. 1847), bom 
 in Kerry, educated at St. Omer and Douay, 
 was called to the bar in 1798. His agitation 
 for removing the political disabilities of the 
 Roman Cathohcs culminated in 1828, when 
 he was elected for Clare, but not allowed to 
 take his seat. Amidst great excitement the 
 Catholic Emancipation Bill was passed in 
 1829. He first demanded the repeal of the 
 Union LQ 1841. After holding several mon- 
 ster meetings in Ireland, he was arrested, 
 fined, and imprisoned, but this judgment 
 was reversed by the House of Lords (1844), 
 O'Connell was opposed to the use of phy- 
 sical force, and discountenanced the Char- 
 tists and the " Toung Ireland " party. He 
 died at Genoa. 
 
 O'Connor, Charles (d. 1828), antiquary 
 and historian ; published Eerum Hiberni- 
 earum Scriptores (1814-26). 
 
 O'Connor, Feargus Edward (b. 1796, d. 
 1855), Chartist leader, bom near Cork, re- 
 presented that town in Parliament 1832-5. 
 At first supported O'Connell, but afterwards 
 became a leader of the Chartists, whose 
 cause he advocated in his paper, the iV&r- 
 thern Star. He was elected member for 
 Nottingham in 1847, and presented the 
 M M 2 
 
 monster petition in 1848. In 1852 he became 
 insane. 
 
 O'Connor, Thomas Power {b. 1848), Irish 
 Nationalist, entered Parliament in 1880 ; 
 lectured in the United States 1881 ; be- 
 came president of the Irish National League 
 in 1883 ; has represented the Scotland divi- 
 sion of Liverpool since 1885. He has pub- 
 hshed Lord Beaconsfield : a Biography, The 
 Parnell Movement (1885), and was some time 
 editor of the Star newspaper. 
 
 Octavia (d. 11 b.c), daughter of C. 
 Octavius and sister of Augustus; was first 
 married to C. Marcellus, and afterwards to 
 M. Antonius, who divorced her. 
 
 O'Curry, Eugene (i. 1796, d. 1862), Irish 
 antiquary; published works on The MS. 
 Materials of Ancient Irish History and The 
 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, 
 and was co-editor of the Brehon Laws, 
 
 Odenathus (d. 267), expelled Sapor, KiTig 
 of Persia, from Syria, and proclaimed him- 
 self King of Palmyra ; afterwards invaded 
 Persia and captured Ctesiphon. In 264 his 
 sovereignty was acknowledged by the Em- 
 peror Gallienus. After his assassination his 
 wife, Zenobia, ruled at Palmyra. 
 
 Odevafere, Joseph Denis (5. 1798, d. 1830), 
 Belgian painter, studied under David at 
 Paris. Among his chief works are The 
 Peace of Utrecht and The Battle of Nieuport. 
 
 Odling, William {b. 1829) became Wayn- 
 flete professor of chemistry at Oxford in 
 1872. 
 
 Odo, Saint (6. 879, d. 943), Abbot of 
 Clugny, was renowned for his holiness and 
 wisdom. His system of monastic discipline 
 was adopted generally on the Continent. 
 He wrote The Life of St. Gerard, Count of 
 Awillac, and Morals of St. Gregory. 
 
 Odo, Saint {b. 958), was appointed Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury by Edmund in 944. 
 He enforced a strict rule of life among the 
 monks, and punished the recalcitrant with 
 undue severity. 
 
 Odo de ConteviUe {b. 1032, d. 1097), half- 
 brother of William I., was made Bishop of 
 Bayeux in 1049 ; after the Conquest was 
 granted the earldom of Kent. He held the 
 office of grand justiciar, and during Wil- 
 liam's absence in Normandv (1067) dis- 
 played great avarice and cruelty. 
 
 Odoacer {d. 493), a Herule or Eugian 
 chieftain, after attacking and slaying the 
 patrician Orestes, and deposing his son, the 
 Emperor Romulus Augustulus (476), ruled 
 Italy as patrician under the Eastern Em- 
 peror, Zeno, but was practically an inde- 
 pendent sovereign. He waa overthrown
 
 O'Do 
 
 ( 596) 
 
 Ola 
 
 by Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, who 
 put him to death. 
 
 O'Donnell, Leopold, Duke of Tetuan (b. 
 
 1809, d. 1867), Spanish soldier and politician,, 
 of Irish descent, served the regent Christiua 
 in the first Carlist war ; brought about the 
 fall of Espartero (1843), but afterwards 
 became minister of war under him (1854) ; 
 after Espartero's second fall (1856) was for 
 a short time chief minister. 
 
 O'Donovan, Denis, E.R.G.S. (b. 1836), a 
 writer on art and literature, who has ren- 
 dered great public services in Queensland 
 and Victoria. 
 
 O'Donovan, Edmund (i. 1838, d. 1883), 
 was correspondent of the Daily News during 
 the Russo-Turkish war (1877-8) ; penetrated 
 to Merv (187^), and pubUshed The Merv 
 Oasis (1882) ; was killed in the African ex- 
 pedition of Hicks Pasha. 
 
 O'Donovan, John {b. 1809, d. 1861), Celtic 
 scholar, son of a peasant ; was appointed pro- 
 fessor of Irish at Belfast in 1849. He edited 
 the Annals of the Four Masters (1856). 
 
 (Ecolampadlus, Johannes (b. 1482, d. 
 1531), a German reformer, whose real name 
 was Hausschein. After long hesitation he 
 embraced the doctrines of the Reformation 
 in 1522. He passed the remainder of his life 
 at Basle, and took a leading part in estab- 
 lishing the Reformation in Switzerland. He 
 inclined to ZwingU's view of the Sacrament 
 rather than to that of Luther. 
 
 (Eder, Georg Ludwig (4. 1728, d. 1791), 
 was appointed professor of botany at Copen- 
 hagen in 1752. His chief work is Flora 
 Danica. In later life he became distin- 
 guished as an economist and financier. 
 
 CEMenschlager, Adam Gottlob (b. 1779, 
 d. 1850), Danish poet, visited Goethe at 
 Weimar in 1806 ; after travelling in France 
 and Italy returned to Copenhagen (1810), 
 and was appointed professor of aesthetics in 
 the university. Among his works are the 
 dramatic poems of Aladdin and Hakon Jarl, 
 Falnatoke and other tragedies, and an epic 
 entitled The Gods of the North. 
 
 Oersted, Hans Christian {b. 1777, d. 1851), 
 Danish man of science, was appointed pro- 
 fessor of physics at Copenhagen in 1806. 
 His great discovery was the power of an 
 electric current upon a magnet, from which 
 the science of electro -magnetism has been 
 developed. 
 
 Offa [d. 795), King of Mercia, succeeded 
 Ethelbald in 755. He slew Ethelbert, King 
 of the East Angles, and seized his do- 
 minions. 
 
 OffenbacH, Jacques (6. 1819, d. 1880), 
 
 opera -bouffe composer, bom of Jewish 
 parents at Cologne ; composed many pieces 
 for his theatre at Paris (1855-80), including 
 Orphee (tuxEnfers(l858), MadameFavart, etc. 
 
 Ogilby, John {b. 1600, d. 1676), a self- 
 ediirated writer, translated "Virgil, ^sop, 
 and Homer. He is satirised in MacFlecknoe 
 and the Dunciad. 
 
 Ogle, Dr. William (b. 1827), superintendent 
 of statistics in the General Register Office ; 
 has contributed papers to the Transactions 
 of the Royal Medico -Chirurgical Society 
 and the Journal of the Statistical Society. 
 
 Oglethorpe, James Edward {b. 1698, d. 
 1785), English general, served under Marl- 
 borough and Eugene ; in 1733 founded the 
 colony of Georgia, which he named after 
 George II. ; returned to England in 1743, 
 and held a command against the Jacobites 
 (1745). 
 
 Ohm, Georg Simon {b. 1787, d. 1854), 
 German man of science ; discovered " Ohm's 
 law " of electricity, by which the intensity 
 of a current is stated in terms of the electro- 
 motive force and the resistance of the 
 circuit. 
 
 Ohmacht, Landelin [b. 1761, d. 1834), 
 German sculptor, pupil of Canova, settled 
 at Strasburg in 1801 . The Judgment of Faris 
 at Munich is a fine specimen of his art. 
 
 Ohuet, Georges {b. 1848), French novelist, 
 author of Serge Parrine (1881), Le Maitre 
 de Forges (1882), etc., etc. 
 
 Ojeda, Alonzo de (6. circa 1465), Spanish 
 navigator ; was the companion of Columbus 
 in his second voyage (1493) ; led an expe- 
 dition to the New World in 1499-1500, and 
 discovered Venezuela. 
 
 O'Keefe, John {b. 1747, d. 1833), dramatic 
 writer and actor, bom at Dublin. His fii'st 
 api)earauce in London was at the Haymarket 
 in 1777. He wrote The Agreeable Surprise, 
 Wild Oats, and other plays. 
 
 Oken, or Okenfass, Lorenz (b. 1779, d. 
 1851), philosopher and morphologist ; in 1802 
 published his Sketch of a System of Natural 
 Philosophy, containing the germ of his theory 
 of growth by a process of subdivision and 
 repetition of cells, which he called infusoria; 
 in 1807 announced his theory of the homology 
 of the cranium with the vertebral colunm ; 
 was professor at Jena (1807-19), Munich 
 (1827-32), and Zurich (1832-51). 
 
 Olaf I., Tryggvason, King of Norway (d. 
 1000), joined Svein, King of Denmark, in 
 his invasion of England (994) ; came to 
 terms with Ethelred, and was baptised by 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury ; was chosen 
 king about 995 ; endeavoured to establish
 
 Ola 
 
 t«S7) 
 
 Ols 
 
 Christianity in Norway ; was slain in a sea- 
 fight against Svein of Denmark. 
 
 Olaf n., " the Saint" {d. 1030), spent his 
 youth in piracy, became king in 1015 ; 
 during his reign suppressed the Vikings and 
 established Christianity in Norway. In 
 1028 he was expelled from Norway by Knut 
 of Denmark, fled to Sweden, and thence to 
 Russia ; returned iu 1030, but was defeated 
 and slaiu at Stiklestad. 
 
 Olaf IIL {d. 1093) ascended the throne 
 about 1068. 
 
 Olaf rV. (b. 1098, d. 1116) succeeded his 
 father, Magnus III. 
 
 Olaf V. (b. 1371, d. 1387) succeeded his 
 father, Hakon, in 1380. 
 
 Olavides, Pablo Antonio Jose, Count of 
 Pilos (6. 1725, d. 1803), was made intendant- 
 general of Andalusia, and planted and 
 colonised the barren region of the Sierra 
 Morena. 
 
 Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matth'aus (b, 
 1758, d. 1840), German astronomer, prac- 
 tised as a physician at Bremen. In 1797 he 
 announced a new method of determimng the 
 orbits of planets. He discovered the planets 
 Pallas (1802) and Vesta (1807), and in 1815 
 the comet which bears his name. 
 
 Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham {d. 
 1417), was a leader of the Lollards, whom 
 he sheltered at his castle of Cowling in 
 Kent. On the accession of Henrj' V. he was 
 imprisoned in the Tower, whence he escaped 
 into Wales (1413). In 1417 he was captured 
 and burnt. 
 
 Oldenbvtrg, Henry (d. 1678), came to Eng- 
 land during the Commonwealth as political 
 agent for his native town of Bremen ; be- 
 came secretary of the Royal Society in 1662, 
 and was the first to publish the Fhilosophical 
 Transactiom. 
 
 Oldham, John (6. 1653, d. 1683), satirical 
 poet, wrote Four Satires against the Jesuits 
 and Pindaric Odes, and translated Juvenal. 
 He was patronised by the Earl of Kingston, 
 at whose seat he died. 
 
 Oldmixon, John {b. 1673, d. 1742), a mis- 
 cellaneous writer and critic, satirised in the 
 Dunciad. 
 
 Oldys, "William (5. 1696, d. 1761), Eng- 
 lish antiquai-y and bibliographer, wrote The 
 British Librarian, a Life of Sir Walter 
 Haleigh, and many of the lives in the 
 Biographia Britannica. 
 
 Oleg, Prince of Russia [d. 912), was a 
 kinsman of Ruric, who appointed him 
 guardian of his son, Igor (879). Oleg made 
 himself king, and greatly extended the 
 Kussian dominions. 
 
 Olga (d. 969), wife of Igor, Prince of 
 Russia, carried on the government after his 
 death in 945. In 955 she visited the emperor 
 Constantiue Porphyrogenitus at Constanti- 
 nople, and was converted to Christianity. 
 
 Oliphant, Lawrence (b. 1829, d. 1888), 
 accompanied Lord Elgin's mission to China 
 (1857-9), and was charge d'affaires at Pekin 
 (1859-62). He afterwards made an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to found a socialist and reli- 
 gious community at Portland, United States. 
 His later years were spent chiefly in the East. 
 He wrote Piccadillg, Altiora Peto, and other 
 novels satu-ising fashionable life, also descrip- 
 tions of his travels, and religious works such 
 as Scientific Eeltgion (1888), etc. 
 
 Oliphant, Mrs. Margaret [nee Wilson] (J. 
 1828), has published the Chronicles of Carling- 
 ford, and other novels, a Life of Edward Ir- 
 ving (1862), The Makers of Florence {l876),eUi. 
 
 Oliphant, Thomas Lawrence Kington (b. 
 1831), has published Old and Middle English 
 (1878), New English {18SQ), life of Frederick 
 II. (1862), etc. 
 
 Olivarez, Gasparo de Guzman, Count of, 
 Duke of San Lucar {b. 1587, d. 1645), Spanish 
 statesman ; was chief minister of Philip IV. 
 from 1621 to 1643. During his adminis- 
 tration several revolts occurred, and Portugal 
 became an independent kingdom (1640). 
 
 Oliver, Isaac {b. 1556, d. 1617), English 
 artist; studied under Hilliard and Zucchero. 
 His portraits include miniatures of Mary 
 Queen of Scots, Queen Elizabeth, and Sir 
 Philip Sidney. His son, Petee (i. 1601, d. 
 1654), was much employed by Charles I. 
 
 Olivetan, Pierre Robert (d. 1538), French 
 reformer, born at Noyon; was related to 
 Calvin, and is said to have had great in- 
 fluence in the formation of his religious 
 views. It js doubtful whether Olivetan or 
 Lefevre d'Etaples first translated the Bible 
 into French. 
 
 Olivier, Guillaimie Antoine (&. 1756, d. 
 1814), naturalist, bom near Toulon ; accom- 
 panied Bruguiere on a scientific expedition to 
 Persia (1792-8). He wrote an etomological 
 dictionary, an account of his travels, and 
 other works. 
 
 Ollivier, Olivier iSmile {b. 1825), French 
 politician ; was called to the Paris bar in 
 1847 ; in 1869 formed a cabinet, in which he 
 was minister of justice (1869-72). He after- 
 wards supported the pretensions of Prince 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Olmstcl, Frederick Law {b. 1822), an 
 
 American landscape-gardener. 
 
 Olshausen, Hermann {b. 1796, d. 1839), 
 German Protestant divine ; was professor of
 
 Oly 
 
 (598 
 
 Ora 
 
 theology at Kouigsberg (1827-34) and Er- 
 laugea (18o4-9). In his treatise ou The 
 Deeper Sense of Scripture he pleads for an 
 allegorical interpretation. He also wrote a 
 work ou The Genuineness of the Four Gospels, 
 and a Commentary on the New Testament, 
 which was continued by Ebrard and others. 
 
 Olybrius, Amicius {d. 472), Roman Em- 
 peror ; married the widow of Valentinian 
 III., and was raised to the throne by Ricimer 
 (472), but died the same year. 
 
 Olsmapias {d. 316 b.c), daughter of Neo- 
 ptolemus, King of Epirus ; about 357 B.C. 
 was married to Philip II. of Macedon, by 
 whom she was afterwards divorced. She 
 outlived her son, Alexander the Great, and 
 was put to death by Cassander. 
 
 O'Malley, Edward Loughlin (b. 1842), 
 became chief justice of the Straits Settle- 
 ments Ln 1889. 
 
 Omax {h. 581, d. 644), the second khalif ; 
 was one of Mahomet's earliest followers. 
 He succeeded Abu Bekr in 634. During his 
 khalifate the Saracen empire was extended 
 over Syria, Palestine, Persia, and Egypt. 
 
 Omar Khayydm {b. circa 1050, d. 1122), 
 a Persian poet and astronomer (translated 
 by Fitzgerald). 
 
 Omar Pasba {b. 1806, d. 1871), Turkish 
 soldier ; was by birth an Austrian Slav, his 
 real name being Mikail Lattas. He was 
 employed in suppressing revolts in Albania, 
 Bosnia, and other provinces (1842-53) ; on 
 the outbreak of war with Russia was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief ; expelled the 
 Russians from the Danubian principalities 
 (1854), and defeated them at Eupatoria, in 
 the Crimea (1855), but failed to relieve Kars. 
 
 O'Meara, Barry Edward {b. \liQ,d. 1836), 
 after serving in the army as a surgeon, re- 
 sided with Napoleon at St. Helena as his phy- 
 sician (1811-18). In 1822 he published A 
 Voice from St. Helena : or, Napoleon in Exile. 
 
 Omla, or Omejryah, a cousin of Mahomet ; 
 was ancestor of Moawia, who reigned at 
 Damascus 661-80, and was foimder of the 
 Omiad dynasty of khalifs. 
 
 Omichund {d. 1759), an Indian banker; 
 notorious for the part he played in the in- 
 trigues between Clive and Meer Jaffir. He 
 accepted a large sum as bribe for his silence 
 concerning the treaty by which Meer Jailir 
 was to succeed Suraj-oo-Dowlah. 
 
 Ommaney, Admiral Sir Erasmus {b. 1814), 
 was second in command of the Franklin 
 Search Expedition (1850). During the war 
 with Russia he was at the head of the White 
 Sea expedition, and afterwards held com- 
 mands in the Baltic. 
 
 Omri, King of Israel; lived in the 10th 
 century B.C. He built the town of Samaria. 
 
 Onkelos, the traditional author of an 
 Aramaic Targum or version of the Penta- 
 teuch, which appears to date from about the 
 2nd century. In some places it is a trans- 
 lation, in others a paraphrase. 
 
 Onslow, William Hillier, Earl of (jb. 1853), 
 was appointed governor of New Zealand in 
 
 1888. 
 
 Opie, John, R.A. (fi. 1761, d. 1807), son of 
 a carpenter at Truro ; was in 1781 taken by 
 Dr. Wolcott ("Peter Pindar") to Loudon, 
 where he became a fashionable portrait- 
 painter. His works include portraits of 
 Johnson, Lady Hamilton, and Fox, also 
 Tlie Death of Rizzio, and other historical 
 pictui-es. His second wife, Amelia {b. 1769, 
 d. 1853), daughter of Dr. Alderson, of 
 Norwich, wrote Fathers and Daughters, 
 Simple Tales, etc. 
 
 Opltz, Martin (Jb. 1597, d. 1639), was bom 
 in Silesia. In 1625 he was crovmed poet- 
 laureate by the Emperor Ferdinand II. 
 His best poems are didactic. He also wrote 
 hymns and sonnets. His Essay on German 
 } ersif cation and his own purity of idiom 
 exercised great influence in the development 
 of the German language and literature. 
 
 Oppert, Julius {b. 1825), a French Orient- 
 alist, born in Hamburg. His works chiefly 
 relate to cuneiform inscriptions. 
 
 Oppian (b. circa 200), Greek poet, bom in 
 Cilicia ; wrote Halieutica, a poem on Ashing, 
 which he presented to the Emperor Gara- 
 calla. 
 
 Orange, Princes of : — 
 
 (1) William I., "the Silent" (b. 1533, d. 
 1584), son of WiUiam, Count of Nassau; 
 inherited large domains in Brabant, Flan- 
 ders, and Holland ; was sent as a boy to the 
 court of Charles V. ; enjoyed the confidence 
 of that emperor, but was distrusted by his 
 son. Philip II. On learning the designs of 
 Philip and Henri II. of France against the 
 Protestants (1559), he determined to espouse 
 their cause. When the Duke of Alva 
 arrived in the Low Countries (1567), he put 
 himself at the head of the insurgents, and, 
 after a protracted struggle, founded the 
 repubhc of the Netherlands (1579), of which 
 he was elected the first stadtholder. He 
 was assassinated at Delft. 
 
 (2) Maueick of Nassau {b. 1567, d. 
 1625), second son of the preceding ; was one 
 of the most skilful strategists of the age. 
 He was appointed stadtholder of Holland 
 in 1587, and soon afterwards of Utrecht, 
 Overyssel, and Gueldres. The war with 
 Spain was continued till 1609, after which 
 the Dutch were able to maintain their
 
 Ore 
 
 (699 
 
 Orl 
 
 independence. In 1618 Barneveldt, who 
 accused Maurice of ambitious projects, 
 was put to death. Maurice succeeded his 
 elder brother as Prince of Orange (1618). 
 
 (3) Feedeeick Henry of Nassau (b. 
 1584, d. 1647), brother of the preceding; 
 became stadtholder ou his death in 1625. 
 He carried on the war against Spain with 
 prudence and success. 
 
 (4) WiLUAii II. (b. 1626, d. 1650), was 
 son of the preceding, whom he succeeded 
 in 1648. He married Mary, daughter of 
 Charles I. of England. 
 
 (5) William in. [See WiUiam III. of 
 England.] 
 
 (6) John William Feison {b. 1687, d. 
 1711), sou of Henry Casimir, Stadtholder of 
 Groningen ; became Prince of Orange on 
 the death of William III. in 1702. He dis- 
 tinguished himself against the French at 
 Oudenarde and Malplaquet. 
 
 (7) William Chaeles Heney (b. 1711, 
 d. 1751), posthumous son of the preceding ; 
 was elected stadtholder in 1747. The dignity 
 was then made hereditary in his family. 
 
 Orcagna, or Orgagna, Andrea (b. 1329, 
 d. 1389), Florentine architect, sculptor, and 
 painter, was son of a goldsmith named 
 Clone. Among his best paintings are the 
 scenes from Dante in the church of Santa 
 Maria Novella at Florence, and the Triumph 
 of Death and the Last Judgmejit in the 
 Campo Santo at Pisa. He built the taber- 
 nacle of Or San Michele, and the Loggia de' 
 Lanzi of the Grand Ducal Palace at 
 Florence, which was completed after his 
 death. 
 
 Orcliardson, William Quiller, R.A. (6. 
 1835), painter, bom at Edinburgh ; has 
 exhibited Tlie Queen of Swords (1877), Vol- 
 taire at the Due de Sullt/'s (1883), Mariage 
 de Convenance (1886), etc. 
 
 Ordericus Vitalis {b. 1075, d. circa 1143), 
 English chronicler, bom near Shrewsbury ; 
 was educated at the abbey of Ouche, in 
 Lisieux, and ordained priest in 1107. His 
 Historice Ecclesice includes a valuable his- 
 tory of his own times. 
 
 Orellana, Francisco {d. 1550), Spanish 
 traveller, sailed with the Pizarros to Peru 
 in 1531. In 1540-1 he followed the river 
 Marailon to its mouth, and named it the 
 Amazon, from the warlike women of the 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 Orelll, Johann Kaspar von [h. 1787, d. 
 1849), classical scholar, bom at Zurich. His 
 chief works are his editions of Horace 
 (1837-8), Tacitus (1846-7), aud Cicero 
 (1826-31). He was also joint-author of 
 the Onomasticon Tullianum (1836-8), and 
 published Inscnptionum Laiinarum Selec- 
 tarum Colketw (1828). 
 
 Orestes {d. 476), became secretary to 
 Attila, King of the Huns, about 446. In 475, 
 after deposing Julius Nepos, he declared 
 himself patrician, and set up his son, 
 Eomulus Augustulus, as emperor. He was 
 defeated by Odoacer, who put him to death. 
 
 9rfila, Matthieu (6. 1787, d. 1855), phy- 
 sician and chemist, bom in Minorca ; was 
 professor of chemistry at the Academy of 
 Medecine at Paris 1823-53. He wrote a 
 Treatise on Poisons (1813), a Treatise on 
 Medical Jurisprudence (1847), etc. 
 
 Origen (i^. 185, d. 254), Christian Father, 
 born at Alexandiia, studied under Clement ; 
 was ordained presbyter at Caesarea in 228 ; 
 fled to Cappadocia to avoid persecution 
 (235) ; was imprisoned and tortui-ed during 
 the persecution imder Decius (250) ; died at 
 Tyre. Origen was well -versed in Greek 
 philosophy, and was extremely liberal in 
 his views. He advocated an allegorical in- 
 terpretation of Scripture, and denied eternal 
 punishment ; he was consequently regarded 
 as a heretic, both in his Ufetime and after- 
 wards. His chief work is the Hexapla, 
 consisting of the Hebrew text of the Old 
 Testament, and various Greek renderings, 
 arranged in six colimms. 
 
 Orleans, Dukes of : — 
 
 First House.— {I) Louis (*. 1372, d. 
 1407), was second son of Charles V. 
 of France. Charles VI. having lost hia 
 reason, two parties arose, headed respec- 
 tively by Louis and John, Duke of Bur- 
 gundy. Louis was murdered by his rival ; 
 hence arose the quarrel between the 
 Burgundians and the Amiagnacs. (2) 
 Chaeles (b. 1391, d. 1465), son of Louis, 
 was a poet, and wrote many ballads and 
 songs. He was taken prisoner at Agiacourt 
 (1415), and remained in England till 1440. 
 (3) Louis. [iSee Louis XII.] 
 
 Second House. — Gaston Jean Baptistb 
 (b. 1608, d. 1660), was younger son of Henri 
 IV., and brother of Louis XIII. He was an 
 enemy of Richelieu, and took part in a 
 conspiracy against him in 1642. His 
 daughter was the celebrated Mdlle. de 
 Montpensier. 
 
 Third House.— (l) Piiilippe {b. 1640, d. 
 1701), second son of Louis XIII. of France. 
 distinguished himself in the wars of Louis 
 XIV. (2) Philippe {b. 1674, d. 1723), son 
 of the preceding ; commanded in Italy 
 (1706) and Spain (1707-8). He became 
 regent on the death of Loius XIV. (1715), 
 but soon afterwards committed the cares of 
 government to his favourite, Dubois. (3) 
 His son, Louis (*. 1703, d. 1742), retired to 
 the abbey of St. Genevieve. He wrote 
 commentaries on the Bible. (4) Louis 
 Phtlippk {b. 1725, d. 1785), sou of the 
 preceding ; fought at Dettingen (1743)
 
 Orl 
 
 (600) 
 
 Osm 
 
 and Fontenoy (1757). (5) Loms Philippe 
 Joseph {h. 1747, d. 1793), son of the pre- 
 ceding, adopted democratic views, and at 
 the outbreak of the revolution was regarded 
 as the leader of the popular party. In 
 1792 he obtained a seat in the National 
 Convention, assumed the title of "Egalite," 
 and voted for the death of the king. In 
 April, 1793, he was proscribed, and, after 
 six months' imprisonment at Marseilles, 
 giiillotined. His son, LoiTis Philippe, be- 
 came king of the French. 
 
 Orleans, Ferdinand Philippe Louis, Duke 
 of {b. 1810, d. 1842), eldest son of Louis 
 Philippe ; distinguished himself at the siege 
 of Antwerp and in tlie African campaign. 
 He died from the effects of a carriage ac- 
 cident. He left two sons, the Count de 
 Paris and the Due de Chartres. 
 
 Orleans, Prince Louis Philippe Eobert, 
 Duke of {b. 1869), eldest son of the Coimt de 
 Paris ; in 1890 was imprisoned under the 
 Expulsion Bill (1886). 
 
 Orloff, Gregori (b. 1734, d. 1783), a 
 favourite of Catherine II. of Russia ; 
 planned the revolution against Peter III. , 
 which placed her on the throne (1762), and 
 hoped to become king. It is said that she 
 offered to marry him privately, and that his 
 retirement from court was due to her dis- 
 pleasure at his refusal. His brother, 
 Alexis (b. 1736, d. 1808), was the mur- 
 derer of Peter III. He became chief ad- 
 miral in 1768, and defeated the Turks at 
 Tschesme (1770). Alexis Feodoeo vetch 
 (b. 1787, d. 1861), nephew of Gregori and 
 Alexis, negotiated the treaties of Adrian- 
 ople (1829) and Unkiar-Skelessi (1833) ; 
 represented Russia at the Congress of Paris ; 
 and was made president of the council in 
 1856. 
 
 Orme, Robert (b. 1728, d. 1801), became a 
 member of the council at Fort St. George in 
 1754, and was afterwards appointed his- 
 toriographer to the East India Company. 
 He published a History of the Military 
 Transitions of the British Nation in Hin- 
 dustan and Historical Fragments of the 
 Mogul Empire. 
 
 Ormond, James Butler, Duke of (5. 
 1610, d. 1688), went to Ireland in 1641 as 
 lieutenant-general, and gained several vic- 
 tories over the rebels ; was Lord- Lieutenant 
 1643-7 ; followed Charles II. in his exile ; 
 was again Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland 
 1661-8. In 1670 he narrowly escaped 
 assassination at the hands of the notorious 
 Colonel Blood. 
 
 Orobio, Balthasar {d. 1687), a Spanish 
 Jew, professor of metaphj'sics at Sala- 
 manca ; wrote Certamen Ph ilosophicum 
 against the doctrines of Spinosa. 
 
 Orosius, Paulus, a Spanish ecclesiastic, 
 who lived early in the 5th century. He 
 was a disciple of St. Augustine. He wrote 
 Historiarum AdversHs I'aganos Lihri VJI., 
 an historical work in defence of Christianity, 
 which was translated by King Alfred. 
 
 Orsini, Felice {b. 1819, d. 1858), Italian 
 revolutionist ; while acting as Mazzini's 
 agent in Italy, was arrested and imprisoned 
 in Mantua, but escaped to England (1856). 
 In January, 1858,ihe attempted to assassinate 
 Napoleon III. by throwing bombs under 
 his carriage, for which he was executed. 
 
 Ortelius, Abraham (A. 1527, d. 1598), 
 geographer, bom at Antwerp ; twice visited 
 England ; in 1575 became geographer to 
 Philip II. of Spain. His chief work is 
 Theatntm Orbis Terrarum (1570). 
 
 Orton, Job {b. 1717, d. 1783), Noncon- 
 formist divine, bom at Shrewsbury ; wrote 
 Jfemoirs of Dr. Doddridge, etc. 
 
 Osbom, Sherard {b. 1822, d. 1875), British 
 admiral, joined in the Franklin Search Ex- 
 pedition of 1850 ; in 1856 commanded the 
 squadron in the Black Sea ; served in the 
 Chinese war 1857-8. He wrote several 
 books of travel. 
 
 Osborne, Lord Sydney Godolphin {b. 1808, 
 d. 1889), philanthropist, was rector of Dur- 
 weston, Dorset, 1841-75. He made great 
 efforts to improve the condition of the agri- 
 cultural poor, contributing many letters on 
 the subject to the Times under the signature 
 of " S. G. O." 
 
 Oscar I., King of Sweden {b. 1799, d. 
 1859), succeeded his father, Charles XIV., 
 in 1844. His reign was peaceful and un- 
 eventful. 
 
 Oscar II. {b. 1829) succeeded his brother, 
 Charles XV., in 1872. He has translated 
 Faust into Swedish, and written a Memoir of 
 Charles XII. 
 
 Osiander, Andreas (b. 1498, d. 1552), Ger- 
 man reformer, became professor of theology 
 at Konigsberg in 1548. He was regarded 
 by his colleagues as inclined to heresy. 
 
 Osman, Ali, called ' ' Osman Digna " (b. 
 circa 1836), commanded the insurgents in 
 the rebellion excited by the Mahdi, which 
 began in 1881. 
 
 Osman Nubar Pasha (*. 1832), Turkish 
 general ; distinguished himself by his gallant 
 defence of Plevna against the Russians 
 (1877). He was minister of war 1878-80, 
 and again in 1881 and 1882. 
 
 Osmund, Saint (d. 1099), Norman eccle- 
 siastic, accompanied William I. to England ; 
 became his chancellor, and afterwards 
 Bishop of Salisbury, the cathedral of which
 
 Oss 
 
 (601) 
 
 Otw 
 
 was completed under his direction. He 
 compiled the breviary, missal, and ritual 
 known as the Use of Sarum. He was 
 canonised in 1457. 
 
 Ossington, John Evelyn Denison, Viscount 
 {b. 1800, d. 1873), entered Parliament in 
 1823 : was Speaker 1857-72, when he was 
 raised to the peerage. 
 
 Ossoli, Sarah Margaret Fuller, Mar- 
 chioness {b. 1810, d. 1850), American 
 authoress, started the Transcendental Dial 
 in 1840 ; after visiting England and France 
 passed into Italy (1847), where she was 
 privately married to the Marquis Ossoli ; 
 was lost at sea with her husband while re- 
 turning to America. She wrote Women in 
 the Nineteenth Century^ etc. 
 
 Ossory, Thomas Butler, Earl of {b. 1643, 
 d. 1680), son of the first Duke of Ormond; 
 distinguished himself at sea against the 
 Dutch ; commanded the EngUsh forces at 
 Mons (1677). 
 
 Ostade, Adrian {b. 1610, d. 1685), Dutch 
 painter, bom at Haarlem, was a pupil 
 of Hals and Eembrandt. He resided for 
 many years at Haarlem, and died at Am- 
 sterdam. His paintings depict scenes from 
 low life in a very lively manner. Among 
 them are The Fish-Market and A Hmoker 
 Lighting his Ftpe. His brother, Isaac (b, 
 1621, d. 1649), belonged to the same school. 
 
 Ostervald, Jean Frederic {b. 1663, d. 
 1747), Protestant divine, was bom at 
 Neufchatel, and passed his life in his native 
 town. His writings are voluminous. 
 
 Oswald, Saint (h. circa 605, d. 642) , became 
 King of Northumbria in 635 ; defeated Cad- 
 wallon, King of Wales ; extended his 
 supremacy over Strathclyde and Wessex ; 
 was slain in battle by Penda, King of 
 Mercia. At his request Aidan came from 
 lona to preach in Northumbria. 
 
 Othman, or Osman (i. 1259, d. 1326), 
 founder of the Ottoman dynasty, was son 
 of an Oguzian chieftain named Orthogrul, 
 who established himself near the Sangar in 
 Asia Minor. He took Nicasa (1304), and 
 founded a kingdom consisting of Bithynia, 
 Phrygia, and the neighbouring regions. 
 
 Othman Tbn AfiFan {d. 656), the third 
 khalif, was Mahomet's son-in-law, and 
 one of his earUest followers. He succeeded 
 Omar in 644. His nepotism caused great 
 dissatisfaction, and he was at last assassin- 
 ated at Medina. 
 
 Otho, Marcus Salvius (J. 32, d. 69), Eoman 
 of patrician descent, was proclaimed em- 
 peror by the Prajtorian Guards, but was 
 defeated by "Vitellius at Bedriacum, and 
 committed suicide. 
 
 Otlio L to IV., Emperors. [See Otto.] 
 
 Otho (b. 1815, d. 1867), son of Ludwig 
 II., King of Bavaria was chosen King of 
 Greece in 1833. His attempts to govern 
 as a despot and with the aid of German 
 counsellors made him very unpopular. 
 In 1843 he was compelled to grant a liberal 
 constitution. His attack on Turkey during 
 the Ciimean war occasioned the interference 
 of England and France. In 1862 a revolt 
 broke out, and he was forced to retire to 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Ottley, WilUam Young {b. 1772, d. 1836), 
 Eughsh artist, resided many years in Italy. 
 He wrote The Italian School of Design, An 
 Enquiry into the Origin and Early Mistory 
 of Engraving on Copper and Wood, etc. 
 
 Otto L, "the Great," Emperor of the 
 West {b. 912, d. 973), son of Henry the 
 Fowlerj was chosen King of Germany in 
 936 : in 951 was summoned to aid the 
 Italians against Bereugar, and married 
 Adelheid, widow of King Lothair; routed 
 the Hungarians near Augsbui-g in 955 ; in 
 962 was crowned emperor at Rome by Pope 
 John XII. He subsequently deposed John, 
 and set up Leo VIII. in his stead. He ex- 
 tended his dominion over nearly the whole 
 of Italy, re-established the Western Empire, 
 and made many reforms in church and 
 state. 
 
 Otto XL (J. 955, d. 983), succeeded his 
 father, Otto I., after defeating his rival, 
 Henry of Bavaria ; thwarted an attempt of 
 Lothair of France to gain possession of 
 Lorraine ; invaded Apulia and Calabria, 
 which he claimed through his wife Theo- 
 phania, daughter of Nicephorus Phocas, 
 but was defeated by a combined army of 
 Greeks and Saracens (982). 
 
 Otto IIL (J. 980, d. 1002), son of the 
 preceding, was crowned at Home by 
 Gregory V. in 996. He aimed at reviving 
 the glory of the Roman Empire. 
 
 Otto IV. (6. circa 1174, d. 1218), son of 
 Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was 
 elected in 1197, when a rival party chose 
 Philip of Suabia. After a long struggle Otto 
 was crowned at Rome (1209), but in 1212 
 Frederick II. was chosen in his stead. In 
 1214 Otto was defeated at Bou vines by 
 Philip Augustus of France. 
 
 Ottocar II., King of Bohemia (d. 1278), 
 by his marriage with Margaret, sister of 
 Frederick II. (12.'; 2), obtained Austria and 
 Styria, but was forced to cede these terri- 
 tories to Rudolph of Hapsburg, and to do 
 homage for Bohemia and Moravia (1275). 
 
 Otway, Thomas {b. 1651, d. 1685), drama- 
 tist, born in Sussex; after failiug as an
 
 ^Oud 
 
 ( 602 ) 
 
 Owe 
 
 actor, took to writiug for the stage, and 
 produced Alcibiades iu 1G7«5. His finest 
 tragedies are The Orphan (1680), and Venice 
 Freserved (1682). He is said to have died of 
 starvation. 
 
 Oudinot, Charles Nicholas, Duke of 
 Reggio and marshal of France (I). 1767, d. 
 1847), fought with distinction in the Austrian 
 campaign ; gained the battle of Ostrolenka 
 and greatly contributed to that of Friedland 
 (1807) ; stood by Napoleon in the Russian 
 campaign and that of 1818, but took no part 
 in the Hundred Days, and acquiesced iu the 
 restoration. His son, Chaeles Nicholas 
 Ottdinot, Duke of Reggio {b. 1791, d. 1863), 
 commanded the French anny sent in 1849 
 to Rome to restore Pius IX. 
 
 Oughtred, William {b. 1573, d. 1660), Eng- 
 lish divine and mathematician, educated at 
 Cambridge ; wrote Clavis Mathematica, etc. 
 
 Ouida, the pseudonym of Louise de la 
 Ramee [b. 1840), English novelist of French 
 extraction. Ainong her works are Under 
 Two Flags (1867) and Moths (1880). 
 
 Ouless, Walter WilUam, R.A. {b. 1848), 
 portrait -painter, born in Jersey. Among 
 those who have sat to him are Charles Dar- 
 win, John Bright (1879), and Cardinal 
 Newman (1880). 
 
 Ouseley, Rev. Sir Frederick Arthur Gore, 
 Bart. (b. 1825, d. 1889), sou of Sir Gore 
 Ouseley : became professor of music at Ox- 
 ford in 1855. 
 
 Ouseley, Sir Gore, Bart. {b. 1769, d. 1844), 
 diplomatist ; went to Persia as ambassador 
 in 1810, and brought about peace between 
 Persia and Russia. 
 
 Outram, Sir James {b. 1803, d. 1863), 
 general, obtained an Indian cadetship iu 
 1819 ; was political agent in East Khaudesh 
 1825-35, and in Mahi-Kantha 1835-8 ; dis- 
 tinguished himself in the Afghan war as 
 aide-de-camp to Sir J. Keane ; in 1842 
 was political agent in Scinde ; quarrelled 
 with Sir Charles Napier, whose policy to- 
 wards the Ameers he regarded as oppres- 
 sive; was appointed commissioner of 
 Baroda ia 1847 ; was resident at Luckaow 
 1854-6: commanded the Persian expedition 
 1857. On the outbreak of the Mutiny he 
 hastened back to India, and took part with 
 Havelock in the relief of Lucknow. 
 
 Overall, John {b. 1559, d. 1619), divine, 
 became Bishop of Lichfield in 1614, and of 
 Norwich in 1619. He wrote the sacra- 
 mental part of the Church Catechism, and 
 compiled the Convocation Book. 
 
 Overbeck, Johann Friedrich {b. 1789, d. 
 1869), religious artist, bom at Liibeck, 
 studied at Vienna under Fuger ; in 1810 
 
 went to Rome, and joined in establishing 
 the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood in the 
 monastery of Saut' Isidoro ; became a 
 Roman Catholic iu 1814. Among his chief 
 works are Chrinfs Agony in the Garden 
 ri8o5) at Hamburg, and The Vision of St. 
 Francis (1830) at Assisi. 
 
 Overbury, Sir Thomas {b. 1581, d. 1613), 
 courtier and miscellaneous writer ; was in- 
 troduced to James I. by Robert Carr, after- 
 wards Earl of Somerset. Having opposed 
 that nobleman's marriage with the Countess 
 of Essex, he was thrown into the Tower, 
 and there died of poison. Somerset and the 
 countess were found guilty, but pardoned. 
 Overbury's chief work is his Characters. 
 He also wrote The Wife (a poem), etc. 
 
 Overstone, Samuel Jones Loyd, Baron 
 {b. 1796, d. 1883), was Whig member for 
 Hythe 1819-26, and became a recognised 
 authority on financial matters. His Tracts 
 and Other Ftibhcations on Metallic and Paper 
 Currency were published between 1837 and 
 1857. The Bank Act of 1844 was based 
 upon his proposals. 
 
 Overweg, Adolph {b. 1822, d. 1852), Ger- 
 man traveller, born at Hamburg, joined the 
 expedition of Richardson and Barth to 
 Lake Tchad (1850) : arrived at the lake 
 with Barth in April, 1851, and died in the 
 neighboui'hood in September. 
 
 Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) (J>. 43 B.C., 
 d. 17 A.D.), Roman poet, patronised by 
 Augustus. The cause of his banishment to 
 Torai, a town of the Getse, near the mouth 
 of the Danube, has always remained a 
 mystery. He died in exile. His chief 
 poems are the Amores, de Arte Amandi, 
 Fasti, and Metamorphoses, 
 
 Oviedo y Valdes, Gonzalo Fernandez de 
 {h. 1478, d. 1557), Spanish historian, bom at 
 Madrid, went to the West Indies as super- 
 intendent of the gold foundries (1513) ; be- 
 came alcayde of St. Domingo in 1535 ; after 
 passing many years in Hispaniola, returned 
 to Spain, and died at Valladolid. Charles V. 
 made him historiographer of the Indies. His 
 chief work is a General and Natural His- 
 tory of the West Indies in fifty books. 
 
 Owen, Henry (*. 1716, d. 1795), Welsh 
 clergvman, became vicar of Edmonton in 
 1775." He wrote Observations on the Four 
 Gospels^ Crttica Sacra : or, an Introduction to 
 Hebrew Criticism, etc. 
 
 Owen, Rev. James (6. 1838), president of 
 the Baptist Union. 
 
 Owen, John (J. 1560, d. 1622), Latin epi- 
 grammatist, educated at Winchester and 
 Oxford. He became master of the free 
 school at Warwick.
 
 Owe 
 
 (603) 
 
 Fao 
 
 Owen, John {b. 1616, d. 1683), Noncou- 
 formist divine, bom at Stadham, in Oxford- 
 shire, was educated at Queen's College, 
 Oxford. At first a Presbyterian, he after- 
 wards became an Independent ; preached 
 before the House of Commons on the day 
 after Charles I.'s execution ; accompanied 
 Cromwell to Ireland and Scotland; was 
 appointed Dean of Christ Church, Oxford 
 (1651), and held the oiB.ce of vice-chancellor 
 1652-7, but was driven from the university 
 in 1659. He died at Ealing. His writings 
 ai-e voluminous. Among the best known are 
 a Discourse Concerning the Holy Spirit, and 
 The Doctrine of Justijication by Faith. 
 
 Owen. Sir Eichard (b. 1804), anato- 
 mist and palaeontologist, was educated at 
 Edinburgh University and St. Bartliolo- 
 mew's Hospital. During his connection 
 with the museum of the Royal College of 
 Surgeons (1828-56), where he succeeded Mr. 
 Clift as curator, he published several Cata- 
 logues at the collections, and edited Hunter's 
 Animal Economy (1837). In 1856 he was 
 appointed superintendent of the natural 
 history department of the British Museum. 
 Hia works are volimiiuous, the most valu- 
 able being those which treat of extinct 
 an im a ls . His discoveries are summarised 
 in his Palceontology (1861). 
 
 Owen, Robert {b. 1771, d. 1858), the foun- 
 der of Socialism in England, was bom of 
 poor parents at Newtown, Montgomery- 
 shire. In 1800 he became owner of the 
 New Lanark Cotton Factory, where he 
 proceeded to put in practice his theories of 
 a new system of society. He afterwards 
 made umsuccessful attempts to establish 
 Communistic settlements at New Harmony 
 in America (1825), and Harmony Hall in 
 Hampshire (1844). To his efforts may be 
 traced the first factory legislation, the co- 
 operative movement, and the establishment 
 of infant schools. 
 
 Owen. William, R.A. {b. 1769, d. 1825), 
 studied under Catton and Reynolds. He 
 excelled as a portrait-painter. 
 
 Oxenden, Right Rev. Ashton (b. 1808, d. 
 1892), was Bishop of Montreal and primate 
 of Canada 1869-78. He published many 
 religious works. 
 
 Oxenford, John {b. 1812, d. 1877), trans- 
 lated Goethe's Dichtung und Wahrheit and 
 Conversations with Eckermann, and wrote 
 The Dice of Death and other plays. 
 
 Oxenstiema, Axel, Count {b. 1583, d. 
 1654), Swedish statesman, was made chan- 
 cellor by Gustavus Adolphus in 1611 ; suc- 
 ceeded him as leader of the Protestant 
 party in Germany (1632-5) ; acted as regent 
 throughout the miuority of Christina, and 
 became her chief minister when she assumed 
 the government (1644). 
 
 Oxford, Robert Harley, Earl of (6. 1661, 
 d. 1724), English statesman, in 1704 was 
 made Secretary of State, but was compelled 
 to resign by Marlborough. He soou re- 
 turned with the Tories to office, being Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer, and the Queen 
 created him Earl of Oxford and Mortimer 
 and Lord High Treasurer. Anne finally 
 dismissed him from his offices, and on the 
 accession of George I. he was impeached by 
 the Whigs but acquitted. 
 
 Ozanam, Jacques (6. 1640, d. 1717), French 
 mathematician ; wrote Dictionnaire des Ma- 
 thhnatiques, Cours des Mathematiques, etc. 
 
 Ozell, John (d. 1743), English miscel- 
 laneous writer, satirised by Pope in the 
 Dunciad. 
 
 Ozerofif, Vladislas Alexandrovich {b. 1770, 
 d. 1816), Russian poet ; served in the army, 
 and afterwards held a civil appointment. 
 He wrote Fingal, (Edipiis, and other tra- 
 gedies, also some lyrical poems. 
 
 Paaw, Pieter (*. 1664, d. 1617), Dutch 
 physician, professor of anatomy at Ley- 
 den, where he founded the botanic gar- 
 den. 
 
 Facca, Bartolommeo, Cardinal {b. 1756, d, 
 1844), Italian statesman, friend of Pius VII. 
 when an exile in France ; became his secre- 
 tary on his restoration in 1814, and wrote 
 Memorie (translated by Sir G. Head). 
 
 Pacchiarotto, Jacopo {b. 1474), Italian 
 painter, born at Siena, where he took an 
 
 active part in affairs. Most of his works are 
 there, but a Madonna and Child by him is in 
 the National Gallery, London. 
 
 PaccMerotti, Gaspare {b. 1744, d. 1821), 
 singer ; visited London in 1778 and 1790. 
 
 Pace, Richard {d. 1532), English diplo- 
 matist, successively Dean of Exeter and St. 
 Paul's : became Secretary of State in 1516, 
 but, having offended Wolsey, was com- 
 mitted to the Tower, and lost both kii 
 preferments and his reason.
 
 Fac 
 
 (604) 
 
 Pag 
 
 Pache, Jean Nicolas (b. 1746, d. 1823), 
 French revolutionist ; minister of war 
 1792-3, when the Girondists were in power; 
 afterwards joined the Mountain. 
 
 Facheco, Francesco (*. 1571, d. 1654), 
 Spanish portrait-painter, father-in-law of 
 Velasquez, most of his pictures being at 
 Seville ; published Arte de la Tinlura. 
 
 Paclimann, Vladimir de (d. 1848), Russian 
 pianist ; tirst appeared in London in May, 
 1882, and performed both previously and 
 subsequently in all the European capitals, 
 being esteemed especially as an exponent of 
 Chopin and Beethoven. 
 
 Pachymera, George (6. 1242, d. 1315), 
 Greek writer ; author of a History of 
 Michael Palceologus and Androniais, from 
 the point of view of a contemporary eye- 
 witness. 
 
 Paciaudi, Paolo Maria (b. 1710, d. 1785), 
 Italian antiquary ; preached as a Theatine 
 for ten years, but afterwards settled at 
 Borne, and published Memoirs of the Grand 
 Masters of the Order of St. John, etc. 
 
 Pacini, Luigi {d. 1837), Italian singer ; 
 made his di-but at Milan in 1806 as Buffo 
 Comico, and in 1818 took the part of 
 Brand in II Barorte di Dolsheim, com- 
 posed by his son, Giovanni. 
 
 Pacuvius, Marcus {d. 132 B.C.), Eoman 
 poet and painter, much esteemed by Cicero 
 and Lselius ; fragments of his work in the 
 Corpus Pottarum are all that remain. 
 
 Padilla, Francisco de {b. 1527, b. 1607), 
 Spanish writer ; author of Sistoria Eccle- 
 giastica de Espana. 
 
 Padilla, Don Juan de (d. 1521), was put to 
 death by Charles V. for having headed a 
 constitutional movement in Spain. 
 
 Padilla, Lorenzo de {d. circa 1540), 
 Spanish writer ; author of Anteguedades de 
 Espana, etc. 
 
 Padshah Beebee (17th century), Princess 
 of Beejapoor, the last of her race ; married 
 Sultan Manzum, son of Aurungzebe. 
 
 Paer, Ferdinando {b. 1771, d. 1839), Italian 
 composer, kapellmeister to the Elector of 
 Saxony, and, after Jena, imperial composer 
 to Napoleon, who made him director of the 
 Italian Opera ; composed Griselda and other 
 operas. 
 
 Pagan, Blaise, Comte de (*. 1604, d. 1665), 
 French military engineer. Having lost his 
 sight in active service, published in 1645 his 
 Traite de Eortifcation. 
 
 Paganel, Pierre (*. 1745, d. 1826), French 
 revolutionist ; author of Essai Critique et 
 Historique sur la Revolution Eratt^aise, 
 
 which was seized by the police in 1810, its 
 author being banished in 1816 as a regicide. 
 
 Paganini, Niccolo (*. 1784, d. 1840), 
 Itahan violinist, bom at Genoa ; first ap- 
 peared at Lucca (1805), where he was 
 patronised by the Princess Baciocchi, 
 sister of Napoleon. Having visited the chief 
 German capitals, he came to France and 
 England in 1831, and made immense sums. 
 His performance on a single string and his 
 mysterious personality created for hiin a 
 world-wide reputation. 
 
 Pagano, Mario (J. 1748, d. 1799), Nea- 
 politan jurist; author of Saggi Politici, etc. 
 Having been a prominent supporter of the 
 Parthenopean Republic, was put to death on 
 the restoration of the Bourbons. 
 
 Page, Thomas Nelson {b. 1853), American 
 writer ; author of stories in the negro 
 dialect. In the Virginia, Befo' de War, etc. 
 
 Pag^s. [See Gamier-Pages.] 
 
 Pag^s, Pierre Marie, Vicomte de {p. 1748, 
 d. 1793), French navigator ; sailed in Ker- 
 guelen's expedition to the South Pole, and 
 afterwards went as far as 81° 30' north ; was 
 murdered by negroes on his estate in San 
 Domingo, after having served in the Ameri- 
 can war. 
 
 Paget, Sir Augustus, G.C.B. (b. 1823), 
 English diplomatist. After a long course 
 of home and foreign service, was appointed 
 ambassador to Italy in 1876, and sworn 
 of the Privy Coxmcil, and was transferred to 
 Vienna in 1884. 
 
 Paget, Right Hon. Lord Clarence, K.C.B. 
 {b. 1811), naval officer; saw active service 
 in the Baltic in 1854-5, and afterwards 
 several times commanded the Mediterranean 
 squadron. He also sat in Parliament as a 
 Liberal for some years, and was secretary to 
 the Admiralty from 1859 to 1866. 
 
 Paget, Sir George Edward, K.C.B.,F.R.S. 
 
 {b. 1809, d. 1892), physician. Having been 
 eighth wrangler in 1831, became fellow of 
 Caius College, and was subsequently presi- 
 dent of the British Medical Association 
 (1864), and of the General Medical Council 
 of the United Kingdom (1869-74), and 
 Regius professor of medicine at Cambridge 
 (1872). 
 
 Paget, Sir James, Bart., F.R.S., D.C.L. 
 
 {b. 1814), sui'geon, brother of the above, was 
 bom at Grreat Yarmouth ; became F.R.C.S. 
 in 1836, and president in 1875, and published 
 Report on the Results of the Use of the Micro- 
 scope (1842), Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 
 and other works. He received a baronetcy in 
 1871, and served on the royal commission of 
 1881 to inquire into the condition of the 
 London hospitals.
 
 Pag 
 
 ( 605 ) 
 
 Fal 
 
 Paget, Lord William {b. 1506, d. 1563), 
 statesman; served Henry VIII. and his 
 successors both at home and abroad ; was 
 imprisoned as a supporter of Somerset, but 
 released by Queen Mary. 
 
 Paggi, Giambattista {b. 1554, d. 1627), 
 Italian painter, whose chief pictures are at 
 Florence and Genoa. 
 
 Pagi, Antoine (b. 1624, d. 1690), Italian 
 cordelier ; wrote a critique on the Annals 
 of Baronius, in which he was assisted by his 
 nephew, Francois {d. 1721), who also com- 
 piled a History of the Popes. 
 
 Pahlen, Pieter, Count (Jb. 1760, d. 1828), 
 Russian statesman, who, when military 
 governor of St. Petersburg, conspired 
 agaiust the Tsar Paul, and caused him to 
 be strangled (1801), but took little fiu-ther 
 part in affairs. 
 
 Pallleron, fidouard {b. 1834), French 
 dramatist ; author of Les Faux Menages 
 (1869), Helene (1872), Le Monde oh Von 
 s" amuse (1868), and Le Monde ou Von 
 s'ennuie, produced at the Comedie Fran- 
 ^aise in 1883, the latter chiefly contributing 
 to his subsequent election to the Aca- 
 demy. 
 
 Paine, Thomas (*. 1737, d. 1809), English 
 writer, born at Thetford, Norfolk ; went to 
 America by advice of Franklin in 1774, and 
 soon after published his pamphlet, Common 
 Sense, for which he received £500 from the 
 state of Pennsylvania. Having served in 
 the American war, he came to England in 
 1787, but, having been prosecuted for his 
 Rights of Man in 1792, went to France, 
 where he became a member of the Con- 
 vention, but was imprisoned by Robespierre. 
 His Age of Reason appeared between 1792 
 and 1795, its author afterwards dying at 
 New York. 
 
 Painter, William {b. circa 1525, d. circa 
 1594), author of The Falaee of Pleasure, a 
 collection of novels. 
 
 Paisiello, Giovanni {b. 1741, d. 1816), 
 musician of the Neapolitan school; pa- 
 tronised by Catherine II., Napoleon, and 
 other sovereigns. His chief opera was 
 Nina. 
 
 Pajol, Claude Pierre (Jb. 1772, d. 1844), 
 French soldier ; served with distinction 
 under the first Republic and Empire, re- 
 captured Montereau in 1814, and in 1830 
 led the attack upon Rambouillet. 
 
 PaMngton, Sir John (A. 1799, d. 1880), 
 politician; represented Droitwich as a Con- 
 servative from 1837 to 1874, when he was 
 created Baron Hampton. He was made 
 Colonial Secretary in 1852, and became 
 First Lord of the Admiialty in 1858, and 
 
 again in 1866, 
 1866-8. 
 
 being Secretary-at-War 
 
 Palacky, Franz (i. 1798, d. 1876), Bo- 
 hemian historian, fnend of Kollar, the poet, 
 and author of the History of Bohemia 
 (1836-54), and several similar works ; was 
 named a life-member of the Upper House 
 of the Reichsrath in 1861. 
 
 Palafox y Melzi, Don Jose {b. 1780, d. 
 1847), Spanish general; successfully de« 
 fended Saragossa against the French in 
 1808, but was obliged to surrender after a 
 second siege, and was for five years a 
 prisoner in France. He supported the con- 
 stitution in 1823, and declared for Isabella 
 in 1835. 
 
 Paleario, Aonio [Antonio della PagUa] 
 (Jb. 1500, d. 1570), Italian scholar, was put 
 to death at Rome by the Inquisition on 
 account of his religious opinions. 
 
 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (b. 1524, 
 d. 1594), musician, whose chief works were 
 sacred, the mass of Pope Marcellus being 
 the best known. He was many years 
 chapel-master to JuUus III., and saved 
 music from proscription by the Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Paley, William (b. 1743, d. 1805), English 
 theologian, professor of divinity at Cam- 
 bridge, and Ai'chdeacon of Carlisle ; wrote 
 Horce Paulines, Natural Theuloyy, Evidences 
 of Christianity, etc. 
 
 Palgrave, Sir Francis (b. 1788, d. 1861), 
 historian, of Jewish extraction, his name 
 having originally been Cohen ; was knighted 
 for his historical works, the chief of which 
 were The Rise and Progress of the English 
 Commonwealth and History of Normandy 
 and England. He was deputy-keeper of 
 the records from 1838. 
 
 Palgrave, Francis Turner (*. 1824), his 
 eldest son, poet and critic. Having been 
 fellow of Exeter College and vice-principal of 
 Kneller Hall (training college) and assistant- 
 secretary in the Education Department, was 
 elected professor of poetry at Oxford in 
 1886. His chief works are Essays on Art 
 (1866), Lyrical Poems (1871), and the com- 
 pilation entitled Golden Treasury of English 
 Songs. 
 
 Palgrave, Reginald (i. 1829), historical 
 writer, fourth son of Sir F. Palgrave ; be- 
 came clerk to the House of Commons in 
 1886, and pubUshed Cromwell and other 
 works. 
 
 Palgrave, William Gifford (*. 1826, d. 
 1888), Arabic scholar, brother of the above ; 
 educated at Oxford ; served for a time in 
 the Indian army ; became a Jesuit ; ex- 
 plored Arabia, and was employed by the
 
 Pal 
 
 (606) 
 
 Pal 
 
 English Government in Abyssinia and else- 
 where. His chief work is Narrative of a 
 Tear's Journey through Central and Eastern 
 Arabia. In 1880 he was appointed consul- 
 general in Siam. Another brother, Eobeet 
 iNGLis {b. 1827), was elected F.E.S. in 1882, 
 and was a member of the royal commission 
 on depression of trade (1885). 
 
 Palissot de Beauvols, Ambrose, Baron 
 de (*. 1752, d. 1820), French botanist; 
 travelled in Africa and America, and wrote 
 Flore d'Oware et de Benin and other works. 
 
 Palissot de Montenoye, Charles {h. 1730, 
 d. 1814), poet, author of the comedy, Le 
 Cercle (1755), ridiculing Rousseau, etc. 
 
 Palissy, Bernard {d. 1589), potter and 
 enameller ; was imprisoned as a Huguenot 
 in his seventy-sixth year, and died in the 
 BastiUe ; made the ware which is known by 
 his name. 
 
 Palladio, Andrea {b. 1518, d. 1580), Italian 
 architect, born at Vicenza, where he rebuilt 
 the Palazzo della Razione. He afterwards 
 built the churches of St. George and the 
 Redeemer at Venice. 
 
 Pallas, Roman freedman (<f. 63), who, 
 with Agrippina, poisoned the Emperor 
 Claudius (54), but was afterwards him- 
 self poisoned by Nero. 
 
 Pallas, Peter Simon (J>. 1741, d. 1811)^ 
 German traveller ; author of Voyages a 
 Travers Pb(sie>irs Provinces de VEmpire 
 Jtiisse, Zoographia Rosso- Asiatica, etc. 
 
 Pallavlcino, Sforza, Cardinal {b. 1607, d. 
 1667), Italian writer ; author of Istoria del 
 Concilio di Trento. 
 
 Palles, Right Hon. Christopher, LL.D. 
 {b. 1831), Irish judge ; made a reputation 
 at the Chancery bar, particularly in the case 
 Croker v. Croker, and was Solicitor- and 
 Attorney -General for Ireland in Mr. Glad- 
 stone's first ministry, becoming Chief Baron 
 of the Irish Exchequer in 1874. 
 
 Palliser, Sir Hugh {b. 1721, d. 1796), 
 English admiral ; was censured by court- 
 martial for his conduct in the action off 
 Ushantin July, 1778, his part being taken 
 by the Opposition as against Keppel, his 
 superior officer. 
 
 PaUiser, Sir William {b. 1830, d. 1882), 
 inventor of the Palliser shot ; served in the 
 army till 1871, and represented Taunton for 
 two years ; invented also a method for con- 
 verting smooth-bore cast-iron guns into 
 rifled guns. 
 
 Palm, Johann Philipp (*. 1768, d. 1806), 
 bookseller of Niimberg, whose arbitrary 
 arrest and execution by order of Napo- 
 leon, on a charge of selling the pamphlet, 
 
 Oermany in her Deepest Sumiliation, did 
 much to kindle the war of Liberation. 
 
 Palma, Jacopo, "II Vecchio" {d. circa 
 1548), Italian painter of the Venetian school, 
 whose Annunzio del Pastore is in the Louvre. 
 His great-nephew of the same name (d. 
 1628) is known as "II Giovine." 
 
 Palmblad, Vilhebn Fredrik (*. 1788, d. 
 1852), Swedish writer; author of a Swedish 
 biographical dictionary and founder of the 
 " Phosphorist " school of criticism. 
 
 Palmella, Souza, Dugue de {l>. 1781, d. 
 1850) , Portuguese statesman ; took a leading 
 part in the affairs of his country for twenty- 
 five years, and was thrice minister ia Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Palmer, Sir A. H., K.C.M.G. {b. 1819), 
 colonial statesman, born in Ireland ; became 
 colonial secretary of Queensland in 1867, 
 and was premier from 1870 to 1875, when 
 he became president of the Legislative 
 Council. 
 
 Palmer, Rev. Charles Ferrars [Father 
 Raymund] {b. 1819), antiquary ; author of 
 History q/ the Town and Castle of Tamworth, 
 where he practised some years as a surgeon, 
 but joined the Dominicans in 1853, and sub- 
 sequently published several works relating 
 to the order. 
 
 Palmer, Sir Charles Mark, Bart. (*. 1822), 
 coal-owner and ship-builder ; first employed 
 steam colliers instead of sailing brigs and 
 introduced rolled plates for men-of-war ; 
 represented Durham county as a Liberal 
 from 1874. 
 
 Palmer, Edward Henry (fi. 1840, d. 1882), 
 English Orientalist ; went on an expedi- 
 tion to Mount Sinai in 1868-9, and in 
 1871 became Lord Almoner's Reader of 
 Arabic at Cambridge ; was assassinated in 
 Upper Egypt eleven years later. He was 
 author of Oriental Mysticism, an Arabic 
 grammar, and a Persian dictionary, etc. 
 
 Palmer, Edwin, D.D. (b. 1824), divine, 
 brother of Lord Selbome. Having been 
 fellow of Balliol for twenty years, was 
 appointed Corpus professor of Latin at 
 Oxford in 1870, from which oflfice he retired 
 when he became Archdeacon of Oxford in 
 1878. 
 
 Palmer, John {d. 1818), a Bath brewer; 
 first suggested mail coaches, and was made 
 comptroller-general of the Post-office. 
 
 Palmer, John {d. 1798), actor; died on 
 the stage at Liverpool when playing in 
 Kotzebue's Stranger. 
 
 Palmer. {See Selbome.] 
 
 Palmerston, Henry John Temple. Vis- 
 count {b. 1784, d. I860), statesman; having
 
 Pal 
 
 '( 607 ) 
 
 Par 
 
 succeeded tis father as Irish peer in 1802, 
 entered Parliament as Tory member for 
 Newport in 1807, and waa a lord of the 
 Admiralty from that year until 1809, when 
 he became Secretary at War. After the 
 death of Canning he becEime a Whig, and 
 was Foreign Secretary in Earl Grey's Re- 
 form Ministry (1830-34), holding the same 
 office again under Lord Melbourne (1835-41) 
 and Lord John Russell (1846-51), the lat- 
 ter term of ofB.ce being marked by the 
 support given to the Queen of Portugal 
 against Dom Miguel and to Turkey in the 
 matter of the Hungarian and Polish re- 
 fugees, as well as by the affair of Don 
 Pacifico. After having been Home Secre- 
 tary in the coaUtion ministry of 1852-55, 
 he became First Lord of the Treasury in the 
 latter year, and held office till March, 1857, 
 when, after the vote of censure on the con- 
 duct of the China war, he dissolved, resign- 
 ing in the following year on the Foreign 
 Conspiracy Bill. Palmerston was again 
 Premier from June, 1859, till his death, and 
 was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Palmieri, Luigi {b. 1807), meteorologist, 
 became in 1854 director of the Vesuvius 
 Observatory. Besides describing the 
 eruptions of the volcano, he constructed 
 an electrometer, a pluviometer, and a seis- 
 mometer. 
 
 Palmieri, Matteo (6. 1405, d. 1475), Floren- 
 tine historian ; author of Vita Civile (printed 
 in 1529) and Crojiaca Generals. 
 
 Palsgrave, John (b. 1480, d. 1554), Eng- 
 lish scholar, tutor to Mary, sister of Henry 
 VIII., and author of L' Eelaircissement de la 
 Langue Franqaise, the first attempt at a 
 French grammar. 
 
 PampMlus {b. 409 b.o.), a Greek, intro- 
 duced the rules of perspective and propor- 
 tion into painting. 
 
 Pamphilus (/;. 240, d. 309), Syrian writer, 
 friend of Eusebius a.nd biographer of Origen, 
 bequeathed a lending library to Csesarea; 
 was put to death under Diocletian. 
 
 Pansenus {fl. 5th century B.C.), an 
 Athenian, executed a series of paintings of 
 the battle of Marathon. 
 
 PansBtius {h. 190 b.c. d. 100 B.C.), 
 Athenian philosopher : taught at Rome, and 
 left works, on one of which Cicero's Be 
 Offlciis is said to be foimded. 
 
 ^Panckoucke, Charles Joseph (*. 1736, d. 
 1798), French joumaUst and publisher; 
 founded Le Monitrur. 
 
 Panicale, Masolino da (*. 1378, d. 1415), 
 Florentine painter, some of whose frescoes 
 are in the Del Carmine church. 
 
 Panin, Ivanowitch, Comte de {b. 1718, d. 
 
 1783), Russian statesman of Italian origin; 
 helped Catheiine II. against the Tsar, and 
 attempted to introduce liberal ideas into 
 Russia. 
 
 Panizzi, Sir Antony, K.C.B. (J. 1797, d. 
 1879), Italian bibliographer, compelled to 
 leave Italy on accoimt of his liberalism ; 
 was principal Ubrarian of the British Musexma 
 from 1856 to 1866, having previously been 
 keeper of printed books for nearly twenty 
 years. He collected the first four editions of 
 the Divina Commedla, and edited Ariosto's 
 Orlando Furioso. 
 
 Pamnure, Fox Maule Ramsey, Lord (b. 
 1801, d. 1874), British statesman; became 
 Lord Panmure in 1852, and succeeded to 
 the earldom of Dalhousie in 1860 ; was Sec- 
 retary-at-War 1846-52, and again 1855-8, 
 being also for a short time President of the 
 Board of Control in 1852. 
 
 Pannini, Giampaolo (b. 1691, d. 1764), 
 Itahan painter, whose representation of the 
 monuments of Rome are in the Louvre, aa 
 are those of his son, Fbancesco. 
 
 Panormita, pseudonym of Antonio Bec- 
 CADELLi {d. 1471), whose works (historical 
 and poetical) were denoimced for their 
 licentiousness and pubhcly burnt. 
 
 Panzer, Georg Wolfgang (J. 1729, d. 1804), 
 Lutheran minister and bibliographer; author 
 of Annales Typographici. 
 
 Paoli, Pasquale de' {jb. 1726, d. 1807), 
 Corsican patriot; headed the struggle for 
 independence against Genoa, but when the 
 island was transferred to France came to 
 England, where he died. 
 
 Paolo Veronese. {See Veronese.] 
 
 Papi, Lazzaro (b. 1763, d. 1834), Italian 
 scholar ; served in the British army in India 
 for several years, and afterwards published 
 Lettere sulle Indie Orientale, I Commentarii 
 della Rivoluzione Francese, etc. 
 
 Papias [d. 169), Bishop of Hierapolis, and 
 according to Irensus, a disciple of St. John; 
 wrote Expositions of the Lord's Sayings, 
 which is quoted by fiusebius. 
 
 Papin, Denis (b. 1647, d. 1714), French 
 physician ; published, while in England, an 
 account of a machine he had invented called 
 the "New Digester" (1681), and became a 
 fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 Papinianus {b. 142, d. 212), Roman jurist 
 of great repute ; was beheaded by order of 
 Caracalla. 
 
 Papirius Cursor, Roman hero ; was twice 
 dictator (32.5 B.C. and 272), and carried on 
 successful war against the Samnites. 
 
 Paracelsus, Theophrastus [b. 1493. d. 1641),
 
 Par 
 
 (608) 
 
 Par 
 
 Swiss empiric; rejected the authority of the 
 old physicians, aud possessed some skill in 
 cheuiistry; obtaiued a gi-eat reputation from 
 his claim to have discovered the elixir vita 
 aud by some cures he eii'ected. 
 
 Pardies, Iguace [b. 1636, d. 1673), French 
 m:ithematician, held a controversy with 
 Newton on the theory of light aud colours. 
 
 Pardee, Julia (b. 1806, d. 1862), English 
 writer ; lived some time in Constantinople, 
 and published The City of the Sultan (1837), 
 A Romance of the Maretn, etc. 
 
 Par^, Ambrose {b. 1509, d. 1590), surgeon 
 to Henri II. of France and his sons ; was 
 protected by Charles IX. dirring the mass- 
 acre of St. Bartholomew, the order for its 
 discontinuance being probably attributable 
 to his influence. 
 
 Parades. [See Garcia.] 
 
 Pareja, Juan de {b. 1606, d. 1670), Spanish 
 painter ; attracted the notice of Philip IV. 
 while a hack in the studio of Velasquez. 
 
 Parfait, Fran9ois {b. 1698, d. 1753), French 
 writer, whose chief work was Histoire 
 Generale du TheAtre Frangais (1734-49). 
 
 Paxini, Giuseppe (6. 1729, d. 1799), 
 Milanese poet of humble birth, his chief 
 works being II Giorno, a satire, and Le Odi. 
 
 Paris. {See Matthew Paris.] 
 
 Paris, Francois [the "Abbe"] (b. 1690, d. 
 1727), Jansenist priest, to whose tomb in 
 St. Medard, Paris, crowds resorted in the 
 belief that miracles were worked there. 
 
 Paris, Gaston (i. 1839), philologist; author 
 of Etude sur le rble de V Accent Latin dans la 
 langue Franqaise (1862), Histoire Foetique de 
 Charlemagne (1866), and other works. 
 
 Paris, Louis Philippe d'Orleans, Count of 
 (i. 1834), grandson of King Louis Philippe, 
 was born at Paris, and in 1861 went with 
 his brother, the Duke of Chartres, to America, 
 aud served on M'Clellan's staff till June, 
 1862, when both returned to Europe. In 
 1871 he became a member of the National 
 Assembly, which soon after voted the re- 
 stitution of the Orleans property. On 
 August 5, 1873, the Count of Paris recog- 
 nised the Count of Chambord as head of 
 the royal house, and on the death of the 
 latter in 1883 was himself acknowledged as 
 his successor. In 1886 he left France for 
 England in consequence of the Expulsion 
 Bill, having previously published several 
 works, the chief of which were Tlie Trades 
 Unions of England (translated by N. J. 
 Senior, 1869), and Histoire de la Guerre 
 Civile en Amerique (1874-83). 
 
 Parish, Eli (b. 1806, d. 1846), English whom he maintained to have been "Junius. 
 
 musician, well known as a performer on the 
 harp, for which he wrote several concertos. 
 
 Park, Edward Amasa, D.D. Q>. 1808), 
 American theologian, born in Rhode Island, 
 was professor of mental and moral philo- 
 sophy at Amherst 1834-6, and from 1847 to 
 1861 held the chair of Christian theology at 
 Andover. Among his works are Theology of 
 the Intellect and of the Feelings, a,nA.Discourses 
 on Some Theological Doctrines as Related to the 
 Religious Character. 
 
 Park, Mungo {b. 1771, d. 1805), Scotch 
 traveller, born at Selkirk; while engaged 
 in exploring the sources of the Niger was 
 di-owned, his boat having been sucked into 
 a rapid during a skirmish with the natives. 
 
 Parke, Thomas Heazle, F.R.C.S.I., etc. 
 (J). 1857), armysm'geon, born in Roscommon 
 county ; published a report on the Egyptian 
 cholera epidemic (1883), and, having been 
 present at Abu Klea and other actions in 
 the Soudan, crossed Africa with Stanley in 
 1887-9. 
 
 Parke. \_See Wensleydale, Lord.] 
 
 Parker, Joseph {b. 1830), preacher, opened 
 the City Temple, London, in 1874. Has 
 published a number of theological works. 
 
 Parker, Matthew {b. 1504, d. 1575), divine, 
 was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury 
 in 1559. Under the supervision of Elizabeth 
 he consolidated the reformation, and super- 
 intended the issue of The Bishop'' s Bible ; 
 he left a valuable collection of books and 
 MSS. to Cambridge University, of which 
 he had been vice-chancellor. 
 
 Parker, Richard {d. 1797), sailor, headed 
 the mutiny at the Nore, at the end of which 
 he was hung. 
 
 Parker, Theodore (4. 1810, d. 1860), 
 American minister, son of a farmer at 
 Lexington; ejected by the Unitarians for 
 his writings, became leader of a society of 
 freethinkers ; was also an active abolitionist. 
 A collected edition of his works appeared in 
 1863. 
 
 Parkes, Hon. Sir Henry, G.C.M.G. (*. 
 
 1815), Australian statesman, bom in War- 
 wickshire ; emigrated in 1839 to New South 
 "Wales, where he was engaged in journalism 
 and politics, and, having been colonial sec- 
 retary and educa.tion minister, was premier 
 from 1872 to 1875, in 1877, from 1878 to 1883, 
 and from 1887 to the autumn of 1891. He 
 supported both imperial and Australasian 
 federation, and attempted to conciliate the 
 Laboiu' party. 
 
 Parkes, Joseph (A. 1796, d. 1865), English 
 lawyer ; author of a History o/" the Court of 
 Chancery and Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis.
 
 Par 
 
 (609) 
 
 Par 
 
 Paxkinson, John (i. 1567, <^. 1641), botanist, 
 apothecary to James I., and author of Thea- 
 trum Botanicum; was named '"Botanicus 
 Regius Primarius " by Charles I. 
 
 Paxkman, Francis {b. 1S23), American 
 writer, bom at Boston ; lived some time 
 among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and wrote The Conspiracy of Fontiac (1851), 
 The Old Regime in Canada, Count Front enao 
 and New France under Louis XIV., and 
 Montcalm and Wolfe (1884) , etc. 
 
 Parmenides, Greek Eleatic philosopher, 
 flourislied about 500 B.C. 
 
 Parmenio (d. 330 b.o.), general of Philip 
 of Macedon and Alexander the Great ; was 
 put to death by the latter on suspicion of 
 conspiracy. 
 
 Parmentier, Jacques (b. 1658, d. 1730), 
 French painter, employed by "William III. 
 of England. Several of his pictures are in 
 churches at Leeds and Hull. 
 
 Parmiglano [Francesco Mazzola] {b. 
 1503, d. 1540), Italian painter ; executed for 
 Pope Clement VII. his Madonna and Child 
 with St. John (now at Florence), and the 
 Madonna della Rosa (Dresden Gallery). His 
 Cupid is in the Belvedere Gallery, Vienna, 
 and the National Gallery has an unfinished 
 Madonna from his hand. He ruined himself 
 in the study of alchemy. 
 
 PameU, Charles Stewart Q). 1846, d. 1891), 
 Irish politician, descended from the poet, 
 was bom at Avondale, Co. Wicklow, and 
 educated at Cambridge. He entered public 
 life as member for Meath in 1875, and 
 two years later became conspicuous by 
 the ' ' obstruction ' ' with which he met the 
 Prisons Bill. He gradually ousted Mr. Butt 
 from the leadership of the Home Rule 
 Party, and in 1880 became leader of the 
 Irish Party and entered upon the land agita- 
 tion. At the general election he was elected 
 for three constituencies, but chose Cork, and 
 as the head of the Land League was prose- 
 cuted in 1880 ly the Gladstone Government, 
 the result being a disagreement of the 
 jury. In the following session he, with the 
 majority of his followers, was removed by 
 the sergeant -at -arms for obstruction, and 
 in October was imprisoned in Kilmainham 
 under the Coercion Bill. He was released 
 in April, 1882, but the "No rent" mani- 
 festo had meanwhile been issued, and in 
 1883 the National League took the place 
 of the suppressed Land League. At the 
 general election of 1S85 he nominated every 
 Home Rule candidate, and subsequently 
 entered into an alliance with the followers 
 of Mr. Gladstone. In the next Parliament 
 he proposed a bill to suspend evictions and 
 reduce rent, after the rejection of which the 
 agitation continued. In 1388 a special 
 
 N N 
 
 commission was appointed to examine the 
 charges made against Mr. ParneU and 
 others by the Times, the result being his 
 acquittal on the greatest, but condemnation 
 on many others. In consequence of the 
 result of the O'Shea divorce case in 1890 
 he was deposed by the majority of his 
 party, but continued to lead the minority 
 and to carry on an active campaign until 
 his death. 
 
 Panxell, Sir Henry (*. 1776, d. 1841), poli- 
 tician ; for forty years a member of the 
 House of Commons, wrote an Essay 
 on Financial Reform; was created Lord 
 Cougleton on resigning the office of pay- 
 master-general. His lather, Sie John, was 
 Irish Chancellor of the Exchequer, but re- 
 fused to support the Act of Union. 
 
 ParneU, Thomas (b. 1679, d. 1717), Irish 
 poet and Archdeacon of Clogher, intimate 
 with Swift and Boiingbroke ; was author 
 of The Hermit and other works. 
 
 Parr, Catherine, \_See Catherine Parr.] 
 
 Parr, Louisa (Mrs.), novelist; author of 
 Mow It All Happened (1868), Dorothy Fox, 
 Adam and Eve, Loyalty George (1888), etc. 
 
 Parr, Thomas {b. possibly 1483, d. 1635), 
 is said to have laboured as a husbandman 
 after attaining his 130th year. His body, 
 examined by Dr. Harvey, showed no signs 
 of internal decay. 
 
 Parrhasius (Jl. circa 400), Greek painter, 
 contemporary with Socrates ; highly com- 
 mended by Pliny, but very vain. 
 
 Parry, Charles Hubert Hastings, Mus. Doc. 
 {b. 1848), English composer, whose chief 
 productions are Judith, Ode for St. Cecilia's 
 Day, and settings of the Birds and Pro- 
 metheus Unbound. He also published Studies 
 of Great Composers, and contributed to the 
 Dictionary of Music. 
 
 FaXTj, John {d. 1782), blind harper. His 
 son, William {d. 1791), was elected A.R.A. 
 in 1776. 
 
 Parry, John Orlando {b. 1810, d. 1879), 
 comic singer, son of a Welsh musician, 
 originated the " musical sketch," his words 
 being generally written by Albert Smith. 
 From 1860 till 1869 he appeared in the 
 German Reed Company. 
 
 Parry, Sir William Edward, Rear-admiral, 
 F.R.S. (h. 1790, d. 1855), Arctic explorer, 
 son of Caleb Hillier Parry, a Bath physician. 
 After serving some years on the North Ame- 
 rican station, sailed with Captain Ross to 
 discover the north-west passage. In a subse- 
 quent voyage (in 1819) he penetrated farther 
 west than had hitherto been reached, and 
 in 1821-3 and 1824-5 he again went north.
 
 Par 
 
 (610) 
 
 Fat 
 
 In 1827 he attempted to reach the North Pole 
 in a sledge, an aceouut of this voyage appear- 
 in «• with the others in 1833, In 1853 he 
 became governor of Greenwich Hospital 
 His son (rf. 1890) was Bishop of Dover. 
 
 Parsons, Alfred WilUam, R.I. {b. 1847), 
 landscape-painter ; left the Civil Service in 
 18(57 to study from nature, and first ex- 
 hibited at the Academy in 1871. Among 
 his pictures are Fallen, The Ending of 
 Summer, emd When Nature I'alnted all Things 
 Gay, exhibited at the Academy (the last 
 being bought under the Chantrey Bequest 
 in 1887) In a Cider Country (1866), etc. 
 (Grosvenor Gallery), and some water-colours 
 and oils, which gained gold and silver medals 
 at the Paris Exhibition of 1889. 
 
 Parsons, Eobert {b. 1546, d. 1610), Jesuit 
 priest ; was head of the Catholic rmssion of 
 1579, and wrote several works. 
 
 Parton, James {b. 1822, d. 1891), American 
 writer ; bom at Canterbm-y, but was taken 
 to America when a child, and wrote many 
 works, the chief of which were Life of 
 Horace Greely (1855), General Butler in New 
 Orleans, Life and Times of Benjamin Frank- 
 lin, and Life of Jefferson. He married, in 
 1856, "Fanny Fern," we Willis, writer of 
 children's books. 
 
 Paruta, Paolo {b. 1540, d. 1598), ItaUan 
 writer, author of Storia Veneziana (1605). 
 
 Pascal, Blaise (fi. 1623, d. 1662), French 
 philosopher and mathematician ; wrote a 
 treatise on conic sections at sixteen, and 
 soon after invented a calculating machine ; 
 strongly opposed the Jesuits in his Lettres 
 Frovinciales, his Fensees being published 
 after his death. 
 
 Paschal I. {d. 824) was elected pope in 
 817, and maintained an unsuccessful contest 
 with two of the emperors about the imperial 
 right to confirm papal elections. 
 
 Paschalll. {d. 1118) was elected in 1099, 
 and made a compromise with the kings of 
 England and France on the Investiture 
 question. His convention with the emperor 
 was annulled by the Lateran Synod in 1112. 
 
 Paschal III. {d. 1168), anti-pope; set up 
 in 1164 against Alexander III. by the Em- 
 peror Frederick I. 
 
 Paskevitch, Ivan Feodorivitch (h. 1782, d. 
 1856), Eussiau general; conducted the war 
 against Persia in 1826, and, after defeating 
 the Turks, was sent to put down the Polish 
 rebellion, after which he was governor of 
 Poland till the Crimean war, when he com- 
 manded at the siege of Silistria. 
 
 Pasquier, Etienne Denis, Due (b. 1767, d. 
 1862), French statesman; was prefect of 
 
 police imder the first Empire (1810-14), 
 foreign minister under Louis XVIII. 
 (1819-21), and president of the Chambredes 
 Pairs from 1830 to 1848, being created duke 
 in 1844. 
 
 Passaglia, Carlo Abbe (*. 1812, d. 1887), 
 Italian priest ; author of a pamphlet calling 
 on the pope to relinquish his temporal 
 
 EDwer; was a leader of the independent 
 iberal party in the Italian parliament. 
 
 Passemant, Claude Simeon {b. 1702, d. 
 1769), French optician ; author of a treatise 
 on the construction of telescopes. He made 
 and presented to Louis XV. an astronomical 
 pendulum. 
 
 Passignano [Domenico Cresti] (d. 1638), 
 ItaUan painter of the Venetian school, most 
 of whose pictures are at Florence, 
 
 Passy.Hippolyte (b. 1793, d 1880), French 
 statesman, minister of commerce in 1836, 
 and of tinance 1839-40 and 1848-9. 
 
 Pasta, Giuditta (*. 1798, d. 1865), Italian 
 operatic feiuger of Jewish descent ; made her 
 first successful appearance in 1820, and re- 
 tired in 1840. 
 
 Pasteur, Louis {b. 1822), French chemist, 
 born at Dole ; was appointed in 1863 pro- 
 fessor of geology, physics, and chemistry at 
 the fecole des Beaux-Arts, having been 
 awarded in 1856 the Rumford Medal of the 
 Royal Society for his researches on the 
 polarisation of light. In 1874 he was 
 awarded by the National Assembly an 
 annuity of 12,000 francs for his iuvestiga- 
 tions on fermentation, and succeeded to the 
 chair of Littre in the Academic in 1882. He 
 afterwards devoted himself to the cure of 
 hydrophobia by inoculation, and treated 
 patients from all parts of the world. 
 
 Pastoret, Claude, Marquis de [b. 1756, d. 
 1840), politician and laveyer ; was procureur- 
 general in 1791, and became president of the 
 Legislative Assembly ; as member of the 
 Council of Five Himdred opposed the 
 Directory, and after the restoration became 
 minister of state, and was ennobled. He 
 was author of numerous works. 
 
 Patel, Pierre {b. 1654, d. 1703), landscape- 
 painter, the Claude of Prance ; was killed in 
 a duel. 
 
 Pater, Walter (6. 1839), English writer; 
 became fellow of Brasenose in 1865, and 
 published The Renaissance, Marius the 
 Epicurean (1885), Imaginary Portraits, 
 and Appreciations, with an essay on Styh 
 (1889). 
 
 PatercTilus. [See VeUeius,] 
 
 Paterson, WilHam {b. 1658, d. 1719), 
 Scotch speculator, projector of the Darien
 
 Pat 
 
 (611) 
 
 Fan 
 
 scheme (1794), in the same yeax propounded 
 a scheme for the establishment of a National 
 Bank. 
 
 Patey, Janet Monach, Madame {b. 1842), 
 EngUsh contralto (nee Whytock), made her 
 dSbut at Birmingham, and joined the Leslie 
 choir ; was presented with a medal for her 
 rendering of Best in the Lord, by the 
 Paris Conservatoire in 1875. She also made 
 successful tours ia America and Austraha. 
 
 Patin, Gui (b. 1602, d. 1672), French 
 physician, whose published letters are 
 valuable as a picture of the times. 
 
 Patmore, Coventry Kearsey Deighton {b, 
 lS2o), poet; was assistant- librarian at the 
 British Museum from 1846 to 18G8. His 
 chief works are Tlie Atigel in the House and 
 The Unknown Eros. 
 
 Paton, Sir Joseph Noel, K.S.A. (jb. 1821), 
 artist, bom at Dunfermline ; first exhibited 
 at the Scottish Academy in 1844, and won 
 prizes at the Westminster cartoon exhibitions 
 in the following years. The Quarrel of 
 Oberon and Titania was bought for the 
 Scottish National Gallery, as was also its 
 companion picture. The Mecomiliation, and 
 the chief of his other pictures are The 
 Fursuit of Pleasure (1855), Daum : Luther 
 at Erfurt (1861), and Faith and Reason 
 (1871). 
 
 Paton, Walter Hugh, R.S.A., R.S.W. (b. 
 1828), Pre-RaphaeUte painter, his chief 
 pictures being Slochd-a-Chrommain (a scene 
 in Arran), Rome from the Pincian Hill, and 
 Holyrood Falace and Edinburgh from the 
 Queen'' s Fark (by royal command). 
 
 Patrick, Saint {b. 374, d. 464), patron 
 saint of Ireland, whither he came from 
 Scotland, where he was bom, in 433. 
 
 Patriii,Eugfene Melchior (b. 1742, d. 1815), 
 French geologist ; investigated the structure 
 of the Ural Mountains, and published 
 Histoire Naturelle des Mineraux. 
 
 Patrizzi, Francesco (*. 1529, d. 1597), 
 Italian philosopher; author of La Kuova 
 Filosojia delle cose Universe. 
 
 Patteson, Sir John {b. 1790, d. 1861), 
 English judge ; after being fellow of King's 
 College, Cambridge, was called to the bar in 
 1821, and practised on the northern circuit. 
 He was appointed judge of the King's 
 Bench in 1830, and retired in 1852 on account 
 of his deafness. 
 
 Patteson, John Coleridge {b. 1827, (f.l871), 
 missionary. After being fellow of Merton, 
 was appointed Bishop of Melanesia in 1861, 
 but ten years later was murdered by the 
 natives. 
 
 Patti, Adelina (d. 1843), operatic singer, 
 NH 2 
 
 was bom at Madrid, appeared at New York 
 as Lucia in 1859, and at Covent Garden in 
 1861 in that and other parts. In 1864 she 
 sang as Margherita, and in 1867 as 
 Juliet, and subsequently took part in suc- 
 cessive Handel festivals, and appeared in 
 Continental cities. She married Signer 
 Niccolini in 1886, having been divorced from 
 the Marquis de Caux. Her sister, Cae- 
 LOTTA, died in 1889. 
 
 Pattison, Mark {b. 1813, d. 1884), scholar 
 and divine; became fellow of Lincoln 
 College, Oxford, in 1839, and rector m 1861. 
 He was at first a follower of Newman, but 
 afterwards contributed to Essays and Re vietvs, 
 and became an active imiversity reformer. 
 His chief works were Life of Casaubon (1875), 
 Milton in " The Men of Letters " series, and 
 an edition of Pope's works. 
 
 Patton, Francis Landey, D.D. {jb. 1843), 
 American Presbyterian divine, born in Ber- 
 muda; while professor at Chicago prose- 
 cuted Professor David Swing for heterodoxy, 
 and afterwards held the Stuart professorship 
 of the relation of philosophy and science 
 to Christianity, at Princeton, New Jersey, 
 becoming president of the college in 1888. 
 He is author of A Summary of Christian 
 Doctrine, and other works. 
 
 Paul {See Vincent de Paul.] 
 
 Pavd, the Tsar {b. 1754, d. 1801), succeeded 
 Catherine II. in 1796, joined the con- 
 federacy of sovereigns against the French 
 republic, but afterwards became deranged, 
 and, having committed many cruel acts, was 
 assassinated. 
 
 Paul, Saint, was beheaded at Rome about 
 the year 64. 
 
 Paul of the Cross, Saint [Francesco Danei] 
 (i. 1694, d. 1775), founded the Passionist 
 order in 1741. 
 
 Paul the Silentiaxy, wrote a poem, On the 
 Fythian Baths, in the reign of Justinian. 
 
 Paul I. {d. 767) was elected Pope of Rome 
 in 757. 
 
 Paul II. {b. 1418, d. 1471) was elected in 
 1464, and preached a crusade against the 
 Turks. Printing was introduced at Rome 
 during his pontificate. 
 
 Paul IIL [See Alessandro Famese.] 
 
 PaiU IV. [Caraffa] (J. 1476, d. 1559), 
 elected in 1555 ; opposed the Spanish, but 
 was coerced into alUance by the Duke of 
 Alva. 
 
 Paul V. [Borghesel (b. 1552, d. 1621), 
 elected in 1605 ; quarrelled with Venice about 
 criminal jurisdiction over the clergy, but wae 
 a munificent patron.
 
 Fau 
 
 (612) 
 
 Fea 
 
 Paula, Saiut {b. 347, d. 404), Roman lady, 
 founded the monastery of Bethlehem. 
 
 Paulding, James Kirke {b. 1779, rf. 1860), 
 Ainericau writer, friend of Washington 
 Irving, with whom he published Salmagundi; 
 also wrote The Dutchman's Ivresiae, and 
 other novels. 
 
 Paulet. \_See Winchester, Marquis of.] 
 
 Pauli, Reinhold (b. 1823, d. 1S82), German 
 historian ; came to England in 1S47 as 
 secretary to Bimsen, and afterwards held 
 professorships in Gottingen and other 
 universities ; wrote Life oj King Alfred^ a 
 monograph on Simon de Montfort, and a 
 continuation of Lappenberg's History of 
 England, etc. 
 
 Paulinus, Saint {d. 644), accompanied 
 Edwin to Northimibria and converted him ; 
 was consecrated Archbishop of York in 622. 
 
 Paiilus iEg^ineta (4th century), Greek 
 physician, an edition of whose works was 
 printed at Venice in 1553. 
 
 Paulus, ^milius, Roman consul ; was de» 
 feated and slain at Cannae (216 B.C.), by 
 Hannibal. 
 
 PatQus, .aEmilius {d. 160 B.C.), Ms son, 
 conquered Macedonia (168 B.C.). 
 
 Pausanias {d. 467 b.c), Lacedaemonian 
 leader ; commanded the Greeks at Plataea, 
 but afterwards intrigued with Xerxes, and 
 died of hunger in the sanctuary to which he 
 had fled. 
 
 Pausanias (Jl. 174), Greek geographer; 
 author of Accurata Grceci<e Lescriptio, which 
 was printed in 1516. 
 
 Pausias of Sicyon (/. 350 b.o.), Greek 
 painter, many of whose pictures were col- 
 lected at Rome. 
 
 PautWer, Jean Guillaume (b. 1801, d. 
 1873), French Orientalist; author of Beg 
 Quatres Livres de Philosophie Morale et 
 Politique des Chinois (1841), and editions of 
 Confucius and Marco Polo's Travels (1865). 
 
 Pauw, Cornelius de (J). 1739, d. 1799), 
 Dutch writer, Canon of Cleves, whose chief 
 work was Becherches Philosgphiques sur les 
 Grecs, les Americains, les Egyptiens, et les 
 
 Chinois, 
 
 _ Paxton, Sir Joseph {b. 1803, d. 1865), Eng- 
 lish horticulturist and architect, designed the 
 building for the Exhibition of 18.51, after- 
 wards the Crystal Palace. He represented 
 Coventry from 1854 till his death. 
 
 Payn, James {b. 1830), novelist: edited 
 for some years Chambers'' s Journal, in which 
 appeared Lost Sir Massingberd. He after- 
 Wards edited the Cornhill Magazine, and 
 
 published numerous novels, among which 
 were The Glyffards of Clyffe, By Proxy (1878), 
 The Luck ot the Barrells, The Heir of the 
 Ages, The Burnt Million, etc. 
 
 Payne, John Howard {b. 1792, d. 1852), 
 American actor and dramatist ; wrote for 
 the press at thirteen, and appeared on the 
 stage at sixteen ; made his debut at Drury 
 Lane in 1812 when twenty, and composed 
 a number of pieces, in one of which the air 
 Home, Sweet Home was first heard. He (iied 
 as consul at Tmiis. 
 
 Pazzi, The, a Florentine family, were the 
 rivals of the Medici, against whom they 
 formed the conspiracy of 1478. 
 
 Peabody, George {b. 1795, d. 1869), philan- 
 thropist ; having made a fortune as a dry- 
 goodsman in America, came to England and 
 established a banking business in London in 
 1843. Besides giving half-a-million to be 
 invested for the London poor, he assisted 
 with funds Dr. Kane's Arctic expedition, 
 and founded and endowed many institutions 
 at Baltimore and other places in the United 
 States. 
 
 Peacock, Sir Barnes (i. 1810, d. 1890), 
 judge ; became Queen's Coimsel in 1850, 
 and chief justice of the Supreme Court 
 of Calcutta in 1859, on his resignation of 
 which post he was sworn of the Privy 
 Council, and in 1872 became a member of 
 the judicial committee. 
 
 Peacock, Edward, F.S.A. (b. 1831), an- 
 tiquary; author of Ralph SJcirlaugh, and 
 other works, and editor of Army List of 
 Rmmdheads and Cavaliers, and several 
 similar publications. 
 
 Peacock, Thomas Love (b. 1785, d. 1866), 
 novelist and poet, friend of Shelley, and 
 author of Headlong Hall, and other novels, 
 Rhododaphne, and other volumes of verse, 
 etc. 
 
 Pearce, Zachary {b. 1690, d. 1774), divine. 
 Dean of Winchester, Bishop of Bangor and 
 Rochester successively ; published an edition 
 of Longinus, and left a donation to the 
 Bromley Widows of Clergy College. 
 
 Pears, Edwin (b. 1835), barrister ; while 
 practising at the Constantinople bar, first 
 called attention in the Daily News to the 
 Bulgarian atrocities of 1876. 
 
 Pearse, Mark Guy (6. 1842), Wesleyaq 
 minister ; published in 1874 Dan'l Quorm 
 and his Religious Notions. 
 
 Pearson, Sir Charles John (b. 1843), law- 
 yer; was called to the bar in 1870, became 
 Solicitor- General for Scotland, and member 
 of Parliament for Edinburgh and St. 
 Andrews in 1890, and Lord Advocate in 189L
 
 Fea 
 
 (613) 
 
 Pee 
 
 Pearson, John, D.D. (b. 1612, d. 1686), 
 became Bishop of Chester in 1673, having 
 previously been master of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. His Exposition of the Creed 
 appeared in 1659. 
 
 Pearson, John Loughborough, E.A., 
 architect, designed Truro cathedral, Bris- 
 bane cathedral. Holy Trinity church, "West- 
 minster, and restored several ecclesiastical 
 and collegiate buildings. 
 
 Pecchia, Carlo (A. 1715, d. 178-1), Italian 
 writer ; author of Storia Civile e Folitica del 
 Regno di Napoli. 
 
 Peck, Rev. Francis {b. 1692, d. 1743), 
 English antiquary ; author of Desiderata 
 Curiosa, Memoirs of Oliver Cromwell, etc. 
 
 Peckham, John, D.D. {b. 1292), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury (1278-92) ; reformed 
 abuses and encouraged learning, but per- 
 secuted the Jews. 
 
 Pecock, Reginald {d. 1460), divine. Bishop 
 successively of St. Asaph and Chichester ; 
 was deprived and imprisoned for a book 
 denying the Real Presence. 
 
 Pecquet, Jean (c?.1674), French physician; 
 author of Experimenta Nova Atiatomica; 
 discovered the thoracic duct and the re- 
 ceptacle of the chyle. 
 
 Pedro the Cruel {b. 1334, d. 1369), King 
 of Castile; succeeded Alfonso XI., and 
 governed with great cruelty. He was sup- 
 ported by the Black Prince against his 
 brother, Henry of Trastamare, by whom he 
 was eventually slain. 
 
 Pedro m., of Aragon {b. 1239, d. 1285) ; 
 claimed Sicily in right of his wife, and ex- 
 cited the conspiracy against the adherents 
 of Charles of Aragon. which led to the 
 massacre called the Sicilian Vespers (1282). 
 
 Pedro IV. {b. 1317, d. 1387), defeated the 
 Moors and Genoese, and founded the Uni- 
 versity of Huesca. 
 
 Pedro L, "the Severe," King of Portugal 
 {b. 1320, d. 1367), succeeded Alfonso IV. in 
 1257, and married Inez de Castro. 
 
 Pedro II. {b. 1648, d. 1706), became 
 regent in 1668 and king in 1683 in suc- 
 cession to Alfonso VI. 
 
 Pedro III. {d. 1786) succeeded with Maria 
 
 Isabella in 1777. 
 
 Pedro IV. {h. 1798, d. 1834), succeeded 
 John VI. in 1826, but abdicated two months 
 later in favour of his daughter, Dona Maria 
 da Gloria. He was Emperor of Brazil from 
 1822 till 1831, when he abdicated in con- 
 sequence of a revolution. 
 
 Pedro V. {h. 1837, d. 1861) succeeded Dona 
 Maria in 1853. 
 
 Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil. [See Pedro 
 rV. of Portugal.] 
 
 Pedro II. {b. 1825) assumed the govern- 
 ment in 1840, and was crowned in the 
 following year ; commanded the army in 
 the war with Paraguay in 1865-70, issued 
 decrees against the slave trade in 1850 and 
 1871, and encoiu'aged European colonisa- 
 tion, but after his return from a visit to 
 Europe in 1887 was deposed, and retired to 
 France. 
 
 Peel, Sir Robert, Bart. (*. 1750, d. 1830), 
 cotton manufacturer ; supported Pitt in 
 Parliament, and was created a baronet in 
 1801. His son, Generax Jonathan Peel 
 (6. 1799, d. 1879), a member of Parliament 
 for many years, was Secretary-at-War 
 under Lord Derby 1858-9, and again in 
 1866-7. 
 
 Peel, Sir Robert, Bart. (6. 1788, d. 1850), 
 statesman, eldest son of the first baronet ; 
 was named under-secretary for the Colonies 
 immediately on his entering Parliament in 
 1811, and was Irish Secretary from 1812 to 
 1818. In the following year he was chair- 
 man of the Bank Committee, and in 1822 
 was appointed to the Home Oifice, becoming 
 leader in the Commons on the death of 
 Canning (1827). As such he introduced 
 the Catholic Emancipation and Police Bills, 
 and lost his seat for Oxford University in 
 consequence of the former. After the Re- 
 form Bill he reconstructed his party, modem 
 Conservatism dating from his Tamworth 
 Manifesto (1834). He now held office a few 
 months, and was finally Prime Minister from 
 1841 to 1846, when his desertion of Pro- 
 tection cost him the support of the majority 
 of his followers. He died from the con- 
 sequences of a fall from his horse on Con- 
 stitution Hill. 
 
 Peel, Right Hon. Sir Robert, G.C.B. {b. 
 1822), third baronet; retired from the 
 diplomatic service in 1850, and having en- 
 tered Parliament, was a lord of the Ad- 
 miralty from 1855 to 1857, and Chief Sec- 
 retary for Ireland from 1861 till 1865. He 
 sat for Tamworth from 1850 till 1880, for 
 Huntingdon in 1884-5, and for Blackburn 
 in 1885-6. He was an unsuccessful Home 
 Rule candidate at the general election of 
 1886, and in October, 1888. 
 
 Peel, Right Hon. Arthur Wellesley, D.C.L. 
 {b. 1829), youngest brother of the last-named, 
 was elected as a Liberal for Warwick in 
 1865, became secretary to the Poor Law 
 Board in 1868, secretary to the Board of 
 Trade in 1871, secretary to the Treasury in 
 1873, and under-secretary for the Home 
 Department in 1880. In 1884 he was elected 
 Speaker.
 
 Pee 
 
 (614) 
 
 Fern 
 
 Peel, Eight Hou. Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 
 (b. 1823), another brother ; was called to 
 the bar, and elected as a Liberal for Leo- 
 minster in 1849, and sat for Buiy from 1852 
 to 1357 and from 1859 to 1865. He was 
 luider-secretary for the Colonies 1851-2, 
 and again in the Coalition Ministry, under- 
 secretary for war 1856-7, and secretary to 
 the Treasury 1860-5. He was president of 
 the Railway Commission first appointed in 
 1873. 
 
 Peel, Sir WUUam (b. 1824, d. 1858), 
 another brother ; served in the Naval 
 Brigade at Sebastopol, and was severely 
 wounded at the rehef of Lucknow, soon 
 after which he died. 
 
 Peele, George (J. drea 1558, d. 1598), 
 poet; wrote David and Bethsabe, and 
 several other plays, as well as a Chronicle 
 of Edward I. 
 
 PeUe, John, Litt. D. {b. 1838), philologist ; 
 senior classic and Chancellor's medallist at 
 Cambridge, was elected fellow of Christ's 
 College in 1860, and became master of the 
 College in 1887. In 1884 he was named 
 reader in philology, having brought out a 
 primer of that science in 1875. 
 
 Peisistratus (*. 612 B.C., d. 527), Tyrant 
 of Athens, was twice expelled, but regained 
 and transmitted his power, ruling well, and 
 encouraging public works. 
 
 Pekah, King of Israel, reigned b.o. 
 759-739. 
 
 Fekaliiall, King of Israel, reigned B.C. 
 761-759. 
 
 Felagius (5th century), British monk, 
 whose name was Moegan, opposed the 
 Augustinian doctrine of original sin, and 
 founded a sect at Rome. 
 
 Pelagius I., Pope (d. 560), was elected in 
 655. 
 
 Pelagius IL (d. 590), elected in 578. 
 
 Pelet, Jean Germain, Baron de (}. 1779, 
 d. 1858), French general and writer, author 
 of several military works, served in the 
 Napoleonic wars, and in 1848 was made 
 president of the Committee of National 
 IDefence. 
 
 Pemam. [See Newcastle.] 
 
 Pelham, Henir (6. 1696, «?. 1754), English 
 statesman ; was Secretary-at-War under Sir 
 R. Walpole (1724-30), but afterwards in- 
 trigued against him; was Prime Minister 
 from 1744 till his death, and reduced the 
 interest on the National Debt. 
 
 Pelliam, Henry Francis {b. 1846), his- 
 torian, eldest son of the Bishop of Norwich ; 
 became fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, in 
 
 1869 ; reader in ancient history 1887 ; and 
 Camden professor in 1889. 
 
 Pelissier, Amable Jean, Due de Malakoff 
 (J). 1794, d. 1864), Marshal of France; 
 served in Spain, the Morea, and Algeria, 
 and gained notoriety by his having ordered 
 the suffocation of 500 Arabs iu a cave in 
 1846. In May, 1855, he succeeded to the 
 command of the French forces in the Crimea, 
 and took the Malakoff tower. He was 
 afterwards govenior of Algeria. 
 
 PeU, John (6. 1610, d. 1685), EngUsh 
 mathematician and divine, friend of New- 
 ton ; wrote several mathematical works, and 
 left a number of manuscripts now in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 PeUegrini, Carlo (*. 1838, d. 1889), cari- 
 caturist, drew as "Ape" for Vanity Fair. 
 
 Pellegrino. \_See Tibaldi.] 
 
 PeUerin, Joseph {b. 1684, d. 1782), French 
 numismatist, whose collection of medals was 
 bought by Louis XVI. for £12,000. 
 
 Pellew. [See Exmouth, Lord.] 
 
 Pellico, SQvio {b. 1788, d. 1854), Italian 
 writer, author of some tragedies ; was im- 
 prisoned by the Austrian government from 
 1820 to 1830, and wrote Le niie Prigioni 
 (1832), an account of his Ufe in the prison 
 of Spielberg. 
 
 Pellison-Fontanier (*. 1624, d. 1693), 
 French historian ; author of Histoire de 
 VAcademie Frangaise, to which he was 
 elected, though there was no vacancy, 
 Histoire de Louis XIV. and other works. 
 
 Pelly, Lieutenant-General Sir Lewis, 
 K.C.B. {b. 1825, d. 1892), English adminis- 
 trator ; served with Jacob as political secre- 
 tary and interpreter in the Persian expedition 
 of 1857, and was entrusted with several mis- 
 sions to Persia, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, 
 and Arabia, finally becoming envoy-extra- 
 ordinary and plenipotentiary for foreign 
 affairs. He published several pamphlets, 
 and entered Parliament as a Conservative 
 for Hackney in 1885. 
 
 Pelopidas {d. 364 B.C.), Theban general, 
 expelled the Spartans from his city in 379 
 B.C., shared in the victories of Epaminondaa 
 and was killed after his victory at Cyno- 
 cephalae. 
 
 Peltier, Jean Gabriel {d. 1825), French 
 journalist ; published Actes des Apdtres 
 (1789-91), and having taken refuge in 
 England was in 1803 convicted of libel 
 against Bonaparte, his counsel being Sir J. 
 Mackintosh. 
 
 Pemberton, Sir Francis (b. 1625, d. 1697), 
 English judge; was appointed judge of tna
 
 fern 
 
 (615) 
 
 Pep 
 
 King's Bench in 1679, but removed soon 
 after. In 1681 he became Lord Chief Justice, 
 and as such condemned Fitzharris and Arch- 
 bishop Plunket, but was two years later 
 transferred for political reasons to the Com- 
 mon Pleas. He presided at the trial of 
 Russell and Sydney, but was dismissed for 
 his moderation, and was afterwards counsel 
 for the seven bishops and for Sir John 
 Fenwick. 
 
 Pem'oerton, Henry (b. 1694, d. 1771), 
 physician ; pupU of Boerhaave, and pro- 
 fessor at Gresham College. His chief work 
 was A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 Pembroke, Richard de Clare, Earl of 
 [Strongbow] (d. 1176), assisted Dermot 
 IklacMurrough to regain Leinster, and after 
 taking Dublin succeeded him. In 1171 he 
 surrendered his kingdom to Henry II., re- 
 ceiving it back in fee, and accompanied biTn 
 to Ireland. 
 
 Pembroke, Thomas Herbert, Earl of (d. 
 1733), was Lord Privy Seal, president of 
 the Council twice, and seven times Lord 
 Justice imder William III., besides having 
 been plenipotentiary at Ryswick and a com- 
 missioner for the union with Scotland. He 
 was also the friend and protector of Locke. 
 
 Pembroke, "William Herbert, Earl of (ji. 
 1570), married a sister of Catherine Parr, 
 and was one of the executors of Henry VIII.; 
 was created earl by Edward VI. as a zealous 
 Protestant ; supported Northimiberland, but 
 afterwards joined Queen Mary, and com- 
 manded the English at St. Quentin ; was 
 banished by Elizabeth for implication in the 
 schemes of Norfolk and Arundel. 
 
 Pembroke, William Marshall, Earl of 
 {d. 1219), married the daughter of Strong- 
 bow ; supported King John, and as regent 
 during the minority of Henry III. defeated 
 Louis of Frituce. 
 
 Penda |<f. 655), King of Mercia, the last 
 supporter of paganism among the Anglo- 
 Saxons ; defeated and slew Eadwine at 
 Heathfield (633), and Oswald at Maserfeld 
 (644>, but was himself killed in battle with 
 Oswi at Winwoed. 
 
 Penn, William (b. 1644, d. 1718), founder 
 of Pennsylvania, was son of Sir W. Peiui, 
 who, with Venables, took Jamaica. He be- 
 came a Quaker while at Oxford, and was 
 several times imprisoned for his writings. 
 In 1682 he embarked for the colony of the 
 New Netherlands, which had been granted 
 him by Charles II., and founded Phila- 
 delphia, but died in England, having been 
 in great favour at court under James II. 
 
 Pennant, Thomas (h. 1726, d. 1798), 
 naturalist and antiquary ; was friend and 
 
 correspondent of White of Selbome, and 
 author of A Sistory of Quadrupeds, Sistory 
 of London, a series of Tours, etc. 
 
 PemieU, Hemy Cholmondeley (fi. 1838), 
 ichthyologist and writer, son of Sir Charles 
 Pennell, who originated the present system 
 of manning the navy ; was appointed in- 
 spector of fisheries in 1866, and was after- 
 wards director-general of commerce in 
 Egj-pt. Among his works are The Modern 
 Fractical Angler, Salmon and Trout, etc., 
 and Puck on Pegasus (1861), and other 
 poetical works. 
 
 Penni, Gian Francesco, " II Fattore " (b. 
 1488, d. 1528), Florentine painter ; originally 
 steward [fattore) of Raffaelle, afterwards 
 assisted him in painting, and, as co-heir 
 with Giulio Romano, finished some of his 
 works. 
 
 Penry, John {b. 1559, d. 1593), Puritan 
 writer, author of the Martin Marprelate 
 tracts, was executed for sedition in 1593. 
 
 Penzance, Right Hon. James Wilde, Lord 
 (6. 1816), judge; was called to the bar and 
 went the northern circuit, became Queen's 
 Counsel in 1855, Baron of the Exchequer in 
 1860, and was a judge of the Probate and 
 Divorce Court from 1863 to 1872. He waa 
 created a peer in 1869, and in 1875 was ap- 
 pointed Dean of Arches under the PubUc 
 Worship Regulation Act. 
 
 Pepagomenus, Demetrius (/?. circa 1280), 
 Greek writer, author of a work on gout. 
 
 Pepe, GuglieUmo, Baron (b. 1783, d. 1855), 
 Neapolitan general ; extorted a constitution 
 from Ferdinand of Naples in 1820, but was 
 expelled the country by the Austrians, and 
 lived in England and Spain imtil 1848, when 
 he commanded the Neapolitan coutiagent 
 which helped to defend Venice. After the 
 capitulation he lived chiefly in Paris, and 
 wrote his Memoirs. His brother, Floeestan 
 {d. 1851), commanded the Italian Legion 
 xmder Napoleon, and for a time held Naples 
 against Ferdinand. 
 
 Pepin d'Heristal (d. 714), father of 
 Charles Martel, became King of Austrasia 
 in 687, and as Mayor of the Palace rmder 
 the Merwings ruled the Franks from 687 to 
 his death. 
 
 Pepin le Bref [b. 714, d. 768), King of the 
 Franks and father of Charlemagne, deposed 
 ChildericIII., and founded the Carlovingian 
 dynasty (7-^2), and afterwards, by helping 
 Stephen III. against the Lombards, founded 
 the temporal power of the popes. 
 
 Pepper, John Henry (b. 1821), analytical 
 chemist, was for several years public analyst 
 at Brisbane; improved Henry Dirck's rou^
 
 Pep 
 
 (616) 
 
 Per 
 
 model, which became known as "Pepper's 
 Ghost." 
 
 Pepusch, Johann Christoph {d. 1752), 
 German musician, author of a Treatise on 
 Harmony ; came to England, where he took 
 the degree of Mus.Doc. at Oxford, and be- 
 came organist to the Charterhouse. 
 
 Pepys, Sir W. [See Cottenham.] 
 
 Pepys, Samuel [b. 1632, d. 1703), secretary 
 to the Admiralty under Charles II., and 
 author of an extremely interesting and 
 valuable Diary, which was published by 
 Lord Braybrooke in 1825 from the MS. at 
 Magdalen College, Cambridge. He was 
 president of the itoyal Society. 
 
 Peranda, Santo {b. 1566, d. 1638), Vene- 
 tian painter, whose chief work, The Descent 
 from tJie Cross, is in the church of San 
 Procolo. 
 
 Perceval, Right Hon. Spencer {b. 1762. d. 
 1812), English statesman, second son of the 
 Earl of Egmont; was Attorney-General 
 under Addington and in Pitt's last ministry, 
 and, in consequence of a speech he delivered 
 against Lord Grenville's proposal to allow 
 Romanists to hold commissions in the Eng- 
 lish army, was appointed Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer in the Portland ministry. In 
 1809 he became Premier, and carried the 
 Regency Bill in 1811, but next year was 
 shot by a Liverpool broker named Belling- 
 ham in the lobby. 
 
 Percival, Rev. John, LL.D. (b. circa 
 1835), educationalist; was fellow of Queen's 
 College, Oxford, from 1858 to 1862, pre- 
 sident of Trinity from 1878 to 1887, when 
 he became head-master of Rugby, having 
 also been first head of Clifton College 
 (1862-78). He took chief part in the foun- 
 dation of University College, Bristol, and 
 published llie Co/mection of the Universities 
 with the Gnat Toivns, etc. 
 
 Percival, Thomas, M.D. [b. 1740, d. 1804), 
 physician, author of Medical Ethics, etc., 
 and founder of the Manchester Philosophical 
 Society. 
 
 Percy, Sii- Henry {b. 1364, d. 1403), son 
 of tlie first Earl of Northumberland, was 
 called HoTSPUE, and was killed at the 
 battle of Shrewsbury. [^See Northumber- 
 land, Earls of.] 
 
 Percy, Thomas (*. 1729, d. 1811), divine, 
 successively Dean of Carlisle and Bishop of 
 Dromore, collected and published Reliques 
 of Ancient Poetry. 
 
 Perdiccas {d. 321 b.c), Macedonian 
 general, heutenant of Alexander, and regent 
 for his successor ; was assassinated by his 
 Boldiers. 
 
 Per^fixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de {b. 
 
 1605, d. 1670), Archbishop of Paris and 
 tutor of Louis XIV. ; published Hutoire du 
 Boy Henri le Grand, and other works. 
 
 Pereira, or Pereire, Jacob Rodriguez (i. 
 1716. d. 1780), Spanish Jew, who opened a 
 school for deaf mutes at Rochelle ; was 
 pensioned by Louis XV. , and elected mem- 
 ber of the Royal Society. His grandsons, 
 Jacob Emile {d. 1875) and Isaac, estab- 
 lished the Credit Mobilier in 1852. 
 
 Pereira, Nmlo Alvarez (i. 1360, d. 1431), 
 " the Portuguese Cid " ; as constable under 
 Joao I. defeated the Spaniards in 1385, and 
 died in the Carmelite Convent at Lisbon. 
 
 Pereira de Figueiredo, Antonio {b. 1725, 
 d. 1797), theologian ; author of Doctrina 
 veteris EcclesicB de Suprema Regis etiam m 
 Clericos Potestate (1765). 
 
 Perez, Antonio (i. 1539, d. 1611), Spanish 
 statesman, for many years secretary of state 
 under Philip II. , intrigued with his mistress, 
 the Princess d'Eboh, and, having been 
 condemned to death, escaped to England 
 in 1591. 
 
 Perez Galdos, Benito {b. 1845), novelist, 
 born at Las Palmas in the Canaries, his 
 chief works being La Fontana de Oro (1871), 
 El Terror de 1824 (1877), Dona Perfecta, 
 Gloria, etc., the last two of which have 
 been translatet^ into English. In 1890 he 
 published La Incognita and Prealidad. 
 
 Pergolese, Giambattista (b. 1710, d. 1736), 
 Italian composer, whose best works were 
 his Stabat Mater, and the opera La Serva 
 Padrona. 
 
 Peri, Giacomo (16th century), Florentine 
 composer, whose chief works were Dafne 
 (1594), and LaMorte di Euridice (1600). 
 
 Periander {h. 665 b.c, d. 585), succeeded 
 Cypselus as Tyrant of Corinth. 
 
 Pericles {b. 499 b.c, d. 429), Athenian 
 statesman ; made important modifications in 
 the constitution in the democratic direction 
 about 460 b.c. ; fortified the city, and beauti- 
 fied it with the Parthenon, the Odeon, and 
 the Propylaca ; patronised Sophocles, Eu- 
 ripides, and Pheidias, and planned an 
 Athenian empire by making the allies sub- 
 jects, the result being the Peloponnesian 
 war, in the third year of which he died of 
 the plague. 
 
 P6rier, Casimir. [See Casimir Perier.] 
 
 Peringskjold, Johan {b. 1654, d. 1720), 
 Swedish historian, author of Heimskringlay 
 sive Historiae Reguni Septentrionaliiim, etc. 
 
 Perizonius, Jacobus (6. 1651, d. 1715), 
 Dutch philologist, author of Origines Rabjf- 
 loniea: et JEgyptiacce, etc.
 
 Per 
 
 (617) 
 
 Pet 
 
 Perian, WilUam Henry, Ph.D., F.E.S. 
 
 (b. 1838), English chemist; after acting as 
 assistant to Hofmann, discovered " aniline 
 purple," or mauve, and established with his 
 father a manufactory at Greenford Green, 
 Middlesex, where it was "first made in 1857. 
 He made several other chemical discoveries 
 and improvements, and was president of the 
 Chemical Society in 1883. 
 
 Perkiiis, Elisha {d. 1799), American phy- 
 sician : believed that he could cure gout and 
 other diseases by metallic tractors, but tried 
 the remedy on himself vrith fatal conse- 
 quences. 
 
 Peron, Franqois {b. 1775, d. 1810), French 
 naturalist, whose Voyage de Decouvertes aux 
 Terres Australes pejidant lesAnnees 1800-1804 
 was published after his death. 
 
 Perouse. [See La Perouse,] 
 
 Perovme, John James Stewart, D.D. (b. 
 1824), English divine, was bom in Bengal, 
 and, after a distinguished career at Cam- 
 bridge, was elected fellow of Corpus Chiisti 
 College in 1849. He was vice-principal of 
 St. David's, Lampeter, from 1862 to 1872, 
 and was elected Hulsean professor at Cam- 
 bridge in 1875. Having previously been 
 Canon of LlandafP, he became Dean of 
 Peterborough in 1878, and in 1890 Bishop of 
 Worcester. He was a member of the Old 
 Testament Revision Company, and also of 
 the commission on Ecclesiastical Courts, and 
 published Critical Translations of the Psalms 
 and other works. 
 
 Perrault, Charles (b. 1628, d. 1703), 
 French writer, whose Parallels des Anciens 
 et des Modernes (1698) gave rise to a famous 
 literary controversy; also wrote Contcs 
 des Fees, etc. His brother, Claude {b. 
 1613, d, 1688), bxiilt the colonnade of the 
 Louvre. 
 
 Perrenet de Granvelle, Antoine de (6. 
 
 1517, d. 1586), Spanish statesman, of French 
 birth ; became Bishop of Arras in 1538, and 
 in 1540 succeeded his father as chief minister 
 of Charles V., the marriage of whose son 
 with Mary of England he negotiated ; was 
 created Archbishop of Mechlin in 1560, and 
 cardinal in 1561, and was the chief adviser 
 of Margaret of Parma in the Netherlands 
 till compelled by the Gueux to retire. His 
 Fapiers d'Etat were published in 1841. 
 
 Perrot, Sir John {d. 1592), probably a 
 natural son of Henry VIII., was imprisoned 
 by Mary for harbouring Protestants : was 
 sent to Ireland as president of Munster in 
 1572, and became lord deputy in 1583, but 
 was tried for high treason on his return, 
 and died in the Tower. 
 
 Perry, James \b. 1756, d. 1821), journalist, 
 friend of Campbell and Lamb, edited the 
 
 Morning Chronicle, for an article in which 
 he was tried for libel but acquitted. 
 
 Perry, John [d. 1733), engineer, emploved 
 by Peter the Great ; published The State of 
 Russia under the Present Czar. 
 
 Perry, John, D.Sc, F.E.S. (b. 1850), elec- 
 trician, professor of mechanical engineering 
 at the Finsbm-y Technical College, was bom 
 in Ireland, and graduated at the Queen's 
 University ; was in Japan as joint professor 
 of engineering from 1875 to 1879, and gained 
 the silver medal of the Society of Arts for 
 his lecture on The Future Development of 
 Electrical Appliances. With Professor 
 Ayrton he published papers on Electroli/tic 
 Polarisation and other subj ects. Has written 
 also a manual of Practical Mechanics. 
 
 Persia, Nasr-ed-Deen, Shah of (b. 1829), 
 succeeded Muhammad Shah in 1848, but 
 not without bloodshed; after the war of 
 1856-7 became friendly to England, which 
 he visited in 1873 and 1889, and introduced 
 into his country many European improve- 
 ments. 
 
 Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin, Duo 
 de {b. 1808, d. 1872), French statesman, 
 prominent in the coup d'' etdt, was twice 
 minister of the interior under Napoleon III., 
 but resigned in 1863 on account of the mea- 
 sures against the press ; was also ambassador 
 in England between 1855 and 1860. 
 
 Persius Flaccus (6. 34, d. 62), Eoman 
 satiric poet, friend of Lucan and Seneca. 
 
 Pertinax, Helvius (*. 126, d. 193), was 
 made Emperor of Rome in 193, but assas- 
 sinated two months after. 
 
 Perugino [Pietro Vannucci] (h. 1446, d. 
 1524), Italian painter of the Umbrian school, 
 kept a school at Perugia, and had Eaffaelle 
 as a pupil. 
 
 Peruzzi, Baldassare {b. 1481, d. 1536), 
 painter and architect of Sienna; invented 
 and executed scenic paintings, helped 
 RafFaelle with the Famesina, and designed 
 the Palazzo Massimi. 
 
 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich {b. 1745, d. 
 1827), Swiss educationist; established an 
 institution for deserted children at Neuhof 
 in 1798, and afterwards as a schoolmaster at 
 Burgdorf and Yverdun practised his "in- 
 tuitive " system. His chief works were 
 How Gertrude Instructs her Children (1801) 
 and his Mother's Book (1803). 
 
 Petavlus [Denis Petau] {h. 1583, d. 1652), 
 French Jesuit, professor of philosophy at 
 Bourges and of theology at Paris : was 
 author of Opus de Theologieis Dogmatibus. 
 
 Peter. [See Pedro.] 
 
 Peter, the wild boy, was discovered in the
 
 Pet 
 
 (618) 
 
 Fet 
 
 forest of Hertswold, Hanover, in 1725, and 
 died sixty years later. 
 
 Peter, King of the Bulgarians, led a 
 revolt of the Slavs against the Emperor 
 Isaac Angeliis, but was assassinated ten 
 years after (1196). 
 
 Peter, Saint, was crucified at Kome in the 
 y«ar 65 or 67. 
 
 Peter of Blois {d. circa 1200), Archdeacon 
 of London ; was employed as a diplomatist 
 by Henry II., his works being published in 
 
 1519. 
 
 Peter the Hermit {d. 1115), French monk, 
 who preached the iirst cnisade in 1095, and 
 led the crusaders to Palestine. 
 
 Peter the Lombard {d. 1164), Bishop of 
 Paris, whose Book of Sentences was a stan- 
 dard scholastic work during the middle 
 ages. 
 
 Peter I., Tsar of Eussia [^Peter the Great] 
 {b. 1672, d. 1725), was joint ruler with 
 Ivan V. from 1682 tiU 1689, when he be- 
 came sole sovereign, visited Holland and 
 England to learn ship-building, and on his 
 return suppressed the conspiracy of the 
 Stretlitz (1698) ; founded St. Petersburg in 
 1703, and, after a defeat at Narva, won the 
 ■victory of Pultowa over Charles XII. of 
 Sweden in 1709. He added to his dominions 
 Esthonia, Livonia, and part of Finland, and 
 again visited western Europe in 1716-17. 
 
 Peter IL (b. 1715, d. 1739), gi-andson of 
 preceding, succeeded Catherine I. in 1727. 
 
 Peter IIL (*. 1728, d. 1762), succeeded 
 the Tsarina Elizabeth in 1761 , but, having 
 offended both the clergy and the imperial 
 guards, was compelled to abdicate, and a 
 week after was strangled, his wife, Cathe- 
 rine, being at the head of the conspiracy. 
 
 Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, Earl of 
 (J), circa 1658, d. 1735), soldier and diploma- 
 tist, distinguished himself in Spain in the 
 Succession War, compelling the French to 
 raise the siege of Barcelona (1706), and was 
 afterwards employed as a diplomatist. 
 
 Peters, Hugh (*. 1599, d. 1660), Puritan 
 preacher, chaplain to Cromwell ; was hanged 
 as a regicide after the Restoration. 
 
 Petion, Alexander {b. 1770, d. 1818), a 
 mulatto, who, after being one of the leaders 
 in the rising of 1791, became first president 
 of the republic of Hayti. 
 
 _Petion de Villeneuve, Jer6me (6. 1753, d. 
 1793), French revolutionist ; acted with 
 Eobespierre in the Constituent Assembly, 
 and was elected mayor of Paris in Novem- 
 ber, 1791, but soon lost his popularity, and, 
 having joined the Girondins, was compelled 
 
 to escape from Paris, and was found with 
 Buzot half -devoured by wolves at St. Emi- 
 lion. 
 
 Petit, Hon. Sir Dinshaw Manockjee {b. 
 1823), Parsee philanthropist. Having a large 
 fortune partly inherited and partly made 
 in the cotton industry, he founded a leper 
 hospital at Bombay amongst other charities, 
 and was knighted on the occasion of the 
 Queen's jubilee. 
 
 Petit, Jean Louis {b. 1674, d. 1750), French 
 surgeon ; author of Traite des Maladies des 
 Os, and inventor of several surgical instru- 
 ments. 
 
 Petitot, Jean {b. 1607, d. 1691), Genevese 
 enamel painter, employed by Charles I. and 
 Charles II. and by Louis XIV. ; was impri- 
 soned after the revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes. 
 
 Petofy, Sandor {b. 1823, d. 1849), Hun- 
 garian poet, whose poems were published ia 
 1847 ; was killed in a revolutionary combat 
 in the following year. 
 
 Petrarca, Francesco {b. 1304, d. 1374), 
 Italian poet, bom at Arezzo, lived chiefly at 
 Avignon, but passed his later years at 
 Milan, Venice, and Padua, and died at 
 Arqu^ ; with Boccaccio took an active part 
 in the revival of learning, and was crowned 
 as laureate in the Capitol by Eling Robert of 
 Anjou in 1341, His chief works are Son- 
 netti, Oanzoni et Trionfi (in praise of Laura, 
 a married lady whom he met at Avignon in 
 1327), and some Latin treatises. 
 
 Petre, Edward {b. 1631, d. 1699), Jesuit 
 priest, confessor to James II., exercised 
 much poUtical influence. 
 
 Petre, Sir George Glynn, K.C.M.G., en- 
 tered the diplomatic service in 1846, was 
 plenipotentiary to the Argentine repubUc 
 1881-2, to Paraguay in the following year, 
 and to Portugal in 1884. 
 
 Petrie, George (*. 1790, d. 1866), archae- 
 ologist, directed the ordnance survey of 
 Ireland in 1833, and wrote treatises on 
 The Origin and Uses of the Hound Towers, 
 Tara Rill, etc. 
 
 Petrie, W. M. Flinders (*. 1853), Egypt- 
 ologist, measured and surveyed the pyramids 
 and temples of Ghizeh in 1881-2, excavated 
 for the Egyptian Exploration Fxmd the 
 mounds of San (Zoan) in 1884, and in the 
 following year discovered the lost city of 
 Naukratis. He also made further dis- 
 coveries, and published, among other works. 
 Historical Lata of the XI. Dynasty, Ma- 
 wara, Brahmu, and Arsinoe (1889), and a 
 book on Stonehenge. 
 
 Petronius Arbiter, Caius {d. 66 B.a), 
 Roman writer, author of Satyricon,
 
 Fet 
 
 (619) 
 
 FM 
 
 Pettie, John, E.A. {b. 1839), EngUsh 
 painter, born at Edinburgh ; exhibited at 
 first in the Scottish Academy (The Prison 
 Fet, etc.), but came to London in 1862, and, 
 having been elected A. R. A. in 1864, exhibited 
 at the Royal Academy The Rehearsal, The 
 Death Warrant, The Yigil (1884), etc., the 
 last of which was purchased for the Chantrey 
 Bequest 
 
 Pettigrew, James Bell, F.R.S., F.R.C.P., 
 etc., medical writer ; born at Eoxhill, 
 Lanarkshire, took the degree of M.D. at 
 Edinburgh in 1861, and in 1875 became 
 Chandos professor of medicine and anatomy 
 at St. Andrews. His best known work is 
 Animal Locomotion: or, Walking, Swimming, 
 and Flying. 
 
 Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph, M.D. {b. 1790, 
 d. 1865), antiquary, author of History of 
 Egyptian Mummies, Bibliotheca Sussexiana, 
 etc. 
 
 Pettitt, Henry, dramatist, whose chief 
 plays are The Black Flag, In the Ranks 
 fwith Or. R. Sims), The Bells of Saslemere 
 (with Grundy), A Million of Motley (with 
 Harris). ^See Sims, G. R.] 
 
 Petty. {See Lansdowne and Shelbume.] 
 
 Petty, Sir "William {b. 1623, d. 1687), 
 politician and writer ; siurveyed for Henry 
 Cromwell the forfeited Irish estates, was one 
 of the early members of the Royal Society, 
 and wrote Folitical Arithmetic, The Political 
 Anatomy of Ireland, etc. 
 
 Peyrfere, Isaac la {b. 1594, d. 1676), French 
 writer ; was imprisoned for maintaining, in 
 Prce-Adamitce, the existence of a race 
 anterior to Adam. 
 
 Peyxonnet, Charles, Comte de {b. 1778, d. 
 1834), statesman, minister of justice from 
 1821 to 1828 : as minister of the interior 
 signed the ordinances which led to the revo- 
 lution of 1830, and was condemned to im- 
 prisonment for life, but liberated in 1836. 
 
 Pezza. {See Fra Diavolo.] 
 
 Pfeiffer, Ida {b. 1795, d. 1858), Austrian 
 lady, made and described two voyages 
 round the world (1846-48 and I851-o4). Her 
 Voyiiges were translated into EngUsh. 
 
 Phsedon {Jl_. circa 400 B.C.), Greek phi- 
 losopher, disciple of Socrates, and founder 
 of the Elian school. 
 
 Phsedrus {Jl. circa 14 a.d.), Latin writer, 
 whose Fabulce were first printed in 1596. 
 
 Phalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum, which 
 city he took about 570 B.C. His name is 
 kniiwn on account of his cruelty, and also 
 for the controversy between Bentley and 
 Boyle as to the genuineness of some letters 
 attributed to him. 
 
 Phamabazus (/. 412-333 b.c.) Satrap of 
 the Persian Hellespontine provinces ; re- 
 ceived Alcibiades after .^gospotami, but on 
 the Spartan demand gave the order for his 
 assassination ; was captured by the Mace- 
 donians after the battle of lesus. 
 
 Phamaces IL, King of Pontus {d. circa 
 46 B.C.), son of Mithridates, after whose 
 death he revolted against the Romans, his 
 defeat by Julius Caesar (47 b.c.) being the 
 occasion of the despatch, " Veni, vidi, viel." 
 
 Pheidias (5th century b.c), Athenian 
 sculptor, whose chief work was seen in the 
 Parthenon. 
 
 Phelps, Samuel (fi. 1804, d. 1878), English 
 actor ; bom at Devonport, made his debut 
 at Wakefield in 1827, and having been asso- 
 ciated with Macready at the Haymarket, 
 became the head of the stage on his retire- 
 ment in 1 851 . As manager of Sadler's Wells 
 (1844-62), he revived the classical drama, 
 and afterwards acted at Drury Lane and the 
 Lyceum, his best parts being Sir Peter 
 Teazle, Justice Shallow, and Bottom. 
 
 Phelps, Hon. William Walter (b. 1839), 
 American statesman ; entered Congress in 
 1873, was minister at Vienna 1881-2, and 
 after being in Congress till 1889 was then 
 appointed ambassador at BerUn, where he 
 took part in the Samoan Convention of that 
 year. 
 
 Pherecydes {b. 600 e.g.), Greek philo- 
 sopher, master of Pythagoras, is said to have 
 invented prosody. Another Pherecydes, who 
 lived earlier, wrote a History of Athens. 
 
 Philemon (b. 320 b.c), Greek comic poet, 
 is said to have died of laughter. 
 
 Philip of Hohenstaufen (d. 1208), son 
 of Frederick Barbarossa ; when Duke of 
 Suabia was chosen king of Germany in 1198, 
 but ten years later was assassinated by Otto 
 of Wittelsbach. 
 
 Philip Neri, Saint {b. 1515). [See Neri.] 
 
 Philip IL, King of Macedon {d. 336 B.c), 
 ascended the throne in 360 B.C. ; instituted 
 the phalanx, made Thrace and Thessaly tri- 
 butary, defeated the Athenians at Ghaeronea 
 (338), but was assassinated at Mgdd two 
 years later. 
 
 Philip III. [Arrhidaeus], his natural son, 
 succeeded Alexander in 323 B.C., but was 
 murdered in 317. 
 
 Philip V. {d. 178 B.C.), began to reign in 
 221 B.C. ; joined the Achaean League, and 
 allied himself with Hannibal, but was after- 
 wards defeated by the Romans at Cynoce- 
 phalae (197 B.C.). 
 
 Philip L, "the Arabian," Emperor of
 
 Phi 
 
 (620) 
 
 Phi 
 
 Rome. 244-249, when he was assassinated 
 near Verona. His son, Philip II., was asso- 
 ciated with him, and was killed in battle 
 shortly after his father's death. 
 
 Philip L, King of France {b. 1052, d. 
 II OS), was crowned at Rheims in 1059, and 
 succeeded Henri I. next year ; was excom- 
 municated for divorcing Bertha and marry- 
 ing Bertrade de Montfort (1092). 
 
 Philip II. [Phihp Augustus] {b. 1165, d. 
 1214), son of Louis VII. , whom he succeeded 
 in 1180, joined Richard I. on crusade (1190), 
 and after his return made war on him ; won 
 the victory of Bouvines over the Germans 
 in 1214. 
 
 Philip III., "the Hardy" (*. 1245, d. 
 1285), succeeded Louis IX. in 1270. 
 
 Philip IV., "the Fair" (b. 1268, d. 1314), 
 succeeded Philip III., married Jane of 
 Navarre, quarrelled with the pope and 
 Edwaxd I., and suppressed the Templars. 
 
 Philip v., "the Long" (b. 1294, d. 1322), 
 succeeded John I. in 1316. During this reign 
 the Salic law was established. 
 
 Philip VI, [Philip of Valois] (b. 1293, d. 
 1350), succeeded Charles in 1328, carried on 
 war with Edward III., who defeated him at 
 Cre9y and took Calais. 
 
 Philip I., King of Spain (*. 1478, d. 1506), 
 son of Mary of Burgundy, married Joanna, 
 daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and 
 succeeded to the crown of Spain on the 
 death of the latter (1504). 
 
 Philip n. {b. 1527, d. 1598), succeeded 
 upon the abdication of Charles V. in 1555. 
 He married (1) Isabella of Portugal, (2) 
 Mary of England, (3) Aime of Austria, 
 His reign was marked by the revolt of the 
 Netherlands, the annexation of Portugal 
 (1580), the defeat of the Turks at Lepanto 
 (1571), and the loss of the Armada (1588). 
 
 PhUip III. (6. 1578, d. 1621), son of the 
 above by his third wife. During his reign 
 peace was made with the Netherlands (1609), 
 and the Moors were expelled from Granada. 
 
 Philip IV. {b. 1605, d. 1665), succeeded 
 Philip III. ; carried on wax with France, and 
 lost Portugal in 1660. 
 
 Philip V. (*. 1683, d. 1746), grandson of 
 Louis XIV., who supported his claims 
 contrary to treaty, and thus produced the 
 Spanish Succession war, which broke out in 
 1702, and was terminated by the Treaty of 
 Utrecht. Philip retained Spain and the 
 Indies, but lost other parts of his dominions. 
 
 Philip I., " the Bold," Duke of Burgundy 
 (*. 1342, d. 1404), made duke by his brother, 
 Kmg John of France, with whom he was 
 
 captured at Portiers ; acquired great part of 
 the Netherlands by marriage, and became 
 one of the most powerful princes of his 
 time. 
 
 PhUip II., "the Good" {b. 1396, d. 1467), 
 grandson of the preceding; alUed himself 
 with Henry V. against France, but after- 
 wards deserted the EngHsh alliance and 
 besieged Calais in 1436. 
 
 PMlippa of Hainault (d. 1369), married 
 Edward III. in 1328, defeated the Scots at 
 Neville's Cross, and interceded for the men 
 of Calais. 
 
 Philips, Ambrose (b. 1671, d. 1749), Eng- 
 lish poet, friend of Addison and Steele, 
 published in 1710 Pastorals, Epistles, Odes^ 
 and other Original Poems. 
 
 Philips, John {b. 1676, d. 1708), poet, 
 whose chief works were The Splendid Shil- 
 ling (1703), and Cider (1706). 
 
 Phillidor [Andre Danican], French chess- 
 player and musician, travelled all over 
 Europe, and published in England his 
 Analysis of Chess. 
 
 Phillimore, Sir Robert Joseph, Bart, 
 D.C.L. {b. 1810, d. 1885), ecclesiastical 
 lawyer, son of Dr. Joseph Phillimore, 
 Regius professor of civil law at Oxford; 
 was called to the bar in 1841, and was 
 appointed judge of the Cinque Ports in 
 1885. As judge of the Court of Arches 
 (1867-75) he heard Martin v. Mackonochie 
 and other celebrated cases. He was judge 
 of the Admiralty Court till 1883, and pub- 
 lished Commentaries on International Law. 
 
 Phillip, John, R.A. (6. 1817, d. 1867), 
 painter, whose chief subjects were drawn 
 from Spanish life. 
 
 Phillips, George, D.D. (S. 1804), Syriac 
 scholar ; was eighth wrangler in 1829, 
 and in 1857 became president of Queen's 
 College, Cambridge. His chief works are 
 A Syriac Grammar, Brief Treatise on the 
 Use of a Case of Instruments, and editions of 
 several Syriac texts. 
 
 PhiUips, John, F.R.S. (5. 1800, d. 1874), 
 geologist, nephew of William Smith ; became 
 professor at Dublin in 1844 and at Oxford in 
 1856, his chief work having been Falceozoie 
 Fossils of Cornwall and West Somerset. 
 
 Phillips, Lawrence Bamett, F.R.A.S. (Jb. 
 
 1842), retired from the watch-making busi- 
 ness in 1882, and afterwards pubhshed a 
 Dictionary of Biographical Reference, and 
 exhibited etchings at the Royal Academy. 
 
 Phillips, Wendell {b. 1811, d. 1884), 
 American abohtionist ; made many speeches 
 in the anti-slavery agitation, notably one 
 over the grave of Brown at Harper's Ferry
 
 Phi 
 
 (621) 
 
 Pic 
 
 in 1859, and succeeded Lloyd Garrison as 
 president of the Anti-Slavery Society. He 
 was also active in the cause of temperance 
 and the rights of women. 
 
 PMlo Judaeus (1st century), Alexandrian 
 Jew, Platoiiic philosopher and writer. 
 
 PMlolaus (5th century B.C.), Greek 
 philosopher, disciple of Pythagoras, is said 
 to have heen the first to propound the 
 Copemican hypothesis. 
 
 Philopoemen {b. 252 b.c, d. 183), Achaean 
 general, the '' last of the Greeks ; " took 
 Sparta, and compelled the abohtiou of the 
 laws of Lycurgus ; was captured and 
 poisoned by the Messenians. 
 
 Philpott, Henry, D.D. {b. 1807, d. 1891), 
 English divine, senior wrangler in 1828, 
 became master of St. Catherine's College 
 in 1845, and Bishop of Worcester in 18(31. 
 He resigned in 1890. 
 
 PhUlpotts, Henry, D.D. {b. 1778, d. 1869), 
 divine ; became Dean of Chester in 1828, and 
 was Bishop of Exeter from 1830 till his 
 death, being conspicuous as a High Church- 
 man, especially in his proceedings in the 
 Gorham case and Catholic Emancipation. 
 
 Pliipps, Constantino. [_See Normanby, 
 Marquis of.] 
 
 Phiz. \_See Browne.] 
 
 Phocas, Emperor of the East (d. 610), 
 slew the Emperor Mauricius and his sons, 
 and was himself finally dethroned and 
 beheaded. 
 
 Phocion {d. 317 b.c), Athenian states- 
 man ; as head of the peace party opposed 
 Demosthenes, but commanded against PhiUp 
 of Macedon ; was compelled to drink hem- 
 lock when Polysperchon took the city. 
 
 Phormion, as Athenian admiral in the 
 Peloponnesian war, won two naval victories 
 in the Gulf of Corinth in 429 B.C. 
 
 Photius {d. 891), Byzantine scholar; 
 several times Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 excommunicated the pope in 867, but was 
 finally deposed in 886. His chief work is 
 MyriobiblwH seu Bibliotheca, consisting of 
 extracts from many ancient writers, with 
 critical remarks. 
 
 Phranza, Georgius (J. 1401), Byzantine 
 historian, chamberlain to several of the 
 Palaeologi ; after the taking of Constanti- 
 nople, became a monk at Corfu, His 
 Chrotiion extends from 1260 to 1477. 
 
 Phrynichus {d. 411 B.c), Athenian gene- 
 ral : opposed the return of Alcibiades, but 
 afterwards joined the Oligarchic faction, and 
 was assassinated after an unsuccessful em- 
 bassy to Sparta. 
 
 Phryniclius (6th century), Athenian 
 dramatist, whose works have perished. 
 
 Piatti, Alfredo (b. 1822), Italian violon- 
 celhst and composer ; made his first appear- 
 ance in London in 1844, when he played 
 before the Philharmonic Society. 
 
 Piazzi, Giuseppe, E.R.S. {b. 1746, d. 1826), 
 Italian astronomer, boru in the Valteline ; 
 became director of the Palermo observatory 
 iu 1787, and discovered " Ceres Ferdi- 
 nandea," the first known of the asteroids, 
 besides making two catalogues of stars 
 (1803 and 1814). 
 
 Picard, Jean (*. 1620), French mathema- 
 tician ; succeeded Gassendi in the chair of 
 astronomy at the College de la France, wrote 
 Le Mesure de la Terre, etc., and originated 
 La Gonnaissance des Temps. 
 
 Piccini, Niccolo {b. 1728, d. 1800), Italian 
 composer, whose rivalry with Gluck at Paris 
 became historical. His chief works were 
 La Gecehina and Olimpiade. 
 
 Piccoloimni, .^neas Silvius. [See Pius 11.] 
 
 Piccolomini, Ottavio (b. 1599, d. 1656), 
 Italian general, who served Austria during 
 the Thirty Years' war. After his defeat at 
 Breitenfeld he became Spanish general-in- 
 chief in the Netherlands. 
 
 Pichegru, Charles (b. 1761, d. 1804), 
 French general ; rose from the ranks to be 
 general vmder the Republic, for which he 
 defeated the English and conquered Holland. 
 When president of the Council of Five 
 Himdred he was sent to Cayenne for op- 
 
 Eosition to the Directory, but escaped, and 
 aving conspired against Bonaparte, put an 
 end to his life ia the Temple prison. 
 
 Pickard-Cambridge, Octavius, F.R.S. (J. 
 1828), entomologist ; author of Spiders of 
 Dorset, Araneidce {Scientific Results of Yar- 
 kand Mission), and Arachnida of Kerguelen 
 Island {Report of Transit of Venus Ex- 
 pedition) (1877). 
 
 Pickering, Edward Charles {b. 1846), 
 American astronomer ; was professor of 
 physics in the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology from 1868 to 1877, and became 
 director of the Harvard Observatory and 
 
 Srofessor of astronomy in 1876. He pub- 
 shed Elements of Physical Manipulation 
 (1873-76), and numerous papers. 
 
 Pickering, Percival Umfraville, F.R.S. 
 {b. 1858), English chemist; took honours in 
 natural science at Oxford, being Bracken- 
 bury scholar of Balliol. Among his works 
 are Action of Sulphuric Acid on Gopper, The 
 Molecular iFeiffhts of Solids and Liquids, 
 The Principles of Thermo-Ghemistry , Law of 
 the Freezing Point of Solutions, etc., etc. 
 
 Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni {b. 1463,
 
 Pic 
 
 (622 ) 
 
 Pip 
 
 i, 1494), Italian scholar, of extraordinary 
 acquii'ements ; oifered to discuss uiue hun- 
 dred theses in a variety of subjects against 
 all comers, but some of them having been 
 condemned as heretical, devoted the rest of 
 his life to theology. His chief works were 
 Concliiswnes Fhtlosophtcce (I486), and an 
 Apologia (1489). His nephew {d. 1533) 
 wrote a Life of Savonarola, 
 
 Picton, Sir Thomas Q>. 1758, d. 1815), 
 British soldier ; having been governor of 
 Trinidad and Tobago, distinguished himself 
 in the Peninsula by the capture of Badajoz 
 (1811), and was killed at Waterloo when in 
 command of the 5th division. 
 
 Pierce, Franklin {b. 1804, d. 1869), Presi- 
 dent (fourteenth) of the United States ; was 
 elected as the Democratic candidate in 1853, 
 and held office till 1857. He was a supporter 
 of the continuance of slavery, and during 
 his term of office the " Ostend Manifesto " 
 (1854), by which force was threatened 
 against Spain if she did not sell Cuba, was 
 issued. His life was written by his friend, 
 Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
 
 Pierino del Vaga [Pietro Buonacorsi] (b. 
 1500, d. 1547), Florentine painter ; gained his 
 surname from the master who brought him 
 to Eome, where he worked with Raffaelle in 
 the Vatican, and left paintings of aU kinds. 
 
 Pierola, Nicolas de {b. 1839), Peruvian 
 general ; was impeached at the close of his 
 term of office as minister of finance, and 
 went into exile, making expeditions against 
 Peru in 1874 and 1877. In 1879 he returned 
 and during the Chilian war was provisional 
 president for some months. He was an 
 unsuccessful candidate in 1890, and was 
 imprisoned for organising a riot 
 
 Piero della Francesca. {See Francesca.] 
 
 Pietro Abano. [^See Abano.] 
 
 Pigalle, Jean Baptiste (b. 1714, d. 1785), 
 French sculptor, whose chief works were the 
 mausoleum of Marshal Saxe at Strasburg, 
 and a statue of Voltaire at the Institut de 
 Paris. 
 
 Pignotti, Lorenzo [b. 1739, d. 1812), Italian 
 writer ; author of a History of Tuscany and 
 
 Fables. 
 
 Pilate {d. 39) waa appointed governor of 
 Judaea in 27 ; suppressed with great severity 
 a rising of the Samaritans consequent on his 
 having taken silver from the sacred treasury 
 to construct an aqueduct. 
 
 Pilpay, or Bidpay, wrote in Sanscrit 
 (probably in the 3rd century B.C.) a collec- 
 tion of fables called Pantcha- Tantra, which 
 were subsequently translated into Persian, 
 Latin, FrMicb, and English. 
 
 Pinchbeck, Thomas {d. 1783), English 
 mechanician, gave his name to an alloy 
 of zinc and copper which he brought into 
 use. 
 
 Pindar {d. circa 442 B.C.), Theban poet, 
 
 whose Odes were first printed in 1513. 
 
 Pine, John [b. 1690, d. 1756), engraver; 
 executed plates of the tapestry hangings in 
 the House of Lords, remuneration for which 
 was guaranteed him by Parliament, and 
 also engraved the text of Horace. 
 
 Pinel, PhiUppe (b. 1745, d. 1826), French 
 physician; introduced the modem system 
 of treatment of lunatics, and wrote several 
 works. 
 
 Pinero, Arthur Wing (b. 1855), English 
 dramatist and actor ; made his dibtit at 
 Edinburgh in 1874, and subsequently played 
 under Irving and the Bancrofts. His chief 
 plays are The Squire, The Magistrate, The 
 Schoolmistress, Sweet Lavender, The Frojii- 
 gate. The Times, etc. 
 
 Pinkerton, John {b. 1758, d. 1827), Scotch 
 writer, whose chief work was his Collection 
 oj royages and Travels. 
 
 Pintelli, Baccio (15th century), Italian 
 architect, designed the Sistine chapel and 
 the Vatican library. 
 
 Pinto, Alexandre da Rocha Serpa, Major 
 {b, 1846), Portuguese traveller, served in 
 the army during the Zambesi war, and in 
 1877-9 crossed Africa from Benguela to 
 Durban, describing his journey in How 1 
 Crossed Africa (London, 1881). 
 
 Pinturiocio [Bernardino di Betti], Italian 
 painter, whose chef-d'oeuvre is the series of 
 frescoes in the Piccoloraini library at Sienna. 
 In the National Gallery, London, there is a 
 Madonna and Child by him. 
 
 Pinzon, Martino Alonzo {d. 1493), Portu- 
 guese navigator ; accompanied Columbus on 
 his first voyage, and afterwards claimed to 
 have discovered the New World. Vicente 
 Yanez, his brother, was also with Columbus, 
 and having afterwards explored Guiana and 
 Mexico was ennobled. 
 
 Piombo, Sebastiano del (b. 1485, d. 1547), 
 Venetian painter, whose chief work. The 
 Raising of Lazarus, is in the National Gal- 
 lery, London. 
 
 Piozzi, Esther [Mrs.] (5. 1739, d. 1547), 
 English lady, friend of Dr. Johnson, married 
 first Mr. Thrale, and then Signor Piozzi ; 
 her Autobiography, Letters, etc., were pub- 
 lished in 1861. She wrote Anecdotes of Dr. 
 Johnson (1786), and other works. 
 
 Piper, Karl, Count {b. 1660, d. 1716), 
 Swedish statesman, chief minister of Chaxles
 
 Pip 
 
 (623) 
 
 Pla 
 
 XII., whom he accompanied to Bussia; 
 was imprisoned for life after the battle of 
 Pultowa. 
 
 PippL [See Romano, Giulio.] 
 
 Piraoiesi, Giovanni Battista (cL 1778), 
 Italian engraver ; executed numerous prints 
 of ancient and modem buildings and works 
 of art, his sons and daughter following the 
 same profession. 
 
 Piron, Alexis (b. 1689, d. 1773), French 
 diamatist and wit, his chief play being 
 Metromanie (1738). 
 
 Pisano, Andrea. [See Andrea Pisano.] 
 
 Pisano, Niccola {b. circa 1206, d. 1278), 
 Itahan sculptor, whose chief works are at 
 Piea, Bologna, and Siena. 
 
 Pisistratus. [See Peisistratus.] 
 
 Pitman, Isaac {b. 1813), inventor of pho- 
 netic shorthand, published in 1837 his Steno- 
 graphic Suundkand. From 1843, when the 
 Phonetic Society was estabhshed, he gave 
 his whole attention to the system, the head- 
 quarters of which are at Bath. 
 
 Pitt, Thomas (J. 1653, d. 1727), Indian 
 administrator ; made a large f ortxm.e by the 
 Bale of the Pitt diamond and other means, 
 and on his return sat in the House of Com- 
 mons for several years. He was grandfather 
 of Lord Chatham. 
 
 Pitt, William. [See Chatham,] 
 
 Pitt, William (b. 1759, d. 1806), statesman, 
 second son of Lord Chatham ; was returned 
 for Appleby in 1780 as a follower of Shel- 
 bume, whose Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 he became two years later. After the de- 
 feat of the Coalition Ministry, Pitt became 
 Prime Minister, at first in a minority. After 
 the dissolution of 1786, however, he had a 
 majority, with which he passed his India 
 BUI, and carried on the war with revolu- 
 tionary France. In 1801 he resigned on 
 account of the king's opposition to the 
 removal of Catholic disabilities, with which 
 Pitt had hoped to accompany the Act of 
 Union. From 1804 till his death Pitt was 
 again in office, and continued to direct the 
 s&uggle against France. 
 
 PittacuB {d. 570 b.o.), one of the "Seven 
 Sages ; " ruled Melanchrus in Lesbos for 
 twenty years. 
 
 Piua L was elected pope in 142, and put to 
 
 death in 157. 
 
 Pius IL [Piccolomini] (J. 1405, d. 1464), 
 elected in 1458 ; called a council at Mantua 
 to arrange a crusade against the Turks, and 
 had a dispute with Louis XI. concerning 
 appeals to a council ; left several works. 
 
 Pius IIL [Francesco Piccolomini] (i. 
 1439), was elected in 1503, and died the 
 next month. 
 
 Pius IV. [Medici] (i. 1499, d. 1565), 
 elected in 1559, issued a bill confirming the 
 Council of Trent. 
 
 Pius y. [GhisUeri] {b. 1504, d. 1572), 
 elected in 1566, having previously been 
 inquisitor-general ; excommimicated Queen 
 Elizabeth and suppressed heresy, but also 
 carried out reforms, and encouraged Spain 
 and Venice in their war against the Turks. 
 
 Pius VL [Braschi] {b. 1717, d. 1799), 
 elected in 1775 ; was dethroned and expelled 
 from Rome by the French in 1798, and died 
 at Valence. 
 
 Pius yiL [Chiaramonti] {b. 1742, d. 1823), 
 elected in 1800, concluded a concordat wim 
 France (1801) and crowned Napoleon, but 
 excommunicated him in 1809 after the cap- 
 ture of Rome. He was reinstated in 1814, 
 in which year he restored the Jesuits. 
 
 Pius Vm. [Castiglioni] {b. 1761, d. 1830), 
 
 was elected in March, 1829. 
 
 Pius IX. [Giovanni Mastai-Ferretti] (i. 
 1792, d. 1878), was elected in 1846, and im- 
 mediately granted a constitution, but re- 
 fused to declare war against Austria. After 
 the insurrection at Rome (1848) he fled to 
 Gaeta, but was restored by French aid two 
 years later. The same year he established 
 a Catholic hierarchy in England, and in 1854 
 defined the doctrine of the Immaculate Con- 
 ception. In 1859-60 he lost the greater part 
 of his dominions, but was maintained in 
 Rome by a French garrison. In 1870 the 
 Infallibility dogma was promulgated by the 
 oecumenical council held at Rome. In that 
 year, when the French left the city, it was 
 declared the capital of Italy, and occupied 
 by the troops of Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 Pizaxro, Francisco {d. 1541), Spanish con- 
 queror of Peru ; embarked for America in 
 1510, and in 1530 first visited Peru. The 
 next year he returned, and, taking advan- 
 tage of a civil war, got possession of the 
 country, founding Lima in 1535. Six years 
 later he was assassinated by the friends of 
 Almagro, a rival whom he had caused to be 
 executed. His brother, GoxZAio, who had 
 accompanied him, was put to death in 1548 
 for a revolt against the Spanish viceroy. 
 
 Placidia, Galla {d. 450), Roman Empress, 
 husband of Constantino, and mother of 
 Valentinian III. 
 
 Planch^, James Robinson {b. 1796, d. 
 1880), antiquarian and dramatist of Hu- 
 guenot descent, became Somerset herald 
 m 1864, and wrote a History of British 
 Costume (1834), and numerous plays and
 
 Pla 
 
 (624) 
 
 Foe 
 
 burlesques, besides composing the libretto 
 for Weber's Oberon and for Bishop's Maid 
 Marian. 
 
 Planquette, Robert (Jb. 1850), French 
 composer, whose chief productions are Les 
 Cloches des Corneville (1877), Rip Van 
 Winkle (1882), and Paul Jones (1889). 
 
 Flanta, Joseph, a member of a well-known 
 Orisons family {b. 1744, d. 1827), first lib- 
 rarian of the British Museum, was appointed 
 in 1 799 ; was also for twenty years secretary 
 to the Royal Society. Joseph, son (d. 1846), 
 member 'for Hastings, Secretary to the 
 Treasury, and under-secretary for Foreign 
 Affairs. 
 
 Plantagenet, Geoffrey. \_See Geoffrey.] 
 
 Plato (J). 429 B.O., d. 347), Greek philoso- 
 pher, whose birth name was Aristocles, be- 
 came a disciple of Socrates, and after his 
 death returned from a course of travel, 
 and taught gratuitously in the Academia 
 at Athens. His chief works are Dialogues 
 and The Republic (translated by Jowett in 
 1871). 
 
 Plautus, Titus Maccius {d. 184 b.o.), 
 Roman dramatist, twenty of whose comedies 
 are extant, based chiefly on Greek models. 
 
 Playfair, Right Hon. Sir Lyon, K;.C.B., 
 F.R.S., {b. 1819), chemist and statesman, 
 son of Dr. George Playfair: was a pupil 
 of Graham and Liebig, and was profes- 
 sor of chemistry at Edinburgh from 1856 
 to 1369. He edited (with W. Gregory) 
 Liebig's Chemistry in its Applications to 
 Agriculttcre and Physiology. In 1868 he 
 entered Parliament as a Liberal for Edin- 
 burgh and St. Andrew's Universities, and 
 in 18S5 was returned for South Leeds. He 
 was Postmaster-General in 1873-4, Deputy- 
 Speaker 1880-83, and Vice-President of the 
 Education Committee in 1886. He also 
 presided over the Civil Service Commission 
 of 1874, and was president of the British 
 Association in 1885. He was raised to the 
 peerage in 1892. 
 
 Plimsoll, Samuel (b. 1824), politician; 
 represented Derby from 1868 to 1880, during 
 which time he succeeded in getting passed 
 several amendments of the Shipping Laws. 
 
 Plinius SecunduB [Plinjr], Cains, "the 
 Elder" (6. 23, d. 79), Latin writer, whose 
 great work is his Natural History. He was 
 procurator of Spain, and while commander 
 of the Misenian fleet lost his life through 
 suffocation in the great eruption of Vesuvius, 
 which he had approached in order to ob- 
 serve a cloud. 
 
 Plinius Secundus, Cains. " the Younger " 
 
 {b. 62), his nephew, author of Epistles ; 
 was made consul by Trajan, to whom, when 
 
 he was proconsul in Bithynla, he wrote an 
 account of the Christians. 
 
 Plotinus {b. 203, d. 270), Greek philoso- 
 pher ; founder of the Neo -Platonic school. 
 
 Plowden, Edmund {b. 1517, d. 1585), 
 jurist, author of Commentaries or Reports. 
 
 Plnmptre, Edward Hayes, D.D. {b. 1821, 
 d. 1891), divine. After having been fellow of 
 Brasenose and chaplain of King's College, 
 London, was named Dean of Wells in 1881. 
 He was one of the revisers of the Bible, and 
 wrote some poems, translations of Sophocles, 
 Dante, and a Life of Bishop Ken (1888). 
 
 Plunket, William Conyngham, first Baron 
 (b. 1764, d. 1854), Irish judge ; was a pro- 
 minent opponent of the union in Grattan's 
 parUament; prosecuted Emmett in 1803, 
 and became Solicitor- General for Ireland the 
 same year, and Attorney-General in 1805, 
 an oifice he again held under Lord Liver- 
 pool. In 1827 he became a peer and Chief 
 Justice of the Common Pleas, and from 1830 
 till 1841 was Lord Chancellor of Ireland. 
 
 Plunket, WilHam, Lord (Jb. 1828), grand- 
 son of the above, was Bishop of Meath 
 from 1876 to 1884, in which year he became 
 Archbishop of Dublin. 
 
 Plunket, Right Hon. David Robert, Q.O. 
 (J). 1838), brother of the last-named ; haa 
 been returned for Dublin University in 1870, 
 and was Solicitor- General for Ireland from 
 1874 to 1877. In both administrations of 
 Lord Salisbury he held the office of Chief 
 Commissioner of Works. 
 
 Plutarch (d. after 120), Greek writer; 
 author of Parallel Lives of Greeks and 
 Romans and Moralia. 
 
 Pococke, Richard {b. 1704, d. 1765), Bishop 
 successively of Ossory and Meath, and author 
 of Description of t)ie East and Some Other 
 Countries (1743-5). 
 
 Podiebrad, Georg von (Jb. 1420, d. 1471), 
 King of Bohemia; was twice excommuni- 
 cated as a Hussite, set free Matthias Cor- 
 vinus (q.v.), and delivered the emperor when 
 besieged by his subjects at Vienna. 
 
 Poe, Edgar Allan {b. 1809, d. 1849), 
 American writer, shortened his life by in- 
 temperance. His chief works are The Raven 
 and other poems, and Tales of Mystery, 
 Imagination and Humour. A monument 
 was erected to him in Baltimore in 1875. 
 
 Poelemberg, Komelis (*. 1586, d. 1667), 
 Dutch landscape-painter, bom at Utrecht; 
 was encouraged by Rubens and employed 
 by Charles I. His works are rare. 
 
 Poerio, Carlo {b. 1803, d. 1867), Neapoli- 
 tan patriot ; after imprisonment for ten years 
 for his part in the Avellino conspiracy, he 
 became minister of public instruction in
 
 Pogf 
 
 ( 625 ) 
 
 Pol 
 
 1848. Next year he was again imprisoned, 
 but in 1859, when being sliipped to South 
 America, he and his companions mastered 
 the crew and escaped. In 1860 he became 
 vice-president of the Italian Parliament. 
 
 Poggendorf, Johann Christian (b. 1796, d. 
 1877), physicist ; edited for more than half a 
 ■century Annalen der Fhijsik und Chimie, and 
 held a professorship at Berlin and Leipzig. 
 
 Poggio Bracciolini, Gian Francesco {b. 
 1380, d. 1459), Italian scholar, secretary to 
 seven popes ; wrote History of Florence, 
 Funeral Orations, etc., and discovered manu- 
 scripts of Lucretius, the institutions of Quin- 
 tiUan, and some of Cicero's Orations. 
 
 Pogson, N. R. {b. 1829), Indian civil ser- 
 vant, was appointed astronomer at Madras 
 in 1861, and discovered ten minor planets, 
 four of them while in the Eadcliife obser- 
 vatory, Oxford. 
 
 Pole, Reginald, Cardinal {b. 1500, d. 1558), 
 divine, descended from George, Duke of 
 Clarence ; was employed by Henry VIII. in 
 1529 to procure a favourable opinion from 
 the University of Paris on the divorce 
 question, but afterwards became the deter- 
 mined enemy of the king, publishing in 
 1536 his I)e Unitate Ecolesiasticd against the 
 separation from Rome. On the accession of 
 Mary he returned to England as legate, 
 became Archbishop of Canterbury, and re- 
 ceived the nation back into commimion. 
 
 Pole, WiUiam, Mus. Doc, F.R.S. (b. 
 1814), civil engineer and musician ; was 
 professor of civil engineering at Elphinstone 
 College, Bombay (1844-7), and at Uni- 
 versity College (1859-67), was secretary to 
 the Railway Commission (1865-7), that on 
 water supply (1867-9) and others, and pub- 
 lished a treatise on the steam engine, and a 
 Life of Siemens (1888), as well as The Story 
 of MozarVs Requiem (1879), and a well- 
 known scientific book on whist. 
 
 Polignac, Jules, Prince de {b. 1780, d. 
 1847), French statesman. After being am- 
 bassador in London (1825,-9) was nominated 
 president of the council by Charles X. in 
 1829, and by his reactionary measures pro- 
 duced the revolution of July, after which 
 he was condemned to imprisonment for life, 
 but was liberated in 1836. 
 
 Poliziano [Politian], Angelo {b. 1454, d. 
 1494), Italian scholar; tutor to the children 
 of Lorenzo de' Medici ; gained much re- 
 putation by his classical attainments, and 
 wrote Miscellanea, comments on the classics, 
 Giostra, a poem, and Orfeo, a musical 
 drama. He quarrelled with Michelangelo, 
 Merula and Scala. 
 
 Polk, James Knox (h. 1705, d. 1849), 
 President (11th) of the United States ; was 
 O 
 
 speaker of the House of Representatives 
 (1835-8) and governor of Tennessee(1839-41), 
 and was elected as a Democrat to the 
 presidency in 1844. He obtained the an- 
 nexation of Texas and the cession of Upper 
 Cahxomia and New Mexico by Mexico, 
 as well as the settlement of the Oregon 
 boundary 
 
 Pollajuolo, Antonio (fi. 1429, d. 1496), 
 ItaUan painter and sculptor, whose Martyr- 
 dom of St. Sebastian is in the National 
 Gallery, London ; was the first who made 
 dissections for the purposes of art. 
 
 Pollio, Caius Asinius (6. 76 B.O., d. a.d. 
 4), Roman orator and writer, whose works 
 are lost ; was a partisan of Csesar, and after- 
 wards reconciled Augustus and Antony, and 
 became the friend of Virgil and Horace. 
 
 PoUock, Sir Frederick, Bart. {b. 1783, d. 
 1870), English judge ; was senior wrangler, 
 and, having been called to the bar in 1807, 
 went the northern circuit, becoming King's 
 Counsel in 1827. He entered Parliament as 
 a Tory in 1831, and was Attorney-General 
 imder Peel in 1834 and 1841. From 1844 
 to 1865 he was Chief Baron of the Ex- 
 chequer. 
 
 Pollock, Sir George, Bart., G.C.B., Field- 
 Marshal {b. 1786, d. 187-'), brother of the 
 above ; served under Lake, and in the 
 Ghoorkha and Burmese campaigns, and in 
 1841 commanded the Afghan expedition in 
 reUef of Sale and the prisoners at Cabul. 
 He returned to England in 1846, received a 
 pension from the East India Company, and 
 became subsequently field -marshal and 
 constable of the Tower, being buried in 
 "Westminster Abbey. 
 
 PoUock, Hon. Sir Charles (b. 1823), son 
 of Sir Frederick and nephew of Sir George ; 
 was called to the bar in 1847, became 
 Queen's Counsel in 186(5, and was appointed 
 Baron of the Exchequer in 1873. He pub- 
 hshed several legal text-books. 
 
 Pollock, Sir Frederick, Bart. {b. 1845), 
 grandson of Sir F. Pollock, educated at 
 Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, of 
 which he was fellow ; was called to tlie bar 
 in 1871, became professor of jurisprudence 
 at University College, London, in 1882, and 
 at Oxford in 1883. His works include 
 The Land Laws (" English Citizen'^ series). 
 Essays in Jurisprudence and Ethics, and 
 Introduction to Political Science, Spinoza, etc. 
 
 Pollock, Walter Herries {b. 1850), younger 
 brother of last-named ; became editor of 
 the Saturday Review in 1SS4, and pubUshed 
 I^ectures on French Poets, translations from 
 De Musset, etc., and, in collaboration with 
 Besnnt, The Ballad- Monger, a play. 
 
 PoUok. Robert {p. 1799, d. 1827), Scotch
 
 Pol 
 
 626 ) 
 
 Poo 
 
 self-educated writer, son of a farmer in 
 EenfreTTshire ; wrote Tne Course of Tune, a 
 poem in blank verse. 
 
 Polo, Marco (b. 12-54, d. 1324), Venetian 
 traveller ; went to Tartary with his father 
 and uncle, returning in 129-5 much enriched, 
 ^larco was afterwards made prisoner by the 
 ' Tenoese, and wrote the history of his tra- 
 vels in Asia while in confinement. Colonel 
 Yule's edition, published in 1871, is the best. 
 
 Polybius {h. circa 204 B.C., d. circa 122 
 B.C.;, Greek historian, whose chief work is 
 a history of Greece and Home from 220 B.C. 
 to 146 B.C. ; was taken to Italy in 168 and 
 became the friend of Scipio, whom he 
 accompanied to Carthage. Only five of the 
 forty books of the history are extant. 
 
 Polycarp, Saint («?. «»-ca 1-5-5), was by tra- 
 dition a disciple of St. John, who appointed 
 him Bishop of Smyrna. He sufiered mar- 
 tyrdom under ilarcus Aurelius, and his 
 Episth to the Fkilippians is preserved. 
 
 Polycletus (Jl. circa 430 b.c), Greek 
 sculptor, whose most famous productions 
 were 27ie Dori/pAoreus, which has been 
 taken as a model for proportion in the 
 human figure, and the colossal statue of 
 Hera. 
 
 Polycrates (d. .522 b.c), tyrant of Samos. 
 for which he built a large fleet ; was 
 treacherously taken and crucified by order 
 of Orcetes, Satrap of Sardis. 
 
 PolygnottlS (J. circa 4-50 B.C.), Greek 
 painter : came from Thasos to Athens, where 
 he became the friend of Cimon. and left 
 specimens of his work in the Propylaea and 
 in the temple of Thesus. 
 
 Pombal, Sebastian Joseph de Carvalhoe 
 Mello, Marquis de {b. 1699, d. 17S2^. Portu- 
 guese statesman ; after having been am- 
 bassador in London (1739-4-5) and Vienna, 
 became foreign secretary in 17-50 and 
 premier six years later. He did good service 
 to his king and country, and was the first to 
 expel the Jesuits, but in 1777, on a change 
 of sovereign, was exiled. 
 
 Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, 
 Marquise de (b. 1721, d. 17&4), mistress of 
 Louis XV. : was the daughter of an equerry, 
 and, having attracted the king's notice while 
 hunting, appeared at court in 174-5. and ruled 
 France until her death. 
 
 Pompeius, Cneius [Pompey the Great] {b. 
 106 B.C., d. 4S B.C.), Eoman general : was in 
 ms youth a partisan of SuUa : gained great 
 victories over the pirates and Mithridates. 
 and conquered Syria and Judaea : joined 
 C^sar and Crassus in the first tadumvirate 
 (60). but afterwards attached himself to the 
 aristocratic party and quarrelled with Csesar, 
 
 by whom he was defeated at Pharsalia, being 
 murdered in Egj-pt soon after. 
 
 Ponce de Leon. [5^* Leon.] 
 
 PoniatowsM, Josef Anton, Prince (J. 1762, 
 d. 1613), Polish noble, who became marshal 
 of France, and was made war minister by 
 Xapoleon in 1S06, was wounded at Leipzig 
 and drowned soon after. 
 
 Ponsard, Francois (S. 1S14, d. 1867), 
 French dramatist, whose chief plays were 
 LucrSce (1843), in which Rachel appeared, 
 VHonneur et VArgtrit (1853), and Le Lion 
 Amouretix (1867). He was elected to the 
 Academy in 18-55. 
 
 Ponsonby, Sir Frederick Cavendish, 
 Major-General (^>. 1783, d. 1837), British 
 general, second son of the Earl of Bess- 
 borough ; distinguished himself as a cavalry 
 officer in the Pemnstila war, and received 
 seven wounds at Waterloo. 
 
 Ponsonby, General, the Eight Hon. Sir 
 Henry, K.C.B. {b. 1S2-5), son oi the above ; 
 entered the army in 1842, spent some years 
 in Ireland as aide-de-camp and private 
 secretary to several viceroys, served with 
 the Grenadier Guards at Sebastopol and 
 in Canada, and in 1878 became private sec- 
 retary to the Queen. 
 
 Pontianus, Saint {^d. 235), was elected 
 pope in 230. 
 
 Pontius, Cains {d. 292 B.C.). Samnite 
 general, celebrated for his victor over the 
 j Eomans at the Caudine Forks : was after- 
 wards captured and put to death. 
 
 Ponz, Antonio {b. 1725, d. 1792). Spanish 
 painter and writer on art : executed por- 
 traits of Spanish writers for the Escurial, 
 and wrote Viage de Espana. 
 
 Poole, John (*. 1792, d. 1879). dramatic 
 writer, author of Paul Pry, I)eaf as a 
 Post, etc. 
 
 Poole, Paul Falconer. E.A. (b. 1810, d. 
 1879). English painter, self-taught : began 
 to exhibit at the Academy in 18-30. and was 
 elected A. E.A. for his Surrender of Suon 
 House (1846). Among his other works were 
 ■Solomon Eaglets Exhortation to Pepentance. 
 Th-e Goths in Italy, and ITie Escape of 
 Glaucusand lone (1860). 
 
 Poole, Eeginald Stuart. LL.D. (b. 1832), 
 numismatist and Orientalist : entered the 
 British Museum in 1852, and was appointed 
 keeper of coins in 1870. In 1889 he became 
 professor of archaeology at University Col- 
 lege. Among his works "are Official Cctiahgues 
 of Coins, Catalogtte of Stciss Coins, Cities of 
 Egypt, etc. 
 
 Poomea {d. circa 1811), minister of My- 
 sore under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan ,
 
 Pop 
 
 (627) 
 
 Pot 
 
 continued to govern in conjunction with the 
 British during the minority of the next 
 rajah, who, on assiuning power, dismissed 
 him. 
 
 Pope, Alexander {b. 1688, d. 1744), English 
 poet, son of a linendraper ; was bom in 
 London, and began as a child to write 
 verses. He made his reputation by the 
 Essay on Criticism (1711), and soon became 
 the friend of Swift and other leading writers, 
 and produced The Rape of the Lock, verse 
 translatious of the Iliad and Odyssey, The 
 Dunciad (1828), and the £ssay on Man, 
 besides taking part in Miscellanies with 
 Swift, Arbutlmot and others. 
 
 Pope, General John {b. 1822), American 
 soldier ; gained several victories for the 
 Federals m 1862, but was afterwards de- 
 feated at Bull's Run and other places by 
 Lee and Jackson. 
 
 Pope, Sir Thomas {b. 1508, d. 1550), 
 founder of Trinity College, Oxford, and a 
 friend of Sir Thomas More. 
 
 Porlier, Juan Diaz {d. 1815), Spanish 
 general ; served as a midshipman at Tra- 
 falgar, but afterwards distinguished him- 
 self in the Peninsula war, particularly in 
 the retreat from Santander. He was shot 
 for an attempt to restore the constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 PorpliyTius {b. 233), Greek philosopher; 
 pupil of Plotinus, whose life he wrote, as also 
 that of Pythagoras and Questions on Homer, 
 etc. 
 
 Porphyrogenitus. [See Constantine VII.] 
 
 Porpora,Niccola (b. 1686, rf. 1766 or 1767), 
 Neapolitan musician, founder of the modem 
 school of singing ; visited London among 
 other cities. 
 
 Person, Richard (i. 1759, d. 1808), English 
 scholar, son of a parish clerk at East Ruston, 
 Norfolk : was sent by the vicar to Eton, and, 
 having gained a fellowship in 1782, became 
 professor of Greek at Cambridge in 1793. 
 He published editions of ^schylus, several 
 plays of Euripides, and the Lexicon of 
 jPhotius. 
 
 Porta, Giovanni della (J. 1543, d. 1615), 
 Neapolitan physicist ; invented the camera 
 obscura, and wrote De Humand Fhysio- 
 gnomonia, Magia Naturalis, etc. 
 
 Portalis, Jean fitienne (*. 1746, (^. 1807), 
 French politician ; was imprisoned during 
 the Reign of Terror, and proscribed by the 
 Directory when president of the Council of 
 Ancients, but was afterwards Minister of 
 Religion under Napoleon. 
 
 Porteous, Captain John {d. 1736), was 
 hanged by the people of Edinburgh (when 
 00 2 
 
 reprieved by the Government) for firing on 
 the mob who interfered with the execution 
 of the smuggler Wilson. 
 
 Porter, David Dixon {b. 1813), American 
 admiral ; captured New Orleans in 1862, 
 and assisted Grant in the siege of Vicksburg, 
 published Memoirs of Commodore David 
 Forter, his father, and other works. 
 
 Porter, Jane (i. 1776, d. 1850), English 
 writer ; author of Thaddeus of Warsaw, and 
 The Scottish Chiefs. Her sister, Anna Maeia 
 {d. 1832), wrote The Hungarian Brother, 
 and other tales. 
 
 Porter, Noah, D.D., LL.D. (b. 1811, d. 
 1892), American philosopher; became pro- 
 fessor of metaphysics and moral philosophy 
 at Yale in 1846, and president in 1871, resign- 
 ing in 1886. Among his works are The 
 Human Intellect (1868), Elements of In- 
 tellectual Philosophy (^\87l). Elements of Moral 
 Science (1875), etc., and he edited the reissues 
 of Webster^s Dictionary in 1864 and 1880. 
 
 Porter, Sir Robert Ker (b. 1780, d. 1842), 
 soldier, traveller and writer; brother of 
 Jane ; married a Russian princess whom he 
 had met while historical painter to the Tsar ; 
 was with Sir John Moore in Spain, and 
 afterwards travelled in the East, and was 
 consul at Venezuela from 1826 till his death. 
 He wrote Letters from Fortugal and Spain 
 and accoimts of ms travels. 
 
 Portland. \^See Bentinck.] 
 
 Portland, William Cavendish-Bentinck, 
 third Duke of {b. 1738, d. 1809) : was Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland from 1782 till his 
 appointment as nominal head of the Coalition 
 Ministry. He afterwards served under Pitt 
 as Home Secretary and president of the 
 Council, and from 1807 till his death was 
 again Prime Minister. 
 
 Portsmoutli, Louise Penhoet Kerouailles, 
 Duchess of {b. 1652, d. \12b), French 
 mistress of Charles LI. 
 
 Posidonius (6. 135 B.C., d. 51 b.c). Stoic 
 philosopher ; foimded a school at Rhodes, 
 and had Cicero and Pompey among his 
 pupils. 
 
 Potemkin, Gregory Alexandrovitch {b. 
 1736, d. 1791), favourite of the Tsarina 
 Catherine II., who made him prime minister 
 and created him prince. He greatly im- 
 proved the Russian army, and took the 
 Crimea from Turkey, but lost the favour of 
 Catherine in later years when the peace of 
 Jassy was made against his will. 
 
 PotMer, Robert Joseph {b. 1699, d. 1772'), 
 French jurist ; author of a J^ew Digest of the 
 Pandects of Justinian, which formed th« 
 basis of the Code NapoUon.
 
 Pot 
 
 (628) 
 
 Poy 
 
 PotocM, Claudia {b. 1802, d. 1836), Polish 
 countess, who distinguished herself during 
 the rising of 1830-3, and after its failure 
 pledged her jewels and dresses for the aid 
 of the refugees. 
 
 Potocki, Ignatius, Count {b. 1741, d. 
 1809), assisted Kosciusko, after whose fall 
 he was sent a prisoner to Russia. 
 
 Potocki, Count John (b. 1769, d. 1815), 
 historian and diplomatist; author of Sai-- 
 matian Researches, History of the Primitive 
 Russians, etc. 
 
 Potocki, Coimt Stanislaus (b. 1757, d. 
 1821), statesman and writer ; author of The 
 Journey to Ciemnogrod, etc. ; was one of the 
 leaders who established the constitution of 
 1791, and afterwards became president of 
 the Senate. 
 
 Potter, Cipriani (Jb. 1792, d. 1871), musi- 
 cian ; pupil of Attwood and Crotch, whom 
 he succeeded as principal of the Academy of 
 Music, where he had Stemdale Bennett and 
 the Macfarrens among his pupils ; composed 
 several symphonies and overtures, and did 
 much to make Beethoven known in. England, 
 
 Potter, George (J). 1832), trades unionist ; 
 conducted the strike in the building trade in 
 1859, and in 1868 presided over the first 
 Trades Union Congress. He took part in 
 many movements, established the Industrial 
 Review, and wrote Tracts for the People, 
 but was twice an unsuccessful candidate for 
 a seat in Parliament. 
 
 Potter, John (6. 1674, d. 1747), divine; 
 successively Bishop of Oxford and Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury (1737) ; author of 
 Archceologia Grceca, etc. 
 
 Potter, Paul {b. 1625, d. 1654), Dutch 
 painter of cattle and landscapes. His Bull 
 IS at the Hague, and Alderney Bull, Cow, and 
 Galfva the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Pottlnger, Sir Henry, Bart., G.C.B. (b. 
 1789, d. 1856), soldier and diplomatist ; 
 served in India many years, and became 
 major-general ; was envoy-extraordinary to 
 China in 1811, Governor of Hong-Kong 
 1843-4, of the Cape 1846-7, and of Madras, 
 1850-4. In 1843 he became Privy Councillor. 
 
 Pouchet, Felix Archimfede {b. 1800, d. 
 1872), French physiologist, director of the 
 Rouen Natural History museum and pro- 
 fessor of zoology ; maintained, in opposition 
 to Pasteur, the doctrine of "spontaneous 
 generation," his chief works bemg Hitero- 
 geneiti (1859), and Theorie Positive de 
 r Ovulation Spontanee et de la Fecondation 
 (1847). 
 
 Poulton, Edward Bagnall, F.E.S., etc. 
 (i. 1856), English zoologist, one of the 
 
 editors of Weismanu's Essays on Heredity^ 
 and author of The Colours of Animals : their 
 Meaning and Use (18'J0), in addition to many 
 monographs on this and kindred subjects. 
 
 Poussin, Gaspar [Dughet] {b. 1613, d. 
 1675), French landscape painter, pupil and 
 brother-in-law of Nicholas, whose name he 
 adopted. Several of his works are ia the 
 National Gallery, London. 
 
 Poussin, Nicholas (*. 1594, d. 1665), 
 painter ; was given rooms in the Louvre, 
 and pensioned by Louis XIII., but returned 
 to Rome. Many of his works (of which The 
 iSeven ISacranientsiath&chef-d^atuvre) are in the 
 National Gallery, London, and at Windsor. 
 
 Pouyer - Quertier, Augustin (J>. 1820), 
 statesman and manufacturer, conspicuous as 
 an opponent of Free Trade ; as minister of 
 fiuauce imder Thiers conducted the nego- 
 tiations with Germany respecting the war 
 indemnity. He was re-elected senator ia 
 1882. 
 
 Powderly, Terence (6. 1849), American 
 labour agitator; became, in 1879, general- 
 master-workman of the Knights of Labour, 
 which organisation greatly advanced under 
 his management. In 1883 he opened the 
 Irish Land League Convention in America. 
 
 PoweU, Baden, F.R.S. (Jb. 1796, d. 1860), 
 English natural philosopher ; was Savilian 
 professor of geometry at Oxford from 1827 
 till his death, and wrote View of the Undu- 
 latory Theory of Light, and other works, 
 besides contributing to Essays and Reviews. 
 
 Powell, Sir John, Bart. {d. 1696), was 
 deprived of his judgeship by James II. for 
 refusing to take part against the seven 
 bishops, the great seal being offered him if 
 he proved tractable. He was reinstated at 
 the Revolution. 
 
 PoweU, Major John Wesley, Ph.D., 
 LL.D. {b. 1834), American geologist and 
 ethnologist ; lost an arm in the Civil war, 
 became president of the American Asso- 
 ciation for the Advancement of Science in 
 1887, and is the author of several geological 
 monographs, and Introduction to the Study 
 of Indian Languages. 
 
 Powers, Hiram (b. 1805, d. 1873), Ameri- 
 can sculptor, son of a farmer at Vermont ; 
 lived at Florence from 1837 till his death, 
 his chief productions being The Greek Slave 
 (1839), The Fisher Boy, Proserpine, and 
 The Indian Girl. 
 
 Posmings, Sir Edward {d. about 1610), 
 went to Ireland as Lord-Deputy in 1494, and 
 procured from the Parliament of Drogbeda 
 (1495) the statute called "Poynings' Act." 
 
 Poynter, Edward John, R.A. {b. 1836),
 
 Foz 
 
 (629) 
 
 Pri 
 
 artist; first exhibited in 1862, and made a 
 name by his Israel in Egypt (1868), the year 
 after which he became A.E.A. He was 
 Slade professor of art at University College 
 1871-6, and director at South Kensington 
 1875-81. Among his other pictures are 
 Atalanta's Race (1876), and A Vmit to 
 uEsculapius (1880), which was bought for 
 the Chantrey Bequest. 
 
 Pozzo di Borgo, Carlo Andrea, Conte (i. 
 1764, d. 1842), diplomatist, bom in Corsica ; 
 was employed by Russia and Austria in or- 
 ganising coalitions against Napoleon, and 
 came to England in 1814, being afterwards 
 Russian ambassador there. 
 
 Fraed, Mrs. Campbell Mackworth {b. 
 1852), Enghsh novehst, whose husband was 
 nephew of the poet ; was bom in AustraUa, 
 and came to England in 1876. She col- 
 laborated with Justin McCarthy in The 
 Right Honourable and other works, and 
 wrote alone An Atistralian Heroine, The 
 Bond of Wedlock (dramatised as Ariane), 
 etc. 
 
 Praed, Winthrop Mackworth (*. 1802, d. 
 1839), poet ; published some verses when at 
 Eton in the Etonian, and at Cambridge took 
 the Chancellor's medal for English verse. He 
 entered Parliament as a Tory in 1830, and 
 ^as secretary to the Board of Control in 
 1834-5, but soon died of consumption. A 
 collection of his poems appeared in 1864. 
 
 Pratt. [See Camden.] 
 
 Praxiteles {Jl. ciira 350 B.C.), Greek 
 sculptor, a list of whose works is given by 
 Pliny. There is a copy of Apollo the Lizard- 
 Slayer in the Vatican. 
 
 Preece, William Henry, F.R.S. (J. 1834), 
 English electrician ; was appointed chief 
 electrician in 1877. He patented many 
 improvements in telegraphy, and introduced 
 the telephone aud phonograph into England, 
 besides taking part with Mr. Sivewright in 
 a Text-Book of Telegraphy, and with Dr. 
 Maier in a work on the telephone. 
 
 Preller, Ernst Christian Friedrich {b. 1804, 
 d. 1878), German artist, intimate with 
 Goethe at Weimar, where are his illus- 
 trations of the Odyssey executed for the 
 Grand Duke, and the designs for Wieland's 
 Oberon. 
 
 Prendergast, Sir Harry North, V.C., 
 K.C.B. {b. 1S34), English general; was 
 wounded at Mundisore (where he gained the 
 Victoria Cross) in 1858, and at Jhansi, in 
 the Central Indian campaign. He also 
 held a command in the Abyssinian war, 
 and commanded the Burmese expedition 
 in 1885. 
 
 Prescott, WiUiam Hickling (A. 1796, d. 
 
 1859), American historian, bom at Salem ; 
 in spite of verj' bad eyesight, devoted him- 
 self to literature, and wrote History of Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella (1837), The Conquest of 
 Mexico (1843), Conquest of Feru (1847), and 
 History of Fhilip II. (imfinished). He was 
 made D.C.L. at Oxford in 1850. 
 
 Pressense, Edmond de, D.D. (*. 1824, 
 <^. 189 1 ) , French Protestant minister, author of 
 The Religions Before Christ, Jesus Christ: His 
 life. Times, and Work, and other works, 
 translations of which have been published. 
 His wife wrote children's books and poems, 
 aud afterwards devoted herself to philan- 
 thropic work. 
 
 Prester John, a mythical personage who 
 was supposed in the 12th century to be 
 ruling a Christian kingdom as king and 
 priest. His habitat was supposed at first 
 to be Asia, but was afterwards placed ia 
 Africa. 
 
 Preston, Thomas {d. 1598), master of 
 Trinity Hall, Cambridge, whose Life of Canv- 
 byses, King of Fersia, a tragedy, was ridi- 
 culed by Shakespeare in Henry IV. 
 
 Prestwich, Joseph, D.C.L. , F.R.S. (*. 
 
 1812), geologist; was the first to establish 
 the fact that man was contemporary with 
 the extinct mammalia. He was vice-presi- 
 dent of the Royal Society 1870-71, and 
 became professor of geology at Oxford in 
 1875, being also in 1888 elected president 
 of the Congres Geologique International. 
 Besides contributions to Transactions, his 
 works include The Water-Bearim Strata of 
 the Country Round London, and The Fast and 
 Future of Geology (1875). 
 
 Pretorius, Andries (d. 1853), founder of 
 the Orange Free State and the Transvaal 
 Republic ; began life as a farmer at Graaf 
 Reinet. The town of Pretoria is named 
 after him. His son, Maetintjs Peetorius 
 {b. circa 1830), attempted to unite the two 
 republics, was president of the Transvaal 
 1869-72, and in 1880 was one of the leaders 
 in the Boer war of Independence. 
 
 Prevost d'Exiles, Antoine, Abbe (A. 1697, 
 1763), French writer, among whose numerous 
 works was Memories d'un Homme de Qualite, 
 and Desgrieux et de Manon Lescaut. 
 
 Pr6vost-Paradol, Lucien (A. 1829, d. 1870), 
 journalist and wiiter, was imprisoned for 
 his And ens Fartis in I860; was admitted to 
 the Academy in 1865, and committed suicide 
 five years later, when ambassador at Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 Price, Rev. Bartholomew, F.R.S. (*. 1818), 
 natural philosopher; After being elected 
 fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, became 
 in 1853 Savilian professor of natural phi- 
 losophy. His chief publication is a work on
 
 Pri 
 
 (630) 
 
 Pro 
 
 the infiuitesimal calculus. In 1892 he be- 
 came Master of his College. 
 
 Price, Bonamy {b. 1807, d. 1888), econo- 
 mist ; was appointed professor of political 
 economy at Oxford iu 1868, and published 
 Fractical Fulitieal Economy (1878), and some 
 works on currency. 
 
 Price, Hugh (d. 1574), founded Jesus 
 College, Oxford, for Welshmen. 
 
 Price, Eichard {b. 1723, d. 1791), Non- 
 conformist writer ; was consulted by Pitt on 
 the best mode of liquidating the National 
 Debt, and was a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 His chief works were Observations on Civil 
 Liberty and On Civil Government — against 
 the American war. A sermon he preached 
 on the French revolution was attacked by 
 Burke in his Reflections. 
 
 Pricliard, James Cowles, M.D. {b. 1786, d. 
 1848), anthropologist; was appointed com- 
 missioner in lunacy in 1845. His chief work. 
 Researches into the Physical History of Man 
 (1813), was translated into most of the lan- 
 guages of Europe. 
 
 Prideaux, Humphrey (b, 1648, d. 1724), 
 divine ; became Dean of Norwich in 1702. 
 His chief work was The Connection of the 
 Old and New Testament (1716-17). 
 
 Priessnltz, Vincent (jb. 1799, d. 1851), 
 German doctor, son of a Silesian farmer; 
 originated the water cure, which was first 
 tried on himself ; established baths at 
 Grafenburg, which were much resorted to. 
 
 Priestley, Joseph, F.R.S. {b. 1733, d. 
 1804), Unitarian natural philosopher ; gained 
 the Copley medal in 1772 for his discoveries 
 concerning the properties of fixed air, and 
 was librarian to Lord Shelbume for seven 
 years. He also made important observations 
 on respiration. In 17'Jl his house at Bir- 
 mingham was wrecked by a mob who dis- 
 approved his sympathy with the French 
 revolution, and three years after he went to 
 the Uulted States, where he died. Besides 
 his scientific works, he wrote a History of 
 Early Opinions Concerning the Person of 
 Christ, and several similar books. 
 
 Prim, Juan {b. 1814, d. 1870), Spanish 
 general; supported Christina in 1834, 
 became governor of Madrid after the ex- 
 pulsion of Espartero in 1843 ; distinguished 
 himself as a soldier in Morocco in 1859 (after 
 which he was made Marquis de los Cas- 
 tillejos), and in Mexico (1862), and, having 
 aided in the overthrow of Isabella in 1868, 
 became minister of war, and practical dic- 
 tator. In 1870, when he had procured the 
 election of the Duke of Aosta to the throne, 
 he was killed by Carlist assassins. 
 
 Primaticcio, Francesco (jb. 1504, d. 1670), 
 
 Italian painter ; assisted Romano at Mantua, 
 and, having come to Paris, was employed by 
 Francis I. and Henri 11. to decorate the 
 palace of Foutainebleau, but his frescoes 
 there were destroyed in 1738. 
 
 Pringle, Sir John, Bart. {b. 1707, d. 1782), 
 English physician. After being professor of 
 moral philosophy at Edinburgh, and phy- 
 sician-general to the forces, obtained the 
 Copley medal for his Experiments of Septic 
 and Antiseptic Substances, and was president 
 of the Royal Society from 1772 to 1778. 
 
 Prior, Sir James {b. 1790, d. 1869), 
 physician, author of lives of Burke, Gold- 
 smith, and Malone. 
 
 Prior, Matthew (ft. 1664, d. 1721), poet 
 and diplomatist, son of a London pubUcan ; 
 was sent to Cambridge by the Earl of Dor- 
 set, and wrote, with Charles Montague, The 
 City Mouse and the Country Mouse (1687). 
 He was secretary to the embassy at the 
 negotiation of the Peace of Ryswick (1697), 
 and, after being under-secretary of state, 
 was employed to negotiate the Peace of 
 Utrecht. His poems were published by 
 subscription, and he was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Priscianus (5th century), Latin gram- 
 marian, author of Be Arte Grammatica. 
 
 PrisciUianua (4th century), Spanish theo- 
 logian, whose opinions were condemned in 
 380 by the Council of Saragossa. 
 
 Pritchard, Charles, D.D., F.R.S., etc. (b. 
 circa 1808), astronomer and divine; was fourth 
 wrangler in 1830, and became fellow of St. 
 John's College, Cambridge, where he was 
 Hulsean lecturer in 1867, but in 1870 became 
 Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. 
 He caused the erection of the observatory 
 by that imiversity, and published in 1890, 
 Occasional Thoughts of an Astronomer on 
 nature and Revelation, 
 
 Probus, Marcus Valerius {d. 282), Roman 
 Emperor ; elected by the army of the East 
 in 276, gained some victories over the bar- 
 barians, but was killed in a mutiny. 
 
 Procaccini, Camillo (b. 1546, d. 1626), 
 
 Eainter of the Bolognese school. His 
 rother, GrcTLio (b. 1548), was a follower of 
 Correggio, and Caelo was a fruit and 
 flower-painter. 
 
 Procida, Giovanni da (d. circa 1303), a 
 Sicilian who promoted the " Sicilian Ves- 
 pers," having previously been the friend of 
 the Emperor Frederick II. and his sons, 
 whom he assisted against Charles of Anjou. 
 
 Procopius (d. 565), Greek historian ; ac- 
 companied Belisarius as his secretary in all 
 hu campaigns, and wrote histories of the
 
 Pro 
 
 ( 631) 
 
 Pug 
 
 Persians, Vandals, and Goths, and Arcana 
 Imperia. 
 
 Procter, Adelaide Ann (6. 1835, d. 1864), 
 EngHsh poet, daughter of " Barry Corn- 
 wall ; " author of Legends and Lyrics 
 (1858-61), and A Chaplet of Verses (1862). 
 
 Procter, Bryan Waller. [_See Cornwall, 
 Barry.] 
 
 Proctor, Redfield {b. 1831), American 
 statesman ; practised as an advocate before 
 and after the Civil war ; became governor of 
 Vermont in 1878, and was appointed secretary 
 for war by President Hari'ison in 1889. 
 
 Proctor, Richard Anthony {b. 1834, d. 
 1888), astronomer and popular scientific 
 writer, author of Other (Vorlds than Ours 
 (1870), Old and New Astronomy, etc., ajid 
 editor of Knowledge. 
 
 Prodicus (Jl. circa 400 B.C.), Greek sophist, 
 teacher of Socrates ; was author of the fable 
 of the Choice of Hercules. 
 
 Propertius, Sextus {d. circa 14 B.C.) , Roman 
 poet, friend of Ovid and Virgil, and author of 
 Elegies, of which there are several transla- 
 tions. 
 
 Protagoras {b. circa 490 B.C.), Greek 
 sophist ; was banished from Athens on a 
 charge of Atheism. None of his works are 
 extant. 
 
 Protogenes {Jl. circa 330 B.C.), Greek 
 
 Eainter, for whose pictures Apelles gave 
 igh prices ; part of Rhodes, where he Uved, 
 is said to have been spared for his sake 
 during the siege. 
 
 Proudhon, Pierre Joseph (fi. 1809, d. 1865), 
 French writer, son of a Besancon cooper ; 
 author Qu''est-ce que la Propriete ) Avertisse- 
 inent aux Proprietaires, and similar works of 
 anarchic tendency, for which he was prose- 
 cuted. 
 
 Prout, Samuel {b. 1783, d. 1852), English 
 artist ; was elected to the Water-Coloiu- 
 Society in 1815, having become known for 
 his country scenes. TTia best picture is, 
 perhaps, the Indiaman Ashore (1819), but 
 his Views of Northern England (1821) and 
 sketches in Continental countries are highly 
 esteemed. 
 
 Prudentius, Marcus AureUus Clemens (J>. 
 348), Roman Christian poet, was bom in 
 Spain ; author of a large number of hymns 
 and lyrical pieces. 
 
 Prudhomme, Louis Marie (*. 1752, d. 
 1830), French revolutionary journalist, editor 
 of Le Journal des Revolutions de Paris, and 
 author of a work on the crimes of the revo- 
 lution ; was imprisoned under the Terror 
 for a short time. 
 
 Prynne, "William (i. 1600, d. 1669), Puritan 
 lawyer and writer ; was imprisoned, fined, 
 and pilloried by the Star Chamber for his 
 Histno-Mastix, containing reflections on 
 Queen Henrietta Maria, in 1632, and was 
 further punished for writing while in prison. 
 He was released in 1640, was elected to the 
 Long Parliament, and subsequently im- 
 prisoned by Cromwell, becoming keeper of 
 the Tower records after the Restoration. 
 
 Psalmanaazaar, George {b. probably 1679, 
 d. 1763), literary impostor, born in France ; 
 pretended to be a native of Formosa, and 
 invented a language of that island, besides 
 pubUshing a mstory of it, which deceived 
 many of the learned. 
 
 Ptolemseus Claudius (/. circa 139), 
 Alexandrian writer, author of the Almagest 
 or Syntax of Astronotny, the theories of 
 which were accepted till the discoveries of 
 Copernicus. He also wrote a Geography, 
 which was for thirteen centuries the leading 
 authority. 
 
 Ptolemseus Soter, King of Egypt {d. 283 
 B.C.), obtained Egypt as his share of the 
 dominions of Alexander the Great in 323 
 B.C. ; was engaged in continual wars with 
 Perdiccas and Antigonus (q.v.), and gained 
 his surname by saving Rhodes when be- 
 sieged by Demetrius. 
 
 Ptolemseus Philadelphus {b. 311 b.c, d. 
 
 247), youngest son and successor of Soter ; 
 had a long and peaceful reign, during which 
 the Alexandrian library was finished, and 
 the Septuagint version made. 
 
 Ptolemseus Epiphanes {b. 210 b.c, d. 
 181), great-grandson of preceding, and son 
 of Ptolemy Philopatee (222-205 b.c) ; ob- 
 tained the help of the Romans against Syria 
 and Macedonia, but lost the greater part of 
 his foreign dominions. 
 
 Ptolemseus Philometor {d. 146 b.c), son 
 and successor of preceding ; was taken 
 prisoner by Antiochus Epiphanes, his 
 younger brother being set up as king with 
 him. After being driven out, he was 
 restored by the Romans, but was killed in 
 battle near Antioch. 
 
 Puffendorff, Samuel, Baron von {b. 1632, 
 d. 1694), Gei-man jurist and historian, author 
 of Be Jure Naturce et Gentium, Life of Gtts- 
 tavus of Sweden, etc. 
 
 PugatscheflF, Jemeljan (3. 1726, d. 1775), 
 a Cossack who pretended to be the Tsar 
 Peter III. (lately murdered), and after 
 several victories over the imperial troops 
 was betrayed and executed. 
 
 Puget, Pierre {b. 1622, d. 1694), French 
 sculptor and architect, whose Milo group 
 and Andromeda are at Versailles.
 
 Tug 
 
 (632) 
 
 Pym 
 
 Pughe, William Owen {b. 1759, d. 183.5), 
 Welsh writer ; he edited for the iiecord 
 Commissiou Ancient Laws and Institutes of 
 Wales, compiled a Welsh and English dic- 
 tionary, and made a Welsh version of Para- 
 dtse Lost, 
 
 Pugin, Augustus Welby {b. 1812, rf. 1852), 
 architect, sou of a French emigrant, who 
 wrote on architectural subjects; became a 
 Eomanist in 1834, and built St. George's, 
 Southwark, and many other churches for 
 his co-religionists. He was the chief pro- 
 moter of the Gothic revival, and published 
 The True Principles of Pointed or Christian 
 Architecture (1841), Contrasts (1836), a com- 
 parison of Roman and Anglican chui-ches, 
 and many other works. 
 
 Puisaye, Joseph, Comte de (d. 1827), 
 French royalist leader ; sat in the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, but was proscribed by 
 the Convention ; organised the Chouan 
 rising in Brittany, and was aided by 
 England in 1794. After the disaster at 
 Quiberou, he went to Canada, and thence 
 to England, where he died. 
 
 Pul, King of Assyria, reigned 759-742 b.o. 
 
 Piilclieria, MUa, Empress of the East (b. 
 399, d. 453), reigned for her brother, Theo- 
 dosius II., and succeeded him in 450. 
 
 Pulci, Luigi (b. 1432, d. 1484 or 1487), 
 Italian poet, friend of Lorenzo de' Medici, 
 and author of Morgante Maygiore, which was 
 translated by Lord Byron in The Liberal. 
 His brothers, Beenaedo and Luca, were 
 also poets. 
 
 Pulleine, John James, D.D. {b. 1841), 
 divine ; was appointed in 1888 Suffragan - 
 Bishop of Ripon, his title being changed in 
 1889 from Bishop of Penrith to that of 
 Richmond. 
 
 Pulteney, William, Earl of Bath {b. 1682, 
 d. 1 764) , statesman and orator ; was appointed 
 Secretary-at- War on the accession of George 
 I., but in 1717 resigned and joined the Op- 
 position, becoming one of the ablest op- 
 ponents of Walpole. He was created Earl 
 of Bath in 1742, and was Prime Minister in 
 1746, but held office only two days. 
 
 Purcell, Henry (b. 1658, d. 1695), com- 
 poser ; was appointed organist at West- 
 minster Abbey at the age of eighteen, and 
 was buried there. His works include Or- 
 pheus Bntannicus (a collection of songs), 
 fifty anthems, and many operas, glees, can- 
 tatas, etc. 
 
 Purchas, John (Jb. 1823, d. 1872), Ritualist, 
 author of Directormm Anglicanum ; was 
 suspended for refusing to obey the judgment 
 of the Court of Arches in the case Hibbert v. 
 Purchas. 
 
 Purchas, Samuel {b. 1577, d. 1626), divine; 
 compiled histories and travels under the 
 titles of Purchas, his Pilgrimage (1613), and 
 Purchas, his Pilgrimmes (1625), and was 
 chaplain to Archbishop Abbot. 
 
 Pureshram Rao, "the Bhow" (d. 1799), 
 Mahratta leader ; served against the British 
 in 1781, but in 1790 cooperated with them 
 against Tippoo Sultan. He opposed Nana 
 Furnavees (q.v.), but became reconciled to 
 him, and was defeated and slain when 
 employed against the rebel, Chitoor Singh. 
 
 Pusclildn, Alexander Sergeivitch (b. 1799, 
 d. 1837), Russian poet ; was sent to Bess- 
 arabia for political offences, but afterwards 
 allowed to return. His chief works are The 
 Gipsies (1824), Boris Godunof (1825), Pul- 
 tava and Eugene Onegin (1832), a satire on 
 the model of Don Juan. He was killed in a 
 duel. 
 
 Pusey, Edward Bouverie, D.D. (*. 1800, 
 d. 18C2), theologian, son of Hon. Philip 
 Bouverie ; became fellow of Oriel in 1824, 
 and on his return from Germany was made 
 Regius professor of Hebrew. He took a 
 leading part in the Oxford movement, pub- 
 lishing Scriptural Views of Holy Baptism in 
 1835-6, and was several times inhibited from 
 preiching. In 1866 appeared his Eirenicon, 
 and among his other works were Library of 
 the Fathers, a work dealing with the German 
 Rationalist theology, and a reply to Farrar's 
 Eternal Hope. 
 
 PuviB de Caavannes, Pierre (J. 1824), 
 French painter ; exhibited La Paix and La 
 Guerre m the Salon of 1861, among his other 
 pictures being La Niiit (1866), Scenes de la 
 Vie de Ste. -Genevieve (1873-8), executed for 
 the Pantheon, and Pro Patrie Ludus (1882). 
 
 Pyat, Felix {b. 1810, d. 1889), French 
 writer ; author of Mathilde and other 
 dramas, and Lroit du Travail, Loisir d'un 
 Proscrit, etc. 
 
 Pye, Henry James {b. 1745, d. 1813), poet ; 
 was appointed laureate in 1790, his Poems 
 being published in 1787. 
 
 Pye, John {b. 1782, d. 1874), engraver; 
 executed for Turner Pope's Villa, The 
 Temple of Jupiter in JEyina, and other 
 plates, and attacked the Royal Academy in 
 The Patronage of British Art, which ap- 
 peared in 1845. 
 
 Pym, John {b. 1584, d. 1643), lawyer and 
 politician ; took a leading part in the im- 
 peachment of Buckingham and the attack 
 on Dr. Mainwaring ; was an active member 
 of the Short Parliament, and conducted the 
 proceedings against Strafford in the Long 
 Parliament. He was one of the "Five 
 Members," and was known among the 
 Royalists as "Kin^Pym," and was buried
 
 Pyn 
 
 (693) 
 
 Que 
 
 in Westminster Abbey, the whole House of 
 Commons attending the funeral. 
 
 Pyne, Louisa Bodda [Mrs.] {b. 1832), 
 singer ; made her first appearance in 1842, 
 and, after a tour in the United States, took 
 a joint lease of the Lyceum and Drury 
 Lane, and afterwards of Covent Garden 
 (1858-62). 
 
 Pynson, or Pinson, Eichard {d. circa 
 1529), priater ; introduced the Roman letter 
 into England. 
 
 Pjrrrlio, Greek philosopher of the 4th 
 century ; 'founder of the Sceptics, or Pyrr- 
 honists, went to India with Alexander the 
 Great, and obtained an extensive knowledge 
 of Eastern lore. 
 
 PyiTlius, King of Epirus (b. circa 318 B.C., 
 d. 272), came to the throne in 306 B.C. ; was 
 expelled a few years later, but restored by 
 the help of Ptolemy Soter in 296 ; held the 
 kingdom of Macedonia for a short time, and 
 
 in 281 went to Italy to help Tarentum 
 against the Eomans. He was at first suc- 
 cessful (through his elephants and the 
 phalanx), but was finally defeated in 275. 
 After this he again mastered Macedonia, but 
 was killed by a tile in a night attack on 
 Argos. 
 
 Pythagoras (d. circa 470 b.c), Greek 
 philosopher, bom in Samos, which he left 
 for Crotona, in Southern Italy, where he 
 exercised so much influence as an opponent 
 of democracy that his followers were ex- 
 posed to persecution and exile. He left no 
 writings, but his doctrines of the Kosmos, 
 Metempsychosis, and the Music of the 
 Spheres are well known, the first being the 
 beginning of physical science. 
 
 Pytheas (Jl. circa 300 B.C.), traveller, 
 bom at MassOia (Marseilles) ; made several 
 voyages of exploration, and is said to have 
 reached Northern Britain ( Ultima Thule). 
 
 Quadrio, Francesco Saverio yO. 1695, d. 
 ;.j6), Italian ecclesiastic; wrote a General 
 ulistory of Foetry, etc. 
 
 Qiiaglio, the name of a family of painters, 
 originally Italian, who settled at Munich. 
 The most distinguished was Domenico {h. 
 1786, d. 1837). Most of his pictures repre- 
 sent Gothic buildings. 
 
 Quain, Jones {b. 1796, d. 1865), physician, 
 born at Mallow in Ireland ; was professor of 
 anatomy and physiology at London Uni- 
 versity (now University College) from 1831 
 to 1836. ^QTj^\ihMs\ied Elements of Anatomy 
 (1828), etc. 
 
 Quain, Eichard, Sir, Bart., E.R.S. {b. 1816, 
 d. 1887), a well-known medical practitioner, 
 edited the Dictionary of Medicine (1882), for 
 which he wrote some valuable articles. 
 
 Quarles, Francis {b. 1592, d. 1644), poet, 
 bom in Essex, educated at Cambridge, be- 
 came secretary to Archbishop Usher in 
 Ireland ; on the outbreak of the Civil war 
 joined the Eoyalist party. His chief work is 
 Emblems, consisting of poems accompanied 
 by allegorical designs, which they interpret. 
 
 Quatrefages de Breau, Jean Louis Ar- 
 mandde {h. 1810), French naturalist ; became 
 professor of anthropology in the Museum of 
 Natural History at Paris in 1855. He has 
 published nimicrous works, including In- 
 troduction d VJ^lude dea Maces Humaines 
 (1889). 
 
 Quatrem re de Qulncy, Antoine Chrysos- 
 tom {b. 1758, d. 1849), French writer on art, 
 was imprisoned as a royalist during the 
 Eeign of Terror ; in 1816 became secretary 
 to the Academy of Fine Arts. His works 
 include lives of Eaphael (1824) and Michel- 
 angelo (1835), and a Dictionary of Archi- 
 tecture (1833). 
 
 Queiros, or Quires, Pedro Fernandez de 
 {b. circa 1560, d. 1614). a Portuguese navi- 
 gator, who entered the service of Spain. He 
 died at Panama. 
 
 Querini, or Quirini, Angelo Maria {b. 
 1680, d. 1755), a learned Italian cardinal, 
 visited England in 1710; became Bishop of 
 Corfu in 1723, and of Brescia in 1727 ; was 
 afterwards librarian to the Vatican. He 
 wrote OJficinm Quadragesimale Grcecormn, 
 Primordia Corey rce, Specimen Litteraturce 
 Brixiance, etc. 
 
 Quesnay, Francois {b. 1694, d. 1774), 
 French physician and economist ; settled m 
 Paris, and became surgeon to Louis XV. 
 In his Physiocratie (1768) he advances the 
 theory that, as the means of subsistence are 
 derived from the land, agriculture is the 
 only productive industry. 
 
 Quesnel, Pasquier {b. 1634, d. 1719), 
 French theologian, bom in Paris ; was ac- 
 cused of holding Jansenist views, and forced 
 to withdraw to Brussels, and afterwards to 
 Amsterdam, where he died. In 1675 ap- 
 peared the first edition of the Ileflexioni
 
 Que 
 
 (634) 
 
 Rac 
 
 Morales sur le Nouveau Testament, which 
 was finally condemned by the bull Uui- 
 genitus (1713). 
 
 Quesnoy, Fran(;ois du {b. 1594, d. 1646), 
 a sculptor, bom at Brussels. His works are 
 chiefly bas-reliefs representing children, 
 Cupids, etc. He died at Leghorn. 
 
 Quevedo Villegas, Francisco Gomez de 
 {b. 1580, d. 164.5), a Spanish writer, who 
 excelled in satire. He was imprisoned for 
 three years (1641-3) for an attack on the 
 government of Count d'Olivarez. His chief 
 work is his Visioyu. He also wrote lyrical 
 poems, dissertations, etc. 
 
 Quick, John {b. 1748, d. 1831), comedian; 
 appeared at the Haymaiket in 1769, and 
 afterwards played at Coveut Garden. 
 
 Quin, James {b. 1693, d. 1760), actor; was 
 recognised as the greatest living tragedian, 
 till Garrick became his rival. He was a 
 friend of the poet Thomson. 
 
 Quincy, Josiah {b. 1744, d. 1775), Ameri- 
 can patriot ; in 1774 published Observations 
 on the Boston Port Bill, and came to Eng- 
 land to further the interest of the colonists. 
 He died on the journey back to America. 
 His son, Josiah (i. 1772, d. 1864), was a 
 
 member of Congress 1805-13, and president 
 of Harvard College 1829-45. 
 
 Quinet, Edgar (6. 1803, d. 1875), French 
 vsrriter ; became professor of foreign litera- 
 tiu-e at Paris in 1841. He took part in the 
 revolution of 1848. Among his works are 
 Ahasuerus, an allegory (1833), Les Revolu- 
 tions d'ltalie (1852), and La Genie des Reli- 
 I gions (1842), La Creation (1870), etc. 
 
 i Quintana, Manuel Jose {p. 1772, d. 1857), 
 a Spanish lyrical poet, whose warlike 
 verses exercised great influence over his 
 countrymen. He was a leading spirit in the 
 opposition to Godw, attacked the French 
 in his Semanario Jratriotico, and was im- 
 prisoned after the return of Ferdinand 
 (1813-20). His Lives of Celebrated Spaniards 
 were published 1807-34. 
 
 Qulntilianus, Marcus Fabius (J. circa 35, 
 
 d. circa 96), rhetorician, bom at Calagurris 
 in Spain ; during the reign of Galba settled 
 in Borne, where he became a teacher of 
 eloquence. Among his pupils was the 
 younger Pliny. His chief work is i)e/«s<i- 
 tutione Oratoria. 
 
 Quintus Curtius Rufus, a Eoman historian 
 of unknown date. He wrote De Rebus A.leX' 
 andri Magni Regis Macedonum. 
 
 Rabaut Saint itienne, Jean Paul (b. 1743, 
 d. 1793), French Protestant minister; was 
 elected to the Constituent Assembly, voted 
 against the death of Louis XVI., and was 
 guillotined. He wrote an Historical Precis 
 of the French Revolution, etc. 
 
 Rabelais, Francois (b. circa 1483, d. 1553), 
 French hiunorist, bom at Chinon; was at 
 first a friar, but afterwards studied medi- 
 cine at Montpellier, where he practised with 
 success ; accompanied Cardinal du Bellay to 
 Eome 1536-7 ; afterwards became cure of 
 Meudon, near Paris. The first book of the 
 History of Gargantua appeared in 1533. 
 
 _^Rabener, GottHeb Wilhelm {b. 1714, d. 
 1771), German satirical poet, bom near 
 Leipzig, became acquainted with Gellert, 
 and wrote for the Bremische Beitriige ; held 
 appointments in connection with the excise 
 at Leipzig (1741-53) and Dresden (1753-71). 
 
 Rabutin, Roger de, Comte de Bussy {b. 
 1618, </. 1693), French satirist, bom at Epiry, 
 in Xivemais ; in consequence of his His- 
 toire Atnoureuse des Gaules (1665) was im- 
 priaoned it the Bastille (1665-6), afterwards 
 
 exiled to his estates in Burgundy. He alao 
 
 published Memoires, Lettres, etc. 
 
 Rachel [filisa Eachel Felix] {b. 1820, d. 
 1856), actress, of Jewish descent, bom at 
 Munf, in Switzerland. As a child she sang 
 for bread in the streets of Lyons. In 1838 
 she appeared in Paris as Camille in Cor- 
 neille's Les Horaces, and was henceforward 
 the unrivalled exponent of the classical 
 school, her great part being Fhedre. 
 
 Racine, Jean (b. 1639, d. 1699), the 
 greatest French dramatist of the classical 
 school, was bom at La Forte-Milon, and 
 educated at Port Royal. His ode on the 
 marriage of Louis XIV. (,1660) was re- 
 warded by a pension from the king. He 
 first exhibited his genius in Andromaque 
 (1667), which was followed by a brilliant 
 series of tragedies, closing with Phedre 
 (1677). His single comedy, Les Plaideurs, 
 appeared in 1668. In 1677 he was led by 
 religious motives to cease writing for the 
 stage, but in 1691 he published a sacred 
 drama, Athalie, which is by many con- 
 sidered his masterpiece. His son, Louia 
 (b. 1692, d. 1763), wrote a life of his father,
 
 Bad 
 
 (635) 
 
 Bai 
 
 La Grace (a poem), Reflexions sur la Poesie, 
 odes, epistles, etc. 
 
 Radcliflfe, Ann (*. 1764, d. 1823), novelist, 
 daughter of a London tradesman named 
 Ward; about 1787 married Mr. WiUiam 
 Radcliffe, a journalist. She wrote several 
 wild romances, of which the Mysteries of 
 Udolpho (1794) is the most celebrated. 
 
 Radcliffe, John {b. 1650, d. 1714), born at 
 Waketield, educated at Oxford, settled in 
 London (1684), and became physician to the 
 Princess Anne, afterwards queen (1686), but 
 subsequently lost her favour. He left 
 £40,000 for building the Library at Oxford 
 which bears his name. 
 
 Radet, Etienne, Baron (*. 1762, d. 1825), 
 French general ; served under Napoleon, and 
 conducted Pius VH. from Rome to Florence 
 in 1809. 
 
 Radetzky, Johann Joseph Wenzel, Count 
 of Radetz t^b. 1766, d. 1858), Austrian field- 
 marshal ; suppressed the insurrection in 
 Lombardy 1848-9, finally defeating Charles 
 Albert of Sardinia at Noveira in the latter 
 year; ruled Lombardy and Venice as 
 governor-general 1850-7. 
 
 Radowitz, Joseph von {b. 1797, d. 1853), 
 Prussian statesman, of Hungarian origin, 
 became leader of the Conservative party. In 
 the National Assembly at Frankfort he pro- 
 posed the union of Germany under Prussia, 
 and entered the Prussian cabinet to carry 
 out his schemes (1850), but was dismissed by 
 Frederick William IV. owing to the armed 
 opposition of Austria. 
 
 Radziwill, the name of a distinguished 
 Lithuanian family. Geoeqe {b. 1480, d. 
 1541) distinguished himself in wars against 
 the Russians and Tartars. Nicholas {b. 
 1515, d. 1565) supported the Lutherans, and 
 superintended the translation of the Bible 
 into Polish (1563). Cheistophee (J). 1585, 
 d. 1640) withstood an invasion of Gustavus 
 Adolphus (1620-5), and was afterwards vic- 
 torious over the Russians (1632-4). 
 
 Rae, John {b. 1813), Arctic explorer ; in 
 1846-7 discovered 700 miles of coast between 
 Boothia and Fury and Hecla Strait: was 
 second in command under Sir John Richard- 
 son (1848), and commanded another expedi- 
 tion in search of Franklin in 1849 ; made 
 further discoveries in 1853-4. 
 
 Raebum, Sir Henry, R.A. {b. 1756, d. 
 1823), Scottish portrait-painter: after study- 
 ing in Italy, settled in Edinburgh in 1787. 
 Among his best portraits are those of Sir 
 Walter Scott, Lord Eldon, and Francis 
 Jeffrey. 
 
 Raff, Joachim (Jb. 1822, d. 1882), German 
 musical composer; after living for some 
 years with Liszt at Weimar, settled at 
 
 Wiesbaden (1856), whence he removed to 
 Frankfort in 1877. He belonged to the 
 school of Schumann. His best works are 
 his symphonies. 
 
 Raffles, Sir Thomas Stamford (b. 1781, d. 
 1826), naturalist and administrator, entered 
 the East India House as a clerk in 1795 ; 
 advised the attack on Java (1811), and was 
 made governor on its annexation ; was re- 
 called in 1816, and in 1817 sent out to 
 govern Bencoolen, in Sumatra, where he 
 remained till 1824. In 1819 he established 
 the British station of Singapore. He was 
 one of the founders and first president of the 
 Royal Zoological Society. 
 
 Rafn, Karl Christian {b. 1796, d. 1864), 
 Icelandic antiquary, born in the Isle of 
 Fiinen ; aided iu founding the Society of 
 Northern Antiquities, and took part in the 
 publication of Heroic Tales of the North 
 (1825-30), Antiquitates Americana (1837), 
 etc. 
 
 Raglan, Fitzroy James Henry Somerset, 
 Baron (4. 1788, d. 1855), field-marshal, was 
 the eighth son of the fifth Duke of Beaufort. 
 He accompanied Wellington to the Penin- 
 sula as his aide-de-camp, and in 1812 be- 
 came his military secretary, attending him 
 in that capacity at the battle of Waterloo. 
 He was again military secretary to Wel- 
 lington from 1819 to 1852, when he suc- 
 ceeded him as master-general of the ord- 
 nance. On the outbreak of the Crimean 
 war he was appointed commander of the 
 English forces, and displayed great personal 
 bravery at the Alma. The accusations un- 
 justly brought against him in connection 
 with the disasters of the campaign are 
 believed to have hastened has death, 
 which took place during the siege of 
 Sebastopol. 
 
 Ragona, Domenico (J. 1820), astronomer, 
 bom in Palermo ; became director of the 
 royal observatory of Modena in 1860. 
 
 Raibolini, Francesco, called II Francia 
 {b. 1450, d. 1518), Bologuese painter. 
 
 Raikes, Henry CecH (A. 1838, d. 1891), 
 bom in Flintshire, educated at Cambridge ; 
 was called to the bar in 1863, and entered 
 Parliament in 1868. He was postmaster- 
 general from 1886 to his death. 
 
 Raikes, Robert (6. 1735, d. 1811), a printer 
 of Gloucester, who devoted his means to 
 philanthropical purposes. With the assist- 
 ance of Mr. Stock, he established the first 
 Simday-schools (1781). 
 
 Raimbach, Abraham (i. 1776, d. 1843), 
 engraver, bom in London ; was apprenticed 
 to Hall, and afterwards studied at tho Royal 
 Academy. He formed a fi'iendship with 
 Wilkie, many of whose pictures he engraved.
 
 Rai 
 
 ( 636) 
 
 Ran 
 
 Raimondi, Marc Antouio (i. circa 1487, 
 d. after lo39), Italian eugraver, born at 
 Bologna ; went to Venice, where he copied 
 the works of Diirer with so much accuracy 
 that they were mistaken for the originals ; 
 removed to Rome, and was there employed 
 by Raphael to engrave his paintings, and 
 afterwards by Giulio Romano ; lost all his 
 possessions when the city was sacked in 
 1527, and returned to Bologna. 
 
 Rainald (d. 1151) became abbot of Ci- 
 teaux in 1113; effected a reconciliation 
 between Abelard and St. Bernard. Frag- 
 ments of his writings remain. 
 
 Rainaldi, Girolamo (b. 1570, d. 1655), 
 architect, bom at Rome, bmlt the Palazzo 
 del Commune at Parma. His son, Caelo 
 (6. 1611, d. 1691), erected Santa Maria di 
 Miracoli and other churches at Rome. 
 
 Rainolds, John {b. 1549, d. 1607), divine, 
 bom near Exeter ; became lecturer in 
 divinity at Oxford in 1586, and president of 
 Corpus Christi College in 1598. He was a 
 prominent member of the Puritan party, 
 took an active part in the Hampton Court 
 Conference (1604), and was one of the trans- 
 lators of the Authorised Version of the 
 Bible. 
 
 Rakoczy, Franz Leopold, Prince of Tran- 
 sylvania {b. 1676, d. 1735) ; put himself at 
 the head of the Hungarian insurgents in 
 1703, but was finally defeated in 1708. He 
 died in exile. 
 
 Ralegh, or Raleigh, Sir Walter (ft. 1552, 
 d. 1618), statesman, navigator, and author, 
 bom near Budleigh, studied at Oriel College, 
 Oxford; fought in support of the Protes- 
 tants in France (1569) ; distinguished himself 
 against the rebels in Ireland 1580-1 ; rose 
 rapidly in Elizabeth's favour ; in 1585 des- 
 patched an expedition to America, which dis- 
 covered Virginia, so named in honour of the 
 queen ; took part in the repulse of the 
 Spanish Armada (1588) ; in 1595 went to 
 Guiana in search of gold, and sailed some 
 distance up the Orinoco ; held a command 
 in the attack on Cadiz (1596). After the 
 accession of James I. he was accused of 
 complicity in the plot to raise Arabella Stuart 
 to the throne, and imprisoned in the Tower 
 for thirteen years (1603-16), during which 
 he wrote his History of the World. In 1616 
 he was permitted to lead an expedition to 
 Guiana against the Spaniards, but his pardon 
 was made dependent on his success, and, as 
 the attempt was a failure, he was executed 
 on his return. 
 
 Rameau, Jean Philippe {b. 1683, d. 1764), 
 French musician, bom at Dijon ; wrote 
 Demonstration du Principe de I' Marmonie and 
 other works on the theory of music, and 
 composed many operas. 
 
 Ramler, Karl Wilhelm (ft. 1725, d. 1798), 
 a German poet and miscellaneous writer. 
 
 Rammohuii - Roy, Rajah (ft. 1772, d. 
 1833), was bom at Eurdwar, in Bengal, and 
 educated by his fatlier, a learned Brahman. 
 Onreaching manhood he determined to study 
 the vaiious religions of the world, and with 
 this view learnt several languages, ancient 
 and modem. After the death of his father 
 (1803) he renounced Brahmanism. From 
 the date of his removal to Calcutta (1814), 
 where he obtained a post as tax-collector, 
 he was much influenced by the doctrines of 
 Christianity. He came to England in 1831, 
 and died at Bristol. 
 
 Ramsay, Allan (ft. 1686, d. 1758), Scotch 
 poet, born at Leadbills, in Lanarkshire; was 
 apprenticed to a wig- maker in Edinburgh, 
 where he afterwards estabhshed himself as 
 a bookseller. In 1721 he publislied a col- 
 lection of his own poems, and he was the 
 author of some of the songs in the Tea- 
 Table Miscellany (1724-40). In 1724 ap- 
 peared the Evergreen, a collection of old 
 Scotch poetry. His pastoral drama, The 
 Gentle Shepherd, was published in 1725. 
 
 Ramsay, Sir Andrew Crombie (ft. 1814, 
 d. 1891), was president of the Geological 
 Society in 1862 and 1863, and director of the 
 geological survey of the United Kingdom 
 1872-81. He pubhshed several works on 
 geology. 
 
 Ramsay, Edward Bannerman Burnett (ft. 
 
 1793, d. 1876) ; became Dean of Edinburgh 
 in 1846. He wrote Reminiscences of Scotch 
 Life and Character (1857), etc. 
 
 Ramsay, William (ft. 1852), was bora and 
 educated at Glasgow ; afterwards studied at 
 Tubingen ; became professor of chemistry 
 at University College, London, in 1887. 
 
 Ramus, Peter [Pierre de la Ram^e] (ft. 
 1515, d. 1572), French philosopher, bom 
 in Picardy ; was educated at the Col- 
 lege of Navarre. His attacks on the Aris- 
 totelians subjected him to much persecution. 
 In 1551 he was appointed professor of elo- 
 quence and philosophy in the College de 
 France. He became a Protestant about 
 1561, and perished in the massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew. 
 
 Ranee, Armand Jean le Bouthillier de 
 (ft. 1626, d. 1700) ; was in youth distin- 
 guished as a scholar and man of fashion, 
 but afterwards adopted austere views, and 
 restored the severe discipline of the monas- 
 tery of La Trappe, of which he was abbot. 
 
 Randolph, John, of Roanoke (ft. 1773, d. 
 1833), American orator ; was in 1799 elected 
 as a Democrat to Congress, where he dis- 
 tinguished himseH by his powers of sarcasm. 
 In 1830 he was appomted minister to Russia,
 
 Kan 
 
 (637) 
 
 Raw 
 
 Bandolph, Sir Thomas (5. 1523, d. 1590), 
 statesman and diplomatist ; was sent by 
 Elizabeth as ambassador to Scotland, France, 
 and Russia. Many of his letters are pre- 
 served, and there is an account of his em- 
 bassy to Russia in Hakluyt's colleraon. 
 
 Bandolph, Thomas {h. 1605, d. 1635), 
 English poet, born in Northamptonshire, 
 educated at Cambridge ; wrote The Muses' 
 Looking- Glass, and other dramas. 
 
 Eanke, Leopold von {b. \12b,^d. 1886), 
 German historian, born in Thuriiigia, edu- 
 cated at Leipzig, was appointed extraor- 
 dinary professor at BerUn in 1825, ordinary 
 professor in 1834, and in 1841 became royal 
 historiographer. Among his chief works are 
 the History of the Fopes (1834-7), the His- 
 tory of Germany during the Reformation 
 (1839-47), and the History of England: 
 Chiefly in the Seventeenth Centwy (1659-74). 
 
 Ransome, Arthur, M.D. {b. 1834), has 
 rendered great services to the cause of sani- 
 tary reform. He was one of the first to 
 advocate periodical returns of sickness, and, 
 owing to his representations in 1875, dip- 
 lomas in public health are now awarded in 
 the various imiversities of Great Britain. 
 
 Rantzau, Josias, Comte de {b. 1609, d. 
 1650), general, bom in Holstein; after serv- 
 ing in the Swedish army entered that of 
 Louis XIII. (1635). In 1645 he renounced 
 the Protestant religion, and was made 
 marshal of France. 
 
 Raphael [Raffaello Santi, or Sanzio] {b. 
 1483, d. 1520), son of Giovanni Santi, a 
 painter, studied under Pietro Perugino ; in 
 1504 went to Florence, where he attached 
 himself to Fra Bartolomeo, and was much 
 influenced by the works of the Florentine 
 school ; in 1508 was summoned to Rome by 
 Julius II. to adorn with frescoes the walls 
 of the Vatican, which occupied him till 
 1514. He was much employed by Leo X., 
 who succeeded Julius in 1 5 1 3. To this period 
 belong the cartoons at Hampton Court. 
 Raphael also displayed genius as an archi- 
 tect, and after the death of Bramante (1514) 
 superintended the building of the new 
 cathedral of St. Peter's. 
 
 Rapin, Nicholas (J>. circa 1535, d. circa 
 1609), French poet, bom in Pojtou, was one 
 of the authors of the Satire Menippee, and 
 wrote Latin elegies and epigrams, as well 
 as odes and other lyrics in French, in "which 
 he imitated classical authors. 
 
 Rapin de Thoyras, Paul de {b. 1661, d. 
 1725), historian, bom in Languedoc, was 
 descended from a noble Savoyard family, 
 which professed the Protestant faith. Having 
 withdrawn to Holland after the revocation of 
 the Edict of Nantea (1686), he accompanied 
 
 William III. to England, and subsequently 
 served under him in Ireland. He died at 
 Wesel. His Histoire d' Angleterre, which 
 extends to the death of Charles I., was 
 translated by Nicholas Tindal. 
 
 Rapp, Jean Comte (b. 1772, d. 1821), 
 French general, distinguished himself at 
 Austerlitz ; after bravely defending Dantzic 
 against the Russians was forced to suiTCuder, 
 and remained a prisoner till 1815. 
 
 Rask, Rasmus Chiistian {b. 1787, d. 1832), 
 philologist, bom in the Isle of Fiinen ; be- 
 came professor of Uterary history at Copen- 
 hagen in 1825, and of Oriental languages in 
 1828. His works include Researches con- 
 cerning the Origin of the Icelandic Language 
 (1818), and an Anglo-Saxon Grammar {\^\T) 
 translated by Thorpe. 
 
 Raspail, Francois Vincent (b. 1794, d. 
 1878), French chemist and revolutionist, 
 published Systeme de Chimie Orgamque 
 (1833), etc. He was frequently imprisoned. 
 
 Rassam, Hormuzd il). 1826), bom at 
 Mosoul, in Mesopotamia, assisted Layard 
 in his Assyrian explorations ; became 
 his successor and discovered the palace 
 of Sardanapalus ; in 1864 was sent by the 
 British Government to Abyssinia to demand 
 the release of Consul Cameron, but impri- 
 soned by King Theodore till the arrival of 
 the British force under Sir Robert Napier 
 (1808). 
 
 Rattazzl, Urbano {b. 1808, d. 1873), 
 Italian statesman, bom in Piedmont ; in 
 1848 was returned to the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties at Turin, and became leader of the 
 democratic party ; became minister of jus- 
 tice under Cavour (1854), but retired in 
 1857 ; was prime minister in 1862, but was 
 compelled to resign in consequence of his 
 opposition to Garibaldi's expedition against 
 Rome. 
 
 Ranch, Christian Daniel {h. Yill, d. 1857), 
 German sculptor, studied at Dresden, and 
 afterwards under Thorwaldsen and Canova 
 at Rome. His masterpiece is the equestrian 
 statue of Frederick the Great in Berlin. 
 
 Raumer, Friedrich Ludwig Georg von (i. 
 1781, d. 1873), German historian, educated 
 at Halle and Gottingen, was professor at 
 Berlin 1819-53. His chief work is a His- 
 tory of the Hohenstaufen and their Titnes 
 (1823-5). 
 
 Ravaillac, Franqois (d. 1578, d. 1610), 
 French fanatic ; conceived a hatred against 
 Henri IV. as enemy of the Church and 
 assassinated him in his carriage. He waa 
 torn to pieces by horses. 
 
 Rawlinson, George (b. 1815), Canon of 
 Canterbury, historian and Orientalist, waa
 
 Raw 
 
 (638) 
 
 Rec 
 
 educated at Oxford, where he was appointed 
 Camdeu professor of ancient history in 1861. 
 Among his chief works are his version of 
 Herodotus (1858-62), and histories of The 
 Fire Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern 
 World (1862-7) and Ancient Egypt (1881). 
 
 Rawlinson, Major-General Sir Henry 
 Creswicke, Bart. (6.1810), brother of the pre- 
 ceding, entered the Bombay army in 1827 ; 
 served in the Persian army 1833-9 ; was 
 political agent at Candahar 1840-2, and in 
 Turkish Arabia 1843-55 ; was the vice- 
 president of the Council of India in 1876. 
 He has published several works on cunei- 
 form inscriptions. 
 
 Rawlinson, Sir Robert (i. 1810), civil 
 engineer, was appointed a superintendent 
 inspector under the Public Health Act in 
 1848 ; introduced important reforms in 
 sanitary science. During the Crimean war 
 he rendered great services as engineering 
 sanitary coromissioner to the British army. 
 
 Rawson, Sir Eawson {b. 1812), after hold- 
 ing various colonial appointments, became 
 governor of the Bahamas in 1864, and of 
 the Windward Islands in 1869. He has 
 written numerous papers on statistics and 
 physical science, especially in regard to the 
 West Indies. 
 
 Ray, or Wray, John {b. 1628, d. 1705), 
 naturalist, was the son of a blacksmith at 
 Black Notley in Essex. He was educated 
 at Cambridge, and obtained a fellowship at 
 Trinity College, of which he was deprived 
 after the Restoration owing to his refusal to 
 sign the Act of Conformity. In 1663-6 he 
 travelled on the Continent with his friend 
 WUloughby, and in 1673 published an ac- 
 count of the expedition. In 1679 he settled 
 in his native place. His chief works are 
 Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682), Historia 
 Plantarum, Synopsis Methodica Stirpium 
 Britannicarum (1690), and The Wisdom of 
 God in Creation (1691). 
 
 Rayleigh, John "William Strutt, Lord {b. 
 1842), physicist ; became professor of natural 
 philosophy in the Royal Institution in 1887. 
 He has published a treatise on The Theory 
 of Sound (1877-8), etc. 
 
 Raymond, Robert, Lord {b. 1673, d. 1732), 
 judge ; was Solicitor- General in the reign 
 of Anne, and became Attorney-General and 
 afterwards Chief Justice of the King's 
 Bench imder George I. 
 
 Raymond VL, Count of Toulouse (*. 
 1156, d. 1222), espoused the cause of the 
 Albigenses, and was excommunicated in 
 1208 and 1211. In 1213 he was defeated by 
 Simon de Montfort, and forced to retire to 
 Aragon, but he afterwards recovered most 
 of his possessions. His son, Raymond VII. 
 (b. 1197, d. 1242), was at first successful 
 against Amaury de Montfort, but in 1229 
 
 was forced to yield his dominions, which 
 were then incorporated in the French 
 kingdom. 
 
 Rayual, Guillaume Thomas Fran9ois (Jb. 
 1713, d. 1796), French historian, born at 
 Saint Geniez, in the Rouergue ; became a 
 Jesuit, but left the order in 1747, and had 
 recourse to literature as a means of subsist- 
 ence. His chief work is Histoire des Etab- 
 lissements et du Couimerce des Europeens dans 
 les Deux hides (1770). 
 
 Raynouard, Fran9ois Juste Marie {b. 
 1761, d. 183C), French philologist and dra- 
 matist, was imprisoned during the Reign of 
 Terror. His tragedy, Les Templiers (1805), 
 was highly successful. His philological 
 works include Elements de la Grammaire 
 Eomane (1816), Choix de Poesies Originales des 
 Troubadours (1816-21), and Lexique Roman 
 (1833-44). 
 
 Read, Clare Sewell {b, 1826), an eminent 
 English agriculturist. 
 
 Reade, Charles {b. 1814, d. 1884'), novelist 
 and di-amatist, bom in Oxfordshire ; was 
 educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, of 
 which he became fellow. Among his novels, 
 most of which were intended to expose some 
 social abuse, were Pe(j Jfojinyton (lSb2), It 
 is Never Too Late to Mend (1856), The Clois- 
 ter and the Hearth (1861), and Griffith 
 Gaunt (1866). 
 
 Reaney, Mrs. Isabel, has done much work 
 among the poor in Warrington, Reading, 
 and the East of London. 
 
 Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault de (b. 
 1683, d. 1757), French naturalist, bom at 
 La Rochelle ; was the first to reduce ther- 
 mometers to a common standard, and made 
 use of chemical processes in the manufacture 
 of porcelain and steel. His chief work is a 
 Hintory of Insects. 
 
 Reay, Lord, Sir Donald James Mackay 
 {b. 1839), born in Holland, son of Baron 
 Mackay Ophemert, was in the Netherlands 
 India Office 1865-69. He was appointed 
 governor of Bombay in 1885. 
 
 Reboul, Jean (b. 1796, d. 1864), French 
 poet, born at Nimes, at first a baker in his 
 native town ; published L^Ange et V Enfant 
 (1828), Poesies (1836), etc. 
 
 R^camier, Jeanne Fran^oise Bernard (J. 
 1777, d. 1849), bom in Paris; married M. 
 Recamier, a Paris banker, in 1792. Between 
 the Bourbon restoration and her death her 
 salon at Abbaye-aux-Bois was the resort of 
 men of rank and genius. Chateaubriand 
 was greatly fascinated by her. 
 
 Reccared {d. 601), Visigoth King of Spain, 
 succeeded his father, Leovigild, in 586. He 
 became a convert to Catholicism, which took 
 the place of Arianism in Spain.
 
 B.ec 
 
 (639) 
 
 Bei 
 
 Sedus, Jean Jacques Elisee {b. 1830), 
 French geographer ; studied under Bitter 
 at Berlin. He has published La Terre, 
 Geographie Universelle (1875-90), etc. 
 
 Recorde, Robert {b. circa 1500, d. 1558), 
 physician and mathematician, bom at Tenby, 
 educated at Oxford ; introduced the Coper- 
 nicau system into England. 
 
 Redesdale, John Freeman Mitford, Baron 
 
 (b. 1748, d. 1830), lawyer, educated at 
 Oxford; became Solicitor- General in 1793, 
 Attorney-General in 1799, Speaker of the 
 House of Commons in 1801, and Lord Chan- 
 cellor of Ireland in 1802. 
 
 Redesdale, John Thomas Freeman Mit- 
 ford, Earl of {ib. 1805, d. 1886), son of the 
 preceding ; was chosen Chairman of Com- 
 mittees in 1851, and exercised much influence 
 on the private bill legislation of the House 
 of Lords. He published Reflections on the 
 Doctrine of Regeneration (1849), etc. 
 
 Redgrave, Richard, R.A. (b. 1804, «?.1888), 
 artist, bom in London ; became an academi- 
 cian in 1851. He was inspector-general of 
 art schools, aided Sir Henry Cole in found- 
 ing the museum of art at South Kensington, 
 and took part in the arrangement of various 
 international exhibitions, especially that of 
 1862. In conjunction with his brother, Mr. 
 S. Redgeave, he wrote A Century of Painters 
 (1860). 
 
 Redhonse, Sir James William (*. 1811, 
 d. 1892), after holding several appointments 
 under the Turkish government, became 
 Oriental translator to the Foreign Office in 
 1854. He published a Turkish Grammar, 
 and other works. 
 
 Reed, Andrew {b. 1787, d. 1862), Noncon- 
 formist minister, educated at Hackney Col- 
 lege ; was in 1834 sent by the Congregational 
 Union to visit the American churches. He 
 founded the Orphan Asylum at Clapton 
 (1825), the Asylum for Idiots at Earlswood 
 (1847), the Hospital for Incurables (1854), 
 and other philanthropic institutions. In 
 1819 he published a novel entitled No 
 Fiction. 
 
 Reed, Sir Edward James (6. 1830) ; was 
 chief constructor of the navy 1863-70 ; sat 
 in Parliament as Liberal member for Pem- 
 broke boroughs 1874-80, since which he has 
 represented Cardiff. He has written several 
 works on shipbuilding, also Japan : its His- 
 tory, Traditions, and Religions (1880). 
 
 Reed, Isaac {b. 1742, d. 1807) ; wrote Bio- 
 graphia Britannica (1782), and published 
 editions of Bodsley's Old Plays (1780), 
 Shakespeare (1785-1803), etc. 
 
 Rees, Abraham (J. 1743, d. 1825), Dis- 
 Benting minister; he edited Chambers'' s 
 
 Cyclopcedia 1776-86, and between 1802 and 
 1820 published in forty -five voliunes the 
 CyclopcBdia which bears his name. 
 
 _ Reeves, John Sims {b. 1822) , English tenor 
 singer; joined Macready's company at Drury 
 Lane in 1841 ; afterwards studied in Paris 
 under Bordogni, and at Milan under Maz- 
 zucato ; in 1847 returned to England, where 
 his success was instantaneous. 
 
 Reeve, Clara (4. 1725, d. 1803), novelist, 
 wrote The Old English Baron, etc. 
 
 Regnard, Jean Fran9ois {b. 1650. d. 1709), 
 French comic poet ; ranks nest to Moli^re, 
 and is also noted for his adventurous career. 
 While journeying by sea from Italy to 
 France, he was captured by Algerian pirates, 
 but ransomed by the French consul. In 
 1681-3 he travelled in Holland, Sweden, 
 Lapland, and other countries. 
 
 Regnaiilt, Henri Victor {b. 1810, d. 
 1878), French chemist, was appointed pro- 
 fessor at the College de France in 1841. 
 His most valuable experiments relate to 
 the specifie heat of gases. 
 
 Regnault, Jean Baptiste, Baron (b. 1754, 
 d. 1829), a French painter, bom in Paris. 
 His Education of Achilles (1783) is now in 
 the Louvre. 
 
 Regnlus, Marcus Atilius {d. 251 B.C.), 
 Roman general ; was sent against Carthage, 
 and gained some successes, but was after- 
 wards taken prisoner. The Carthaginians 
 sent him to Rome to propose peace, and he 
 swore to return if unsuccessful. He dis- 
 suaded his countrymen from accepting the 
 offer, and on his return to Carthage was put 
 to death. 
 
 Reichel, Charles Parsons, became Bishop 
 of Meath in 1885. He has published Sermom 
 on the Lord's Prayer, etc. 
 
 Reichstadt, Napoleon Franqois Charles 
 Joseph, Due de. \^See Napoleon 11.] 
 
 Reid, Captain Mayne {b. 1819, d. 1883), 
 novelist ; after roaming about Missouri as a 
 trapper, entered the United States army, and 
 distinguished himself in the Mexican war, at 
 the close of which he returned to Europe. 
 He wrote numerous tales of adventure, in- 
 cluding The Scalp Hunters (1847), The Rifle 
 Rangers (1850), The Headless Horseman 
 (1865), etc. 
 
 Reid, Thomas (J>. 1710, d. 1796), Scotch 
 metaphysician, bom in Kincardineshire, 
 educated at the Marischal College, Aber- 
 deen ; was professor of philosophy at Glas- 
 gow 1763-96. His chief work is his Lnquiry 
 into the Human Mind on the Principles of 
 Common Sense (1764). 
 
 Reid, Thomas Wemyss (*. 1842), edited
 
 Bei 
 
 (640) 
 
 Ben 
 
 the Leeds Mercury 1870-87, and became 
 editor of the Speaker xa 1890. He has pub- 
 lished Charlotte Bronte (1877), lives of 
 "W. E. Forster (1888), and Lord Houghton 
 (1391), and other works. 
 
 Reid, Whitelaw (b. 1837), American jour- 
 nalist ; became editor of the New York 
 Tribune in 1872 ; in 1889 was appointed 
 United States minister to France. 
 
 Reid, Sir William {b. 1791, d. 1858), 
 general ; in 1838 published An Attempt to 
 Develop the Law of Storms. He pursued 
 his investigations in the Windward Islands, 
 of which he was governor 1846-8, and in 
 1 . 19 published The Progress of the Develop- 
 ment of the Law of Storms. 
 
 Reimarus, Hermann Samuel {b. 1694, d. 
 ITtii), (jerman philologist and philosopher ; 
 was professor at Hamburg 1727-65. He 
 was the author of the JFolfenbiittel Fragments, 
 which were pubUshed anonymously by Lea- 
 sing, and supposed to be his work. 
 
 Reineck. Reiner {b. 1541, d. 1595), German 
 historian ; was a disciple of Melanchthon. 
 He wrote Historia Julia, etc. 
 
 Relnhold, Erasmus (b. 1511, d. 1553), 
 astronomer, born in Thuringia ; was pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Wittemberg 1536- 
 53, and became a disciple of Copernicus. 
 
 Reinkens, Joseph Hubert (b. 1821), Ger- 
 man theologian ; is a leader of the " Old 
 Catholic" party. 
 
 Reinold, Arnold William, F.R.S. {b. 1843), 
 became professor of physics in the Royal 
 Naval College, Green^vich, in 1873. He 
 has contributed to the Fhilosophical Maga- 
 zine, and other publications. 
 
 Retake, Johann Jakob (b. 1716, d. 1774), 
 Arabic scholar, born at Zorbig, in Saxony, 
 studied at Leipzig ; resided for some time at 
 Leyden, in order to consult the Arabic works 
 in the library ; returned to Leipzig, and, 
 after a long period of poverty, became rector 
 of the College of St. Nicholas in 1758. He 
 edited the Annals of Abulfeda, and the Be 
 Ceremoniis of Constautiue Porphyrogenitus, 
 and wrote De Principibiis Muhamedanis, etc. 
 
 Reland, Adrian {b. 1676, d. 1718), Dutch 
 Orientalist ; was professor in the university 
 of Utrecht. He published De Religione 
 Mohammedicd, Palestina ex Veteribus Monu- 
 
 mentis Illustrata, etc. 
 
 Rembrandt van Ryn (Jb. 1607, d. 1669), an 
 eminent painter and engraver ; was the son 
 of a miller near Leyden. He studied for three 
 years under Jacob von Zwanenburg, and was 
 afterwards the pupil of Peter Lastman at Am- 
 sterdam, and of Jacob Pinas at Haarlem. In 
 1630 he settled in Amsterdam, where he died. 
 Among his chief works are The Anatomical 
 Lesson (1632) and The Night Watch (1642). 
 
 Remusat, Claire Elisabeth de Vergennes, 
 
 Comtesse de {b. 1780, d. 1821), a lady in the 
 service of the Empress Josephine. Her 
 Meinou-es (1879) and Letters (1881) give a 
 lively picture of the court of the First Em- 
 pii-e. Her son, Chaeues, Comte de Remusat 
 {b. 1797, d. 1875), was minister of foreign 
 affairs under M. Thiers, and published 
 L'Angleterre au 'XVIII. Siecle (1856), etc. 
 
 Remusat, Jean Pierre Abel (Jb. 1788, d. 
 1832), French Orientalist; was the first 
 professor of Chinese at the College ds 
 France (1814), and in 1829 became president 
 of the Societe Asiatique. He published His- 
 toire dii Bouddhisme (1836), etc. 
 
 Renan, Joseph Ernest {b. 1823, d. 1892), 
 Orientalist, historian, and essayist, bom at 
 Trt'guier, in Brittany. In 1842 he entered 
 the seminary of St. Sulpice, but three years 
 later gave up the idea of becoming a priest. 
 His first important work, Arerroes et V 
 Averrdisme, appeared in 1852. He was pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew in the Institute of France 
 1861-2, and was reappointed in 1870. The 
 Vie de Jesus (1863), which gave rise to much 
 discussion, was afterwards expanded into 
 Ilistoire des Origines dii Christianisme. He 
 also published Le Judaisme (1883), and 
 numerous other works. 
 
 Renaudot, Eusfebe {b. 1646, d. 1720), 
 French Orientalist; wrote Historia Pat- 
 riarcharum Alexandrinorum Jacobitarttm, 
 Liturgiarum OrientaUum Collectio, etc. 
 
 Rendel, Sir Alexander Meadows {b. 1829), 
 civil engineer ; has constructed the Royal 
 Albert Dock, the Albert and Edinburgh 
 docks at Leith, etc. 
 
 Rendel, George Whitwick, brother of the 
 preceding ; has introduced great improve- 
 ments in connection with guns and the con- 
 struction of ironclads. He was civil lord of 
 the Admiralty 1882-5. 
 
 Rendel, Stuart (b. 1834), brother of the 
 preceding ; has represented Montgomery 
 county since 1880. He is well-known as 
 an advocate of Welsh interests. 
 
 Reni, Guido {b. 1574, d. 1642), Bolognese 
 painter, whose best work is seen at Rome 
 and Genoa. 
 
 Rennel, James (*. 1742, d. 1830), geo- 
 graphical writer ; entered the service of the 
 East India Company, and became surveyor- 
 general of Bengal. His chief work is The 
 Geographical System of Herodotus (18001. 
 
 Rennie, .John [b. 1761, d. 1821), engineer ; 
 constructed Waterloo, Southwark, and new 
 London bridges, the Lancaster and Avon 
 canals, and other public works. 
 
 Rennie, Sir John (6. 1794, d. 1874), was 
 son of the preceding, whom he succeeded
 
 Ren 
 
 (641) 
 
 Rey 
 
 as engineer to the Admiralty. Among his 
 chief works are the Whitehaven docks and 
 a portion of the Cardiff docks. He wrote a 
 work on the Theory, Formation, and Con- 
 struction of British and Foreign Harbours. 
 In many of his enterprises he was associated 
 with his brother Geoege {b. 1791, d. 1866), 
 who was also a distinguished engineer. 
 
 Renouf, Peter le Page {b. 1824), Orien- 
 talist, bom in Guernsey ; from 1864 to 1886 
 was an inspector of schools ; has published 
 many works on the language and religion 
 of Egypt, and kindred subjects. 
 
 Reschid Pacha {b. 1802, d. 1858), Turkish 
 statesman ; took part in the negotiations 
 with Russia at Adxianople in 1829. On the 
 accession of Abd-el-Medjid (1839) he be- 
 came his chief adviser, and was six times 
 grand vizier. 
 
 Retz, Jean Fran9oi8 Paul de Gondi, Car- 
 dinal de (b. 1614, d. 1679), son of the general 
 of the French galleys, was bom at Mont- 
 mirail, and educated by Vincent de St. Paul. 
 He took a leading part in the plots against 
 Mazarin, and on the outbreak of the war of 
 the Fronde (1648) put himself at the head of 
 the insurgents. In 1651 Retz was bought 
 over by the gift of a cardinal's hat, but he 
 was nevertheless imprisoned tUl 1654, when 
 he escaped to Spain. After visiting Rome, 
 he returned to France on the death of 
 Mazarin, and Hved there quietly till his 
 death. His Jlemoires give a valuable ac- 
 count of the chief political characters of the 
 period. 
 
 Retzsch, Friedrich August Moritz (J. 1779, 
 d. 1857), German artist, bom at Dresden; 
 was appointed professor of painting in his 
 native town in 1824. He owes his celebrity 
 to his sldll as a designer in outline. Among 
 his chief works are his illustrations to 
 Goethe's Faust and Schiller's Song of the Bell. 
 
 Reuchlin, Johann (b. 1455, d. 1522), Ger- 
 man scholar, bom at Pforzheim, studied at 
 Basle and elsewhere ; about 1481 went to 
 Stuttgart ; accompanied Eberhard, Count 
 of Wiirtemberg, to Italy (1482), and was 
 well received at the court of Lorenzo de' 
 Medici; after Eberhard's death (1496), en- 
 tered the service of the elector-palatine, by 
 whom he was sent as ambassador to Alex- 
 ander VI. (1498) ; was summoned before an 
 ecclesiastical tribunal for resisting Pfefifec- 
 kom's attempt to biim all Jewish books ; 
 appealed to the pope (1513), who left the case 
 undecided. His writings were volxuninous. 
 
 Reuter, Heinrich Ludwig Christian Fried- 
 rich [Fritz] (b. 1810, d. 1874), German 
 humorist, bom in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 educated at Rostock and .Jena : was im- 
 prisoned owing to his liberal views 1833-40. 
 In 1853 appeared Lauschen un Rimels, a 
 PP 
 
 volume of poems in Low German. The first 
 part of the Olle Kamellen, a series of prose 
 tales, was published in 1859. 
 
 Reuter, Baron Paul Julius {h. 1821), born 
 at Cassel; in 1849 established an office at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle for supplying news by tele- 
 graph, and thereby revolutionised the press 
 of Europe. In 1851 he transferred his 
 business to London. 
 
 Revett, Nicholas {b. 1721, d. 1804), archi- 
 tect; in 1748-53 visited Greece with James 
 Stuart, in conjunction with whom he wrote 
 Antiquities of Athens (1762) ; was the com- 
 panion of Chandler in his expedition to Asia 
 Minor, and assisted him iu Ionian Anti- 
 quities (1769-1804), 
 
 R^vlUe, Albert (b. 1826), French Pro- 
 testant divine, bom at Dieppe ; in 1851 
 became pastor of the Walloon church at 
 Rotterdam; in 1880 was appointed titular 
 professor of the history of religions in the 
 College de France. 
 
 Rewbell, Jean Frangois {b. 1747, d. 1807), 
 French revolutionist ; was a member of the 
 Convention and Directory. He retired from 
 public life in 1799. 
 
 Rey, Jean {d. 1645), a French physician 
 and chemist, whose discoveries to some ex- 
 tent anticipated those of Lavoisier. 
 
 Reynolds, Henry Robert {b. 1825), Con- 
 gregationaUst divine, edited the British 
 Quarterly Review 1866-74 ; has published 
 John the Baptist (1888), etc. 
 
 Reynolds, James Emerson {b. 1844) ; was 
 appointed professor of chemistry at Dublin 
 in 1875. He has made several discoveries, 
 and is author of General Experimental 
 Chemistry (1880), etc. 
 
 Reynolds, James Russell, M.D. {b. 1828), 
 Emeritus professor of medicine in University 
 College, London ; has published numerous 
 medical works. 
 
 Reynolds, John Hamilton (6. 1796, d. 
 1852), poet and man of letters ; published 
 Safie, an eastern tale in verse (1814), etc. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua {b. 1723, d. 1792), 
 painter, bom at Plympton, in Devonshire, 
 studied under the portrait-painter Hudsou ; 
 removed to London in 1746; travelled in 
 Italy 1749-52 ; on his return to London 
 was immediately recognised as the greatest 
 portrait painter of the day. He was the 
 first president of the Royal Academy (1768- 
 92), and in 1784 was appointed painter to 
 the king. Among his intimate friends were 
 Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, and other 
 eminent literary men. His fifteen Bis- 
 courses on Painting were delivered before 
 the Royal Academy between 1769 and 1790.
 
 Rha 
 
 (642) 
 
 Kic 
 
 Rhazes, or Ar-Razi (d. circa 932), Arabian 
 physician, boru in Irak Ajemi ; was super- 
 intendent of the hospital at Bagdad. His 
 works include a treatise on the small-pox. 
 
 Rbodes, Cecil J. {b. 1853), became prime 
 minister of the Cape in 1890. 
 
 Rhys, John (b. 1840), became professor 
 of Celtic at Oxford in 1877. He has pub- 
 lished Celtic Britain (1882), etc. 
 
 Ribalta, Francisco {b. 1551, d. 1628), 
 Spanish painter; after studying at Eome, 
 settled in Valencia, where he died. His 
 works show the influence of Sebastiano del 
 Piombo. 
 
 Ricardo, David {b. 1772, d. 1823), political 
 economist, son of a Jewish broker ; entered 
 Parliament in 1819. His Principles of Poli- 
 tical Economy and Taxation, containing his 
 famous theory of rent, was published in 
 1817. 
 
 Ricasoli, Bettino, Count {b. 1809, d. 1880), 
 Italian statesman; after the flight of the 
 Grand Duke Leopold became dictator of 
 Tuscany, and co-operated with Victor Em- 
 manuel in the war of Italian Liberation ; was 
 prime minister of Italy 1861-2, and 1866-7. 
 
 Ricaut, or Rycaut, Sir Paul {d. 1700), 
 EngHsh diplomatist and historian ; was 
 secretary to the embassy at Constantinople 
 1661-9, and afterwards English consul at 
 Smyrna. His works include a continuation 
 of KnoUes's History of the Turks. 
 
 RicH, Claudius James (J. 1786, d. 1821), 
 Orientalist, bom near Dijon, educated at 
 Bristol ; became Resident at Bagdad in 1808, 
 and explored the ruins of Babylon. His 
 Memoirs of Ancient Babylon appeared in 
 1815. 
 
 Richard, Loxiis Claude Marie {b. 1754, d. 
 1821), French botanist, bom at Versailles ; 
 in 1781 undertook a journey to the Antilles 
 and French Guiana under the auspices of 
 Louis XVI., and in 1789 returned with la*ge 
 collections of plants and animals. He afti-T- 
 wards became professor of botany in the 
 School of Medicine at Paris. 
 
 Richard Plantagenet {d. 1272), Earl of 
 Cornwall, was the son of John, King of 
 England. In 1256 he was elected King of 
 the Romans. He at first showed some sym- 
 pathy with De Montfort's aims, but after- 
 wards aided Henry III. against him, and 
 was taken prisoner at Lewes (1264). He 
 was released in the following year. 
 
 Richard of Cirencester (d. circa 1401), 
 an English chronicler ; entered the Benedic- 
 tine monastery of St. Peter at Westminster 
 in 1350. 
 
 Richard of St. Victor {d. 1173), mystic, 
 
 bom in Scotland ; became prior of the con- 
 vent of St. Victor at Paris about 1164. He 
 wrote commentaries on the Old Testament, 
 etc. 
 
 Richard I., "the Fearless," Duke of Nor- 
 mandy {d. 996) ; succeeded his father, Wil- 
 Ham Lougsword, in 942. He became the 
 vassal of Hugh the Great, Duke of Paris, 
 in 946, and was iustrimiental in raising 
 Hugh Capet to the French throne (987). 
 
 Richard II., "the Good"" {d. 1026), suc- 
 ceeded his father, Richard I., in 996. He 
 maintained friendly relations with Robert I. 
 of France. 
 
 Richard IIL id. 1028), succeeded his 
 father, Richard II., in 1026. He is said to 
 have been poisoned by his brother, Robert I. 
 
 Richard I., King of England {b. 1157, d. 
 1199), was the thii-d sou of Henry II., whom 
 he succeeded in 1 1 89 . He immediately j oined 
 the third Crusade, in company with Philip 
 Augustus of France. After marshalUng 
 their hosts at Vezelai, the two kings pro- 
 ceeded by separate routes to Sicily. Here 
 Richard remained till April, 1191, when he 
 sailed to Palestine, halting during the 
 journey at Cyprus, which he conquered. 
 His anival at Acre in June was soon fol- 
 lowed by the fall of that fortress. During 
 the ensuing war Richard displayed great 
 prowess, but the want of union among the 
 Crusaders, sickness, and other causes obliged 
 them to abandon the project of taking Jeru- 
 salem, and in October, 1191, Richard set sail 
 for England. On the way he fell into th« 
 hands of the Emperor Henry VI., who con- 
 fined him in a castle on the Danube, and re- 
 leased him only on the payment of a heavy 
 ransom (1194). For the rest of his life he 
 was engaged in wars with PhiUp of France. 
 He was mortally wounded whilst besieging 
 the castle of Chaluz. 
 
 Richard II. {b. 1366, d. 1399), son of 
 Edward the Black Prince, succeeded his 
 grandfather, Edward III., in 1377. The 
 government was entrusted to a council of 
 regency, but the Duke of Lancaster soon 
 gained the entire control of affairs. In. 
 1381 a rising of the peasantry took place, the 
 immediate cause of which was an excessive 
 poll-tax. The king's fondness for favourites 
 excited the resentment of the leading barons, 
 who defeated the royal forces in 1387, and 
 in 1388 De Vere and Suffolk were impeached 
 and put to death. In 1389 Richard assumed 
 the government, and for eight years ruled 
 well, but in 1397 those who had formerly 
 taken up arms against him were _ suddenly 
 executed or imprisoned, and the king's sub- 
 sequent proceedings showed that he_ aimed 
 at making his power absolute. During his 
 absence in Ireland, Henry, Duke of Lan- 
 caster, son of John of Gaunt, landed ia
 
 Eic 
 
 (643) 
 
 Ric 
 
 Yorkshire. Richard, on his retiim, was taken 
 prisoner at Flint, and carried to London, 
 ■where he resigned the crown in favour of 
 Henry. He is said to have teen murdered 
 soon afterwards. 
 
 Eichard III. {b. 1450, d. 14S5) was the 
 youngest son of Eichard, Duke of York. 
 He fought at Barnet and Tewkeshuiy 
 (1471), and in 1482 led an expedition agaiast 
 Scotland. After the death of his brother, 
 Edward IV., he was proclaimed protector 
 (May, 1483). He soon afterwards fonned 
 a plot, ia concert with the Duke of Buck- 
 ingham, which led to the execution of Lord 
 Hastings, and the imprisonment of the 
 king's nephews, Edward V. and his brother, 
 in lie Tower. In June he declared himself 
 king. In the course of the same year the 
 young princes disappeared, and Bucking- 
 ham, who had excited a rising in favour 
 of Edward V., was executed. In August, 
 1485, Henry, Earl of Richmond, landed at 
 Milford Haven, and marched to Bosworth 
 in Leicestershire, where Richard was de- 
 feated and slaia. 
 
 Richards, Admiral Sir George Henry (i. 
 1820), has superintended nautical sxu-veys 
 of China, Australia, and other countries, 
 and was hydrographer of the Admiralty 
 1863-74. 
 
 Richaids, Henry Brinley (J. 1819, d. 1885), 
 a popular pianist and composer, bom at Car- 
 marthen. 
 
 Richardson, Benjamin "Ward, M.D., 
 F.R.S. {b. 1828), man of science; has pub- 
 lished Alcohol : its Action and its Use (1869), 
 Hygeia (1876), etc. 
 
 Richardson, Sir James {b. 1787, d. 1865), 
 bom at Dumfries, entered the navy as 
 assistant-surgeon in 1807; accompanied 
 Franklin in his Arctic voyages in 1819 and 
 1825 ; was physician of Haslar Hospital 
 1838-55. He published Fauna Boreali- 
 Americana (1829-37), The Arctic Searching 
 Expedition (1852), etc. 
 
 Richardson, Jonathan {h. circa 1665, d. 
 1745), an English artist, who succeeded 
 Kneller as the fashionable portrait-painter 
 of the day. He wrote an Essay on me Art 
 of Criticism in Painting, etc. 
 
 Richardson, Samuel {b. 1689, d. 1761), 
 novelist, bom in Derbyshire ; apprenticed to 
 a printer in London (1706); in 1719 estab- 
 lished a business of his own, and became 
 printer to the House of Commons. His 
 novels are Pamela (1740), Clarissa Harlowe 
 (1748), and Sir Charles Grandison (1753). 
 
 Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Due 
 
 de {b. 1585, d. 1642), French cardinal and 
 
 statesman, bom in Paris, became Bishop of 
 
 Lu9on in 1607 ; in 1615 entered the service 
 
 1^2 
 
 of the Queen-mother, Marie de' Medici, and 
 in 1016 became secretary of state for war 
 and foreign affairs. He followed Marie 
 de' Medici to Blois (1616), and was exiled to 
 Avignon (1618), but was soon afterwards 
 recalled, and effected a reconciliation be- 
 tween the king and queen, receiving as his 
 reward a cardinal's hat. In 1624 he became 
 chief minister, an of&ce which he retained 
 till his death. During this period he estab- 
 lished the absolute power of the king, and 
 crushed the Calvinist party, although he was 
 led by political motives to support the Pro» 
 testants in Germany. 
 
 Richelieu, Louis Fran9oi3 Armand du 
 Plessis, Due de (b. 1696, d. 1788), French 
 marshal, belonged to the same family as the 
 preceding. He distinguished himself in the 
 Seven Years' war. 
 
 Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel du Plessis, 
 Due de (b. 1776, d. 1822), grandson of the 
 preceding ; on the outbreak of the revolution 
 entered the Russian service, fought against 
 the Tiu-ks, and in 1803 became governor of 
 Odessa. He returned on the accession of 
 Louis XVIII. , and was chief minister in 
 1815-18, and again in 1820. 
 
 Richmond, George, R.A. {b. 1809), Eng- 
 lish artist ; in 1837 went to Italy, and 
 resided for some years in Rome; after 
 his return achieved distinction as a portrait- 
 painter in oils. 
 
 Richmond, Legh {b. 1772, d. 1827), rector 
 of Turvey, in Bedfordshire, 1805-27 ; author 
 of several religious tales, published imder the 
 title of Annals of the Poor, the best known 
 of which is The Dairyman's Daughter. 
 
 Richmond, William Blake {b. 1842), por- 
 trait-painter, son of George Richmond ; was 
 Slade professor at Oxford 1880-3. Among 
 his chief portraits are those of Darwin 
 (1880), Gladstone, and Browning (1882). 
 
 Richmond and Gordon, Charles Henry 
 Gordon-Lennox, sixth Diike of {b. 1818), 
 entered Parliament as a Conservative m 
 1841 ; succeeded to the peerage in 1860; was 
 president of the Board of Trade 1867-8; 
 fed the Government in the House of Lords 
 1874-6 ; was secretai-y for Scotland imder 
 Lord Salisbury 1885-6. 
 
 Richter, Adrian Ludwig (i. 1803, d. 
 1884), artist, bom at Dresden, studied in 
 France and Italy; became professor of 
 landscape-painting at Dresden in 1836. 
 Later in life he earned fame by his draw- 
 ings illustrating German village life and 
 the ways of children. 
 
 Richter, Gustav Karl Ludwig {b. 1823), 
 artist, bom at Berlin, studied under Coignet 
 at Paris, and afterwards at Rome (1847-9). 
 His chief work is his portrait of Queen
 
 Ric 
 
 (644) 
 
 Hip 
 
 Louise of Prussia (1879), now in the Cologne 
 Museum. 
 
 Eichter, Hans (b. 1843), conductor of 
 orchestral concerts, horn at Eaab in Hun- 
 gary ; became kapellmeister at Vienna in 
 1878. His first orchestral concert in London 
 took place in 1879. 
 
 Richter, Jean Paul Friedrich {b. 1763, d. 
 1825), German mystic and humorist, son of 
 a poor pastor and schoolmaster at Baii-euth, 
 studied at Leipzig University ; after leaving 
 it remained with his widowed mother at 
 Hof till her death in 1798, when he removed 
 to Weimar. His first original work. The 
 Invisible Lodge (1792), was followed by 
 Hesperus (1792-4), Quintus Fixlein, Sie- 
 benkds (179o),_and Titan (1799-1802). After 
 living at Berhn, Meiningen and Coburg he 
 settled at Baireuth in 1804. Flegeljahre 
 appeared in 1803 ; Levana, a treatise on 
 education, in 1806. The fragment of his 
 Autobiography was written in 1S18. 
 
 Ricimer (d. 472), a Sueve, who com- 
 manded the barbarians in the Roman army. 
 After the death of Valentinian III. he set up 
 and deposed several emperors in succession 
 viz. Avitus (455), Majorian (457), Severus 
 (457-461), Anthemius (467), who was nomi- 
 nated by the Eastern Emperor Leo I., and 
 Olybrius (472). 
 
 Rickman, Thomas {b. 1776, d. 1841), 
 architect, bom at Maidenhead ; in 1808 be- 
 came clerk in an insurance office in Liver- 
 pool, and there studied architecture, which 
 he adopted as a profession, settHng in BLr- 
 mingham. Among his works are the new 
 buildings of St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 He was the first to classify the different 
 periods of Gothic architecture. 
 
 Riddell, Charlotte Eliza Lawson (b. circa 
 1837), novelist; has pubhshed City and 
 Suburb (1861), George Geith (1864), etc. 
 
 Ridley, Nicholas {d. 1555), English re- 
 former, bom in Northmnberland, studied at 
 Cambridge, Paris, and Louvain ; returned to 
 Cambridge in 1529 ; became chaplain to 
 Cranmer in 1537, and, about 1540, master of 
 Pembroke Hall ; was appointed Bishop of 
 Rochester in 1547, and of London in 1550 ; 
 ^ook a leading part in composing the 
 liturgy and drawing up the forty-two 
 articles; favoured the attempt to place 
 Lady Jane Grey on the throne, and was 
 imprisoned in the Tower; was condemned 
 to death for heresy, and burnt, with 
 Latimer, at Oxford in October, 1565. 
 
 Ridolfl, Carlo {b. 1594, d. 1658), Italian 
 painter and writer on art ; belonged to the 
 Venetian school. He wrote lives of IUhs- 
 tnous Venetian Painters (1648). 
 
 Rienzi, Cola di (b. 1313, d. 1354), Roman 
 
 citizen ; was sent in 1343 to Clement VI. at 
 Avignon to remonstrate with him on his 
 absence from Rome, and was appointed 
 apostolic notary. On his return to Rome he 
 began to scheme for a revival of the ancient 
 republic, incited the people against the 
 uobihty, and was in 1347 proclaimed tri- 
 bune, his authority being acknowledged by 
 Clement. In December of the same year ha 
 was forced to leave Rome, and in 1350 went 
 to Prague, whence he was despatched to 
 Avignon, and remained for some time a 
 prisoner in the hands of Clement. On the 
 election of Innocent VI. (1353) he was 
 released and sent to Rome as governor, but 
 the difficulty of his position drove him to 
 commit cruelties, which caused him to be 
 assassinated in 1354. 
 
 Ries, Ferdinand {b. 1783, d. 1838), pianist 
 and composer, bom at Bonn ; resided in 
 England 1813-24 ; died at Frankfort. 
 
 Rigg, James Harrison (jb. 1821), has been 
 principal of the Wesleyan Training College 
 since 1868, and was president of the Wes- 
 leyan Conference in 1878. He is editor of 
 the London Quarterly Review. 
 
 RUey, Henry Thomas {b. 1818, d. 1878), 
 Eughsh antiquary ; published Memorials of 
 London (1858), etc. 
 
 RUey, John (jb. 1646, d. 1691), portrait 
 painter, studied under Zoust ; became painter 
 to Charles II. after the death of Lely (1680). 
 
 Rintoul, Robert Stephen {b. 1787, d. 1858), 
 joumaUst ; started the Spectator in 1828. 
 
 Rinuccini, Ottavio {d. 1621), poet; ac- 
 companied Marie de' Medici to France in 
 1600. He wrote Daphne, and other lyrical 
 dramas. 
 
 Ripley, George (i. 1S02, d. 1880), Ameri- 
 can man of letters ; published Discourses on 
 the Philosophy of Religion (1839), etc. 
 
 Ripon, Frederick James Robinson, Earl of 
 {b. 1782, d. 1859), son of the second Earl 
 Grantham ; entered Parliament as a mode- 
 rate Tory in 1806 ; became Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer in 1823 ; was created Viscount 
 Goderich in 1827 ; was Prime Minister 
 1827-8, Colonial Secretary under Earl Grey 
 1830-3, and Lord Privy Seal 1833-4. 
 
 Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Robin- 
 son, Marquis of (Earl de Grey and Ripon) 
 {h. 1827) ; entered Parliament as a Liberal 
 in 1850; was Secretary for War 1859-61 ; for 
 India 1863 : for War f 863-6 ; for India 1866, 
 and Lord President of the Council 1866-73. 
 He was Viceroy of India 1880-4, and in 1886 
 was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, 
 and again Colonial Secretary in 1892. 
 
 Ripperda, Jan Wilhelm, Baron de (J.
 
 Bis 
 
 (645) 
 
 Kob 
 
 1690, d. 1737), a political adventurer, of 
 Dutch origin ; went on a political mission to 
 Spain in 1715 ; became chief minister of 
 Philip v., but fell from power in 1726 ; sub- 
 sequently entered the service of the Emperor 
 of Morocco, when he invented a new re- 
 ligion, and was forced to flee to Tetuan, 
 where he died. 
 
 Rishaaiger, William (b. 1250), English 
 chronicler ; was a Benedictine monk at St. 
 Albans. 
 
 Ristich, Johannes {b. 1831), Servian states- 
 man ; as minister of foreign affairs (1876) 
 brought about the war with Turkey, and, 
 after the Congress of Berhn, became vir- 
 tually dictator, but was forced to resign in 
 1880. In 1889 he was appointed regent dur- 
 ing the minority of King Alexander. 
 
 Ristori, Adelaide (b. 1821), Italian actress, 
 the child of strolling players ; married, in 
 1847, the Marquis Capranica del Grillo, but 
 afterwards returned to the stage. Having 
 established her reputation in Italy, she 
 visited Paris (1855), London (1858), and 
 other European capitals, as well as the 
 United States and South America. She re- 
 visited England in 1873 and 1884. 
 
 Ritchie, Charles Thomson {b. 1838), en- 
 tered Parliament as a Conservative in 1874 ; 
 president of the Local Government Board 
 1886-1892. 
 
 Ritcllie, Mrs. Richmond, daughter of 
 W. M. Thackeray ; has published Old Ken- 
 sington, The Story of Elizabeth, and other 
 tales. 
 
 Ritson, Joseph (*. 1752, d. 1803), English 
 lawyer and antiquary ; published a col- 
 lection of ancient songs and ballads, and 
 other works. 
 
 Ritter, Carl (Jb. 1779, d. 1859), geographer, 
 bom in Prussia ; was appointed professor at 
 Berlin in 1820. His chief work is Geof/raphy 
 in its Relation to Nature and the History of 
 Man (1822-54). 
 
 Riviere, Briton, R.A. (*. 1840), artist, 
 bom in London; has exhibited at the 
 Academy many works depicting animal 
 life. 
 
 Rizzio, David {b. 1540, d. 1566), son of a 
 dancing-master ; was born in Turin, and 
 passed his youth in France. In 1564 he 
 came to Scotland in the train of the am- 
 bassador from Savoy. His gift for music 
 and other accomplishments recommended 
 him to Mary Queen of Scots, whose favourite 
 he became. His influence with her excited 
 jealousy, and he was murdered by Damley 
 and others in her presence. 
 
 Robbia, Lucca della {b. circa 1399, d. 
 
 1463), an Italian sculptor; famous for 
 
 his work in enamelled terra-cotta. TTi« 
 
 nephew, Andeea {b. 1444, d. 1527), ex- 
 celled in the same art. 
 
 Robert, King of the "West Franks {d. 923), 
 was chosen king in place of Charles the 
 Simple in 922, but was defeated and slain at 
 Soissons in the following year. 
 
 Robert, King of France (b. circa 970, d. 
 1031), succeeded his father, Hugh Capet, in 
 996. From 1003 to 1015 he was engaged in 
 a war with Otho, Duke of Burgundy, from 
 whom he finally wrested the dukedom, 
 
 Robert, Emperor of Germany {b. 1352, d. 
 1410), succeeded his father, Robert, as 
 elector palatine in 1398. He was chosen 
 Emperor in 1400 after the deposition of 
 Wenceslaus. 
 
 Robert, Louis Leopold {jb. 1794, d. 1835), 
 artist, bom in Switzerland ; studied en- 
 graving under Girardet in Paris ; in 1818 
 settled at Rome, where he devoted himself 
 to painting. The Fishermen and The Reapers 
 are among his chief works. 
 
 Robert Bruce, King of Scotland {b. 1274, 
 d. 1329), was the grandson of Balliol's rival 
 in 1292. In 1306 he murdered the regent, 
 Comyn, and was crowned at Scone, but was 
 defeated by Edward I. the same year. After 
 many years of hardship and ill-fortune, he 
 gained a final victory over Edward II. at 
 Baunockbum in lol4. By the Treaty of 
 Northampton (1328) the complete inde- 
 pendence of Scotland was recognised. 
 
 Robert of Anjou, King of Naples (5. 
 circa 1279, d. 1343), succeeded his father, 
 Charles II., in 1309 ; became Lord of Genoa 
 (1318) and Brescia (1319) ; made several 
 tmsuccessful attempts to conquer Sicily. 
 
 Robert of Gloucester, chronicler of the 
 13th century, is believed to have been a 
 monk at Gloucester. His Chronicle^ which 
 is written in English verse, includes the 
 period of the Barons' war. 
 
 Robert of Jumi6ges {d. 1070), a Norman 
 prelate ; was made Bishop of London by 
 Edward the Confessor in 1044, and after- 
 wards Archbishop of Ca»terbviry, but was 
 obliged to leave the country on the return of 
 Godwin in 1052. He was succeeded by 
 Stigand. 
 
 Robert I., Duke of Normandy, " the 
 Magnificent " {d. 1035), succeeded his 
 brother, Richard III., in 1028 ; assisted 
 Henri I. of France to regain his throne; 
 unsuccessfully invaded England on behalf 
 of Alfred and Edward, sons of Ethelred the 
 Unready ; died in BithjTiia, whilst re- 
 turning from a pilgrimage to the Holy 
 Land.
 
 Bob 
 
 (646) 
 
 Bob 
 
 Robert IL (d. 1135) became Duke of 
 Nonnaudy on the death of his father, 
 William the Conqueror, in 1087 ; pledged 
 Normandy to liis brother, William Rufus, 
 and joined the tirst Crusade; invaded Eng- 
 land in 1101, but came to teims with Henry 
 I., and resigned his claim to the English 
 throne ; was defeated by Henry at Tenche- 
 brai (1106), and imprisoned in Cardiff Castle, 
 where he died. 
 
 Eobert IL (b. 1316,W. 1390), King of Scot- 
 laud, was the son of Walter Stuart and Mar- 
 jory, daughter of Robert Bruce. He acted as 
 regent during the minority of David Bruce, 
 and again dming his captivity in England 
 1346-57, and on the death of the latter, in 
 1370, was chosen king. His reign was mai'ked 
 by a large number of border forays, the most 
 famous being that which resulted in the 
 battle of Otterbume, or Chevy Chase (1388). 
 
 Robert III. (6. circa 1340, d. 1406), suc- 
 ceeded his father, Robert II., in 1390. The 
 government was virtually carried on by his 
 brother, the Duke of Albany. In 1402 a 
 Scotch army invaded England, but was 
 defeated at Homildon Hill. Robert died of 
 grief at the capture of his son, James, by the 
 English. 
 
 Roberts, David, R.A. (b. 1796, d. 1864), 
 artist, son of an Edinburgh shoemaker ; was 
 apprenticed to a house -painter, and subse- 
 quently became a scene-painter. He fol- 
 lowed this trade for some time after settUng 
 in London (1822), but in 1827 devoted him- 
 Belf entirely to architectural painting. After 
 a journey abroad, he published an illus- 
 trated work, entitled The Holy Land^ Syria, 
 Idumaea, Egypt, and Nubia (1842). 
 
 Roberts, Lord [Sir Frederick Sleigh] (b. 
 1832) ; distinguished himself during the 
 Indian Mutiny and the Afghan campaign of 
 1878-9 ; on the renewal of hostilities was 
 appointed commander-in-chief, and, after a 
 brilliant march to relieve Candahar, gained 
 a victory which brought the war to a close 
 (1880). He became commander-in-chief in 
 India in 1885, and in Burmah in 1886. 
 
 Roberts, Isaac (*. 1829), a man of science, 
 whose photographs of the stars have aided 
 the advance of astronomical knowledge. 
 
 Roberts-Austen, W. Chandler, F.R.S. {b. 
 1843) ; became the Queen's assay-master in 
 1882. ^ 
 
 Robertson, Frederick William (i. 1816, 
 d. iSoo), became minister of Trinity chapel, 
 Brighton, in 1847. His sermons were pub- 
 lished after his death, and attained a wide 
 popularity. 
 
 Robertson, George Groom {b. 1842), bom 
 in Aberdeen ; became professor of philo- 
 sophy of mind and logic at University 
 
 College, London, in 1866, resigned 1892. 
 He has edited Mind since 1876. 
 
 Robertson, James Patrick Bannerman {b. 
 
 1845) ; became Lord Advocate for Scotland 
 in 1888, and Lord Justice General of Scot- 
 land in 1891. 
 
 Robertson, Thomas {b. 1829, d. 1871), 
 English di-amatist, vsrrote David Garrick 
 (1864), ISociety (1865), Ours (1866), Caste 
 (1867), School (1869), Home (1869), etc. 
 
 Robertson, WilHam {b. 1721, d. 1793), his- 
 torian, educated at Edinbm-gh ; entered the 
 Presbyterian ministry (1741), and in 1743 
 was presented to the living of Gladsmuir, in 
 East Lothian. In 1758 he was appointed to 
 a church in Edinburgh, became principal of 
 the university in 1762, and in 1764 was 
 made royal historiographer for Scotland. 
 His chief works are histories of Scotland 
 (1759), Charles V. (1769), and America 
 (1777). 
 
 Roberval, Gilles Personne de {b. 1602, d. 
 1675), became professor of mathematics in 
 the College Royale about 1633. 
 
 Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore (b. 
 1758, d. 1794), French revolutionist, born at 
 Arras ; was returned to the States-General 
 as member for the Tiers-Etat (1789) ; re- 
 presented Palis in the National Convention 
 which met in 1792, and became a leader of 
 the party of the Mountain, which finally 
 triumphed over that of the Girondists 
 (May, 1793). The fall of Brissot and his 
 colleagues was followed by the Reign of 
 Terror. Robespierre exercised the power of 
 a dictator, and a Committee of Public Safety 
 was established, which proscribed all who 
 fell under his suspicion, till at last his 
 tyranny excited a party against him in the 
 Convention itself, and he was guillotined. 
 
 Robins, Benjamin {b. 1707, d. 1751), 
 mathematician ; published New Principles 
 of Gunnery (1742), and was the real author 
 of Lord Anson's Voyage Round the World 
 (1748). 
 
 Robinson, Edward (b. 1794, d. 1813), an 
 American philologist and Biblical scholar. 
 
 Robinson, Henry Crabb (*. 1775, d. 1867), 
 man of letters ; was on terms of friendship 
 with the leading literary men of his time. 
 His Diary, Reminiscences, and Correspondence 
 appeared in 1869. 
 
 Robinson, Sir Hercules George Robert, 
 Bart. (^.1824), became successively governor 
 of Hong Kong (1859), Ceylon (1865), and 
 New South Wales (1872), and as high com- 
 missioner for the latter colony annexed the 
 Fiji Islands in 1874. He was governor of 
 New Zealand from 1876 to 1880, when he 
 was appointed governor of the Cape of
 
 Rob 
 
 (647) 
 
 Koff 
 
 Good Hope and high commissioner of 
 South Africa. 
 
 Robinson, Sir John Charles (b. 1834), 
 was art-superintendent of the South Ken- 
 sington Museum from 1853 to 1869, when 
 he became crown surveyor of pictures. 
 
 Robinson, John Eichard {b. 1828), jour- 
 nalist ; in 1868 became manager, and in 
 1887 editor, of the Daily News. 
 
 Robison, John {b. 1739, d. 1805), mathe- 
 matician ; was appelated professor of natural 
 philosophy at Edinburgh in 1774. 
 
 Robson, Frederick {b. 1821, d, 1864), a 
 popular low comedian. 
 
 Roby, Henry John, M.P. (5. 1830), scholar, 
 educated at Cambridge ; is the author of a 
 well-known Latin Cxrammar (1871-4), and 
 edited Justinian. 
 
 Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Douatien de 
 Vimeur, Comte de {b. 1725, d. 1807), marshal 
 of France ; distinguished himself in the 
 Seven Years' war and the American war 
 of Independence; in 1790 became com- 
 mander of the army of the north, but re- 
 signed in 1792, and narrowly escaped 
 execution during the Eeign of Terror. 
 
 Rochefort-Lugay, Victor Henri, Comte 
 de {b. 1830), French politician ; became pro- 
 minent through his attacks on the second 
 Empire, both in the Figaro, the Lanterne, 
 and the Marseillaise, and as a member of 
 the Chamber of Deputies (1869-70). He at 
 first supported the Commune, but after- 
 wards tied from Paris, was arrested, and 
 deported to New Caledonia, whence he 
 escaped in 1874. He started the Intran- 
 sigeant in 1880, and subsequently became a 
 supporter of General Boulanger. 
 
 Rocbester, John Wilmot, Earl of (*. 1647, 
 d. 1680), a dissipated favourite of Charles 
 II. His songs and satires were witty, but 
 obscene. 
 
 Roddngham, Charles Watson Weut- 
 worth. Marquis of {b. 1730, d. 1782), was 
 prime minister and First Lord of the Trea- 
 sury 1765-6, and repealed the Stamp Act in 
 the latter year. He afterwards opposed the 
 Administration of Lord North, and again 
 became Premier in 1782. 
 
 Rodbertus, Carl Johann (fi. 1805, d. 1875), 
 the founder of scientific socialism ; was 
 elected to the Prussian National Assembly in 
 1848, and in 1849 represented Berlin in the 
 Chamber. His chief contribution to eco- 
 nomic science is his development of the 
 Eicardian theory of value. 
 
 Roderic {d. 711), last Visigoth King of 
 Spain ; usurped the throne of Witiza in 
 709. In 711 a Saracen army crossed over 
 
 from Africa, and defeated Eoderic at Xeres, 
 on the Guadalete. His fate is unknown. 
 
 Roebuck, John Arthur {b. 1801, d. 1879), 
 pohtician, broughtupin Canada, came to Eng- 
 land in 1824 ; was called to the bar in 1832, 
 andenteredParliament thesameyear; joined 
 O'ConneU in resisting coercion in Ireland, 
 and advocated the adoption of the ballot 
 and other radical measures ; overthrew the 
 Aberdeen Ministry by his motion for an in- 
 quiry into the condition of the army in the 
 Ciiinea. His views afterwards underwent 
 a great change, in which he was not fol- 
 lowed by many of his Liberal supporters. 
 
 Roemer, Olaus (J. 1644, «?. 1710), Danish 
 astronomer; became professor at Copen- 
 hagen in 1681. His chief discovery was 
 that of the velocity of Light. 
 
 Roger, Bishop of Salisbury (d. 1139) ; be- 
 came steward and chaplain to Henry I., 
 and in 1107 was made justiciar; organised 
 the Curia Eegis, and founded the Court of 
 Exchequer. His imprisonment by Stephen 
 in 1139 was one cause of the war between 
 that king and Matilda. 
 
 Roger of Wendover {d. 1237), English 
 chronicler ; was a monk in St. Albans 
 abbey. Matthew Paris made much use of 
 his Flores Historiarum. 
 
 Roger I., Count of Sicily (b. 1031, d. 1100), 
 youngest son of Tancred of Hauteville ; in 
 1058 went to Italy to join his brothers, and 
 aided them in completing the conquest of 
 Calabria ; in 1060 crossed over to Sicily, 
 and, after thirty years' warfare, obtained 
 possession of the whole island. 
 
 Roger XL, King of Sicily (jb. 1097, d. 1154), 
 was son of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded as coimt. He gained some territory 
 from his cousin Wilham of Apulia, after 
 whose death, in 1127, he was acknowledged 
 as Duke of Apulia, Calabria, and Naples, 
 receiving his investiture from Pope Houorius 
 II. (1128). Soon afterwards the Prince of 
 Capua did homage to him as his over-lord. 
 In 1129 he received from the anti-pope 
 Anacletus the title of King of SicOy. 
 
 Rogers, John {d. 1555), the protomartyr 
 in the Marian persecution ; became chaplain 
 to the company of Merchant Adventurers at 
 Antwerp, and was associated with Tj-ndale 
 and Coverdale in their labours on the Bible ; 
 after the accession of Edward VI. was made 
 prebendary of St. Paul's. He was burnt at 
 Smithfield. 
 
 Rogers, Samuel {b. 1763, d. 1855), poet; 
 was the son of a London banker, and entered 
 his father's business. His chief work was 
 The Pleasures of Memory (1792). He is now 
 better remembered as a leader of society and 
 a patron of art and literature than as a poet.
 
 Rog 
 
 (648) 
 
 Horn 
 
 Rogers, Woods {d. 1732), navigator; com- 
 ma uded an expedition to the South Sea in 
 1708, and rescued Alexander Selkirk from 
 the island of Juan Fernandez. 
 
 Rohan, Louis Eone Edouard, Prince de, 
 Cai-diual {l>. 1734, d. 180-J), Bishop of Stras- 
 burg ; iu liis efforts to obtain the favour 
 of Marie Antoinette, became the dupe of 
 Madame Lamotte in the att'air of the Dia- 
 mond Necklace, and was imprisoned in the 
 Bastille (1785), but acquitted in 1786. In 
 1801 he resigned his bishopric. 
 
 Roland de la Platiere, Jean Marie (i. 
 1734, d. 17i:lo), French revolutionist; was 
 inspector-general of manufactories at Lyons 
 when the revolution broke out ; was minister 
 of the interior from March to Jiuie, 17!i2, 
 and was recalled after August 10th, but 
 lost influence with the Girondins, and re- 
 signed in January, 1793. Proscribed in 
 June, he fled from Paris, and iu November 
 committed suicide near Rouen. 
 
 Roland, Marie Jeanne Phlipon (J. 1754, 
 d. 1793), wife of the preceding ; was 
 daughter of an engraver at Paris, and 
 married Roland in 1780. She sympathised 
 with his revolutionary ideas, and exercised 
 much influence over the policy of the 
 Girondist party. On the proscription of 
 the Girondists she was confined in the 
 Abbaye, and, after five months' imprison- 
 ment, put to death. Her Memoires were 
 written during her confinement. 
 
 Rolleston, George, M.D. {b. 1829, d. 1881), 
 man of science ; became Linacre professor of 
 anatomy and physiology at Oxford in 1860. 
 He published Forms of Animal Life (1870), 
 etc. 
 
 Rollin, Charles {b. 1661, d. 1741), French 
 historian ; twice became rector of the Uni- 
 versity of Paris. He wrote an Ancient His- 
 tory, etc. 
 
 RoUo, or Rolf, Duke of Normandy {d. 
 932), was exiled from Norway by Harald 
 Harfagr ; in 876 ascended the Seine, and 
 gained possession of Rouen ; continued his 
 devastations till 911, when Charles the 
 Simple ceded to him Neustria and Brittany. 
 For these lands, which became known as the 
 duchy of Normandy, Rollo did homage to 
 the French king, and was soon afterwards 
 baptised at Rouen. 
 
 Romanes, George John {b. 1848), man of 
 science, educated at Cambridge ; has pub- 
 lished The Star-fish, Jelly-fish, and Sea- 
 Urchins (1885), Mental Evolution in Animals 
 (1883), etc. 
 
 Romano, GiuUo [Pippi] (fi. 1492, d. 1546), 
 painter and architect, born at Rome ; was a 
 oisciple of Raphael. His works are chiefly 
 frescoes. He died at Mantua. 
 
 Romanus I., " Lecapenus," Emperor of 
 the East (d. 948), became the associate of 
 Constantine VII., with the title of Caesar, in 
 919, and gained complete control over the 
 government. In 944 he was dethroned by 
 his son, Stephen, and forced to enter a 
 monastery. 
 
 Romanus II. {b. 939, d. 963), ascended 
 the throne in 959, after poisoning his father, 
 Constantine VII. 
 
 Romanus III., "Argyrus" (J. 968, d. 
 10o4), succeeded Constantine VIII. in 1028. 
 
 Romanus IV., "Diogenes" {d. 1101); 
 became emperor in 1067, on his marriage 
 with Eudoxia, widow of Constantine X. He 
 was successful in three campaigns against 
 the Tui-ks, but in 1071 was defeated and 
 taken prisoner by Alp-Arslan at Manzikert. 
 On his return to Constantinople he was 
 forced to abdicate in favour of Michael 
 VII., by whom he was deprived of his 
 sight. 
 
 Romanzoff, Peter Alexandrovitch, Count 
 (l). circa 1730, d. 1796), Russian general ; 
 distinguished himself as commander-in-chief 
 against the Txirks, whom he forced to accede 
 to the Treaty of Kainardji (1774). In 1787 
 he retired from court owing to his jealousy 
 of Potemkin. 
 
 RomanzofiF, Nicholas, Count {b. 1753, d. 
 1826), statesman and diplomatist, son of the 
 preceding ; promoted the interests of edu- 
 cation and commerce, and bore the expenses 
 of Kotzebue's scientific expedition. 
 
 RomiUy, John, Baron {b. 1802, d. 1874), 
 son of Sir Samuel Romilly ; was called to 
 the bar ia 1827 ; became Solicitor- General 
 in 1848, Attorney- General in 1850, and 
 Master of the RoUs in 1851. In 1866 he was 
 raised to the peerage. 
 
 Romilly, Sir Samuel (6. 1757, d. 1818), 
 English lawyer, descended from a French 
 Huguenot who came to England on the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes ; was 
 called to the bar in 1783 ; in 1806 entered 
 Parliament, and was appointed Solicitor- 
 General. The state of the criminal law 
 had long been his special study, and he 
 was now enabled to effect some important 
 reforms. 
 
 Romney, George {b. 1734, d, 1802), 
 painter, born at Dalton, in Lancashire ; 
 after receiving some lessons from a country 
 artist, came to London in 1 762 ; visited 
 France in 1764, and Italy 1773-5 ; on his 
 return became the rival of Reynolds as a 
 portrait-painter ; also gained distinction as a 
 painter of historical pictures. 
 
 Romulus, a mythical King of Rome, said 
 to have foimded the city in 753 B.C.
 
 Son 
 
 (649) 
 
 Kos 
 
 Eonsaxd, Pierre de {b. 1524, d. 1585), a 
 celebrated French poet. His works consist 
 chiefly of odes, elegies, and epigrams. 
 
 Rooke, Sir George {b. 1650, d. 1709), Eng- 
 lish admiral ; burnt the French fleet at La 
 Hogue (1692) ; in 1702 destroyed the plate 
 fleet, with its French convoy, in the harbour 
 of Vigo ; took part with Sir Cloudesley 
 Shovel, in the capture of Gibraltar (1704). 
 
 Roon, Albrecht Theodor Emil, General 
 Field-Marshal Count von {b. lfc.03, d. 1879), 
 bom in Pomerania ; became minister of war 
 in 18-59, and reorganised the Prussian anny. 
 In 1871 he retired fi-om public Life. His 
 Principles of Fhymcal, National, and Folitical 
 Geography were published in 1832. 
 
 Rosa, Salvator {b. IQlo, d. 1673), painter, 
 born near Naples ; studied under Francan- 
 zani, but learnt more duiing his wanderings 
 among the Apennines, the wild scenery of 
 which he reproduced in his landscapes. He 
 visited Rome in 1634, and spent his time 
 between that city and Naples till 1647, when 
 his share in MasaiiieUo's revolution com- 
 pelled him finally to quit his native town. 
 After residing at Florence 1647-52, he 
 returned to Rome, where he passed the 
 remainder of his Ufe. 
 
 Roscher, "Wilhelm {b. 1817), a German 
 economist ; one of the founders of the his- 
 torical school. He was appointed professor 
 of political economy at Leipzig in 1848. 
 
 Roscius, Quintus {d. 61 B.C.), a celebrated 
 Boman actor. 
 
 Roscoe, Henry Enfield, Sir, M.P. {b. 1833), 
 grandson of William Roscoe ; was professor 
 of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester, 
 1858-86. He is joint author, with Professor 
 Bunsen of Heidelberg, of Gasometry (1857), 
 and has edited Kirchhoil's Researches on the 
 Solar Spectrum (1862). 
 
 Roscoe, William {b. 1753, d. 1831), his- 
 torical biographer, bom in Livei-pool ; was 
 admitted an attorney of the Court of King's 
 Bench in 1774. He published The Life of 
 Lorenzo de'' Medici (1796), and the Life and 
 Pontificate of Leo X. (1805), etc. 
 
 Rose, George {b. 1744, d. 1818), was 
 president of the Board of Trade xmder Pitt 
 and Grenville. 
 
 Rose, Gustav (*. 1798, d. 1873), German 
 chemist ; accompanied Himiboldt in his 
 Russian expedition, of which he gave an 
 account in his Journey to the Ural, the Altai, 
 and the Caspian Sea (1837-42). He also 
 published Eletnente der Krystallographie 
 (1838), etc. 
 
 Rose, Henr>' John (6. 1800, d. 1873), Arch- 
 deacon of Bedford ; edited Neander's Church 
 
 Ilistory, and wrote a reply to Rowland Wil- 
 liams' paper in Essays and Reviews, etc. 
 
 Rose, Hugh James (b. 1795, d. 1838), 
 brother of the preceding ; was a prominent 
 member of the advanced section of the High 
 Church pai-ty, and a zealous opponent of 
 German rationalism. He was appointed 
 prmcipal of King's College in 1836. 
 
 Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, fifth 
 Earl of {b. 1847) ; was First Commissioner of 
 Works 1884, and was Chairman of the first 
 Loudon Coxmty Council ; became Foreign Sec- 
 retary under Mr. Gladstone in 1886 and 1892. 
 
 Rosecrans, WiUiam Stark {b. 1819), 
 American general ; commanded the Union 
 forces in West Virginia dm-ing the Civil 
 war, and gained an important victory at 
 Corinth (October, 1862). He was American 
 minister to Mexico in 1868. 
 
 Rosellini, IppoUto {b. 1800, d. 1843), bom 
 at Pisa, studied Oriental languages under 
 Mezzofanti in Bologna, and was associated 
 with ChampolHon in an expedition to Egypt, 
 the results of which he pubhshed in Monu- 
 menti delV Egitto e delta I^ubia. 
 
 Rosen, Friedrich August (J. 1805, d. 1837), 
 bom in Hanover ; was in 1836 appointed 
 professor of Oriental languages in University 
 College, London, where he afterwards be- 
 came professor of Sanscrit. 
 
 Rosenmiiller, Ernst Friedrich Karl {b. 
 1768, d. ISoo), professor of Oriental lan- 
 guages in the university of Leipzig ; pub- 
 lished Scholia in Vettis Testainentum, etc. 
 
 Ross, Alexander {b. 1699, d. 1784), poet, 
 born in Aberdeenshire ; wrote Helenore, a 
 pastoral poem, and many ballads in the 
 Scotch dialect. 
 
 Ross, Alexander Milton (Jb. 1832), an 
 eminent physician, bom in Canada ; also 
 distinguished as a naturalist. 
 
 Ross, Sir James Clark (b. 1800, d. 1862), 
 admiral, nephew of Sir John Ross ; served 
 in the naval expeditions for the discovery 
 of the North-West Passage 1818-33 ; dis- 
 covered the north magnetic pole in 1831 ; 
 commanded the expedition of the Erebus 
 and Terror to the Antarctic regions 1839-43. 
 
 Ross, Sir John {b. 1777, d. 1856), admiral; 
 in 181 S commanded an expedition in search 
 of a North-West Passage ; was again em- 
 ployed on an Arctic voyage of discovery 
 1829-33 : in 1850 vainly endeavoured to find 
 Sir John Franklin. He published a Life of 
 Admiral Lord de Saumarez, etc. 
 
 Ross, Sir William Charles (*. 1794, d. 
 1860), a celebrated miniature-painter. 
 
 Rosse, William Parsons, Earl of (b. 1800,
 
 BiOS 
 
 (650) 
 
 Ron 
 
 d. 1S67), a distinguished practical as- 
 tronomer and constructor of redacting 
 telescopes. 
 
 Rossetti, Gabriel Charles Dante {b. 1828, 
 d. 1882), poet and painter ; was the son of 
 Gabriele Kossetti, an Italian refugee, who 
 settled in London in 1824. He studied at 
 the Royal Academy, and under Ford Madox 
 Brown, and became the leadiug spirit of the 
 Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which was 
 founded in 1848. Among his chief pictures 
 is Dante's Vision, the property of the Liver- 
 pool Corporation. His chief volumes of 
 original poetry are Foems (1870), and ^a^ 
 lads and iSannets (1881). Dante and his Circle 
 (1874), consists of translations of the early 
 Italian poets. His elder sister, Maeia 
 Feanoesca {b. 1827, d. 1876), published A 
 Shadow of Dante (1871), etc. William 
 Michael Rossetti (b. 1829), is a well- 
 known literary and art-critic. Cheistina 
 Geoegina {b. 1830), the yovingest member 
 of the family, has published Goblin Market 
 (1862), Die Frince's Progress (1866), and 
 other volumes of poetry. 
 
 Rossi, John Charles Felix, R.A. (*. 1762, 
 d. 1839), an English sculptor. 
 
 Rossi, Pellegrino (*. 1787, _ d. 1848), 
 Italian statesman, was exiled in 1815 for 
 espousing the cause of Murat ; escaped to 
 Geneva, where he became professor of 
 Eoman law (1819), and a member of the 
 Diet (1832). He settled in France in 1832, 
 became professor of political economy at 
 the College de France, and in 1845 went 
 as French ambassador to Rome. He was 
 called to the first ministry of Pius IX., and 
 schemed for an Italian confederacy, with 
 the pope as president, but was assassinated 
 the same year. 
 
 Rossini, Gioachiao Antonio (b. 1792, d. 
 1868), the greatest of the Italian opera com- 
 posers ; was the son of a strolling horn- 
 player. He studied music xmder Mattel at 
 the lyceum of Bologna. Among his chief 
 operas are Tancredi (1813), II Barbiere di 
 Seviglia (1816), and Guglielmo Tell (1829). 
 He also composed a Stabat Mater (1842), 
 and other church music. From 1824 on- 
 wards he lived chiefly in Paris. 
 
 Rosslyn, Alexander Wedderbum, Earl of 
 (b. ll'i'6, d. 1805), lawyer and statesman ; 
 was called to the bar in 1757 ; became 
 Solicitor-General tu 1771, Attorney -General 
 in 1778, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas 
 in 1780, and was Lord Chancellor 1793- 
 1801. 
 
 Rost, Reinhold {b. 1822), OrientaUst ; has 
 published works on Burmese law, etc. 
 
 Rothschild, the name of a celebrated 
 Jewish family of bankers and financiers. 
 
 Metee Anselm Rothschild (5. 1743, d^ 
 1812), bom at Frankfort, was designed for 
 the priesthood, but showed more aptitude 
 for commercial pursuits, and laid the foun- 
 dations of his family's fortune by his success 
 as tlie banker of the Elector of Hesse - 
 Cassel. His son, Nathan (i. 1777, d. 1836), 
 came to England in 1800 as agent for his 
 father, after whose death he greatly ex- 
 teuded his busiuess, actiug in copartnership 
 with his brothers, who resided iu various 
 European capitals. His eldest son, Lionel 
 de Rothschild (i. 1808, d. 1879), was 
 elected Whig member for the City of 
 London in 1847, but did not take his seat 
 until the passing of the Jewish Disabilities 
 Bill (1858). Nathaniel Meyee {b. 1840), 
 eldest son of Lionel, was raised to the 
 peerage in 1885. 
 
 Rotteck, Carl von {b. Yllb, d. 1840), was 
 professor of history, and of politics, at Frei- 
 burg. He published a Universal Ristory. 
 
 Roubillac, Louis Francois (6. 1695, d. 
 1762), sculptor, bom at Lyons ; settled in 
 England about 1744. 
 
 Rouget de Lisle. \_See Lisle.] 
 
 Rouher, Eugene {b. 1814, «?. 1884), French 
 statesman, was Louis Napoleon's prime 
 minister 1849-51 ; became minister of agri- 
 culture and commerce in 1856, and nego- 
 tiated the Cobden Treatjr (1860) ; was 
 appointed minister of state in 1863 ; on the 
 fall of the Empire fied to England, but 
 represented a Corsican constitueucy in the 
 General Assembly 1871-9. 
 
 Roumania, Alexander John I., Prince of 
 [John Couza] {b. 1820, d. 1873), at the 
 close of the Crimean war became ruler over 
 the united principalities of Wallachia and 
 Moldavia, under the suzerainty of the Porte. 
 He was at first popular, but having at- 
 tempted to make himself absolute was 
 forced to abdicate iu 1866. 
 
 Roumania, Charles I., King of [b. 1839), 
 second son of Prince Charles Anton of 
 Hohenzollem - Sigmaringen, was chosen 
 Prince of Roumania in 1866. He aided the 
 Russians against the Turks in the war of 
 1877. By the Treaty of San Stefano (1878) 
 the Roumanians became independent, but 
 were forced to cede Bessarabia to Russia in 
 exchange for the Dobrudsha. Elizabeth, 
 Queen of Roumania (jb. 1843), daughter of 
 the Prince of Wied, has published several 
 voliuues of poetry under the pseudonym of 
 " Carmen Sylva." 
 
 Rousseau, Jean Baptiste [b. 1670, d. 1741), 
 French lyrical poet ; was exiled in 1712 on 
 the charge of having written some satirical 
 verses. He died at Brussels. 
 
 Rousseau, Jean Jacques {b. 1712, d. 1778),
 
 Zlou 
 
 (651) 
 
 E>ud 
 
 French philosopher, son of a watchmaker at 
 Geneva ; was apprenticed to an engraver, 
 but made his escape into Savoy (1728), 
 where he was foixud by a priest, who en- 
 trusted him to the care of Madame de 
 Wareus at Annecy. During the ensuing 
 years the greater part of his time was spent 
 in her house, but he fiQally quari'elled with 
 her and went to Paris (,'l7-ll), whence iu 
 17-i2 he accompanied the French ambassador 
 to Venice as secretary. In 175U he gained a 
 prize, offered by the Academy of Dijon, by 
 an essay attacking the influence of the arts 
 and sciences on society. Of his subsequent 
 writings the following are the most famous — 
 Julie, ou la Noiaelle Heloise, a romance 
 (1759), I)u Contrat Social (1762), and J^mile, 
 a philosophical romance treating of educa- 
 tion (1762). The years 1766-7 he spent in 
 England as the guest of Hume, but quar- 
 relled with him, and returned to France. 
 
 Rousseau, Theodore {b. 1812, d. 1867), a 
 French landscape-painter, celebrated for his 
 fidelitj' to natm-e. 
 
 Routh, Edward John, F.R.S. (b. 1831), 
 mathematician, educated at Cambridge ; 
 was elected to a fellowship at Peterhouse, 
 and has become famous as a successful tutor. 
 
 Routb, Martin Joseph (b. 1755, d. 1854), 
 scholar, educated at Oxford ; became presi- 
 dent of Magdalen College in 1791. He 
 published Reliquice Sacrce (1814-8), etc. 
 
 Rowbotham, John Frederick {b. 1854), 
 has published a History of Music (1885), 
 etc. 
 
 Rowe, Nicholas (A. 1673, d. 1718), dra- 
 matist ; bom in Bedfordshire, son of a 
 barrister; vrrote Jane S/iore, T/te Fair Peni- 
 tent, and other tragedies, and translated 
 Lucan's Fharsalia. In 1715 he became poet 
 laureate. 
 
 Eowlandson, Thomas (fi. 1756, d. 1827), 
 Btudied at the Eoyal Academy schools and 
 at Paris. He is chiefly remembered as a 
 powerful caricaturist and for his illustrations 
 to JJoctor Hi/ntax's Three Tours (1813), etc. 
 
 Rowley, William, English dramatist, was 
 a contemporary of Shakespeare. He wrote 
 the Witch of Ed)nonton (1658), etc. 
 
 Roxburgh. William (A. 1759, d. 1815), 
 physician and botanist ; became keeper of 
 the botanical mirdeus at Calcutta in 1793. 
 He published Flants of the Coast of Coro- 
 mandel (1795-1819), etc. 
 
 Roy, William (d. 1790), general, originated 
 the first geometrical sun^ey of Great Britain 
 (1784). He wrote The Military Antiquities 
 of the EoDians in Xorth Britain. 
 
 Royer-CoUard,PierrePaul(6.1763,(i.l845), 
 
 statesman and philosopher ; took an active 
 part iu the revolution during its earlier 
 stages, but withdi-ew during the Terror, 
 and, except for a short interval in 1797, 
 when he sat in the Council of Five Hundred, 
 remained in retirement till 1811. He was 
 then appointed professor of the history of 
 philosophy at the Sorbonne. Under the 
 Bourbons he became chancellor of state, and 
 led the poUtical party called " Doctrin- 
 aires." 
 
 Rubens, Peter Paul {b. 1577, d. 1640), a 
 celebrated Flemish painter, bom at Siegen, 
 iu Westphalia ; after studying imder Otto 
 Van Veen and others, journeyed into Italy, 
 whence he was sent by the Duke of Mantua 
 on a joolitical mission to Madrid; in 1608 
 settled at Antwerp, at the invitation of 
 the Archduke Albert and the Infanta Isa- 
 bella. In 1620 he adorned the walls of the 
 Luxembourg vdth pictures illustrating 
 scenes iu the life of Marie de' Medici. 
 He subsequently served the Infanta Isa- 
 bella as a diplomatist in Madrid (1628) 
 aud England (1629). The Descent from 
 the Cross at Antwerp is considered his 
 masterpiece. 
 
 Rubinstein, Anton Gregor {b. 1830), Eus- 
 sian pianist, bom near Jassy ; studied under 
 VUloing at Moscow, under Liszt at Paris, 
 and under Dehn at Berlin ; in 1848 entered 
 the service of the Grand Duchess Helen of 
 Russia ; became principal of the St. Peters- 
 burg Conservatoire in 1862. He has made 
 several European tours, and visited England 
 on eight occasions. 
 
 Riicker, Ai'thur William {b. 1 848), pro- 
 fessor of physics in the Royal College of 
 Science, South Kensington ; has written 
 numerous papers on scientific subjects. 
 
 Riickert, Friedrich (A. 1788, d. 1866), poet 
 and OrientaUst : was professor of Oriental 
 languages at Erlaugeu 1826-41, and at 
 Berlin 1841-8. He is remembered chiefly 
 as the author of Liebesfriihling (1821), and 
 other volumes of Gennan lyrics. 
 
 Rudbeck, Olaf (b. 1630, d. 1702), Swedish 
 physician and antiquary, discovered the 
 lymphatic vessels in 1650 ; became professor 
 of botany and anatomy at Upsala ; wrote 
 Atlantica sire Manheim, etc. His son, Olaf 
 (A. 1660, d. 1740), published works on botany 
 and natural history. 
 
 Ruddiman, Thomas (b. 1674, d.llol), a 
 Scotch grammarian and critic ; in 1714 pub- 
 lished liadunents of the Latin Tongue, which 
 is still a text-book in Scotch schools. 
 
 Riidiger, Feodor Vasihevich, Count {b. 
 1790, d. 18)6), a Russian general ; setit to 
 assist the Austrians against the Hungarian! 
 in 1849.
 
 Bud 
 
 (652) 
 
 E.US 
 
 Rudolf, or Rodolf I., King of Germany 
 (b. 1218, d. 12yi), founder of the Hapsburg 
 a}Tiasty; was elected Emperor in 1273, 
 and, by Ms concessions to Gregory XI. at 
 his coronation, ended the feud with the 
 pope. A war mth Ottocar, King of 
 Bohemia, was terminated by the defeat and 
 death of the latter in 127S. His son, Wen- 
 ceslaus, did homage to Rudolf for Bohemia 
 and Moravia. Rudolf curbed the power of 
 the nobles, and granted charters to many 
 towns. 
 
 Rudolf II. (b. 1552, d. 1612), was elected 
 King of the Romans in 1575, and succeeded 
 his father, MaximUian II., as emperor in 
 1576. He caused great discontent by im- 
 posing heavy taxes, and precluding the 
 Protestants from the free exercise of their 
 religion. His belief in astrology induced 
 him to patronise Kepler and Tycho Brahe. 
 
 Ruflnus {b. circa 350, d. circa 410), Latin 
 father, became a priest at Aquileia, but 
 afterwards attached himself to St. Jerome, 
 and followed him to the East, where he 
 suffered much at the hands of the Ariaus. 
 He afterwards established a monastery on 
 Mount Olivet. His version of Origen gave 
 rise to a bitter dispute with Jerome. He 
 died in SicUy. 
 
 Rugendas, Georg Philip {b. 1666, d. 1742), 
 a German painter of battle-scenes. 
 
 RulimkorflF, HeLnrich Daniel (*. 1803, d. 
 1877), electrician, bom at Hanover; in- 
 vented the famous " Ruhmkorff coil" in 
 1851. 
 
 Ruhnken, David (b. 1723, d. 1798), phi- 
 lologist ; became professor of eloquence and 
 history at Leyden in 1761. He wrote Uulo- 
 ffiutn T. Semstcrhusii, etc. 
 
 Rumbold, Sir Horace, Bart. {b. 1829), 
 entered the diplomatic service in 1849 ; was 
 appointed minister to Greece in 1884, and to 
 Holland in 1888. 
 
 Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count 
 {b. 1753, d. 1814), man of science, bom in 
 Massachusetts ; fought on the royalist side 
 during the war of Independence ; in 1784 
 entered the Bavarian service, and became 
 minister of war ; in 1802 removed to Paris, 
 where he married the widow of Lavoisier. 
 
 Runclman, Alexander {b. 1736, d. 1785), 
 an eminent Scotch painter. 
 
 Runeberg, Johan Ludwig {b. 1804, d. 
 1877), Swedish poet, studied at the uni- 
 versity of Abo ; was rector of the college 
 of Borga 1847-50 ; published idylls, lyrics, 
 and other poems. 
 
 Runjeet Singh {b. 1780, d. 1839), Maha- 
 rajah of the Punjaub ; was the son of one 
 
 of the twelve Sirdars of the SLkhs. After 
 establishing his authority over the territory 
 west of the Sutlej, he proclaimed himself 
 Rajah of the Punjaub (1812), and in 1819 
 assumed the title of Maharajah. He after- 
 wards annexed Mooltan (1818), Cashmere 
 (1819), Peshawar (lS2w), and other places. 
 He maintained peaceful relations with the 
 Eughsh. 
 
 Rupert, Prince {b. 1619, d. 1682), was the 
 third sou of Frederick, King of Bohemia, 
 and Elizabeth, daughter of James I. He 
 served in the Royalist army during the Civil 
 war, and distinguished him self by his im- 
 petuous coui-age. After the Restoration he 
 rendered great services as a naval com- 
 mander against the Dutch. His later years 
 were devoted chiefly to scientific pursuits. 
 
 Ruric {d. 879), the semi-mythical founder 
 of the Russian empire ; is said to have been 
 the leader of a body of Northmen or 
 " Varangians," who crossed the Baltic 
 from Scandinavia at the invitation of the 
 Slavonians, or Finns. Ruric conquered the 
 surroimdiug tribes, and established his 
 capital at Novgorod. 
 
 Rush, Benjamin {b. 1745, d. 1813), Ameri- 
 can physician and politician, born at Phila- 
 delphia, studied at Edinburgh ; was re- 
 turned to Congress in 1776, and signed the 
 Declaration of Independence ; became pro- 
 fessor in the Institute of Medicine at 
 Philadelphia in 1791. 
 
 Rushworth, John (*. circa 1607, d. 1690), 
 became assistant- clerk of the House of 
 Commons in 1640, and secretary to Fairfax 
 in 1643. He was in the habit of taking 
 notes of all public transactions, which fur- 
 nished the material of his Historical Col- 
 lections. These were pubKshed in four parts 
 (1659, 1689, 1692, 1701). 
 
 Raskin, John {b. 1819) was bom in 
 London, and educated at Oxford. In 1843 
 appeared the first volume of Modern 
 Painters, which created a revolution in 
 modem art and the estimation of artistic 
 qualities. The remaining volumes were 
 published in 1846, 1856, and 1860. Of 
 Ruskin's other works on art, the chief are 
 the Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849), and 
 Stones of Venice (1851-3). About 1860 he 
 became deeply interested in the social prob- 
 lems of the age, and published Unto this 
 Last (1862), and Munera Pulveris (1872). 
 Among his later works are Sesame and 
 Lilies (1865), The Ethics of the Bust, and 
 The Croivn of Wild Olives (1866), and Fra- 
 ierita, a charming autobiography. 
 
 RusseU, Sir Charles (4. 1833), was called 
 to the bar in 1859 ; entered Parliament 
 in 1880, and became Attorney- General in 
 1886 and in 1892.
 
 Rtis 
 
 (653) 
 
 Siym 
 
 RusseU, William Clark (A, 1844), has 
 published The Wreck of the Grosvetwr, and 
 other nautical novels. 
 
 Russell, Henry Chamberlaine, became 
 Government astronomer of New South 
 Wales in lt)63. 
 
 Russall, John, Earl (b. 1792, d. 1878), 
 statesman, third son of the sixth Duke of 
 Bedford, was educated at Westminster and 
 Edinburgh ; entered ParUameut as a Whig 
 in 1813 ; became an advocate of parlia- 
 mentary reform ; was instrumental in the 
 repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts 
 (1828), and the passing of the Catholic 
 ReUef Act (1829) ; was Paj-master-General 
 under Lord Grey, 1830-4, and drew up the 
 Government Reform Bill (1832) ; was Home 
 Secretary (1835-9), and Colonial Secretary 
 (1839-41) under Lord Melbourne ; led the 
 Opposition 1841-6; was Prime Minister 
 1846-52 ; went as British plenipotentiary to 
 the Vienna Conference (1855) ; was Foreign 
 Secretary under Lord Pabnerston 1859-65 ; 
 again became Prime Minister in 1865, but 
 resigned on the defeat of his Reform Bill in 
 1866. Earl Russell published an Eisay on 
 the History of the English Government and 
 Constitution (1823), and numerous other 
 works. 
 
 RusseU, Michael {b. 1781, d. 1848), be- 
 came Bishop of Glasgow in 1837. His works 
 were numerous. 
 
 RusseU, Lord William {b. 1639, d. 1683), 
 became a leader of the Whig Opposition to 
 Charles n., and favoured the Exclusion 
 Bill. Having been charged with complicity 
 in the " Rye House Plot," he was con- 
 demned to death, and executed in Lincoln's 
 Inn Fields. During his trial he was nobly 
 assisted by his wife, Lady Rachel Rttssell 
 (b. 1636, d. 1723), daughter of the Earl of 
 Southampton. 
 
 RusseU, William (5. 1746, d. 1794), Scotch 
 miscellaneous writer. After serving his 
 apprenticeship to a bookseller in Edinburgh, 
 he came to London (1767), where he found 
 occupation in the printing trade. His chief 
 work was his History of Modern Europe 
 (1779-84). "^ -^ ^ 
 
 RusseU, Wilham Howard {b. 1821), be- 
 came attached to the Timea in 1843, and in 
 1854 went to the Crimea as its war corre- 
 spondent. His letters created great con- 
 sternation in Great Britain, and caused the 
 fall of the Aberdeen ministry. They were 
 republished under the title of The JFar 
 (1855). He afterwards represented the 
 TUnes in the Mutiny, the American Civil 
 war, the Austro-Prussian war, and the 
 Franco -German war. 
 
 Rutherford, Daniel {b. 1749, d. 1819), 
 Scotch physician ; made important dis- 
 coveries in chemistry. 
 
 Rutherford, Samuel {b. circa 1600, d. 
 1661), Scottish preacher, became minister 
 of Anwoth iu 1627. In 1636 was deprived 
 of his oiitice and was banished to Aberdeen, 
 where he remained till 1638. In 1639 he 
 became professor of divinity at St. Andrews, 
 and iu 1641 was a commissioner at the West- 
 minster Assembly. His Lex Rex led to his 
 dismissal from all his offices, and his death 
 prevented hie trial for high treason. He 
 wrote Exercdationcs de Gratia, Trial and 
 Triumph of Faith, Letters, etc. 
 
 Rutland, John James Robert Manners, 
 Duke of {b. 1818), has, since his first en- 
 trance into Parliament in 1841, been a 
 leading member of the Conservative party, 
 distinguishing himself especially by his zeal 
 in the agricultural interest. He was Post- 
 master-General 1874-80, and again in 1885. 
 In 1887 he succeeded to the peerage. 
 
 Ruysbrock, or Rubruquis, William de {b. 
 circa 1225, d. after 1293), a Franciscan friar ; 
 was in 1253 sent, with two companions, by 
 Louis rX. of France, to visit Sartach, a 
 Mongol prince, who was supposed to be a 
 Christian. On arriving at his camp they 
 discovered their mistake, but continued their 
 journey to the encampment of his father, 
 Batii Khan, on the banks of the Volga, and, 
 after spending some months at the court oi' 
 Maugii Khan, the Tartar Emperor, journeyed 
 through Anueuia, Persia, and A^ia Minor 
 to TripoU, in Syria. Here Ruysbrock re- 
 mained, in compliance with an order from 
 his provincial, and compiled an account of 
 his travels, wldch is extant. 
 
 Ruysch, Frederic (J. 1638, d. 1731), Dutch 
 physician ; became professor of anatomy at 
 Amsterdam in 1666, and of physic in 1685. 
 
 Ruyter. {See De Ruyter.] 
 
 Rydberg, Viktor {b. 1829) Swedish man 
 of letters ; has published Tlie Last Athenian, 
 a novel (1859), Ifayic in the Middle Ages 
 (1864), Teutonic Mythology (1886), etc. 
 
 Ryland, William Wynne (J. 1732, d. 
 1783), was engraver to George III. He 
 was executed for forgery. 
 
 Ryle, John Charles {b. 1816), was ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Liverpool in 1880. He 
 has published Home Truths, etc. 
 
 Rymer, Thomas {h. 1639, d. 1714), anti- 
 quary ; was appointed royal historiographer 
 iu 1692. He edited Fwdera, consisting of 
 the steite documents concerning the relatione 
 of England with forei^ states.
 
 Saa 
 
 ( 654) 
 
 Sad 
 
 s 
 
 Saad ed Deen (rf. 1599), Turkish historian ; 
 author of Tadji-al-Towarik, a history of the 
 Ottoman empire to the year 1520. 
 
 Saadi [MosU Eddin] {b. 1176, d. 1291), 
 Persian poet, whose cmef work is Gulistan, 
 which has been translated into most of the 
 European languages. He fought against the 
 Brahmins, Crusaders, and Turks, and was 
 made prisoner by the last. 
 
 Saavedra. [See Cervantes.] 
 
 Saavedra-Faxardo, Diego da {b. 1584, d. 
 1618), a distinguished Spanish diplomatist 
 and author. 
 
 SaDatier, Antoine {b. 1742, d. 1817), 
 French writer ; author of Les Trois Siecks 
 de la Litterature Frangaise, Dietionnaire de 
 VAntiquite Fatenne, etc. 
 
 Sabbatini, Andre [Andrea di Salerno] {b. 
 1480, d. 1545), Italian painter, pupil of 
 Eaffaelle. His pictures are at Naples, Gaeta, 
 and Salerno. 
 
 Sabbatini, Lorenzo (d. 1577), painter, 
 whose pictures were sometimes mistaken for 
 those of his namesake. He is sometimes 
 called "Lorenzino da Bologna." 
 
 Sabellius (3rd century), African theolo- 
 gian, whose opinions on the Trinity were 
 condemned by Dionysius of Alexandria. 
 
 Sabina, Poppsea (d. 65), second wife of 
 Nero, having been his mistress when mar- 
 ried to Otho ; was killed by a kick from the 
 tyrant. 
 
 Sabine, General Sir Edward (*. 1788, d. 
 1883), Enghsh physicist; made several 
 •voyages to the Arctic regions for scientific 
 purposes, and published The Pendulum and 
 other Experiments (1825), and an edition of 
 Himiboldt's Cosmos; was elected president 
 of the Eoyal Society in 1861. 
 
 Saccbetti, Franco (6. circa 1335, d. circa 
 1400), Florentine writer, friend of Boccaccio, 
 and author of NovelU and Battaglia delle 
 Vecchi e delle Fanciulle. 
 
 SaccM, Andrea (A. 1591, d. 1661), Roman 
 pamter, patronised by Urban VIII., and a 
 pupil of Albano. 
 
 Sacchini, Anton Maria (A. 1735, d. 1786), 
 Neapolitan composer ; was invited to London 
 by Bumey, and afterwards went to Paris. 
 
 He composed Montezuma, Fdipo a Coiono, ana 
 many other operas. 
 
 Sacber-Masocb, Leopold von (&. 1836), 
 Austrian novelist, born at Lemberg, whose 
 works, deaUng chiefly with Galician life, in- 
 clude Cain's Inheritance, Maria Theresa und 
 die Freimaurer, Le Cabinet Noir de Lemberg, 
 and some historical and dramatic works. 
 
 Sacbeverell, Henry {b. 1672, d. 1724), 
 Enghsh clergyman, who was impeached in 
 1710 for some High Tory sermons preached 
 at Derby and St. Paul's. The hghtness of 
 his sentence was regarded as a triumph by 
 hie party. 
 
 Sacbs, Hans {b. 1494, d. 1578), German 
 meistersinger, by trade a shoemaker, of 
 Nuremberg; composed many poems of 
 merit. 
 
 Sacbs, JuHus {b. 1832), German botanist 
 and privy councillor ; having previously 
 held chairs at Poppelsdorf and Freiburg, 
 became Austrian professor-in-ordinary of 
 botany. His works include a Compendium 
 of Botany, a History of Botany, and Lectures 
 on the Fhysiology of Flants, aU of which 
 have been translated. 
 
 Sackville, Lord (b. 1827), English diplo- 
 matist ; was appointed (as Sir Lionel Sack- 
 ville-West) plenipotentiary to the Argentine 
 Republic in 1873, went to Madrid in 1878, 
 and to Washington in 1881. He took part 
 iQ the Samoa Convention and the Fisheries 
 Treaty of 1888, and was recalled in the 
 following year. 
 
 Sackville, Lord George (b. 1716, d. 1785), 
 soldier and statesman ; distinguished himself 
 at Dettingen and Fontenoy, but was dis- 
 missed the service for his disobedience to 
 orders at Minden. He was a Secretary of 
 State from 1775 to 1782. He took the name 
 of Germain, and was raised to the peerage 
 in 1782. 
 
 Sackville, Thomas, J Earl of Dorset (b. 
 1536, d. 1608), wrote, with Thomas Norton, 
 Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Forrex ; his other 
 chief work is Induction to a Myrrour for 
 Magistrates (1563). 
 
 Sacy, Antoine Isaac, Baron Sylvestre de 
 {b. 1758, d. 1838), French Orientalist, one 
 of the founders of the Societe Asiatique ; 
 published Frincipes de Grammaire Generale, 
 Expose de la Religion des Druses, etc. 
 
 Sadeler, GUles (jb. 1570, d. 1629), Belgian
 
 Sad 
 
 ( 655 ) 
 
 Sai 
 
 engraver, executed many works for the Em- 
 peror Budolph at Prague ; was educated in 
 his art by his xmcles Hatj h (ji. 1610) and 
 Raphael. 
 
 Sadler, or Sadleir, Sir Ealph {b. 1507, d. 
 1587), English statesman, much employed in 
 Scotland under Henry VIII. and his suc- 
 cessors ; owed his rise to Cromwell. A 
 memoir of him by Sir Walter Scott was ap- 
 pended to his Letters and Negotiations (180y). 
 
 Saemund Sigfusson {d. 1135), an Ice- 
 landic scholar, to whom is attributed a 
 Mistoi-y of the Kings of Norway and the 
 compilation of the Edda. 
 
 Sagasta, Praxedes Mateo {b. 1827),Spanish 
 statesman, was obliged to leave the country 
 for his share in the rising of 1856, and again, 
 ten years later, to seek refuge in France. 
 On his return he changed his views and 
 joined General Prim, and held the portfolio 
 of the interior for several years. After the 
 accession of Alfonso XII., he formed a 
 Liberal-constitutionalist party, and having 
 in 1880 joined a new Liberal combination, 
 formed a coalition with Campos, which 
 lasted till 1883. In 1887 Sagasta again be- 
 came head of a ministry. 
 
 Sagredo, Giovanni {d. circa 1700), Vene- 
 tian diplomatist and writer, author of Mem- 
 one Storiche dei Monarche Ottomani. 
 
 Sahaffun, Bernardino de {d. 1590), Spanish 
 historian ; went to Mexico in 1529 as a Fran- 
 ciscan missionary, and wrote there Historia 
 Universal de Nueva Espaiia. 
 
 Sa'id. [See Zanzibar, Sultan of.] 
 
 Sadd Pasha {b. 1822, d. 1863), became 
 Viceroy of Egypt in 1854, and dining his 
 period of rule introduced many reforms, and 
 adopted the Suez Canal project. 
 
 Saint Amaud, Jacques Achille Le Roy de 
 {b. 1796, d. 1854), French marshal, having 
 previously distinguished himself in Algeria, 
 became minister of war in 1851, and carried 
 out the coup-d'' etat of December. He com- 
 manded the French at the opening of the 
 Crimean war, but died on his way home a 
 week after the Alma. 
 
 Saint-Cyr. \See Gouvion Saint Cyr.] 
 
 Saint-Evremond, Charles de St. Denis de 
 {(I. 1613, fif. 1703), soldier and writer, fought 
 on the royalist side during the Fronde, but 
 spent his latter days in England, where he 
 wrote Reflexions sur la Tragedie et la 
 Comedie. 
 
 Saint Gandens, Augustus {b. 1848), 
 American sculptor, whose most important 
 productions are Tlie Puritan, a statue of 
 Lincoln at Chicago, and busts of T. D. 
 Woolsey and General Sherman. 
 
 Saint-Germain, Claude Louis, Comte de 
 (6. 1707, d. 177&), general and administrator, 
 served in the French, Danish, and other 
 armies, but is chiefly memorable for his 
 abortive attempt under Turgot to reform the 
 French army. 
 
 Saint - 
 Hilaire.] 
 
 Hilaire. {See GeofEroy Saint 
 
 St. John, Henry. [See BoUngbroke.] 
 
 St. John, Oliver {d. 1673), English lawyer, 
 defended Hampden in the "Ship-money" 
 case, was a prominent member of the Long 
 Parliament, and one of the commissioners at 
 Uxbridge. He was made a justice of the 
 Common Pleas in 1648, and was mainly re- 
 sponsible both for the Nav-igation Act and 
 the draining of the Bedford Level. 
 
 St. John, Sir Spenser, K.C.M.G. {b. 1825), 
 EngHsh diplomatist ; after being resident in 
 Borneo, Hayti, and Lima, negotiated in 1883 
 the resumption of relations with Mexico, to 
 which country he was named plenipotentiary 
 in 1884. He wrote Life of Sir James Brooke, 
 Rajah of Sarau'ak and other works. 
 
 Saint-Just, Antoine (b. 1768, d. 1794). 
 French revolutionist, the chief supporter of 
 Robespierre in the Comite de Saint Public. 
 He was notorious for his severity as delegate 
 to the army in Alsace, and was guillotined 
 after the revolution of Thermidor. 
 
 Saint -Lambert, Charles Francois de (6. 
 1717, d. ISOo), poet and contributor to the 
 Encyclopedie, his chief works being Contes 
 Orientates and Les Saisons. 
 
 St. Leonards, Edward Sugden, Viscount 
 (b. 1781, d. 1875), English lawyer, son of a 
 hairdresser ; made a reputation by some 
 legal works, and gained a large practice at 
 the chancery bar ; was Solicitor-General 
 under Wellington in 1829, and Lord- 
 ChanceUor of Ireland under Peel in 1835 
 and 1841-6. He was also for a short time 
 Lord Chancellor of England in 1852. His 
 Vendors and Furchasers went through four- 
 teen editions. 
 
 Saint-Martin, Louis Claude de {b. 1743, d. 
 1803), French writer, called " Le PMlosophe 
 Inconuu," friend of Lalande and Rousseau. 
 His chief work was Des Erreurs et de la Veriti 
 
 Saint-Palaye, Jean de la Curne (fi. 1697, 
 d. 1781), antiquary; wrote Memoires sur 
 rAnciennc Chevalerie, asid left a large col- 
 lection of manuscripts. 
 
 Saint-Pierre, Jacques Bemardin de {b. 
 1737, d. 1814), wrot-e Raul et T'irginie (1788) 
 £tudes de La Nature, and several similar 
 works. 
 
 Saint Saens, Charles Camille Q). 1835),
 
 Sai 
 
 ( 656 ) 
 
 Sal 
 
 musical composer aud critic ; became organ- 
 ist at the Madeline in 1858, gaining the prize 
 at the International Exhibition ot 1867 vrith 
 his cantata Les Noces de Froniethee. Among 
 his works may be named Samson et Balila, 
 a sacred drama (1877), £tiemie Marcel, an 
 opera (1879), aud Rouet d'' Omphale, which he 
 conducted at the Crystal Palace in 1879. 
 
 Saiatstaury, George Bateman (5. 1845), 
 English wi-iter ; till 1876 was occupied ui 
 teaching, and subsequently published A 
 Primer of French Literature, A iShort History 
 of French Literature, Marlborough {"English 
 Worthies" series), etc. 
 
 Saint -Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroi, 
 
 Comte de {b. 1760, d. 182.3), Socialist wiiter, 
 author of De la Reorganisation de la Suciete 
 Europeenne, Catechisme des Industriels, Le 
 Nouveau Christianisme, and several similar 
 works, in some of which he was assisted by 
 Comte and Thierry. He attempted to put 
 an end to his life in 18'23. 
 
 Saint-Simon, Louis de Rouvroi, Due de {b. 
 1675, d. 1755), French soldier and diplo- 
 matist; was a member of the council of 
 regency, and went to Spain in 1721 to nego- 
 tiate a marriage between Louis XV. and the 
 Infanta. The best edition of his Memoires 
 is that of 1856-7, edited by Cheruel. 
 
 Saint-Vallier, Charles, Comte de {b. 1838), 
 French diplomatist ; served some years 
 under Moustier as under-secretary of state, 
 and was afterwards ambassador at Stutt- 
 gart and Berlin. 
 
 St. Vincent, John Jervis, Earl (b. 1734, 
 
 d. 182o), British admiiul, who gained his title 
 from his victory of 1797 over the French ; 
 became Fii-st Lord of the Admiralty in 1801, 
 and put down the corruption which pre- 
 vailed in the dockyards. 
 
 Sainte-Beuve, Chai-les Augustin (b. 1804, 
 d. 1869), French critic ; after having been a 
 surgeon, vrrote verses for the Revue des Deux 
 Monies and other periodicals, and in 1840 
 became Mazai-in librarian. In 1850 he 
 joined the Constitutionnel, in which appeared 
 his Gauseries du Lundi. He was one of the 
 editors of the Dictionnaire Sistorique de la 
 Langue Frangaise. 
 
 Saintine, nom de plume of Xavier Boni- 
 face {h. 1798, d. 1865), author of Picciola and 
 other stories, as well as of poems and some 
 plays written in collaboration with Scribe. 
 
 Saisset, Emile (i. 1814, d. 1863), philoso- 
 pher ; author of ^nesideme (a history of 
 scepticism), Essai de Philosophie Religieuse 
 (1860), a French translation of Spinoza, etc. 
 
 Sala, George Augustus Henry (6. 1828), 
 English journalist ; founded and edited Tem- 
 ple Btir, was war-oorrespondent of the Daily 
 
 Telegi-oph in the United States, Algeria, 
 France, and Russia, and wrote numerous 
 works, among which are Twice Round the 
 Clock, The Strange Adventures of Captain 
 Dangerous, etc. 
 
 Salatout Jung {d. 1763), Soubadar of the 
 Deccan ; was at hrst supported by Bussy, 
 but afterwards favoured the English alli- 
 ance ; was deposed by Nizam All, and put to 
 death, though his title had been couHrmed 
 by the Treaty of Paris. 
 
 Saladin [Salaheddin] {b. 1137, d. 1193), 
 Sultan of Egypt and Syria, was of Kurdish 
 birth, and followed his uncle, Noureddin, to 
 Egypt, where the latter became all-powerful 
 as grand- vizier . On his death (1173), Saladin 
 was proclaimed sultan, and, after conquering 
 Syria, invaded Palestine in 1187, defeated 
 the Crusaders at Tiberias and took Jeru- 
 salem. After a thii'd Crusade aud the cap- 
 ture of Acre a truce for three years was 
 agreed to in 1192, soon after which Saladin 
 died. 
 
 Salaman, Charles Kensington {b. 1814), 
 English pianist and composer, was the first 
 to set the odes of Horace and Anacreon, and 
 also published settings of modem poems, 
 anthems, etc. 
 
 Salar Jung, Sir {d. 1883), prime minister 
 of Nizam 1853. Supported the English 
 during the Mutiny. 
 
 Saldanha Oliveira e Daun, Joao Carlos, 
 Duke of {b. 1791, d. 1876), Portuguese states- 
 man, grandson of Pombal ; became foreign 
 minister in 1825, and as governor of Oporto 
 strongly opposed Don Miguel. After hold- 
 ing other offices, he took part iil the Terceii'a 
 insuiTection, and had to go into exile, but 
 afterwards returned, and was again several 
 times minister. He died in England. 
 
 Sale, George {h. circa 1690, d. 1736), Eng- 
 lish Orientalist; author of a translation 
 of the Koran. 
 
 Sale, Sir Robert Henry {b. 1782, d. 1845), 
 general ; after distinguished services in 
 India and the Mauritius, was appointed in 
 1838 to the commaiid of a brigade in the 
 Afghan expedition, and was severely 
 wounded at Ghuznee. In 1840 he compelled 
 the sm-render of Dost Mohammed, and next 
 year, after storming the Khoord Cabul and 
 JugduUuk passes, was besieged for five 
 months in Jellalabad by Akhbar Khan. Ha 
 was mortally wounded on December 18, 
 at Moodkee, when quartermaster-general to 
 the ai-my of the Sutlej. 
 
 Sales. [See Francis de Sales.] 
 
 Salimbene, Fra (13th century), Italian 
 Franciscan ; author of a contemporary 
 Chronicle, which was first printed in 1857.
 
 Sal 
 
 (657) 
 
 San 
 
 Salisbury, John of {d. 11S2), English 
 scholar, Bishop of Chartres, and friend of 
 Becket, of whom aud of Auselm he wrote 
 lives, as also Historia Pontijicalis, and some 
 philosophical works. 
 
 Salisbury, Robert Cecil, Earl of {d. 1612), 
 statesman, son of Lord Burghley, to whose 
 position he succeeded, and retained of&ce 
 imder James I. 
 
 Salisbury, Eobert Arthur Talbot Gas- 
 coyne-Cecil, Marquis of. K.G. {b. 183U), 
 statesman, was educated at Eton and Christ 
 Church, Oxford, and represented Stamford 
 from 1853 till 1868, when he succeeded 
 to the title. During this time he wrote 
 much for periodicals, aud was Secretary for 
 India from July, 1866, to the following 
 March, when he resigned on the Bef orm Bill. 
 From 1874 to 1878 he wis again Secretary 
 for India, and ia Novemoer, 1876, was sent 
 as special ambassador to the Constantinople 
 Conference. In 1878 he succeeded Lord 
 Derby as Foreign Miuister, and in that year 
 accompanied Lord Beaconsfield to the Ber- 
 lin Conference. After the death of the 
 latter he became Conservative leader, and 
 as such joiaed in the framing of the Re- 
 distribution Bill of 1885. In June of that 
 year he became Premier, and held office till 
 the following January, and from 1886-1892 
 was again in power. After the resignation 
 of Lord Iddesleigh he took the portfoho of 
 Foreign AiEairs. 
 
 Sallustius Crispus, Caius [Sallust] {b. 
 86 B.C., d. 34 B.C.), Roman historian ; was 
 excluded from the Senate for his immorality, 
 but afterwards made a fortune as governor 
 of Numidia, on his return from which he 
 wrote in retirement his /w^wr^Aa and Gati- 
 lina. 
 
 Salmasius, or Claude deSaumaise {b. 1588, 
 d. 1653), French scholar, professor of history 
 at Leyden ; author of Historic Augustte 
 Scriptores Sex and Defensio Regia pro 
 Carolo I. , which was replied to by Milton in 
 his Defence of the People of England. 
 
 Salmon, George, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. {h. 
 1819), Irish divine ; was Regius professor of 
 diviuity at Trinity College, Dublin, from 1868 
 to 1888, when he became provost. His 
 works include Introduction to the New Testa- 
 ment, and treatises on Conic Sections, The 
 Geometry of Three Dimensions, TJie Modern 
 Higher Algebra, etc. , whidi have been trans- 
 lated into most European languages. 
 
 Salomons, Sir David, Bart. {b. 1797, d. 
 1873), became in 1855 the first Jewish Lord 
 Mayo/ of London, having previously been 
 sheriff under a special Act. He was elected 
 as a Liberal for Greenwich in 1851, and 
 raised the question of Jewish disabilities, 
 which was settled by the act of 1859. His 
 
 nephew, SiE David (b. 1851), has written 
 on electrical subjects and the Woman's 
 Rights question. 
 
 Salt, Sir Titus, Bart. (*. 1803, d. 1876), 
 philanthropist ; acquired a large fortune as 
 a wool-spinner, and made large benefactions 
 to Bradford, which town he represented for 
 two years. He built the village of Saltaire, 
 with model dwellings round his manu- 
 factory. 
 
 Salvator Rosa. \_See Rosa.] 
 
 SalvL \_See Sassoferrato.] 
 
 Salvlni, Tommaso {b. 1830), tragedian, 
 whose parents were actors ; was iustructed 
 by Modena, aud made a reputation in 
 Edipo and Saul, but is best known iu Eng- 
 land by his Othello, which was seen here in 
 1875, 1876, and 1884, when he also played 
 Hamlet. With Ristori, Rossi, and Majeroue 
 he acted in 1865 iu Pellico's Francesca da 
 Rimini, and created an extraordinary im- 
 pression in Madrid as Conrad in 1868. 
 
 Sambourne, Edward Linley {b. 1845), 
 English caricaturist ; began to contribute to 
 Punch ia 1867, and afterwards illustrated 
 Kingsley's Water Babies, Andersen's Fairy 
 Tales, and other works. 
 
 Samson, Joseph Isidore {b. 1793, d. 1871), 
 French actor ; made his first appearance in 
 1827, and retired in 1863, haviug played 
 with distinction in MoUere and Marivaux. 
 As professor at the Conservatoire he had 
 Rachel and Sarah Bernhardt among his 
 pupils. 
 
 Samuel, Sir Saul, K.C.M.G. {b. 1820), 
 Australian statesman ; emigrated in 1832, 
 and was in 1S54 a member of the Legislative 
 Council of New South Wales. In 1859 he 
 became colonial treasurer, which office he 
 again held in 1865, 1868, and 1869. In 1880 
 he became agent-general for New South 
 Wales in London. 
 
 Sannazzaro, Giacopo [Actius Syncerus] 
 {b. 1458, d. 1530), Neapolitan poet; author 
 of Arcadia, and the Latin poem, De Partu 
 Virginia, by the composition of which he 
 gaLued the name of the " Christian Virgil." 
 
 Sancerre, Louis de {b. 1342, d. 1402), 
 Constable of France, and friend of Bertrand 
 DuguescKn, whom he assisted to drive the 
 English out of Guienue, and rendered other 
 distinguished services. 
 
 Sancroft, William (b. 1616, d. 1693), 
 English divine. After having been master 
 of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and Dean 
 of York and St. Paul's, became iu 1677 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. He headed the 
 bishops in their refusal to read the Declara- 
 tion of Indulgence, but was deprived in 1691 
 for refusing to take the oaths to William and 
 Mary.
 
 San 
 
 ( 658) 
 
 San 
 
 Sand, Georges, wow de guerre of Madame 
 DUDEVANT [b. 1804, ^. 1876), French 
 novelist ; separated from her husband in 
 1831, iu which year was published, under the 
 pseudonym " Jules Sand," a novel written 
 in collaboration with Saudeau. Next year 
 she began to write under the well-known 
 signature, her cliief works being Consuelo 
 (1842), La Gomtesse de Jiudolstadt, Les Sept 
 Cordes de la Lyre (1840), La Fetite Fadette 
 (1848), Elle et Lui (1858), Le Marquis de 
 Villemer, and other plays, and Impressions 
 et Souvenirs (1873). She lived at various 
 times with Alfred de Musset, Pierre Leroux, 
 and Chopin. An English translation of her 
 letters appeared in 1886. 
 
 Sanday, WUliam, D.D. {b. 1843), English 
 theologian ; was fellow of Trinity College, 
 Oxford, 1866-73, and principal of Hatfield's 
 Hall, Durham, 1876-81, when he became 
 professor of Exegesis at Oxford. His works 
 include Authorship and Historical Character 
 of the Fourth Gospel, and The Gospels in the 
 Second Century. 
 
 Sandeau, Leonard Sylvain Jules [b. 1811, 
 d. 1883), French writer ; was made keeper of 
 the Mazarin library in 1853, and Ubrarian of 
 St. Cloud in 1859. Chief among; his novels 
 were Mademoiselle de la Seigliere (1848), 
 afterwards dramatised, Madeleine, and Sacs 
 et Farchemins ; and he wrote with Augier 
 Le Gendre de M. Foirier (1854), and La 
 Geinture Doree (1855), and other plays. 
 
 Sandeman, Eobert {b. 1723, d. 1772), 
 Scotch divine ; married a daughter of John 
 Glass (q.v.), and founded the sect called 
 " Sandemanians." 
 
 Sanderson, John Scott Burdon, F.R.S. 
 (J). 1828), physiologist; was Jodrell pro- 
 fessor of physiology at University College 
 1874-82, and was elected Wayntiete pro- 
 fessor at Oxford in that year. He was 
 employed by the Government to make in- 
 vestigations concerning the cattle plague, 
 the health of miners, and the epidemic of 
 meningitis in Germany, and has made 
 elaborate researches with regard to electrical 
 fish. 
 
 Sanderson, Robert {b. 1587, d. 1663), in 
 1631 was appointed chaplain to Charles I., 
 regius professor of divinity at Oxford 
 1646-48, and Bishop of Lincoln in 1660. 
 Published Xo^icte ^rits Compendium (1615), 
 De Obligatione Conscientice Frtslectiones 
 (1647), etc. 
 
 Sandhurst, WiUiam Mansfield, Baron (b. 
 1819, d. 1876), general ; was aide-de-camp 
 to Lord Gough at Sobraon, and took part in 
 the Punjaub campaign, and afterwards dis- 
 tinguished himself in the Indian Mutiny as 
 chief of the staff to Sir CoUn Campbell. He 
 was commander-in-chief in India from 1865 
 to 1870. when he was created baron. 
 
 Sandon, Viscount. [See Harrowby.] 
 
 Sandrart (A. 1606, d. 1688), German 
 painter and writer on art ; employed by 
 Ferdinand III. and the Duke of Bavaria ; 
 was the author of Teutsche Academie, and 
 other works. 
 
 Sandwich, Edward Montagu, Earl of (i. 
 1625, d. 1672), English admiral ; conveyed 
 Charles II. to England, and served with 
 distinction against the Dutch till, in the 
 battle of Southwold Bay, his ship caught 
 fire, and he was drowned. 
 
 Sandys, Edwin {b. 1519, d. 1588), divine, 
 successively Bishop of Worcester and Lon- 
 don, and Archbishop of York ; was im- 
 prisoned by Mary when vice-chancellor of 
 Cambridge University for preaching in 
 favour of Lady Jane Grey, but in the next 
 reign took part in the revision of the liturgy 
 and in the " Bishops' " Bible. 
 
 Sangallo, Antonio da («^. 1546), Italian 
 architect ; employed by Leo X. and his 
 successors in erecting buildings and fortifi- 
 cations ; succeeded Bramante as architect of 
 St. Peter's. 
 
 Sanmicheli, Michele (b. 1484, d. 1559), 
 architect, the results of whose work are 
 chiefly to be seen at Venice and Verona ; 
 was greatly engaged in fortification. 
 
 Sansevero, Raymond di Sangro (b. 1710, 
 d. 1771), a XeapoUtan who invented a four- 
 wheeled chariot to pass over the surface of 
 water. 
 
 Sansovino [Jacopo Tatti] (J. 1477, d. 
 1570), sculptor and architect, friend of 
 Andrea del Sarto and Perugino ; built the 
 Zecca, and restored the cupola of St. 
 Mark's, Venice. Bacchus was his best 
 sculpture. 
 
 Sant, James. R.A. (fi. 1820), English 
 artist ; studied under John Varley and 
 Calcott, and about 1842 began to exhibit his 
 "fancy subjects" (Little Red Riding Hood, 
 The Infant Timothy, etc.). Among his 
 other works are The Children in the Wood 
 (1854 and 1856), Frosperity— Adversity 
 (1877), and many portraits, chiefly of the 
 Countess Waldegrave and her friends. 
 
 Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de (b. 1795, 
 d. 1876), Mexican general; fought at first 
 for the Spaniards, but in 1829 defeased their 
 expedition, and became president in 1833. 
 He recognised the independence of Texas, 
 and defended Vera Cruz against the French 
 in 1839, but, after having been dictator from 
 1841 to 1844, was banished. He returned to 
 conduct the war against the United States, 
 and in 1853-55 was again dictator. _ He was 
 afterwards banished once more for intriguing 
 against Juarez.
 
 San 
 
 (659 ) 
 
 San 
 
 Santerre, Antoine Joseph (b. 1752, d. 
 1809), French brewer; conspicuous on the 
 day of the capture of the Bastille ; became 
 commander of the National Guard, and, 
 after serving against the Vendeani, fell 
 under suspicion as a Dantonist, and was 
 imprisoned. 
 
 Santi, Giovanni (d. 1494), Italian painter, 
 father of Raffaelle. There is a Madonna 
 and Child by him in the National Gallery, 
 London. 
 
 Santley, Charles (6. 1834), English bari- 
 tone, born at Liverpool ; sang in Haydn's 
 Creation in 1857, and two years later made 
 his deb^ut in operatic parts. The Handel 
 Festival of 1862 was the first in which he 
 took part. His first wife was a soprano, 
 and one of his daughters is a vocalist. 
 
 Sanuto, Marino {b. 1466, d. 1536), Italian 
 writer, historiographer of Venice ; wrote 
 Zives of the Dopes, and left voluminous 
 Dtaries, which have only recently been 
 printed. 
 
 Sapor I., King of Persia (d. 272), suc- 
 ceeded Artaxerxes I. in 241 ; conquered Ar- 
 menia after procuring the assassination of 
 Chosroes ; defeated and captured Valerian, 
 the Eoman emperor, at Edessa in 260, and 
 had subdued Syria and Cilicia, when he was 
 checked by Odenatus of Palmyra, being 
 assassinated some years later by his satraps. 
 
 Sapor II., "the Great" ((/. 379), suc- 
 ceeded Hormisdas II., and carried on war 
 with the Eomans imder Constantius II., 
 Julian, and Jovian, obtaining, by his treaty 
 vdth the last, Nisibis, Singara, and the 
 provinces beyond the Tigris. 
 
 Sappho (7th century B.C.), Greek poetess ; 
 said to have invented the metre called by 
 her name. Fragments only of the works of 
 the " Tenth Muse " are extant. 
 
 Sarasate, Martin Meliton {b. 1844), Spanish 
 violinist, boru at Pampeluna ; was the fa- 
 vourite pupil of Alard at the Paris Con- 
 servatoire, and played with success on the 
 Continent and America, his first appearance 
 in London being in May, 1874. His com- 
 positions include transcripts of Spanish 
 dances, Friere et Berceuse, and Caprice 
 Basque (1881). 
 
 Sarcey, Francisque (b. 1828), French 
 writer ; contributed dramatic critiques to 
 the Figaro, Temps, and the Steele, and wrote 
 a Sistort/ of the Siege of Paris, Comediens 
 et Comediennes, etc. 
 
 Sardanapalus. \^See Esarhaddon.] 
 
 Sardou, Victorien (A. 1831), French 
 
 dramatist, whose first comedy, produced at 
 
 the Odeon in 1854, was a failure ; won a 
 
 reputation by M. Gnrat (1860), and other 
 
 Q Q 2 
 
 pieces, produced at the Dejazet theatre, and 
 was admitted to the Academy in 1877. 
 Among his best-known plays are Les Pattes 
 du Mouche, the original of A Scrap of Paper ; 
 Nos Intimes, of Peril; Dora, of Diplomacy ; 
 Odette, Fedora, La Tosca, smd Babagas (1872), 
 a satire on Gambetta. 
 
 Sarpi, Pietro [Fra Paolo] {b. 1552, d. 
 1623), Servite monk ; defended Venice 
 against the papal claims, and was made 
 councillor of the Ten, but almost fell a 
 victim to the attempts of his enemies on his 
 hfe, in consequence of this and his attacks 
 on the abuses of the Roman court, but re- 
 covered from his wounds. His History of 
 the Council of Trent was first pubUshed in 
 London. 
 
 Sars, Michael (*. 1805, d. 1869), Nor- 
 wegian zoologist, author of Fauna Littoralis 
 Noricegi(e ; discovered a crinoid in the 
 North Sea belonging to a species supposed 
 to be extinct. 
 
 Sarsfield, Patrick {d. 1693), Irish officer; 
 distingiushed for his efforts at Limerick and 
 elsewhere to restore the authority of James 
 II. He afterwards served in the French 
 army, and was killed at the battle of Landen. 
 
 Sarto. \See Andrea del Sarto.] 
 
 Sartorius, Sir George (A. 1790, d. 1885), 
 Enghsh admiral ; served as a midshipman 
 at Trafalgar, and commanded the Portu- 
 guese fleet for Dom Pedro in 1832-33. 
 
 Sassoferrato, II [Giambattista Salvi] {b. 
 1605, d. 1685), Italian painter, of the school 
 of Caracci. There is a Madonna of his in 
 the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Sassoon, Sir Albert Abdullah {b. 1818), 
 banker, bom at Bagdad ; when living in 
 India made magnificent gifts to the town of 
 Bombay, and became a member of the 
 Legislative Council. On his return to Eng- 
 land he was knighted, and received the 
 freedom of the City of London. 
 
 Saumarez, Lord de [b. Ylbl, d. 1836), 
 British admiral, was knighted for his cap- 
 ture of La Biunion ; served witli Jervis at 
 Cape St. Vincent, and was second in com- 
 mand at the NUg. In 1801 he received a 
 peerage, and soon after was awarded a pen- 
 sion for his conduct of the action in the Bay 
 of Algeciras. He next commanded the Baltic 
 fleet, and in 1831 became vice-admiral of 
 England, having been in 1814 personally 
 thanked by the sovereigns of Europe. 
 
 Saunders, Sir Edmund (d. 1683), Chief 
 Justice of the King's Bench, and author of 
 Reports; was originally an errand-boy at 
 the Inns of Court. 
 
 Saussure, Horace Benedict de {b. 1740, 
 
 d. 1799), Swiss naturalist ; made several
 
 Sav 
 
 ( 660) 
 
 Say 
 
 iinprovements in the thermometer, hy- 
 grometer, and other instruments, and left a 
 record of his travels, }'oijages dans les Aipes, 
 of great scieutific value. 
 
 Savage, Kichard {d. 1743), English poet, 
 perhaps a natural son of the Couutess of 
 Macclesfield, by Lord Rivers ; was a friend of 
 Dr. Johnson, who wrote his life. In 1727 he 
 killed a Mr. Sinclair in a drunken quarrel, 
 but obtained a pardon, and was received and 
 pensioned by Lord Tyrconnel. They could 
 not, however, agree, and, though Savage 
 received a small pension for a Birthday Ode 
 to the Queen, he died in a debtor's prison at 
 Bristol. His chief work was the tragedy, 
 Sir Thomas Overbury. 
 
 Savary, Anne Jean Marie Rene, Due de 
 Rovigo {]). 1774, d. 1833), French general; 
 distiuguished himself in Egypt and at Ma- 
 rengo, after which he became aide-de-camp 
 to Napoleon. He was entrusted with the 
 execution of the Due d'Enghien, and other 
 more creditable missions, those resulting in 
 the conferences of Bayouue, however, not 
 being of a very honourable character. For 
 his services at Friedlaud he was ennobled, 
 and was constantly iu attendance on Na- 
 poleon, till his appointment in 1810 as 
 minister of police. He fled the country 
 under sentence of death at the restoration, 
 but in 1819 submitted to trial, and was 
 acquitted. After the accession of Louis 
 Philippe he held a command in Algeria for 
 a short time. 
 
 Savigny, Friedrich Karl von [h. 1779, d. 
 1861), German jurist, of French Huguenot 
 descent ; was for thirty-two years professor 
 of law at Berlin, and in 1842 was named 
 minister of justice ia Prussia. His chief 
 works were Vom Berufe Unserer Zeit fur 
 Gesetzgehung und Rechtswissenschaft (trans- 
 lated by Hay ward). System des Heutigen 
 Romischen Rechts (translated by Holloway, 
 1861), and Geschichte des Romischen Rechts 
 im Mittelalter. 
 
 Savile, Right Hon. John [Baron Savile] 
 {b. 1825), English diplomatist. After being 
 charge-d^ affaires at New York, Madrid, and 
 St. Petersburg, was named envoy-extra- 
 ordinary to Saxony in 1866, to Switzerland 
 1867, and to Brussels 1868. In 1883 he was, 
 as Sir John Savile-Lumley, appointed am- 
 bassador to Italy. He di-opped the name 
 Lumley in 1887, and was made a peer in 
 the next year. 
 
 SaviUe. {See Halifax.] 
 
 Saville, Sir Henry {b. 1549, d. 1622), 
 scholar, was tutor in Greek and mathe- 
 matics to Queen Elizabeth, and held the 
 wardenship of Mertou College and the 
 provostship of Eton for many years. He 
 founded professorships of astronomy and 
 
 geometry at Oxford, and published a col« 
 lection of English historians. 
 
 Savonarola, Fra Girolamo [h. 1452, d. 1498), 
 Italian preacher, born at Ferrara ; acquired 
 great political influence in Florence, where 
 he denounced abuses of all kiuds. He was 
 twice sent as envoy to Charles VIII. of 
 France, and after the expulsion of Piero de' 
 Medici was real ruler of the state, but, 
 having been prohibited preaching and ex- 
 communicated by Alexander VI., he was 
 attacked ia his priory of San Marco, with 
 his friends, and burnt, after being put to 
 the torture. 
 
 Savory, Sir William Scovell, Bart., F.R.S. 
 (J). 1820), Enghsh surgeon, president of the 
 Royal College 188.5-6. His chief works are 
 The Pathology of Cancer, and Life and 
 Death — an iutroduction to the Book of 
 Health. 
 
 Saxe, John Godfrey {b. 1816, d. 1887), 
 American poet, journalist, and lecturer. 
 
 Saxe, Maurice, Comte de {b. 1696, d. 1750), 
 marshal of France ; was a natural son of 
 Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland. His 
 gi-eatest achievements were the victories of 
 Foutenoy, Lawfeldt, and Rancoux, and the 
 capture of Maestricht. He left a work 
 entitled Mes Reveries, which was published 
 in 1757, and subsequently translated. 
 
 Saxo-Grammaticus ( 1 2th century) , Danish 
 writer ; author of Banornm Rcgum He- 
 roumque Historia, on which Mamlet ia 
 founded. 
 
 Say, Jean Baptiste (b. 1767, d. 1832), 
 French economist ; was for some time a 
 member of the Tribunate, and in his Traite 
 d'' Economic Politique, and other works, 
 aimed at popularising the doctrines of 
 Adam Smith. 
 
 Say, Jean Baptiste Leon (J). 1826), grand- 
 son of the above ; was finance minister under 
 Thiers (1872) and in several subsequent 
 administrations, and in 1880, when am- 
 bassador in England, was named president 
 of the Senate. Again in 1882 he became 
 finance minister, and among his works are 
 Histoire de_ la Caisse d'' Escompte, Turgot 
 (" Grands Ecrivains F7-angais ") , andatrans- 
 lation of Goschen's Theory of Foreign Ex- 
 changes. 
 
 Sayce, Archibald Henry (b. 1846), Eng- 
 lish philologist ; became fellow of Queen's 
 College, Oxford, in 1869, and ia 1876 
 deputy professor of comparative philology, 
 but resigned in 1890 ia order to go to 
 Egypt. Among his works are Principles 
 of Comparative Philology, an Assyrian gram- 
 mar, and Witness of the Ancient Monument* 
 to the Ancient Scriptures {^^ Present Bay
 
 Sea 
 
 (661) 
 
 Sch 
 
 Tract " series). In 1891 he was appointed 
 to the chair of Assyriology. 
 
 Scala, Bartolomeo {b. 1430, d. 1497), 
 Italian statesman and writer ; was chan- 
 ceUor of Florence under the Medici, and 
 afterwards gonfaloniere. He wrote a history 
 of the Florentine republic. 
 
 Scaliger, Julius Caesar {h. 1484, d. 1558), 
 classical scholar, bom in a castle on Lake 
 Garda ; served for seventeen years the Em- 
 peror Maximilian, and, after leaving the 
 army, wrote I)e Causis Linfiua Latince, a 
 defence of Cicero against Er:.s.aus, and other 
 works. He is known as the eider Scaliger. 
 
 Scaliger, Joseph Justus {b. 1540, d. 1609), 
 philologist, son of the preceding ; was bom 
 at Agen, and in 1593 became professor of 
 belles lettres at Leyden, where he taught 
 Grotius ; wrote De ^mendatione Temporum, 
 and edited many of the classics. 
 
 ScaJiderbeg [George Castriota] {b. 1404, 
 d. 1467), Albanian prince ; escaped from the 
 Tvirks, among whom he had been brought 
 up as a hostage, and, having recovered his 
 throne and renoimced Mohammedanism, 
 maintained a long and successful war vdth 
 his enemies. Many of his exploits are prob- 
 ably mythical. 
 
 Scarlatti, Alessandro {b. 1659, d. 1725), 
 Neapolitan composer, whose works include 
 about one hundred operas, as well as a great 
 number of masses and motets. 
 
 Scarlatti, Domenico (b. 1683, d. 1757), his 
 son, was a friend of Handel, and became 
 chapel-master to the Queen of Spain. He 
 was a composer of church music and operas. 
 
 Scarlett, Sir James. [See Abinger.] 
 
 Scarlett, Sir James York, G.C.B. {b. 1799, 
 d. 1871), British officer, son of Lord Abin- 
 ger; commanded with distinction in the 
 Crimea a brigade of cavalry, and attained 
 the rank of heutenaut-general in 1862. 
 
 Scarron, Paul (h. 1610, d. 1660), French 
 satirist, husband of Mademoiselle d'Aubigne, 
 afterwards Madame de Maintenon. His 
 chief works were Ze Roman Comique, and 
 L'Aeneide Travestie. 
 
 Schadow, Johann Gottfried [b. 1764, d. 
 1850), German sculptor; became director of 
 the Berlin Academy in 1816, and in 1833 
 published Folycleftts. His best sculptures 
 were the Quadriga at Berlin, the statues 
 of Frederick the Great at Stettin, and of 
 Blucher at Rostock, and the Luther monu- 
 ment at Wittenberg. His son, Feiedeich 
 VON SCHADOW (d. 1862), was a religious 
 painter, by whom there are altar-pieces at 
 Berlin and Frankfort. 
 
 Schafarik, Paul Joseph (b. 1795, d. 1861), 
 
 Slavonic scholar ; for some time censor to 
 the Austrian government, and afterwards 
 chief librarian at Pi-ague. His chief work 
 was Geschichte der Slavischen Sprache und 
 Litteratur naeh alien Mundarten (1826). 
 
 Schafer, Arnold (b. 1819), German his- 
 torian ; professor at Bonn since 1864, and 
 author of Histort/ of the Seven Years' War, 
 Sketch of the Sources of Grecian Mistory, 
 etc. 
 
 Schafer, Wilhelm (b. 1809, d. 1880), 
 brother of the above ; was some time pro- 
 fessor at Bremen, and wrote, among other 
 works. History of German Literature in the 
 Eighteenth Century, Goethe''s Life, and Love 
 and Life — a cycle of songs. 
 
 Schaff, Philip, D.D. (b. 1819), American 
 theologian, bom in Switzerland. After 
 holding several chairs previously, he became 
 professor of biblical literature and church 
 history in the Union Theological Seminary, 
 New York. He was president of the 
 American Bible Revision Committee, and 
 among his numerous works may be named 
 History of the Christian Church, The Person 
 of Christ (1865), The Creeds of Christendom, 
 dictionary of the Bible (1880), etc. 
 
 Schalken, Godfried (*. 1643, d. 1706), 
 Dutch painter, pupil of Gerard Dow, his 
 candle-light scenes being a speciality. 
 
 Schamyl, Ben Mohammed Effendi (b. 
 1797, d. 1871), "the Warrior-Prophet of 
 the Caucasus," headed a movement against 
 the Russian rule, but was in 1859 made 
 prisoner and sent to Central Asia. In 1866 
 he took the oath of fidelity to the Tsar, and 
 died in Russia. 
 
 Scharf, George (b. 1820), illustrator and 
 writer on art ; became director of the 
 National Portrait Gallery, London, in 1882. 
 
 Schamhorst, Gerhard Johann David von 
 {b. 1756, d. 1813), Prussian general, a Hano- 
 verian by birth ; was present at Auer- 
 stadt and Eylau, and skilfully reorganised 
 the army of Prussia, in spite of the orders of 
 Napoleon. He was chief of Blucher's stafE 
 in 1813, but died on the eve of the War of 
 Liberation. 
 
 Scharwenka, Xavier (i. 1850), German 
 composer and musician. 
 
 Scheele, Karl Wilhelm {b. 1742, d. 1786), 
 chemist ; discovered several acids, and de- 
 termined the nature of others, his chief 
 work being Experiments on Air and Fire. 
 
 Scheemakers, Pieter (A. 1691), Flemish 
 sculptor ; was master of Nollekens, and 
 executed the momunents to Shakespeare, 
 Dryden, and others in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Scheffel, Joseph Victor von [b. 1826, d.
 
 Sch 
 
 (662) 
 
 Sch 
 
 188ii), poet and novelist, bom at Karlsruhe. 
 His chief works were Ekkehard, a historical 
 romance, The Trumpeter of Sdckingen, and 
 Gditdeamus, a collection of student-sougs, of 
 which an English translation appeared in 
 1S72. 
 
 Scheflfer, Ary (b. 1795, d. 1858), painter 
 and politician, bom at Dordrecht ; exhibited 
 at Amsterdam at the age of twelve, and 
 afterwards produced at Paris Francesca da 
 Eimini (1835), the ^'Fausf series (nine), 
 and several religious studies. He fought at 
 the barricades iu 1830, and was associated 
 ■with Thiers in offering the crown to Louis 
 Philippe. His brothers, Aenold {d. 1853) 
 and Henbi (d. 1862), were distinguished, 
 the one as a political writer, the other as a 
 painter of revolutionary scenes. 
 
 Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelra Joseph von 
 {b. 1775, d. 1854), G&rman idealist philoso- 
 pher ; was at Tubingen with Hegel, and, 
 having succeeded Fichte as professor at Jena, 
 edited with the fonner The Critical Journal of 
 Fhihsophy. He afterwards held chairs at 
 WUrzbirrg and Munich, and in 1841 was 
 appointed professor at Berlin. His chief 
 works were The Ego as Principle of Fhi- 
 losophy (1795), Exposition of my System 
 (1801), 031^ Fhilosophical Investigations Con- 
 cerning the Essence of Human Freedom 
 (1809). He married Caroline Schlegel. 
 
 Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von 
 {b. 1759, d. 1805), poet; was bom at Mar- 
 bach, and studied law and medicine at 
 Stuttgart. At nineteen he wrote Die 
 Raiiber, which was produced at Maunheim, 
 but lost him the favour of the Duke of 
 Wiirtemburg. In 1787 he went to Weimar, 
 and three years after became professor of 
 history at Jena, where he published his his- 
 tory of the Thirty Years' war. Some years 
 later he became intimate with Goethe, whom 
 he joined at Weimar in 1799, and wrote 
 there the trilogy of TFaUenstein, The Sony of 
 the Bell, Maria Stuart, Wdhelm Tell, and 
 his ballads. 
 
 Schilling, Johann [b. 1828), sculptor, a 
 native of Saxony, his chief productions 
 being Amor and Fysche (1851), The Four 
 Seasons, in Dresden, and the Grand National 
 Monument on the Niederwald. 
 
 Schimmelpenninck, Mary Ann {b. 1778, 
 d. 1856), English writer {nee Galton) ; joined 
 the Moravians in 1818. Her chief work was 
 Memoirs of Port Royal. 
 
 ScWegel, August Wilhelm von (A. 1767, 
 d. 1845), German critic; was bom at Han- 
 over, and appointed professor of art and 
 literature at Jena m 1798, where he edited, 
 with Novalis, Tieck and others, the Athen- 
 teutn, as the organ of the Eomantic school. 
 In 1802 he went to Berlin, and made the 
 
 acquaintance of Madame de Stael, whom he 
 accompanied to Vienna, where in 1808 he 
 deUvered his lectures on dramatic literatui'e. 
 In 1813 he became secretary to Bernadotte, 
 then hved with Madame de Stael at Paris, 
 and in 1818 became professor at Bonn. His 
 chief works were a translation of Shake- 
 speare, Kritische Schriften, and some 
 poems. 
 
 Schlegel, Karl Friedrich von {b. 1772, d. 
 1829), Orientahst, brother of August, whom 
 he joined at Jena ; afterwards hved at 
 Paris, but after his reception into the Homan 
 Church (1808) obtained a civU appointment 
 at Vienna. Besides his Ueber dee Sprachs 
 und Weisheit der Indier (1808), he pub- 
 lished in 1815 lectures on The History of 
 Ancient and Modern Literature, and in early 
 life, Lucinde, and other novels. 
 
 Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst Daniel 
 {b. 1768, d. 1834), theologian, born at Bres- 
 lau ; became professor of theology at Berlin 
 in 1810, and exercised great influence as a 
 preacher and writer. Among his chief works 
 were Der Christliche Glaube, and a trans- 
 lation of Plato's works (1817). A trans- 
 lation of his Life and Letters appeared in 
 1860. 
 
 ScMiemann, Heinrich (*. 1822, d. 1890), 
 classical scholar ; having been successful in 
 business, gave himself up to his early tastes, 
 publishing results of his excavations in the 
 East in 1869. Troy and its Remains ap- 
 peared in 1874, in which year he began to 
 make valuable discoveries at Mycenae. In 
 1883 he built a house at Athens, and pub- 
 lished the results of further researches upon 
 the site of Troy, and, in 1886, The Pre- 
 historic Palace of the Kings of Tiryns. 
 
 Schneider, Hortense Catherine {b. 1835), 
 French actress ; made her debut at Paris in 
 1853, and met with great success in La Belle 
 Helene and La Grand Duchesse de Gerolstein 
 in 1864 and 1867 at the Varietes, appearing 
 in London in 1868. In 1881 she married and 
 retired. 
 
 Schneider, Johann Friedrich {b. 1786, d. 
 1853), German composer; became kapell- 
 meister to the Duke of Dessau. He is best 
 known by his oratorios, The Deluge, Gideon, 
 Gethsemane and Golgotha, etc. 
 
 Schnorr von Karolsfeld, Julius [b. 1794, 
 d. 1872), fresco-painter, bom at Leipzig ; 
 was professor of historical painting at 
 Munich from 1827 to 1846, when he became 
 director of the Dresden gallery. His best 
 works were the frescoes in the palace of 
 Munich illustrative of the Xibelungen Lied, 
 and of events in German history. 
 
 Schoen, or Schonjauer, Martin (d. circa 
 1490), German painter of the school of Van 
 Eyck. His best works are in the college of
 
 Sch 
 
 (663) 
 
 Sell 
 
 Colmar, but his Death of the Virgin is in the 
 National Gallery, London. 
 
 Stdiofer, Pieter (d. circa 1502), was a 
 partner of Gutenberg and Fust, the eaily 
 printers. 
 
 Schofleld, John McAllister (b. 1831), 
 American general. After having been pro- 
 fessor of physics at St. Louis, commanded 
 in the Civil war the army of the Ohio, and 
 in 1868-9 was secretary for war. From 1876 
 to 1881 he was superintendent at West 
 Point. 
 
 Schomberg, Frederick Hermann, Duke of 
 (J). 1618, d. 1690), soldier of fortune; was 
 made marshal of France, though aProtestant, 
 for his services against Spain, but after the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes became 
 minister of state in Brandenberg. He after- 
 wards returned to the service of the Princes 
 of Orange, his early employers, and was 
 killed at the battle of the Boyne. Henei 
 DE ScHOMBEEO (d. 1632), also a marshal 
 of France, who commanded against the 
 Huguenots, and in Italy, was descended 
 from another family. 
 
 Schonbein, Christian Frederick (b. 1799, 
 d. 1868), German chemist, professor at 
 Basel ; invented guncotton in 1845, and 
 discovered ozone. 
 
 Schoolcraft, Henry Eowe {b. 1793, d. 
 1864), American ethnologist, bom at Al- 
 bany. After being geologist to the Missouri 
 expedition, became agent for Indian affairs 
 in the North -West, and published, with the 
 help of the government, Notes on the Iro- 
 gtcois (1846), Historical and Statistical In- 
 formation Respecting the Indian Tribes, and 
 other works. 
 
 Schopenhauer, Arthur (b. 1788, d. 1860), 
 German pessimistic philosopher, whose 
 mother wrote Gabriele, and other works ; 
 was born at Dantzig, and trained to busi- 
 ness, but soon turned to philosophy. His 
 great work. The World as Will and Idea 
 (1819), was translated into English in 1886. 
 
 Schouvaloff, Peter, Count {b. 1827, d. 
 1889), Russian diplomatist; had been chief 
 of the secret police before his appointment 
 as ambassador to England in 1874. He did 
 much to avert war between England and 
 Russia, and was second plenipotentiary at 
 the Berlin Congress, after which he returned 
 to St. Petersburg. 
 
 Schreiner, Olive, South-African writer, 
 daughter of a Lutheran clergyman at Cape 
 Town ; wrote The Story of an African Farm, 
 and Dreams (1891). 
 
 Schroter, Christoph (h. 1699, d. 1782), 
 invented the pianoforte, of which he made 
 a model in 1721. He was for fifty years 
 
 organist at Nordhausen, and wrote on the 
 theory of music. 
 
 Schubert, Franz Peter (b. 1797, d. 1828), 
 Austrian composer ; was bom and lived at 
 Vienna, where for three years he taught in 
 his father's school. His chief works were 
 Rosamunde (1823), the sonata in C (1828), 
 the mass in E flat, and about six hundred 
 songs, among which may be named The 
 Eruzing, The King in Thule, Schlummerlied, 
 and Death and the Maiden. 
 
 Schulemboiirg, Johaun, Graf von {b. 1661, 
 d. 1747), German soldier of fortune ; served 
 under Sobieski, then with the Dutch against 
 France, and finally became head of the 
 Venetian forces, gaining great reputation 
 for his defence of Corfu against the Turks 
 in 1716. 
 
 Schulze-Delitzsch, Hermann (J. 1808, d. 
 1883), German economist ; repre.=<ented Ber- 
 lin in the North-German Parliament, and 
 in the Reichstag, and was president of the 
 Labour Inquiry Committee. Among his 
 works were Die Arbieterklassen (1863), and 
 Kapitel zu einem Deutschen Arbeiterkate- 
 chismus (1873). 
 
 Schumann, Robert Alexander (i. 1810, d. 
 1856), composer, a native of Saxony; for- 
 sook the study of law after 1830, and de- 
 termined to become a great pianist, but, 
 after hurting his hand, turned, to compo- 
 sition, his chief works being Etudes Sym- 
 phoniques. Paradise and the Peri (1843), a 
 cantata, many symphonies and sonatas, and 
 settings of Burns, Heine, Riickert, and 
 others. In 1843 he established and edited 
 the Neue Zeitschrift fiir Musik. 
 
 Schumann, Madame Clara {b. 1819), wife 
 of the above, and daughter of Wieck, his 
 master ; appeared as a piauiste when twelve 
 years old at one of the Gewandhaus con- 
 certs at Leipzig, and soon became known as 
 a briUiant exponent of the great masters, 
 including her husband. 
 
 Schunck, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S. (*. 
 
 182U), English chemiat, well known for his 
 investigations on colouring matter. 
 
 Schurz, Karl (b. 1829), American soldier 
 and statesman, of Geiman birth. After 
 being concerned in the movement of 1848, 
 and rescuing Kinkel from Spandau in 1850, 
 he came to Scotland, but in 1852 settled in 
 the United States. In the Civil war he held 
 commands at Gettysburg and Chancellors- 
 ville, and in 1865 went on a special mission 
 to the Southern states. In 1869 he became 
 United States senator, and opposed the 
 policy of Grant. In 1877 he was appointed 
 secretary of the interior under President 
 Hayes, and in 1884 supported the candi- 
 dature of Cleveland against Blaine.
 
 Sch 
 
 (664) 
 
 Sco 
 
 Schuster, Ai-thur, Ph.D., F.E.S. (b. I80I), 
 physicist, bom at Fraukf ort-on-the-Main ; 
 came to Manchester iu 1869, was appoiuted 
 chief of the Eclipse expedition to Siam iu 1875, 
 and, after holding the chau- of apphed mathe- 
 matics at Owens College, became professor 
 of physics in 1888. In 1882 he photographed 
 for the first time the spectrum of the solar 
 corona, and in 1884 and 1890 delivered the 
 Bakerian lectures on the discharge of elec- 
 tricity through gases. 
 
 Schwanthaler, Ludwig Michael von (b. 
 1802, d. 1848), German sculptor, bom at 
 Munich. His chief work was the colossal 
 statue of Bavaria, fifty feet high. 
 
 Schwarzenberg, Karl, Prinz von (b. 1771, 
 d. 1820), Austrian general ; served through- 
 out the Napoleonic wars, being distinguished 
 at Wagram ; commanded the troops of the 
 Allies in 1813-14, and the Russians and Aus- 
 trians in the following year. His nephew, 
 Pbince Felix {d. 1852), became chief minis- 
 ter of the Austrian empire in 1848, and, by a 
 policy of repression, restored order, 
 
 Schweinfurtli, Georg August {b. 1836), 
 African traveller, bom at Riga ; made a 
 botanical expedition to the Nile valley 
 1863-6, and in 1862 discovered the Welle, or 
 Aruwiui river. He published in 1873 Im 
 Herzen von A/rika, and made subsequent 
 explorations of the country between the Nile 
 and the Red Sea. 
 
 Schwerin, Christoph, Graf von {b. 1684, 
 d. 1757), field-marshal of Prussia ; made 
 his first campaign iu the allied army under 
 Marlborough and Prince Eugene, but en- 
 tered the Prussian service in. 1720. He was 
 made councillor of state by Frederick the 
 Great, for whom he won the victory of 
 Mollwitz, but was killed at the battle of 
 Prague, at the opening of the Seven Years' 
 war. 
 
 Scioppius, Caspar {h. 1576, d. 1649), Ger- 
 man writer, " the Attila of Authors ; " wrote 
 with great bitterness against the Protestants 
 (^Classicum Jielli Hacri, etc.), and was also 
 author of De Arte Critica, and some philo- 
 logical works. 
 
 Scipio, Lucius Cornelius, brother of the 
 elder Africauus : was consul in 190 B.C., and 
 obtained the surname, " Asiaticus," for his 
 conduct of the Syrian war. 
 
 Scipio Africanus, PubUus Cornelius [h. 
 234 B.C.. d. 183), Roman general : took Car- 
 thago Nova and conquered Spain, became 
 consul in 206 B.C., and brought to a con- 
 clusion the second Punic war by the defeat 
 of Hannibal at Zama (202 B.C.). He became 
 a second time consul, but his popularity 
 passed away on account of the arrogance of 
 his later years. 
 
 Scipio Africanus, Publius CorneUus (d. 
 129 B.C.), grandson of the preceding ; was 
 the sou of .Similius Paulus, who was adopted 
 by him. He became consul iu 148 B.C., and 
 took Carthage in 146. In 134 he was again 
 consul, and distinguished himself by the 
 capture of Numautia, but became unpopular 
 subsequently by his resistance to agrarian 
 reforms. He was the friend of Terence and 
 Lselius. 
 
 Sclopis de Salerno, Paolo, Conte (i. 1798, 
 d. 1878), Italian jurist and statesman; author 
 of History of Italian Legidation (1840-57), 
 was minister of the iuterior in Piedmont in 
 1825, and of justice iu 1848, and was also 
 one of the arbitrators in the Alabama case. 
 
 Scoresby, William, D.D. {b. 1789, d. 1857), 
 Arctic explorer ; published an account of his 
 experiments on the temperature of the ocean 
 in The Arctic Regions (1819), and in 1822 
 surveyed the eastern coast of Greenland. He- 
 subsequently graduated at Cambridge, and 
 took orders, but also devoted his attention 
 to magnetism, and in 1855 made a voyage 
 to Melboui-ne in order to test his theories. 
 
 Scott, Charies Brodrick, D.D. (J). 1825),, 
 educated at Eton and Cambridge, was head- 
 master of Westminster school 1855-83. 
 
 Scott, Clement William {b. 1841), dra- 
 matic critic, son of Rev. W. Scott ; was a 
 clerk in the War Office till 1879. Besides 
 his contributions to the Daily Telegraph, 
 he published (originally in Pimch) Lags and 
 Lyrics, etc., and took part in the adaptation 
 of Diplomacy, Sister Mary, etc. 
 
 Scott, Sir George Gilbert, R.A. (*. 1811, 
 d. 1878), architect, son of Rev. Thomas 
 Scott. His chief works were the Martyrs' 
 Memorial, Oxford, the Albert Memorial, 
 Kensington, and the church of St. Nicholas, 
 Hambiu-g. He also restored many churches 
 and cathedrals. 
 
 Scott, Michael {d. 1291), a Scotchman who 
 was patronised by the Emperor Frederick 
 II., and had the reputation of a magician 
 throughout Europe. He translated Aristotle 
 and Avicenna into Latin, and wrote some 
 curious works. 
 
 Scott, Michael (b. 1789, d. 1835), author of 
 Tom Cringle's Log (1829) and I'he Cruise of 
 the Midge ; was bom in Scotland, but lived 
 chiefly in Jamaica. 
 
 Scott, Reginald {d. 1599), English writer, 
 whose Discovery of Witchcraft (1584) was 
 one of the earliest attempts to discredit the 
 superstition. 
 
 Scott, Robert, D.D. {b. 1811, d. 1887), 
 classical scholar, master of BalKol from 1854 
 to 1870 ; was appointed Dean of Rochester in 
 that year. He was the author, with Dr
 
 Sco 
 
 (^65) 
 
 Sed 
 
 Liddell, of a Greek lexicon (seventh edition, 
 ISSa), and was one of the revisers of the 
 New Testament. 
 
 Scott, Robert Henry, F.R.S. (b. 1833), 
 meteorologist ; was appointed director of 
 the Meteorological Office in 1867, and pub- 
 lished Weather Charts and Storm JFarnings 
 (1876), and other works. 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter, Bart. (b. 1771, d. 1832), 
 novelist ; was the son of a writer to the Sig- 
 net in Edinburgh, and practised for a few 
 years as an advocate, bemg appointed clerk 
 of the Court of Session in 1805. After some 
 translations from the German, he began to 
 write ballads, the Lay of the Last Minstrel 
 (1805) being followed by Marmion (1808), 
 The Lady of the Lake (1810), and other 
 poems. In 1814 he published TTaverley 
 anonymously, and in succeeding years ap- 
 peared the series called by that name. In 
 1820 Scott was made a baronet, but six 
 years after he was ruined by the bankruptcy i 
 of Messrs. Constable, and he spent his later 
 years in an honoui-able and successful at- 
 tempt to meet his liabilities by means of 
 his Life of Napoleon, Tales of a Grandfather, 
 and contributions to the Quarterly Review. 
 His life was vrritten by his son-in-law, 
 Lockhart, and his Journal was published in 
 1890. 
 
 Scott, William. \_See Stowell.] 
 
 Scott, Winfield {d. 1786, d. 1866), Ameri- 
 can general ; was made prisoner and 
 woimded in the war of 1812-15, and, after 
 further services, became commander-in-chief 
 in 1842. Having conducted the war against 
 Mexico, he was Republican candidate for the 
 presidency in 1852, but was not elected. He 
 retired from the army in 1861, and died at 
 West Point. 
 
 Scotus. [See Duns Scotus.] 
 
 Scotus Erigena {d. circa 875), Irish school- 
 man, author of Dialoyus de Bivisione Natures ; 
 lived chiefly at the court of Charles the Bald 
 of France. 
 
 Scribe, Augustin Eugfene (J>. 1791, d. 
 1861), French dramatist, whose first success 
 was with Une Nuit de la Garde Nationale 
 (1815), written in collaboration with Poir- 
 son. He afterwards wrote with many col- 
 laborators numerous vaudevilles and come- 
 dies, of which the chief (among the former) 
 were Les I'remieres Amours and La Seine de 
 Seize Ans, and (among the latter) Bertrand 
 et Raton and Adrienne Leconvrcur. He 
 also wrote librettos for the chief operas of 
 Meyerbeer and Auber, and in 183G was ad- 
 mitted to the Academie. 
 
 Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose, 
 D.C.L. {h. 1813, d. 1891), BibUcal scholar, 
 whose chief works are editions of the Greek 
 Testament, and the Codex Beza, and Flain 
 
 Introduction to the Criticism of the New 
 Testament (tliird edition, 1883). He was one 
 of the revisers of the New Testament, and 
 received a Civil List pension in 1872. 
 
 Scroggs, Sir William {h. 1623, d. 1683), 
 English judge, of humble origin ; became 
 notorious for his subservience to the court, 
 and was removed from the Bench in 1681, 
 after an abortive impeachment. 
 
 Scrope, George Poulett, F.R.S. (*. 1797, 
 d. 1876), geologist, son of J. Poidett 
 Thompson ; assumed the name on his mar- 
 riage. He was author of Considerations on 
 Volcanoes, and some economical works, and 
 sat as a Liberal for Stroud from 1833 till 
 1867. 
 
 Scrope, Richard le (*. 1328, d. 1403), 
 statesman and warrior, whose father and 
 uncle were distinguished judges imder Ed- 
 ward II. and Edward III. ; took part in the 
 wars of the latter king, and became steward 
 of the household and Chancellor under 
 Richard II. 
 
 Scudery, George de {b. 1603, d. 1667), 
 French writer, author of Observations on the 
 Cid. His sister, Madelene, or Madeline 
 (b. 1607, d. 1701), wrote romances which had 
 great vogue in their day, including Le Grand 
 Cyrtis. 
 
 Seaton, John Colbome, Lord \(b. 1777, d. 
 1863), English general, served under Wel- 
 lington in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, 
 and became field-marshal in 1860 ; was 
 Governor-General of Canada during the 
 rebellion, and afterwards high com 
 missioner of the Ionian Islands. 
 
 Sebastian, King of Portugal (b. 1554, d. 
 1578), allied himself vdth the Sultan of 
 Morocco in an attempt to drive the Moots 
 out of Africa, but was kiUed in battle. 
 
 Sebastian!, Fran9ois Horace Bastien, 
 Comte {b. 1776, d. 1851), marshal of France, 
 of Corsican birth ; defended Constantinople 
 against the English, and served in the later 
 campaigns of Napoleon. In 1830 he became 
 foreign minister, and was ambassador in 
 England from 1S35 to 1840. 
 
 Seckendorf, Friedrich HeLnrich {b. 1673, 
 d. 1763), German soldier and diplomatist, 
 distinguished in all the wars of his time 
 and many of the negotiations ; was im- 
 prisoned by Frederick the Great in 1758 
 on a charge of intriguing with Austria. 
 
 Seeker, Thomas {b. 1693, d. 1768), 
 Engbsh divine ; having held the sees of 
 Bristol and Oxford, became Archbishop of 
 Canterbury in 1758. 
 
 Sedgwick, Adam, F.R.S. (*. 1785, d. 
 1873), geologist, was bom in Yorkshire, 
 and educated at Cambridge, where in
 
 Sed 
 
 (666 J 
 
 Seiu 
 
 1818 he became Woodwaxdian professor of 
 geolo"'y. His Discourse on the Studies of 
 the ffniversity of Cambridge passed through 
 five editions. He was canon of Norwich, 
 and some time vice-master of Trinity. 
 
 Sedgwick, Catherine {b. 1789, d. 1867), 
 American writer, author of A New England 
 Tale (1822), and many other stories, etc. 
 
 Sedley, Sir Charles {b. 1639, d. 1701), 
 EngUsh dramatist and wit, a gi'eat favourite 
 of Charles II. His daughter, Catherine, 
 mistress of Charles II., was created by him 
 Coimtess of Dorchester. 
 
 Seeley, John Robert (b. 1834), historian ; 
 was senior classic (bracketed) and Chan- 
 cellor's medalHst, and in 1858 became 
 fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. In 
 ] 863 he was appointed professor of Latin at 
 University College, London, and in 1869 
 became Regius professor of modem history 
 at Cambridge. In 1865 he published 
 anonymously Ecce Ho^no, and he also wrote 
 Life and Times of Stein (1879), The Ex- 
 pansion of England (1883), and Greater 
 Greece and Greater Britain (1887). 
 
 Seely, Harry Govier, F.R.S. [b. 1839), 
 scientific writer ; author of Catalogue of 
 Fossil Reptiles in the Woodwardian Museum, 
 Physical Geology and Paleontology (1885), 
 and Factors in Life (1887). 
 
 Seeman, Berthold (b. 1825, d. 1871), Ger- 
 man botanist ; wrote Narrative of the 
 Voyage of H. M.S. " Herald,''^ in which ship 
 he went round the world. He also went on 
 three expeditions in search of Franklin, and 
 published several botanical works. 
 
 Segur, Philippe, Marquis de (6. 1724, d. 
 1801), French general; was minister of war 
 from 1780 to 1787. 
 
 S^gur, Louis Philippe, Comte de {b. 1753, 
 d. 1830), his son ; served with Lafayette in 
 America, and was entrusted with several 
 important diplomatic missions, especially to 
 Russia. He also wrote several works, in- 
 cluding his Galerie Morale et Politique and 
 Memoires. 
 
 Sejanus, Lucius ^lius {b. 20 B.C., d. 31), 
 minister of the Emperor Tiberius, on whose 
 retirement to Capreae he became supreme, 
 but was afterwards put to death on a charge 
 of conspiracy. 
 
 Selbome, Roimdell Palmer, Earl of {b. 
 1812), English lawyer and statesman ; after 
 a distingmshed career at Oxford, was called 
 to the bar in 1837, became Queen's Counsel 
 in 1849, and entered Parliament as a Liberal 
 in 1847. He sat for Plymouth for some 
 years, and in 1861 was made Solicitor- 
 General, becoming Attorney-General two 
 years later. He decUned of&ce in 1868 on 
 
 account of his views on the Irish Church 
 question, but in 1872 became Lord Chan- 
 cellor with a peerage, being reappointed in 
 Mr. Gladstone's second ministry. He joined 
 the Liberal Unionists on the Home Rule 
 question. In 1886 he published^ Defence 
 of the Church of England against Dis- 
 establishment. 
 
 Selden, John (*. 1584, d. 1654), anti- 
 quarian writer ; was one of the counsel for 
 Hampden, and was imprisoned as a con- 
 stitutionalist in 1629. His chief works were 
 History of Tythes, Titles of Honour, Table 
 Talk, etc. 
 
 Seleucus L [Nicator] (6. 354 B.C., d. 281), 
 King of Syria ; was one of Alexander's best 
 generals, and greatly extended the province 
 of Babylon, which was his share of his 
 master's inheritance. He was put to death 
 by Ptolemy Ceraunus. 
 
 Seleucus II. [CalUnicus] {b. 247 B.C., A. 
 225) had a disastrous career, being finally 
 defeated and killed by the Parthians. 
 
 Selim I., Sultan of the Ottoman Turks 
 Q). 1487, d. 1520), assassinated his father and 
 brothers, took Egypt and Syria from the 
 Mamelukes, and obtained the title of imam. 
 
 Selim IL (*. 1522, d. 1574), during whose 
 reign war was carried on with the Pope, 
 Spain, and Venice, the issue being the battle 
 of Lepanto. 
 
 Selim III. (*. 1761, d. 1808), after a war 
 with Austria and Russia was compelled to 
 cede the Crhnea to the latter by the Peace 
 of Jassy (1792). He afterwards joined the 
 English against Bonaparte, and was finally 
 dethroned and strangled in consequence 
 of his attempts to introduce European 
 customs. 
 
 Seljuk. \_See Togrul Beg.] 
 
 Selkirk, Alexander (J. 1676, d. 1723), 
 Scotch buccaneer, afterwards a lieutenant 
 in the navy. The account of his four years' 
 life in Juan Fernandez formed the basis of 
 
 Robinson Crusoe. 
 
 Selwyn, George Augustus {b. 1719, d, 
 1791), wit and member of Parliament. 
 
 Selwyn, George Augustus (b. 1809, d. 
 1878), divine, was appointed first Bishop of 
 New Zealand in 1841, and in 1867 be- 
 came Bishop of Lichfield. His son, John 
 RicHAEDSON Seiwtn {b. 1845), became 
 Bishop of Melanesia in 1877. 
 
 Sembrich, Marcella {b. 1858), Austrian 
 singer ; made her debut at Athens in 1877 in 
 I Pu7-itani, and afterwards sang at Vienna, 
 Dresden, London (1880), and New York 
 (1883-4), her favourite parts being Susanna, 
 Martha, and Zerhna.
 
 Sem 
 
 (667) 
 
 Sey 
 
 Semiramis, Queen of Assyria {Jl. circa 
 1250 B.C.), mythical founder of Nineveh. 
 
 S^monville, Charles, Marqiiis de {b. 1759, 
 d. 1S39), French diplomatist; served skil- 
 fully every successive government during 
 his lifetime. 
 
 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus {b. circa 4 B.C., d. 
 65), Stoic philosopher; was banished from 
 Rome on a false charge, but, returning after 
 eight years, became tutor to Nero. Being 
 accused of conspiracy, he died by opening 
 his veins and suffocating himself in a warm 
 bath. His works consist of treatises and 
 epistles, but the tragedies ascribed to him 
 are of doubtful authenticity. 
 
 Senefelder, Alois {b. 1771, d. 1834), a 
 German ; invented lithography, and became 
 director of the royal lithographic office at 
 Munich. 
 
 Senior, Nassau WiUiam {b. 1790, d. 1864), 
 EngUsh economist ; was appointed master 
 in Chancery in 1836, and was professor of 
 pohtical economy at Oxford 1825-30, and 
 again 1840-15. He was author of literary 
 essays and economical works. 
 
 Sepiilveda, Juan Gines {b. 1490, d. 1574), 
 " the Spanish Livy," was historiographer to 
 Charles V. and tutor to Pliilip H. His chief 
 work was History of Charles V. 
 
 Serassi, Pier Antoiuo {jb. 1721, d. 1791), 
 Itahan writer ; author of a life of Tasso. 
 
 Sergius I., Pope (d. 701), had to leave 
 Rome for several years on account of his 
 opposition to Justinian ; baptised Cedwalla, 
 King of the West Saxons. 
 
 Sergius II. {d. 847), Pope, was opposed 
 by the Emperor Lotharius. During his 
 pontificate the Saracens attacked Rome. 
 
 Sergius IIL {d. 911), anti-pope; elected 
 by the intrigues of his mistress, Marosia 
 (q.v.), was driven out by John IX., but 
 restored after his death. 
 
 Sergius IV. {d. 1012), Pope, succeeded 
 John XVIII. in 1009. 
 
 Serrano, Francisco, Duque de la Torre (6. 
 1810, d. 1885), field-marshal of Spain, over- 
 threw Espartero in 1843, and afterwards 
 joined Narvaez. He gained great influence 
 over Queen Isabella, and in 1849 became 
 captain- general of Granada. In 1854 he 
 was exiled, but soon returned, and after the 
 overthrow of the Bourbons in 1868, became 
 head of the provisional government. After 
 resigning the regency, he defeated the Car- 
 lists, but had to flee the country on account 
 of his opposition to the republic. He again, 
 however, became head of the government, 
 and after some time in France, returned in 
 1875 and headed the Dynastic Left. 
 
 Sertorius, Quintus {d. 72 b.c), Roman 
 general ; made himself master of Spain, 
 and held it for ten years against the Roman 
 arms. 
 
 Server Pasha, Turkish statesman ; as 
 mayor of Constantinople (18dS-70), carried 
 out many improvements, and in 1871 became 
 foreign minister. He subsequently held 
 several other offices, but returned to his 
 former post in 1877. Next year he became 
 minister of justice. 
 
 Servetus, Michel {b. 1511, d. 1553) , Spanish 
 theologian ; escaped from the Inquisition at 
 Vienna to Geneva, where he was burnt to 
 death for his Arianism by the orders of 
 Calvin. 
 
 Servius TuUius, sixth of the fabled Kings 
 of Rome. 
 
 Severn, Joseph {b. 1796, d. 1879), painter, 
 is chiefly known as the friend of Keats, 
 whom he nursed in his last illness (1821). 
 
 Severus. \_See Alexander Severus.] 
 
 Severus, Marcus Aurelius (Jb. 208, d. 235), 
 Roman Emperor ; carried on wars with th-e 
 Persians, and was murdered by his soldiers 
 in Germany. 
 
 Severus, Septimius (Jb. 146, d. 211), Roman 
 Emperor; defeated his rivals, Niger and 
 Albtuus, drove back the Parthiaus, and, 
 having subdued the Picts, built the wall 
 called by his name. 
 
 Sevign^, Marie, Marquise de (b. 1626, d. 
 1696), author of the celebrated Letters, which 
 were written to her daughter. 
 
 Seward, Anna (*. 1747, d. 1809), EngUsh 
 writer ; author of some sonnets and a Life 
 of iJr. Darwin (Erasmus Darwin). 
 
 Seward, WiUiam Henry (A. 1801, d. 1872), 
 American statesman ; was elected governor 
 of New York in 1838, and in 1849 became 
 United States senator. He now headed the 
 Republican pai'ty, and, having beau an un- 
 successful candidate for the presidency, 
 became secretary of state under Lincoln in 
 1861. He was attacked at the same time as 
 the latter, but recovered. He wrote a Life 
 of John Quincy Adams, and other works. 
 
 Sewell, Elizabeth Missing (*. 1815), Eng- 
 lish writer ; author of Amy Herbert, Ancient 
 History, Popular History of France, etc. 
 
 Sewell, William (J). 1650), historian, 
 author of History of the Quakers (1722) : 
 was brought up as a weaver, and mastered 
 several languages. 
 
 Seymour, Sir Edward (Jb. 1633, d. 1708), 
 Tory politician ; was elected Speaker in 
 1673, when he also became treasurer of the
 
 Sey 
 
 (668 ) 
 
 Sha 
 
 navy. He promoted the Habeas Corpus 
 Act, and opposed the Exclusion Bill ; was 
 dismissed from office in 1694 for dealings 
 ■with the East India Company, but on the 
 accession of Anne again became Privy 
 Councillor, and was made comptroller of 
 the household. 
 
 Seymour, Jane (b. circa 1509, d. 1537), 
 wife of Henry VIII. and mother of Edward 
 VI. 
 
 Seymour, Sir Thomas (d. 1549), yoimger 
 brother of the Protector Somerset ; dis- 
 tinguished himself as admiral under Henry 
 VIII. , but in the next reign secretly married 
 his widow, and intrigued against his 
 brother. He was beheaded on a charge of 
 treason. 
 
 Sforza, Jacopo [Attendolo] (b. 1369, d. 
 1424), Ita,]ia,n cotidottiei-e ; took service suc- 
 cessively with the lords of Milan, the Flor- 
 entines, the Marquis of Ferrara, Pope John 
 XXIII., and Ladislaus, King of Naples, who 
 made him grand constable. He was after- 
 wards employed by Louis of Anjou and 
 Joanna of Naples. 
 
 Sforza, Francesco {b. 1401, d. 1466), his 
 son ; was employed by the Duke of Milan 
 against Florence and Venice, and, after 
 changing sides for a time, married the 
 daughter of the duke, and on his death 
 seized the duchy. 
 
 Sforza, Ludovico, "the Moor" (b. 1451, 
 d. circa 1510), third son of Francesco ; after 
 a period of exile retm-ned in 1479, and made 
 himself master of Milan. He mamed 
 Beatrice of Este, invited Charles VIII. to 
 invade Italy, and in 1494 succeeded to the 
 dukedom, his nephew having probably been 
 poisoned. He next joined the league against 
 the French, and in the subsequent invasion 
 by Louis XII. was made prisoner, and 
 carried to France, where he died at Loches. 
 
 Shadwell, Charles {d. 1726), writer of 
 The Fair Quaker of Deal ; was probably a 
 relative of Thomas Shadwell. 
 
 Shadwell, Thomas (b. 1640, d. 1692), 
 dramatist ; was ridiculed by Dryden, whom 
 he succeeded as poet-laureate. He wrote 
 Epsom Wells, The Lancashire Witches, and 
 other plays. 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, first 
 Earl {b. 1621, d. 1683), statesman ; in the 
 Great Eebellion sided iirst vdth the king, but 
 afterwards with the Parliament ; was Privy 
 Councillor under Cromwell, but at the Ees- 
 toration became Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 with a peerage. After being Lord Chancel- 
 lor for a year (1672-3), he was dismissed and 
 sent to the Tower, but on his return to 
 office passed the Habeas Corpus Act, and 
 attempted to exclude the Duke of York. 
 
 In 1681 he was sent to the Tower, and tried 
 for treason, and on his release fled to 
 Holland. 
 
 Shaftesbury, third Earl of {b. 1671, d. 
 1713), philosophe'r and politician; his chief 
 work being Characteristics of Men, Manners, 
 Opinions, and Times. 
 
 Shaftesbury, seventh Earl (i. 1801, d. 
 1885), philanthropist; entered Parliament, 
 and held office under WelUngton and Peel, 
 devoting himself to social questions. He 
 effected the passing of the Ten Hours Bill in 
 1844, to limit the employment of women and 
 childi-en in factories, originated the Shoe- 
 black Brigade and the Eagged School 
 Union, was fifty years chairman of the 
 Limacy Commission, and had a considerable 
 share in the framing of the Public Worship 
 Eegulation Act. 
 
 Shah Allum, Emperor of India {d. 1806), 
 sought the English alliance after the defeat 
 of the Vizier of Oude, and conveyed to 
 them in perpetuity the revenues of Bengal, 
 Behar, and Orissa (1765) ; was afterwards 
 deposed and imprisoned by the Mahrattas 
 till restored by Lake in 1803. 
 
 Shah Jehan {d. 1666), was crowned in 
 1627, and soon conquered part of theDeccan, 
 but was depctsed by his son Aurungzebe. 
 
 Shah Soojah. \_See Dost Mahommed.] 
 
 Shairp, John Campbell {b. 1819, d. 1885), 
 poet ; became professor of poetry at Oxford 
 in 1877, having previously held a principal- 
 ship at St. Andrews. He wrote Glen Dessary, 
 and other poems, as well as Studies in Poetry 
 and Fhilosophy ; Burns {''Men of letters" 
 series), etc. 
 
 Shakespeare, or Shakspere, "William {b. 
 1564, d. I(il6\ di-amatist and poet; was 
 born and educated at Stratford-on-Avon, 
 married Anne Hathaway at eighteen, and 
 went to London probably in the year 1586. 
 His occupation there at first is unknown, 
 but he afterwards became an actor and 
 playwright, and obtained a share in the 
 Blackfriars theatre and afterwards in the 
 Globe. He is said to have paid annual 
 visits to his birthplace, to which, having 
 accumulated a fortune, he returned finally 
 about 1604. He purchased New Place at 
 Stratford (now national property), and 
 added to it an estate. He had three chil- 
 dren, but left no male descendants. Zove's 
 Labour'' s Lost was probably his first pubHshed 
 play, and The Tempest (1611) the last; 
 Venus and Adonis and Lucrece appeared in 
 1593 and 1594, and the Sonnets in the same 
 decade. The first collected edition of the 
 plays was printed in 1623, and the second 
 folio in 1632. There are three important 
 portraits of Shakespeare, of which the
 
 Sha 
 
 ( 669 ) 
 
 She 
 
 Chandos portrait is in the National Portrait 
 Gallery, London, another is in the Stratford 
 Museum, aiid the Martin Droeshout en- 
 graving is attached to the first folio edition. 
 
 Snaxp, GranviUe (b. 1734, d. 1813), 
 philanthropist, grandson of John, Archbishop 
 of York {d. 1713), instituted the Society for 
 the Abolition of the Slave Trade, advocated 
 Parliamentary reform, and was chief founder 
 of the Bible Society. He was also the author 
 of several works. 
 
 Sharp, James (i. 1618, d. 1679), Archbishop 
 of St. Andrews ; became very unpopular for 
 his cruel treatment of the Presbyterians, and 
 was murdered in his caniage about three 
 miles from St. Andrews. 
 
 Shaxp, William, M.D., F.E.S. (b. 1805), 
 surgeon, author of Essays on Medicine; was 
 ' the first to obtain the inclusion of physical 
 science in the public school curriculum. 
 
 Sharpe, Gregory {b. 1713, d. 1771), 
 Orientalist and master of the Temple ; wrote 
 Dissertations on the Origin of Language, 
 etc., with a Hebrew Lexicon, and some con- 
 troversial works. 
 
 Shaw, Sir Eyre Massey, K.C.B. (6. 1830), 
 was chief officer of the London Fire Brigade 
 from 1861 to 1891, when he was knighted. 
 
 Shaw, Thomas {b. 1692, d. 1751), divine 
 and antiquary ; author of Travels : or, Ob- 
 servations Relating to Several Parts of Bar - 
 bary and the Levant. 
 
 Shaw-Lefevre, Eight Hon. George John 
 {b. 1832), statesman, son of Sir John Shaw- 
 Lefevre, clerk of the Parliaments 1856-75, 
 represented Reading as a Liberal from 1863 
 to 1885, and was returned for Bradford in 
 1S86. He was secretary to the Board of 
 Trade 1868-71, and to the Admiralty 1871-4, 
 and in 1880 he became First Commissioner 
 of Works. In 1884 he became Postmaster- 
 General, and in 1892 First Commissioner of 
 Works. 
 
 Shea, Sir Ambrose {b. 1820), colonial 
 statesman ; was for six years speaker of the 
 Newfoundland Assembly, and was after- 
 wards a member of the Council. He was 
 twice sent to London to support the views 
 of the colony on the fisheries question, and 
 in 1887 became governor of the Bahamas. 
 
 Shebbeare, John {b. 1709, d. 1788), physi- 
 cian ; author of History of the Sumatrans, 
 and other satirical works. 
 
 Shedd, William Mayer, D.D. (b. 1820), 
 American theologian ; author of History of 
 Christian Doctrine, editions of Augustine's 
 Confessions, and Coleridge's works, etc. 
 
 Shee, Sir Martin Archer {b. 1770, d. 1850), 
 painter, bom in Dublin, where at sixteen he 
 Was much patronised ; came to London in 
 
 1788, was elected R.A. in 1800, and in 1830 
 became president of the Academy. Moore 
 and Sir Eyre Coote sat to him, and his /«- 
 fant Bacchus is in the National Gallery, 
 London. 
 
 Sheepshanks, Richard (b. 1794, d. 1855), 
 astronomer and mathematician, whose chief 
 work was the completion of the restoration 
 of the standards of weights and measures. 
 His brother, John Sheepshanks {b. 1787, d. 
 1863), formed and presented to the nation 
 the collection of pictures known as the 
 "Sheepshanks Gallery." 
 
 Sheffield, John Baker Holroyd, Earl of {b. 
 1735, d. 1821), remembered as the friend of 
 Gibbon, and editor of his miscellaneous 
 works. 
 
 SheU, Richard Lalor {b. 1791, d. 1851), 
 Irish politician, celebrated for his oratorical 
 powers ; took an active part in the Catholic 
 Emancipation and Repeal agitations, but 
 afterwards accepted office under the Whigs, 
 becoming master of the Mint in 1846, and 
 miuister at Florence in 1850. He also wrote 
 Eradne and other plays. 
 
 Shelburne, Wilham Petty, Earl of {b. 
 1737, d. 1805), English statesman ; as presi- 
 dent of the Board of Trade under George 
 Grenvdle protested against the taxation of the 
 colonies, and as Secretary of State under Pitt 
 (1766-8) attempted to carry out his views. In 
 1782 he took office under Rockingham, ou 
 whose death he became Prime Minister. He 
 concluded peace with America, but was soon 
 driven out of office by Fox and North, and 
 took Httle further part in affairs. In 1784 
 he was created Marquis of Lansdowne. 
 
 Sheldon, Gilbert {b. 1598, d. 1677), divine ; 
 after being chaplain to Charles I., was 
 warden of All Souls', Oxford, where he 
 built the Sheldonian theatre. He was made 
 Archbishop of Canterbmy in 1663. 
 
 SheUey, Percy Bysshe {b. 1792, d. 1822), 
 poet, was born near Horsham, and educated 
 at Eton and Oxford, from which he was 
 sent down for his pamphlet, The Necessity of 
 Atheism. He was twice married, lived in 
 Italy from the year 1818, and was drowned 
 near Leghorn foiu- years later. Among 
 his chief works are Queen Mab, The Revolt of 
 Islam, Prometheus Unbound, Rosalind and 
 Helen, Adonais, Hellas, The Cenci, and many 
 splendid lyrics, and various essays, including 
 The Defence of Poetry and a translation of 
 Plato's Banquet. 
 
 Shelley, Mrs. \_See Wollstonecraft.] 
 
 Shenstone, William (*. 1714, d. 1763), 
 poet, whose best works are The Pastoral 
 Ballad and The Schoolmistress. 
 
 Sheppard, Jack {b. 1702, d. 1724), a 
 not<iri()us thief and prison breaker.
 
 She 
 
 (670) 
 
 Sho 
 
 Sbepstone, Sir Theophilus, K.C.M.G., 
 South Africau statesman ; became secretary 
 for uative affairs and member of the Execu- 
 tive Coimcil of Natal in 1856, and conducted 
 the negotiations with the Zulus by which 
 the Transvaal was annexed in 1877. 
 
 Slieraxd, or Sherwood, WilHam (b. 1659, d. 
 1728), botanist ; while consul in the East 
 made a collection of the plants of Greece 
 and Anatolia, and left a sum for the endow- 
 ment of a professorship of botany at Oxford. 
 
 Sherbrooke. [See Lowe.] 
 
 Shere Khan Soor, Emperor of India (d. 
 1.545), wiested Bengal fi'om Hoomayoon, 
 and assumed the title of emperor, reduced 
 Malwah and Bajpootana, and ruled well ; 
 was killed at the siege of KaUnjeet. 
 
 Shere Singh, Maharajah of the Sikhs {d. 
 1843), succeeded Kurrack Singh in 1840, but 
 after a troubled reign was murdered by his 
 soldiers. 
 
 Shere Singh, Sikh general, coalesced with 
 Moolraj (to reduce whom he had been 
 sent) against the British, and, after a severe 
 struggle, was defeated by Gough at Guzerat, 
 when he surrendered and was pensioned. 
 
 Sheridan, Philip Henry (b. 1831, d. 1888), 
 American general ; distinguished himself 
 during the Civil war at Stone river, and by 
 his victory of Cedar Creek (October 19, 1864), 
 and afterwards under Grant at Five Forks 
 (April 1, 1865), and Sailor's Creek. In 1867 
 he quarrelled with President Johnson, and 
 was dismissed from his command. 
 
 Sheridan, Eichard Brinsley (6. 1751, d. 
 1816), statesman and dramatist, third son of 
 Thos. Sheridan, the lexicographer (d. 1788), 
 was bom at Dublin and educated at Harrow. 
 His comedy. The Rivals, was produced at 
 Covent Garden in 1775, and was followed 
 hv The Duenna, The School for Scandal, and 
 The Critic. Sheridan entered Parliament as 
 a Whig in 1780, made a fine speech on the 
 impeachment of Warren Hastings, and on 
 his party coming into office became Treasurer 
 of the Navy and Privy Councillor. He after- 
 wards lost his seat, and became involved in 
 debt. He was married first to Elizabeth 
 Liinley, daughter of Linley, the composer, 
 and secondly to Miss Ogle, daughter of the 
 Dean of Winchester, who survived him. 
 
 Sherif Pasha (b. 1819, d. 1888), Egyptian 
 statesman, became minister of foreign affairs 
 in 1857, and, having been three times regent, 
 became president of the council of ministers 
 in 1868. In 1879 and in 1881-2 he was 
 agam chief minister, and also from 1882 to 
 1886, when he reSiOTied on account of his 
 aversion to English 2sfluence. 
 
 Sherlock, Thomas {b. 1678, d. 1761), 
 English divine, son of William Sherlock, 
 Dean of St. Paul's; became successively 
 
 Dean of Chichester and Bishop of Bangor, 
 Salisbury, and London. He took a leading 
 part in the Bangorian controversy, and 
 wrote Trial of the K-'itnessea. 
 
 Sherlock, WilUam {b. l6U,d. 1707), Dean 
 of St. Paul's (1691), wrote Practical Dis- 
 coume Concerning JJeath (1689), Case of 
 Allegiance to Sovereign Powers Stated (1691), 
 etc. 
 
 Sherman, William Tecumseh (d 1820, d. 
 1891), American general ; served with dis- 
 tiactiou in California, and, having in the 
 interval been occupied in various pursuits, 
 commanded a brigade at Bull's Run (July 
 21, 1861), was wounded at bhiloh (April 6-7, 
 1862), and having led the expedition against 
 Vicksbiu'gh, took Arkansas Port at the head 
 of the loth Corps. He commanded the left 
 wing at Chattanooga (November 23-25, 
 I860), and was soon after made head of the 
 army of the Tennessee. He was repulsed by 
 Johnston at Kenesaw Mountain (June 27, 
 1864), but defeated his successor, Hood. 
 After further victories he became lieutenant- 
 general, and in 1869 became commander-in- 
 chief, a position which he held till 1884. 
 
 Sherwood, Mary Martha {b. 1775, d. 1851), 
 authoress of Susan Greg (1802), Little Wood- 
 man, Little Henry and His Bearer, and other 
 religious stories. 
 
 Shield, William («. 1748, d. 1829), English 
 composer ; was first viola at the Italian 
 opera for many years. His works include 
 The Flitch of Macon, Hasina, and other 
 operas, and several songs (^The Reaving of 
 the Lead, Old Towler, etc.). 
 
 Shmeto,Richard {b. 1810, d. 1876), Greek 
 scholar, published thTee editions of the first 
 book of Thucydides. 
 
 Shirley, James {b. 1596, d. 1666), dramatist ; 
 resigned a curacy on becoming a Romanist, 
 and wrote for the stage, produckig about 
 forty plays. He lost all his property in the 
 fire of London. 
 
 Shirley, Walter Waddington, D.D. (fi. 
 1828, d. 1866), historian, son of Bishop 
 Shirley, edited for the Master of the Rom 
 Letters Illustrative of the Reign »f Henry 
 III. (1863), and Fasciculi Zizaniorum 
 Magistri Johannis TViclif. He was appointed 
 in 1864 professor of ecclesiastical history at 
 Oxford. 
 
 Shore, Jane, mistress of Edward TV., was 
 the wife of a Lombard Street jeweller, and 
 after the death of the king became attached 
 to Lord Hastings, in whose fall ahe was 
 involved. She was forced to do public 
 penance, but the tale of her dying in a 
 ditch is discredited, though nothing certain 
 is known of her fate. 
 
 Shore, Thomas Teignmouth (b. 1841), 
 divine ; graduated with distinction at Dublin,
 
 Sho 
 
 (671) 
 
 Sie 
 
 was appointed chaplain to the Queen in 1878, 
 and Canon of Worcester in 1890. He has 
 published Some Difficulties of Belief, and 
 other works. 
 
 Shortliouse, John Henry {b, 1834), ro- 
 mance \vT:iter, whose chief works are John 
 Inglemnt (1881), The Little Schoolmaster 
 Mark (1886), Sir Fercival (1886), etc. 
 
 Shovel, Sir Cloudesley {d. 1707), admii-al, 
 destroyed the fleet of Tripoli in 1674, and 
 distinguished himself during the war of the 
 Spanish Successiom, but whUe in command of 
 the Mediterranean fleet was wrecked upon 
 the Scilly Isles. 
 
 Shrapnel, Henry, Lieutenant-General (d. 
 1842), inventor of the case shot called after 
 him, for which he received a pension of 
 £1,200. 
 
 Shrewsbury. \_See Talbot.] 
 
 Shuckburgh-Evelyn, Sir George, F.R.S. 
 (6. 17oU, d. 1804), mathematician, deter- 
 mined a formula for the barometrical 
 measurement of the height of mountaius, and 
 represented Warwickshire for some years. 
 
 Sibthorp, John {b. 1758, d. 1756), natu- 
 ralist ; was Regius professor of botany at 
 Oxford, where he founded the professor- 
 ship of rural economy. His chief work was 
 Flora Grceca. 
 
 Sickingen, Franz von (*. 1484, d. 1523), 
 German warrior ; served under Maximilian 
 and Charles V. , and was afterwards promi- 
 nent as the friend of Ukich von Hutten, 
 and the protector of Reuchlin and the re- 
 formers ; was captm-ed and severely woimded 
 in a war with the Archbishop of Treves. 
 
 _ Siddons, Sarah (*. 1755, d. 1831), Eng- 
 lish actress, nee Kemble ; joined Garrick 
 in 1775, and was not successful, but, after a 
 brilliant provincial tour, appeared in the 
 Fatal Marriage at Drury Lane in 1782, and 
 acquired a rapid reputation. In 1812 she 
 refared with a fortune, having given un- 
 rivalled renderings of Lady Macbeth, Des- 
 demona, Imogen, and most of the greatest 
 characters in the tragedies of Shakespeare 
 and other writers. Her life was written by 
 Thomas Campbell (1834). 
 
 Sidgwick, Henry, D.C.L. {b. 1838), phi- 
 losophical writer ; having been senior classic, 
 became fellow of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, in 1859, but resigned ten years later 
 on conscientious grounds. He took great 
 interest in promoting female education, and 
 in 1883 was named professor of Moral Phi- 
 losophy. His chief works are Principks of 
 Political Economy, Methods of Ethics (1874), 
 and Outlines of the History sf Ethics (1886). 
 
 Sidmouth, Henry Addington, Viscount I 
 {b. 1757, d. 1844), statesman, son of a j 
 
 London physician ; entered Parliament as a 
 follower of Pitt in 1784, was Speaker from 
 1789 to 1801, when he became Prime 
 Minister, representing the Protestant views 
 of the king. He held office a little more 
 than two years, but in 1805 became presi- 
 dent of the Council, with a peerage under 
 Pitt, though he soon resigned. From 1812 
 to 1822 he was Home Secretary imder Lord 
 Liverpool, and carried out the repressive 
 measures of that period. He was the 
 favourite minister of George III. in his later 
 days. 
 
 Sidney, Algernon {b. 1622, d. 1683), re- 
 pubhcan politician, author of Discourses on 
 Government ; was an active ParUamentarian 
 during the Civil war, and a member of the 
 High Court of Justice, but was pardoned in 
 1677. He was afterwards executed for 
 alleged complicity in the Rye House Plot. 
 
 Sidney, Sir Philip (6. 1554, d. 1586), sol- 
 dier and poet, son of Sir Henry Sidney, 
 statesman, and brother of the beautiful 
 Mary, Countess of Pembroke ; negotiated a 
 Protestant league in 1576, and was after- 
 wards commander of the cavalry under his 
 uncle, the Earl of Leicester, in the Low 
 Countries, in which service he lost his life at 
 the battle of Zutphen. He wrote Arcadia, 
 and Ayi Apologie for Poetrie. 
 
 Siegen, Ludwig von (J. 1609, d. 1675), 
 Dutch inventor of mezzotint engraving, 
 which was introduced into England by 
 Prince Rupert, who had learnt it from the 
 discoverer in 1654. 
 
 Siemens, Sir Carl WUhelm, F.E.S., 
 D.C.L., etc. {b. 1823, d. 1883), English elec- 
 trician of German origin, came to London 
 in 1843 ; invented the chronometric governor, 
 anastatic printing, electric railways, the 
 " Siemens " stove, etc., and made a large 
 fortune by these and his improvements in 
 steel-makmg. In 1887 he published TJie 
 Conservation of Solar Energy. 
 
 Siemens, Werner von {b. 1816), brother of 
 the above ; introduced many telegraphic im- 
 provements in Prussia, and in 1848, with 
 Himly, laid the first submarine mines with 
 electric ignition. He established telegraphic 
 works in Berlin, branches of which, in 
 London and St. Petersburg, conducted by 
 his brothers, became independent works. 
 He invented and appHed the quicksilver unit 
 (for measurements), polarised relays, the 
 dynamo- electric machine, and the gutta- 
 percha press. 
 
 Sieveking, Sir Edward, M.D. (b. 1816), 
 physician, translated several medical works 
 from the German, and wrote a treatise on 
 epilepsy ; became physician-in-ordinary to 
 the Pnnce of Wales in 1863, and to tha 
 Queen in 1888-
 
 Sitf 
 
 (672) 
 
 Sim 
 
 Si6y^s, Einmauuel Joseph, Comte [the 
 AbheJ {b. 1748, d. 1836), French pohtician ; 
 published in 1789 Qu'est-ce que le Tiers- Jitat I 
 and was elected as a deputy for Paris to the 
 States- General, in whose proceedings, when 
 constituted (by his advice) as the National 
 Assembly, he took an active part ; was a 
 moinber of the Convention, and afterwards 
 of the Council of the Five Hundred ; was 
 president of the Directory in 1798, and after 
 the 18th Brumaire, one of the consuls. He 
 opposed Bonaparte, but was made a peer 
 after his return from Elba, and had to leave 
 France in 181 G. 
 
 Sigismund, Emperor, and King of Hun- 
 gary (h. 1368, d. 1437), conquered Walla- 
 chia, and defeated many conspiracies, was 
 crowned emperor in 1414, in which year he 
 dominated the Council of Constance ; sold 
 Brandenburg to the Hohenzollerns, and in- 
 trigued between France and England ; ob- 
 tained the Bohemian crown, though defeated 
 by John Ziska, and was crowned King of 
 Italy in 1431. 
 
 Sigismund I., King of Poland (6. 1466, 
 d. lo48), succeeded his brother Alexander 
 in 1506, and earned on wars with Eussia and 
 the Teutonic knights ; allied himself with 
 the Hapsburgs, and in Poland ruled well, 
 but opposed the Reformation. 
 
 Sigismund II. {h. 1520, d. 1572), son and 
 successor of the preceding, was the last of 
 the Jagellous, the crown thenceforth being 
 made elective. He tolerated the Protestants, 
 and favoured the learned. 
 
 Sigismund III. {h. 1566, d. 1632), son of 
 John III. of Sweden, and grandson of Sigis- 
 mund I. ; compelled his rival to renounce 
 the PoHsh crown, and in 1593 became King 
 of Sweden, but was deposed in 1604 for his 
 subservience to the Jesuits. He carried on 
 wars with Russia, Turkey, and Gustavus 
 Adolphus. 
 
 Signorelli, Luca (da Cortona) (i. circa 
 1441, d. 1525), Italian painter, whose most 
 famous works were the frescoes in the 
 cathedral of Orvieto. 
 
 Sigoumey, Lydia Huntley (S. 1791, d. 
 1865), was called "the American Hemans," 
 and wrote Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse, 
 Pocahontas and other Poems (1841), etc. 
 
 Sigurdsson, Jon {b. 1811, d. 1879), Ice- 
 landic statesman and writer ; had a chief 
 hand in obtaining a constitution for the 
 island; wrote The Political State of Iceland, 
 and was joint editor of Icelandic Snga.s, Col- 
 lection of Laws Affecting Iceland, etc. 
 
 Silius Italicus, Caius (b. 25, d. 99), 
 Roman poet and orator ; was proconsul in 
 Asia, and wrote a poem on the second Punic 
 war. 
 
 Silverius, Pope [d. 538), was elected in 
 536 by the command of the Ostrogoths; 
 admitted Belisarius into Rome, but was de- 
 graded in favour of Vigihus, and banished 
 to Pandataria by the influence of Theodora. 
 
 Simeon, Charles {h. 1759, d. 1836), divine, 
 founder of the Evangelical movement within 
 the Enghsh Church. 
 
 Simeon of Durham (12th century), his- 
 torian, wrote a Chronicle extending from 
 616 to 1130. 
 
 Simeon Stylites, Saint (5th century) , Syrian 
 shepherd, wlio became a monk, and lived on 
 the top of pillars in order to be nearer 
 heaven, it was said. A set of " piUar saints " 
 succeeded him. 
 
 Simeoni, Giovanni, Cardinal (i. 1816), 
 Italian statesman ; as secretary of state, 
 possessed great influence over the policy of 
 Pius IX. On the accession of Leo XIII. 
 he became prefect of the propaganda. 
 
 Simmonds-Lund, Peter, F.L.S. (J. 1814), 
 English writer ; author of Tropical Agri- 
 culture, Science and Commerce, The Popular 
 Beverages of Various Countries, etc. 
 
 Simmons, Sir John Lintom, Field Mar- 
 shal, G.C.B., etc. {b. 1821), entered the 
 army iu 1837 ; served on the Danube with 
 Omar Pasha, and in the Crimea distinguished 
 himself at the passage of the Ingur. He 
 was consul-general at Warsaw 1858-60, 
 governor of Woolwich 1869-75, inspector of 
 fortifications 1879-80, and governor of 
 Malta from 1884 to 1888, soon after which 
 he became minister at the Vatican. 
 
 Simnel, Lambert (i. circa 1474), pre- 
 tender to the English crown ; personated 
 Edward, Earl of Warwick, was crowned at 
 Dublin, and supported by the Duchess of 
 Burgundy, but defeated at Stoke, and made 
 a menial in the household of Henry VII. 
 
 Simon, Sir John, M.D., P.R.S. (6. 1816), 
 sm-geon, was medical officer to the chief 
 Government departments between 1855 and 
 1876, and drew up many reports on sanita- 
 tion. 
 
 Simon, Jules (J. 1814), French statesman, 
 succeeded Cousin as lecturer on philosophy 
 at the Sorbonne, and published editions of 
 the great French philosophers, as well as 
 La Liberie, and some economical and bio- 
 graphical works. He entered pubhc Ufe in 
 1869, was minister of pubhc instruction, 
 worsliip, and fine arts, in the Government 
 of National Defence, and also under Thiers, 
 and, having become leader of the Left and 
 life senator, was premier in 1876-7. He 
 opposed Ferry's measures against religioua 
 sects, and supported free trade. He was ad- 
 mitted to the Academic Francjaise in 1876.
 
 Sim 
 
 (673) 
 
 Sko 
 
 Simon de Montfort. [See Montfort.] 
 
 Simonides {b. 556 b.c, d. 468), Greek 
 poet, patronised by Hipimrchus at Athens, 
 and byHiero at Syracuse. His subjects were 
 taken from the Persian war, but only frag- 
 ments are extant. He is said to have been 
 the first poet who wrote for money, and also 
 to have added four letters to the Greek 
 alphabet. 
 
 Simplicius (6th century), philosopher ; 
 author of commentaries on Aristotle and 
 Epictetus. 
 
 Simpson, Sir James, general {b. 1792, d. 
 1868), served in the Peninsular war, was 
 second in command during the Scinde cam- 
 paign in 1845, and went to the Crimea as 
 chief of the staff. After the death of Lord 
 Raglan, he was for a short time conmiander. 
 
 Simpson,- Sir James Young, Bart., M.D. 
 (6. 1811, d. 1870), physician; made a speci- 
 ality of obstetrics. He discovered the 
 anaesthetic properties of chlorof onn. Besides 
 several medical works he was author of 
 ^rchceological Easayn. 
 
 Simrock, Karl Joseph {b. 1802, d. 1876), 
 German scholar and poet, chiefly known by 
 his editions of the Nibelioujeulied. He also 
 edited several other German classics and 
 wrote Wieland der Schmied. 
 
 Sims, George Robert {b. 1847), dramatist 
 and journalist, whose chief plays are : — 
 Crutch and Toothpick (1879), The Lights o' 
 London (1881), The Romany Rye, The Merry 
 Duchess (1884) ; and (with Mr. Pettitt) In 
 the Ranks, The Harbour Lights, etc. He 
 has also published Memoirs of Mary Jane, 
 and other uc>\e\s. How the Poor Live and 
 the Dagonet Ballads. 
 
 Sinclair, Sir John, Bart. {b. 1754, d. 
 183.j), statistician, represented Caithness 
 and other Scotch constituencies, and was 
 the originator of the Board of Agriculture 
 in 1793. His chief works were History of the 
 Revenue, Statistical Account of Scotland, and 
 Dissertation on the Ossianic Poems. 
 
 Sindiali, or Scindia, Madhajee (d. 1794), 
 Mahratta prince ; after the battle of Paniput 
 (1761), in which he was wounded, escaped 
 to the Deccan, and having with Holkar in- 
 vaded Hindostan in 1770, took Delhi and 
 A^a, and, with the help of a French officer, 
 gained the battle of Patan in 1790. He was 
 the first native who armed his troops in the 
 European manner. 
 
 Sindia DoiUut Rao {b. 1780, d. 1827), the 
 nephew and adopted son of the above ; suc- 
 ceeded him, and after wars with the British, 
 in which he was defeated by Wellesley and 
 Lake, suiTendered some of his territory in 
 1805, and was thenceforth friendly. | 
 
 BB 
 
 Sismondi, Jean Charles Simonde de (J. 
 1773, d. 1842), historian and economist, was 
 born at Geneva ; was imprisoned there in 
 j 1794 as an aristocrat, and fled to Tus- 
 1 cauy, but in 1800 returned to his native 
 place. His chief works were History of the 
 Italian Republics of the Middle Ages (1807- 
 18), History of the French, History of the 
 Literature of the South of Europe, and some 
 economical works. 
 
 Sivajee Bhdslay. \_See Bhoslay.] 
 
 Sixtus I., Pope {d. 128), succeeded Alex- 
 ander I. in 119, and perished in the persecu- 
 tion under Adrian. 
 
 Sixtus IL {b. 180, d. 259), an Athenian, 
 succeeded Stephen I., and was put to death 
 imder Valerian. 
 
 Sixtus III. {d. 440) succeeded Celestine 
 I. in 432, and built many churches. 
 
 Sixtus IV. {b. 1414, d. 1484) was 
 elected in 1471 ; equipped a fleet against the 
 Turks, sup2>orted the Pazzi against the 
 Medici, and Venice against Ferrara, but ex- 
 communicated the former for not agreeing 
 to a peace. He built the Sistine chapel. 
 
 Sixtus V. {b. 1521, d. 1590) was originally 
 a shepherd boy near Ancona, by name 
 Felice Peretti, but became successively 
 general of the Cordeliers at Bologna, con- 
 fessor to Pius v., and cardinal, bemg elected 
 successor to Gregory XIII. in 1585. He ex- 
 communicated Henry of Navarre, Conde, 
 and Henri III. of France, and approved 
 the expedition of Philip II. against England ; 
 and at Rome rebuilt the Vatican Ubrary, 
 estabUshed the press, spent large sum^ in 
 improving and adorning the city, and put 
 down brigandage in his dominions. He 
 also fixed the number of cardinals at 
 seventy. 
 
 Skeat, Rev. Walter William (<!>. 1835), 
 English philologist ; was elected feUow of 
 Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1862, and 
 professor of Anglo-Saxon in 1878. Hia 
 chief works are an Etymological English 
 Dictionary (with abridgment), and editions 
 of Tiers the Plowman, and other early 
 EngUsh works, besides one of Chatterton'a 
 poems. 
 
 Skene, William Forbes, D.C.L. {b. 1809, d. 
 1892), became historiographer of Scotland 
 in 1881. His chief works are Memorials of 
 Scoftish Historic (1868), The Coronation Stone 
 (1869), and Celtic Scotland (ISlQ-m). 
 
 Skobelefif, Mikhail Dmitrievitch {b. 1841, 
 d. ISS2), Russian general, distinguished him- 
 self in the Khiva expedition (1873), and be- 
 came governor of IvhokauJ ; rendered bril- 
 liant services at Plevna in the Russo-Turkish 
 war, and in 1380 captured (Jeok Tepe from
 
 Sla 
 
 (674) 
 
 Smi 
 
 the Turkomans ; died suddenly at St. Peters- 
 bxirg under suspicious circumstances. 
 
 Sladen, Douglas, poet, went to Australia 
 in 187i), and in 1882 became professor of 
 history at Sydney. His chief works are, 
 Aimtndiati Lijucs, Poetry of Exiles, and 
 the compilation of Australian Foets. 
 
 Sleeman, Sir William {b. 1788, d. 1856), 
 Indian official, suppressed Thuggee and 
 Dacoity, and advised the annexation of 
 Lucknow. 
 
 Sleidaaius, Johann Phillippson {b. 1506, 
 d. 1556), German historian and diplomatist; 
 took his name from Schleiden, where he was 
 bom ; was historian to the League of Smal- 
 kald, and deputy for Strasbm-g at the 
 Council of Trent. His chief work was De 
 Statu Religionis et Reipublicce Carolo Quinto 
 Casare Commentarii, which was translated 
 into French, English, German, and Italian. 
 
 Sloane, Sir Hans, Bart. {b. 1660, d. 1753), 
 Irish physician and natm-aUst ; was physi- 
 cian-general under George I., and physician- 
 in-ordiuary to George II. He became presi- 
 dent of the Royal Society in 1727, and formed 
 a valuable museum and library, which were 
 the basis of the British Museum collection. 
 
 Smart, Sir George {b. 1776, d. 1867), mu- 
 sician, became organist at the Chapel Eoyal, 
 and, as musical director at Covent Garden, 
 received Weber, who died at his house. 
 Among his pupils was Jenny Lind, and he 
 introduced St. Taul and Rossini's Stabat 
 Mater. 
 
 Smart, Henry {b. 1813, d. 1879), nephew 
 of the above ; was the gi-eatest organist of 
 his day, and composed many excellent part- 
 songs, Ave Maria, etc. 
 
 Smart, John, R.S.A., R.S.W., R.B.A. (b. 
 
 1838), painter, one of the founders of the 
 Scottish Water- Colour Society. His subjects 
 are generally taken from the Highlands. 
 
 Smeaton, John {b. 1724, d. 1792), civil 
 engineer, whose chief work was the rebuild- 
 ing of the Eddystone lighthouse. 
 
 Smedley, Erancis Edward {b. 1818, d. 
 1 864) , novelist ; author of Frank Fairlegh 
 (1850), Lewis Arundel, and Harry Cover- 
 dale's Courtship. 
 
 Smiles, Samuel, LL.D. {b. 1812), left the 
 practice of medicine to become first a jovir- 
 nalist and then an author, his chief works 
 being Self-Help (1859), Lives of Engineers, 
 and several biographies, including one of 
 John Murray, the publisher ; while his 
 brother, Robeim' {h. 1818), wrote lives of 
 Livingstone and Heury Booth. 
 
 Smith, Adam {b. 1723, d. 1790), economist, 
 was bom at Kirkaldy, and educated at 
 
 Glasgow and Oxford, becoming afterwards 
 jirofessor of logic and moral philosophy at 
 the former university. In 1763 he went to 
 France, and met Turgot, Quesnay, and the 
 French economists, and after three years, re- 
 turned to compose his Inquiry into the 
 Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 
 which appeared in 1776. He then became 
 commissioner of Customs, and in 1787 Lord 
 Rector of Glasgow University. 
 
 Smith, Albert (*. 1816, d. 1860), humorist, 
 left the medical profession to give popular 
 lectures, including that on Mont Blanc ; 
 wrote Adventures of Mr. Ledbury, The 
 Scattergood Family, The Natural Mistory of 
 Evening Parties, etc. 
 
 Smith, Alexander {b. 1830, <f. 1867), Scotch 
 poet, sou of a pattern-designer at Kilmar- 
 nock ; edited the works of Burns, and wrote 
 A Life Drama (1853), City Poems, and 
 Edtcin of Beira, and, with Sydney Dobell, 
 Sonnets on the Crimean War. 
 
 Smith, Archibald Levin, Lord Justice 
 {b. 1836), was called to the bar in 1860, and 
 after being juni«r counsel to the Treasury, 
 was raised to the Bench in 1883. He was 
 one of the Parnell Commission judges. 
 
 Smith, George (*. 1840, d. 1876), Assyri- 
 ologist; when a printer employed by 
 Messrs. Bradbmy and Agnew became 
 acquainted with Sir H. Rawlmson, and was 
 in 1870 appointed assistaut-keeper of Oriental 
 antiquities. He deciphered the Chaldean 
 account of the Deluge, excavated on the 
 site of Nineveh in 1873-5, and in 1876 dis- 
 covered the site of the Carchemish, but died 
 at Aleppo the same year. He published 
 Assyrian Discoveries, Chaldean Account of 
 the Genesis, and other works. 
 
 Smith, George Barnett {b. 1841), journal- 
 ist and biographer ; his chief works being 
 Shelley, a Critical Biography (1877), 
 Poets and Novelists, lives of Gladstone, 
 Bright, Victor Hugo, etc., and William I. 
 and the German Empire (1887). 
 
 Smith, Goldwin, D.C.L. (b. 1823), his- 
 torian ; after a distinguished course at 
 Oxford, where he becaine fellow of Oriel in 
 1847, and professor of Modem History in 
 1858, settled ten years later in the United 
 States, but went to Canada in 1871. He 
 was secretary to the second Oxford Com- 
 mission, and wrote The Foundation of the 
 American Colonies, The Conduct of Etig land 
 in Ireland, Pym, Hampden, and CromweU, 
 and several pamphlets on the slavery and 
 other political questions. 
 
 Smith, Sir Harry, Bart. {b. 1788, d. 1860), 
 general ; distinguished himself in the Penin- 
 sular war, and was present at Waterloo, 
 and afterwards served against the Sikhs in
 
 Smi 
 
 (675) 
 
 Smi 
 
 1840-6, winning the victory of Aliwal, and 
 contributing to that of Sobraon. As 
 governor of the Cape he conducted the 
 Kaifir war which ended in 1852. 
 
 Smith, Henry John Stephen, F.R.S. (b. 
 1826, d. 1883), mathematician ; after gaining 
 distinction in classics and mathematics aUke, 
 became feUow of BaUiol, and in 1861 Savilian 
 professor of geometry at Oxford. He was 
 Liberal candidate for the University in 1878. 
 Most of his important work remains in 
 manuscript. 
 
 Smith, Horace (J. 1779, d. 1849), novelist 
 and humorous writer ; published with his 
 elder brother, James {b. 177 b, d. 1839), Jie- 
 jected Addresnes (1812), and several contri- 
 butions to periodicals, and wrote alone many 
 novels — Gaieties and Gravities, Love and 
 Mesmerism, etc. 
 
 Smith, John, Captain (*. 1580, d. 1631), 
 colonist ; was taken prisoner by the Turks 
 when in the Hungarian service, but after 
 his escape from the Crimea went out to 
 colonise Vii'ginia in 1606. He was captured 
 by the Indians, and only saved from death 
 by Pocahontas, the Indian girl, and after his 
 release and explorations in Chesapeake Bay, 
 was made president of the Colonial Council. 
 He fell into the hands of the French in 1615, 
 and on his return to England met Poca- 
 hontas, and presented her to the qiieen. 
 His History of Virginia, New England, and 
 the Summer Isles appeared in 1624, and 
 various autobiographical works. 
 
 Smith, Joseph {b. 1805, d. 1844), founder 
 of Mormonism ; was the son of a farmer in 
 Vermont State, built Nauvoo on the Mis- 
 sissippi, where he was arrested for treason 
 and murdered by the mob. The Book of 
 Mormon was, according to his account, a 
 translation of records written on thin plates 
 of metal, to the discovery of which he was 
 supernaturally guided. 
 
 Smith, Robert {b. 1689, d. 1768), mathe- 
 matician ; after being tutor to the Duke of 
 Cximberland and professor of astronomy at 
 Cambridge, became master of Trinity in 
 1742. He founded the "Smith's Prizes," 
 and wrote several mathematical works. 
 
 Smith, Robert Angus, F.R.S. (6. 1817, d. 
 1884), scientific writer ; author of Report on 
 the Air and Water of Towns (1848), On the 
 Examination of Air (1867), Disinfectants 
 and Disinfection, A Century of Science in 
 Manchester (1883), etc. 
 
 Smith, Robert Pajme, D.D. (p. 1818), 
 divine ; was Regius professor of divinity at 
 Oxford from 1860 to 1871, when he became 
 Dean of Canterbury. He was one of the re- 
 visers of the Old Testament, being especially 
 proficient in Syriac. 
 B B 2 
 
 Smith, Sydney (jb. 1771, d. 1845), divine; 
 founded with Jeffrey and others the Edin- 
 burgh Review (1802). and having come to 
 London, published under the name "Peter 
 Plymley" his Letters to my Brother 
 Abraham ivho lives in the Country (1807), 
 advocating CathoHc emancipation. He 
 obtained a canoirry at Bristol in 1828, and a 
 few years later wrote in the cause of Reform 
 Mrs. Partington'' s Tight ivith the Atlantic 
 Ocean. He afterwards became Canon of St. 
 Paul's, and wrote Letters to Archdeacon 
 Singleton (1837). 
 
 Smith, Sir Thomas {b. 1514, d. 1577), 
 statesman and writer; was Secretary of 
 State under Edward VI. and Elizabeth, and 
 wrote De Republicd Angloi-um and other 
 works. 
 
 Smith, Thomas Southwood (Jb. 1788, d. 
 1861), sanitary reformer; author of The 
 Divine Government and The Philosophy of 
 Health (1834), became medical member of 
 the Board of Health in 1848, after having 
 done much sanitary work for the Poor Law 
 Commissioners. His papers, The Use of the 
 Dead to the Living, led to the passing of the 
 Anatomy Act. 
 
 Smith, Toulmin (fi. 1816, d. 1869), anti- 
 quary ; author of On the Discovery of 
 America by the Northmen in the Tenth 
 Century, The Law of Nuisances, and The 
 Parish (1854). 
 
 Smith, William {b. 1769, d. 1840), 
 geologist, whose collection was purchased 
 by the British Museum. He wrote Treatise 
 on Irrigation, and drew the map called 
 Delineation of the Strata of England and 
 Wales (1815). 
 
 Smith, William, Sir, LL.D., D.C.L. (b. 
 
 1813), became editor of the Quarterly Review 
 in 1867, and compiled Dictionary of Anti- 
 quities (1842), Studenfs Greece, Studeufs 
 Rome, English-Latin and Latin-English dic- 
 tionaries, and many similar works, besides 
 being joint-editor of the Dictionary of 
 Christian Biography. 
 
 Smith, Right Hon. Wilham Henry (h. 1825, 
 d. 1891), statesman; carried on his father's 
 business of bookseller and newsagent in the 
 Strand, and was elected in 1868, after one un- 
 successful candidature, Conservative mem- 
 ber for Westminster, his opponent on each 
 occasion being J. S. Mill. He was Financial 
 Secretary to the Treasury in 1874-77 ; First 
 Lord of the Admiralty 1877-80 ; Secretary 
 of State for War, and for a week Chief 
 Secretary for Ireland in 1SS.5 : and agam 
 Secretary-at-War from 1886 till his appoint- 
 ment at the end of 1887 as First Lord of the 
 Treasury and leader of the House of Com- 
 mons. A peerage was conferred on his wife 
 after his death.
 
 Smi 
 
 (676) 
 
 Soc 
 
 Smith, William Robertson, D.D. (J. 1846), 
 critica.1 theologiau ; was removed in 1881 
 from his professorship at Aberdeen, which 
 he had held since 1870, for his views on the Old 
 Testament, published in the Encyclopcedia 
 liritannica, of which he became editor ; he 
 was appointed to the Lord Almoner's 
 readership of Ai-abic at Cambridge in 1883 ; 
 three years later became university librarian, 
 a post which he resigned on being a^jpointed 
 Adams professor of Arabic. He was one of 
 the Old Testament revisers, and his chief 
 works are The Old Testament i?i the Jeivish 
 Church (1880), and The Religion of the 
 Semites (1889). 
 
 Smith, Sir William Sidney, G.C.B. {b. 
 1764, d. 1840), admiral ; was sometime in the 
 service of Sweden, and in command of an 
 English expedition at Havre was made pris- 
 oner by the French, but escaped from the 
 Temple after two years' confinement. In 
 1798 he was given a command in the Medi- 
 terranean, and next year succeeded in hold- 
 ing Acre against Bonaparte. He cooperated 
 with Abercromby in 1801, and received a 
 pension at the end of the war. 
 
 SmoUett, Tobias George {b. 1721, d. 1771), 
 novelist and historian ; was several years in 
 the navy, but afterwards became an author, 
 his chief novels being Roderick Random 
 (1748) and Peregrine Pickle. He also con- 
 tinued Hume's History of England, trans- 
 lated Dun Quixote and Gil Bins, and was 
 •employed as a writer against the Whigs. 
 
 Smyth, Charles Piazzi, F.R.S.E., etc. {b. 
 1819), astronomer, son of Admiral Smyth; 
 was astronomer- royal of Scotland for forty- 
 three years, his chief achievements being his 
 investigations in Teneriffe and concerning 
 the Great Pyramid. 
 
 Smyth, William {b. 1764, d. 1849), 
 historian, for forty-two years professor of 
 modem history at Cambridge. His chief 
 works were Lectures on Modern History and 
 On the French Revolution. 
 
 Smyth, WilHam Henry (b. 1788, d. 1865), 
 admiral ; conducted a survey of the Mediter- 
 ranean, and was one of the founders of the 
 Royal Geographical Society. His works 
 include The Mediterranean : A Memoir — 
 Physical, Historical, and Nautical (1854), 
 and translations from Arago and Benzoni. 
 
 Snayers, Henrik {b. 1612), Dutch en- 
 graver, executed several prints after Rubens 
 and Vandyck. 
 
 Snayers, Pieter (6. 1593, d. 1670), historical 
 and landscape painter, friend of Rubens and 
 Vandyck, the latter of whom painted his 
 portrait. 
 
 SneU, Willebord {b. 1591, d. 1626), Dutch 
 mathematician ; he succeeded his father. 
 
 RoDOLPH {d. 1613), as professor at Leyden, 
 discovered the law of refraction of rays of 
 light, and was the first who measured the 
 earth by the application of trigonometry. 
 
 Snider, Jacob {b. 1820, (f. 1866), inventor 
 of the rifle known by his name ; was bom 
 in Philadelphia, but came to England in 
 1859, and submitted his Mount Storm gun to 
 the French and English governments, but it 
 was not approved. 
 
 Snorri - Stnrlason (b. 1178, d. 1241), 
 Icelandic writer ; published and partly com- 
 posed the Heimskringla, and edited the 
 akaldda, or Sno7-ri-£dda. 
 
 Snow, John (b. 1813, d. 1858), EngUsh 
 physician ; devoted himself chiefly to the 
 subjects of cholera and anaesthetics, pub- 
 lishing The Mode of Communication of 
 Cholera (1849), and On Chloroform and other 
 Ancesthetics, left nearly finished, which was 
 edited by Dr. Richardson. 
 
 Snyders, Frans {b. 1579, d. 1657), Flemish 
 painter, who excelled in the representations 
 of animals. 
 
 Soane, Sir John {b. 1753, d. 1837), English 
 architect, professor of the Royal Academy ; 
 designed the Dulwich Gallery, the Privy 
 Council and Board of Trade offices, and the 
 old Law Courts ; left to the nation his house 
 and art museum. 
 
 Sobiesld, John [John III. of Poland] (b. 
 
 1629, d. 1696), Polish warrior; saved his 
 counti'y from the combination of the Tatars 
 and Cossacks, and became grand-marshal 
 (1667), took Choczim from the Turks, and 
 was elected king in 1674. After further 
 combats with Tatars and Turks, he reUeved 
 Vienna from the siege of the latter in 1683, 
 and invaded the Slav provinces, but his 
 efforts to introduce reforms in the Polish 
 constitution were fruitless. 
 
 Socinus, Faustus {b. 1539, d. 1601), Italian 
 theologian ; adopted and disseminated the 
 rationalistic views of his uncle, L^lius {d. 
 1562), was twelve years in the service of 
 Florence, but afterwards lived at Cracow, 
 till in 1598 he was subjected to outrage by a 
 mob. His doctrines are contained in the 
 first two volumes of Bibliotheca Fratrum 
 Folonorum (published 1656). 
 
 Socrates {b. circa4Q9 B.C., d. 399), Athenian 
 philosopher; worked at first as a sculptor, 
 but afterwards devoted himself to gratuitous 
 teaching. He served as a soldier in the 
 Peloponnesian war, saving the lives of his 
 pupils, Alcibiades and Xenophon, at Potidsea 
 and Delium ; was finally condemned to drink 
 hemlock on a charge of impiety and the 
 corruption of youth. 
 
 Socrates ('ith century), historian ; born at 
 Constantinople, wrote a histoiy of the church
 
 Soe 
 
 (677) 
 
 Sor 
 
 from the point at which Eusebius ends to 
 
 the year 440. 
 
 Soemmering, Samuel Thomas {b. 1755, d. 
 1 830) , German anatomist ; friend of Schelling 
 and Goethe, held chairs at Cassel and Mainz, 
 and became privy councillor of Bavaria. 
 He made researches on the lymphatic vessels 
 and in electricity, but his great work was 
 I)e Corporis Humani Fabricd (1794-1801). 
 
 Solario, Antonio, called "Lo Zingro" (d. 
 1455), Italian fresco -painter, originally a 
 smith. Most of his works are at Naples. 
 
 Sollnus, Cains Julius (3rd century), 
 Roman geographer, called " Polyhistor," 
 from the title of his work, which was trans- 
 lated into EngUsh in 1587 by Arthur 
 Golding. 
 
 Solis, Antonio An^jJ). 1610, d. 1686), Spanish 
 writer, author of Sistori/ of the Conquest of 
 Mexico, with poems, dramas, and letters. 
 
 Sollas, W. J., D.Sc, F.R.S. {h. 1849), 
 English geologist; was made professor of 
 geology and zoology at University College, 
 Bristol, in 1880, and in 1883 obtained the 
 chair of geology and mineralogy at Dublin. 
 
 Solomon, King of Israel, reigned circa 
 1015-977 B.C. 
 
 Solomon, Solomon J. [h. 1860), painter; 
 first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 
 1 880, his chief pictures having been Cassandra 
 (now at Ballarat) , Sacred and Frofane Love, 
 Niobe, and The Judgment of Paris (1891), etc. 
 
 Solon {d. circa 560 B.C.), legislator of 
 Athens, and one of the seven sages ; abolished 
 the Draconian Code, and founded a new con- 
 stitution on the basis of property. 
 
 Solyman, "theMagnificent," Sultan of the 
 Turks (i. 1496, d. 1566), succeeded Selim I. in 
 1520, took Belgrade next year, and Rhodes 
 in 1522 ; invaded Hungary, won the battle 
 of Mohacz (1526), and took Buda, but was 
 compelled to retire from before Vienna. In 
 1534 he carried on war with Persia, and took 
 Bagdad. Six years later he again made 
 war on Hungary, and soon after allied him- 
 self with Francis I. against Charles V. In 
 1560 he captured Tripoli, but failed before 
 Malta five years later, and died next year in 
 his camp in Hungary. 
 
 Somers, John, Lord {b. 1652, d. 1716), Eng- 
 lish lawyer and statesman ; was one of the 
 counsel for the Seven Bishops, and chair- 
 man of the committee which drew np the 
 Declaration of Rights, and became Solicitor- 
 General (1689), Attorney - General, Lord 
 Keeper, and in 1697 Lord High Chancellor. 
 He framed the plan for the Scotch union, 
 became president of the Council in 1708, and 
 was president of the Royal Society. 
 
 Somerset, Lord Fitzroy. \_See Raglan.] 
 
 Somerset, Edward Seymour, Duke of (d. 
 1552), was created Earl of Hertford on the 
 marriage of his sister to Henry VIII. , and on 
 the accession of Edward VI. became governor 
 of the king and lord protector. He carried 
 on war against Scotland, favoured the Pro- 
 testants, but was beheaded, after a previous 
 confinement in 1549, on a charge of con- 
 spiracy against the lives of some of the privy 
 councillors. 
 
 Somerset, Robert Carr, Earl of {d. 1645), 
 Scotch favourite of James I. ; became lord 
 treasurer of Scotland in 1610, and was 
 afterwards notorious in connection with the 
 murder of Sir Thomas Overbury. 
 
 Somerville, Mary, nee Fairfax {b. 1780, d. 
 1872), scientific writer; author of On the 
 Connection of the Physical Sciences (1834), 
 Physical Geography (1869), and On Molecular 
 and Microscopic Science. She received a Civil 
 List pension of £300 in 1835, and Somerville 
 Hall, Oxford, was founded in memory of 
 her. 
 
 Somerville, William {b. 1692, d. 1742), 
 poet, author of The Chase, etc. 
 
 Sontag, Henrietta {b. 1806, d. 1854), 
 German singer; made her debut at Prague 
 at the age of fifteen, and was very successful 
 in Paris and London (1828). In 1830 she 
 married Count Rossi, but in 1849 reappeared 
 in London, the United States, and Mexico, 
 where she died. 
 
 Sophia, Electress of Hanover (b. 1630, d. 
 1714), granddaughter of James I., and 
 mother of George I. ; was heir to the throne 
 by the Act of Settlement, but died just before 
 Queen Anne. 
 
 Sophia Alexievna, Regent of Russia {h. 
 1656, d. 1704), organised the revolt of the 
 Stretlitzen, and ruled by the help of Galitzin 
 for seven years, but was deprived and 
 imprisoned by her brother, Peter, for con- 
 spiring against him. 
 
 Sophia Dorothea of Zell {b. 1666, d. 1726), 
 wife of George I., by whom she was divorced 
 and imprisoned for life at Ahlden. Her 
 daughter of the same name {d. 1757) married 
 Frederick the Great. 
 
 Sophocles (A. 496 B.C., d. 405), Greek tragic 
 poet ; was appointed one of the Strategi 
 after the production of Antigone. Of the 
 tragedies attributed to him only seven are 
 extant. He introduced a third actor, and 
 made several changes in the constitution of 
 the drama. 
 
 Sorbonne, Robert de (fi. 1201, d. 1274), 
 confessor and chaplain to Louis IX. ; founded 
 the college of the Sorbonne.
 
 Sor 
 
 (678) 
 
 Sow 
 
 Sorby, Henry Clifton, F.R.S., etc. {b. 
 182G), geologist, became president of Fii-th 
 College, Sheffield, in 1822. His publications 
 deal with geological and microscopical 
 subjects. 
 
 Sorel, Agnes. [See Agnes Sorel.] 
 
 Sostratus (3rd century B.C.), constructed 
 the Pharos or lighthouse of Alexandria. 
 
 Sotheby, Samuel Leigh (d. 1861), anti- 
 quary, whose chief work was Frincipia 
 Tijpographica (1858). 
 
 Sotbem, Edward Askew {b. 1826, d. 1881), 
 comedian ; after acting in England made his 
 first appearance at Boston as Dr. Pangloss, 
 but gained his reputation as Lord Dundreary, 
 in Our American Cousin, which he played over 
 a thousand times in America, and nearly five 
 hundred at the Haymarket. He also created 
 the title character in David Garrick. 
 
 Soubise, Benjamin de {d. 1641), French 
 Protestant, who carried on war against 
 Louis XIII., and obtained the aid of Eng- 
 land, but was ultimately obliged to take 
 refuge there. 
 
 Soubise, Charles, Prince de (i^. 1715, d. 
 1787) , mai-shal of France ; was made governor 
 of Flanders in 1751, and by the favoui- of 
 Madame de Pompadoui' obtained a command 
 in the Seven Years' war, but was defeated 
 at Rossbach, though he afterwards con- 
 quered Hesse. He was at intervals minister 
 of state under Louis XV. and Louis XVI. 
 
 Soufflot, Jacques Germain {b. 1713, d. 
 1781), architect; designed Ste.- Genevieve at 
 Paris and several buildings at Lyon. 
 
 Soult, Nicolas, Jean de Dieu, Duke of Dal- 
 matia (b. 1769, d. 1851), marshal of France; 
 entered the army in 1785, became general in 
 the republican armies, but was made prisoner 
 at Genoa in 1799, became marshal in 1804, 
 and held several commands till in 1 808 he was 
 sent to Spain to crush Sir John Moore. He 
 then took Oporto, and governed Portugal so 
 well that overtures were made to give him 
 permanent rule, but he had to meet Wel- 
 lington, who defeated him at the Douro. 
 He gained the victory of Ocaiia over the 
 Spaniards, but was defeated at Albuera, and 
 in 1813 was recalled to Germany, where he 
 became chief of the staff. After Vittoria he 
 returned to Spain as lieutenant of the em- 
 peror, but was driven into France by Wel- 
 lington, and on the abdication of Napoleon 
 became minister of war under Louis XVIII. 
 After the escape from Elba, however, he re- 
 joined the emperor, and was among those 
 proscribed at the restoration ; but on his re- 
 turn he was created pair de France, and was 
 minister of war imder Louis Philippe from 
 1830 to 1847. being also the representative of 
 France at the coronation of Queen Victoria. 
 
 South, Sir James, F.R.S. {b. 1785, d. 1867), 
 English astronomer, son of a di-uggist ; was 
 one of the founders of the Royal Astronom- 
 ical Society, of which he became president 
 in 1829, and was associated with Sir John 
 Herschell in observations on the double stars, 
 receiving the Copley medal and a pension for 
 his labours. 
 
 South, Robert {b. 1633, d. 1716), divine; 
 carried on a controversy with Sherlock on 
 the doctrine of the Trinity, and was cele- 
 brated both as a preacher and a wit. 
 
 Southampton, Thomas Wriothesley, first 
 Earl of {d. 1550), statesman; became Sec- 
 retary of Stiite in 1538, and was a leader of 
 the Anglo-Roman party ; became Chancellor 
 in 1544, and promoted the persecution of the 
 Protestants. He negotiated a treaty with 
 Scotland, was one of the executors of Henry 
 VIII., was deprived of the seals by Somerset, 
 but restored to the Council in 1549. 
 
 Southampton, Henry, third Earl {b. 1573, 
 
 d. 1624), friend of Essex, in whose disgrace 
 he was involved, is chiefly to be remembered 
 as the patron of Shakespeare, Venus and 
 Adonis being dedicated to him, 
 
 Southampton, Thomas, fourth Earl {d. 
 1667), statesman; was made a privy coun- 
 cillor by Charles I. on his desertion of the 
 Parliamentarians, and represented the king 
 at Uxbridge ; was the friend of Clarendon, 
 and was made lord high treasurer after 
 the Restoration. 
 
 Southcott, Joanna {b. 1750, d. 1814), a 
 Devonshire woman, who founded a sect, 
 declaring that she was about to bring forth 
 "the Second Shiloh." A post-mortem ex- 
 amination showed that she had suffered from 
 dropsy. 
 
 Southeme, Thomas {b. 1660, d. 1746), 
 dramatist ; held a commission in the army, 
 and wrote Isabella : or the Fatal Marriage, 
 Oroonoko, and other tragedies, as weU as 
 some comedies. 
 
 Southey, Robert {b. 1774, d. 1843), poet 
 and biographer, son of a linendraper at 
 Bristol : settled at Keswick in 1803, and there 
 wrote The Curse of Kehama (1810), and all 
 his chief poems, except Thalaba (1801), as 
 well as his Uves of Nelson (1813) and of 
 Wesley (1820), The Doctor, and contributions 
 to the Quarterly. He became poet laureate 
 in 1813, and received a pension in 1835. He 
 was twice married, first to Edith Fricker, 
 sister of his friend Coleridge's wife, and 
 secondly to Caroline Bowles (q.v.), the 
 romance -writer and poet, who died in 1854. 
 
 Sowerby, George Brettingham {b. 1788, d. 
 1854), brother of James; wrote The Genera 
 of Recent and Fossil Shells, and other works.
 
 Sow 
 
 (679) 
 
 Spi 
 
 Sowerby, James (b. 1757, d. 1822), natur- 
 alist and artist; author of English Fungi, 
 and, with Sir J. E. Smith, English Botany. 
 
 Sozomenus (5th century), Greek historian, 
 author of a History of the Church from 323 
 to 423, which he dedicated to Theodosius. 
 
 Spaendonck, Gerard van {b. 1746, c?. 1822), 
 Dutch flower-painter; became miniature- 
 painter to the King of France and professor 
 of iconography at the Jardin des Plantes. 
 
 Spagnuolo [Giovanni di Pietro] (16th 
 centuiy), Spanish painter, who settled in 
 Italy, executed the altar-piece in the Lerver 
 church of Assisi. His Adoration of the Magi 
 has been attributed to Raffaelle. 
 
 Spallanzani, Lazaro (jb. 1729, d. 1789), 
 Italian naturalist and scholar, professor at 
 Pavia and director of the museum ; made 
 important investigations concerning genera- 
 tion, respiration, and digestion. 
 
 Spanheim, Ezekiel {b. 1629, d. 1710), 
 numismatist and diplomatist ; author of I)e 
 Prcestantia et Usti Kiimismatoriim Anti- 
 quorum, came to England (where he died) as 
 minister of the Elector-Palatine. 
 
 Sparks, Jared (b. 1789, d. 1866), American 
 writer; became professor of history at 
 Harvard in 1839, and president of the col- 
 lege in 1849. His chief work was Life and 
 Writings of Washington (1834-7). 
 
 Spartacus {d. 7'2 b.c), a Thracian, who 
 headed the revolt of the gladiators at Capua. 
 After some successes he was defeated by 
 Crassus and slain. 
 
 Spedding, James (b. 1808, d. 1881), English 
 writer ; author of Life and Letters of Bacon 
 (1876), and a complete edition of his works. 
 He also wrote Publishers and Authors (1867), 
 and, with Gairdner, Studies in English 
 History, etc. 
 
 Speed, John {b. 1542, d. 1629), historical 
 writer ; author of History of Great Britain 
 from Julius Cccsar to James J., and The 
 Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain. 
 
 Speke, John Banning (b. 1827, d. 1864), 
 explorer ; served as a soldier in India, and 
 in 1857, with Burton, discovered Lake 
 Tanganyika and the sources of the Nile. 
 He afterwards went with Grant to the west 
 of the Victoria Nyanza, and published his 
 Journal in 1863. 
 
 Spelman, Sir Henry {b. 1562, d. 1641), 
 antiquary, author of Glossaritcm Archceolo- 
 gium and other works. His son, Sir John 
 {d. 1683), wrote a Life of Alfred the Great. 
 
 Spence, William, F.R.S. (b. 1780, d. 
 I860), wrote, with Rev. W. Kirby, Intro- 
 duction to Entomology. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert {b. 1820), utilitarian 
 philosopher; was for some years a civil 
 engineer before engagiag in literature. 
 Having come to London he became in- 
 timate with George Eliot and G. H. 
 Lewes, and in 1851 published Social Statics. 
 He undertook a lecturing tour in America 
 in 1882, previous to which had appeared 
 Principles of Psychology {\%bb), First Prin- 
 ciples (1862), Education (1861), Principles of 
 Biologi/ilSlii), The Study of Sociology (1872), 
 The Ilata of Ethics (1879), The Man v. 
 The State (1884), and other works fol- 
 lowed. 
 
 Spencer, John Charles, third Earl (b. 
 1782, d. 1845), statesman, better known as 
 Lord Althorp ; took a prominent part in the 
 proceedings against the Duke of York in 
 1809, and in 1830 became Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer and leader in the Commons 
 imder Earl Grey, but disagreed with him 
 on the Coercion Bill, and resigned in 1834. 
 He held oilice for a short time uuder Mel- 
 bourne, but, after succeeding to the peerage, 
 took little further part in affairs. 
 
 Spencer, John Poyntz, K.G., fifth Earl 
 (b. 1835), was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland 
 from 1868 to 1874, and having been president 
 of the Council from 1880 to 1882, held the 
 same office again from that year till 1885. 
 In the 1886 ministry he was Lord President 
 of the Council, and in 1892 First Lord of the 
 Admiralty. 
 
 Spener, Philipp Jacob {b. 1635, d. 1705), 
 German theologian, founder of the Pietist 
 sect. 
 
 Spenser, Edmimd {b. 1552, d. 1599), 
 English poet; went to Ireland in 1580 as 
 secretary to Lord Grey de Wilton, and 
 lived iu Cork county in the intervals till the 
 rebellion of TjTone (1598). The Faerie 
 Qucene was partly printed in 1590, his other 
 chief works being TJie Shepheard'' s Cale7idar, 
 Colin Chutes Come Home Again (1591), and 
 View of the State oflreland. 
 
 Spenser, or Spencer, Henry {d. 1406), 
 divine, called the "Fighting BL-^hop" (of 
 Norwich), put down the rising in the eastern 
 counties in 1381, and served Urban VI. 
 against Clement VII. in Flanders. 
 
 Speranski, Michael (J. 1711, d. 1840), 
 Russian statesman, minister of Alexander I., 
 made a digest of the laws of Russia. 
 
 Speusippus {d. 339 B.C.), Athenian phi- 
 losopher, nephew of Plato, whom he suc- 
 ceeded as head of the Academy. 
 
 Spielhagen, Friedrich {b. 1829), German 
 novelist, bom at Magdeburg; wrote Prob- 
 lematische Xaturen (I860), Hammer und 
 Amhos (1869), Was will das werden (1887), 
 as well as some comedies.
 
 Spi 
 
 ( 680 ) 
 
 Sta 
 
 Spinola, Ambrose, Marquis {ti. 1571, d. 
 1630), J^panish general; commauded in the 
 Low Countries against Maurice of Nassau, 
 and afterwards in Germany and Italy. 
 
 Spinoza, Benedict (*. 1632, d. 1677), phi- 
 losopher, bom at Amsterdam of Portuguese- 
 Jewish descent, was excommunicated and 
 renounced Judaism. His chief works were 
 Tractatus T/aoioffico-Foliticus, Ethica, and 
 Uogitata Metapliysica. 
 
 Spohr, Ludwig (*. 1784, d. 1859), German 
 violinist and composer, bom in Brunswick ; 
 became director of the Vienna theatre in 
 1813, was kapellmeister at Hesse-Cassel 
 from 1822 to 1857, and came to Paris in 
 1819, and London in 1820. His chief works 
 ai-e The Last Judgment (1826) and Calvary 
 (oratorios). The Alchy mist (an opera), nine 
 symphonies, etc., and a work on the violin. 
 His autobiography was translated in 1864. 
 
 Spontini, Gasparo Luigi Pacifico {b. 1774, 
 d. 1851), Italian composer, produced at 
 seventeen his opera / Puntigli delle Bonne ; 
 became chamber -composer to the Empress 
 Josephine, and produced Vestale (1807) at 
 Paris, and after being reinstated by the 
 Bourbons went to BerUn in 1820. Here he 
 composed Olympia, and several other operas. 
 
 Spottiswoode, John (b. 1565, d. 1639), 
 Archbishop of Glasgow and St. Andrews and 
 Chancellor of Scotland; wrote History of 
 the Church of Scotland, and was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Spottiswoode, William (6. 1825, d. 1883), 
 mathematician and Orientalist, was presi- 
 dent of the Royal Society in 1879. He wrote 
 The Polarisation of Light and A Tarantnsse 
 Journey through Eastern Russia. 
 
 Sprat, Thomas {b. 1636, d. 1713), divine, 
 successively Dean of Westminster and Bi- 
 shop of Rochester ; was one of the founders 
 of the Royal Society, of which he wrote an 
 account, as well as a History of the Eye 
 House Plot and a Life of Cowley. 
 
 Sprengel, Kurt (*. 1766, d. 1833), German 
 physician, professor of medicine and botany 
 at Halle : wi-ote a History of Medicine, Anti- 
 quitates Botanicce, etc. 
 
 Sprigg, Sir James Gorden, K.C.M.G. [h. 
 1837), colonial statesman, went to the Cape 
 in 1868, and was prime minister 1878-81, 
 treasurer 1884-6, becoming again premier 
 in the latter year. 
 
 SpuUer, Eugene (*. 1835), French politi- 
 cian, abandoned the bar for journalism, 
 and was one of the founders of the lievue 
 Politique. He opposed the plebiscite of 
 1870, in which year he became secretary to 
 Gambetta, and edited La Republique Fran- 
 (aise fi'om 1871 to 1876. In 1880 he became 
 
 leader of the Advanced Left in the Chamber, 
 and has published works on Michelet and 
 on the Jesuits. 
 
 Spurgeon, Charles Haddon {b. 1834, i. 
 1892), Baptist preacher ; was bom in Essex, 
 and came to London in 1853, the Metro- 
 polifcin Tabernacle being opened in 1861. 
 His sermons were published weekly almost 
 from the beginning, and had a large sale. 
 In 18S7 he withdrew from the Baptist 
 Union. 
 
 Spurzheim, Gaspar {b. 1776, d. 1832), one 
 of the founders of phrenology, born near 
 Trier ; became acquainted with Gall at 
 Vienna, and having for some years worked 
 and travelled with him, died in the United 
 States. 
 
 Squarcione, Francesco (b. 1394, d. 1474), 
 Italian painter ; established a great school 
 of art at Padua, and had Mantegna and 
 Bellini for pupils. 
 
 Stackhouse, Thomas (i. 1680, d. 1752), 
 EugUsh divine, author of The History of the 
 Bible. Another man of the same name, who 
 died in 1785, published A General View of 
 Ancient History, Chronology, and Geography. 
 
 Stadion, Johann, Count (b. 1763, d. 1824), 
 Austrian statesman, did much towards form- 
 ing the third coalition against France, and 
 having become foreign minister, began the 
 war wliich ended with Wagram. In 1812 
 he negotiated the Treaty of Toplitz, signed 
 the Treaty of Paris in 1814, and reorganised 
 the iinances. 
 
 Stael-Holstein, Anne, Baronne de [Mad- 
 ame de Stael] {b. 1766, d. 1817), French 
 writer, daughter of Necker, her husband 
 being the Swedish ambassador ; published 
 several works before the revolution, and 
 fled to Switzerland, and afterwards to Eng- 
 land in September, 1792. She returned to 
 Paris in 1796, but was banished by Napoleon 
 in 1802, and travelled till his fall. Her chief 
 works were Ten Years of Exile, Germany, 
 Helphine, Corinne, and other novels, and 
 Considerations on the French Revolution. 
 
 Stahl, Georg Ernst {b. 1660, d. 1734), 
 German physician, professor at Jena and 
 Halle ; was the propounder of the phlogistic 
 theory in chemistry, and of the immaterial 
 hypothesis in physiology. 
 
 Stainer, Sir John, Mus. Doc. (b. 1840), 
 English organist and composer ; was organist 
 of Magdalen College, Oxford, from 1859 to 
 1872, and of St. Paul's from that year till 
 1889, when he resigned and retired to 
 Oxford, where he became professor of 
 music. His compositions include Gid^eon 
 (an oratorio) and the cantata The Daughter 
 ofjairns, etc., and he published Theory of 
 Harmony and other works.
 
 Sta 
 
 (681) 
 
 Sta 
 
 stair, James Dab-jTiiple, Viscount (b. 
 1619, d. 1695), Scotch jurist, some time 
 president of the Court of Session, was author 
 of Institutions of the Laws of Scotland. 
 
 Stair, John, Earl of («?. 1707), statesman, 
 as Secretary of State in Scotland planned 
 with the Campbells the massacre of (jlencoe, 
 and was dismissed in 1695 ; but became 
 Privy Councillor under Anne, and a great 
 supporter of the Act of Union. 
 
 Stair, John, second Earl (b. 1673, d. 
 1747), general and statesman, distinguished 
 himself under Marlborough, and was made 
 commander-in-chief in Scotland by George 
 I. He then went to France, and organised 
 the Quadi'uple Alliance, and after a period 
 of retii'ement became ambassador to Holland 
 as well as commander in Flanders, winning 
 the battle of Dettingen in 1743. 
 
 Stanfield, W. Clarkson, E.A. {b. 1794, d. 
 1867) , landscape-painter ; was iu eaily life a 
 sailor, and then became scene-painter. His 
 chief pictures were Market-Boats on the 
 Scheldt, The Battle of Trafalgar, Gnidecca, 
 Venice, Como, and others, which are in the 
 National Gallery, London. 
 
 Stanford, Charles Villiers (6. 1852), 
 musical composer, born in Dublin ; became 
 conductor to the Cambridge Musical Society, 
 and, in 1887, professor of music. Among 
 his productions are music to Tennyson's 
 Qwen Mary, Browning's Cavalier Tunes, 
 etc., Father O^Flynn, and The Revenge, 
 Savonarola, The Canterbury Pilgrims, The 
 Veiled Prophet, Eden (1891), etc. 
 
 Stanhope, Lady Hester Lucy {b. 1776, d. 
 1839), daughter of Chaeles, third Earl, an 
 extreme Whig of scientific tastes ; after the 
 death of Lord Chatham, her uncle, to whom 
 she had been secretary, went to Syria to 
 study astrology, and exercised great influ- 
 ence over the pashas. 
 
 Stanhope, James, first Earl (*, 1673, d. 
 1721), soldier and statesman, served with 
 distinction under William III. , and in Spain 
 during the Succession war : was Secretary 
 of State from 1714 to 1717, and, after being 
 Premier a few months, returned to that office, 
 and skilfully directed English foreign policy. 
 
 Stanhope, Philip, fifth Earl {b. 1805, d. 
 1875), historian and politician, was under- 
 secretary for Foreign Affairs in Peel's 
 first ministry, and secretary to the Board 
 of Control 1845-6. He wrote History of 
 the War of the Spanish Succession, and 
 History of England from the Peace of Utrecht 
 to that of Versailles (which appeared under 
 his courtesy title of Lord Malion), a Life of 
 Pitt, and edited the Letters and tyritings of 
 Lord Chesterfield, and, in part, the Memoirs 
 of Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 Stanhope, Right Hon. Edward {b. 1840), 
 second son of the above ; was elected fellow 
 of Ail Souls', Oxford, in 1862, entered Par- 
 liament in 1874, and having held some sub- 
 ordinate posts was vice-president of the 
 Education Committee, and president of the 
 Board of Trade 1885-6, Colonial Secretary 
 1886-7, and became Secretary-at-War in 
 the latter year. 
 
 Stanhope, W'ilUam, first earl of Harring- 
 ton {d. 1756), ambassador to Spain in 1717 
 and 1730, and was shortly after created 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 Stanislaus Leczinski, King of Poland {b. 
 1677, d. 1766), was elected by the Diet in 
 1704 at the instance of Charles XII., but 
 was deposed on the fall of that king. 
 Louis XV., however, having married his 
 sister, he was again elected in 1733, but was 
 compelled to retire to France, becoming 
 Duke of Lorraine, but retaining kingly rank. 
 
 Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn {b. 1815, d. 
 1881), divine, son of Edwaed, Bishop of 
 Norwich {d. 1849), author of Familiar 
 History of Birds ; was educated at Rugby 
 and Balliol, and became professor of eccle- 
 siastical history at Oxford in 1858. He 
 visited the East in 1853 and 1862, and was 
 appointed Dean of Westminster in 1863. 
 Among his works were Life of Dr. Arnold, 
 Sinai and Palestine, and Essays on Church 
 and State. 
 
 Stanley, Henry Morton, D.C.L. {b. 1841), 
 African explorer, born in Wales ; took the 
 name of his adopted father in place of that 
 of Rowlands, and having served in the 
 American Civil war, and been a war cor- 
 respondent in Turkey and Abyssinia, was 
 in 1870 sent to find Livingstone, whom he 
 metat Ujiji (November 10, 1871), and having 
 explored with him came home in 1872. In 
 1874 he again went to Africa, and in the 
 course of four years ex] I jred Victoria and 
 Albert Nyanza, and the Congo. In 1879-82 
 he once more visited the latter, and in 1887 
 went to relieve Emin Pasha. How I found 
 Livingstone, Through the Lark Continent, and 
 In Darkest Africi describe his expeditions. 
 
 Stanley of Alderley, Edward, Lord {b. 
 1802, d. 1869), statesman, patronage secre- 
 tary to the Treasury 1835-41, when he 
 became Paymaster-General. He again held 
 that office as well as that of vice-president 
 of the Board of Trade, and was President of 
 the Board 1855-58. From 1860 to 1866 he 
 was Postmaster-General with a seat in the 
 Cabinet. 
 
 Stanley of Preston, Frederick, Lord {b. 
 1841), statesman, younger son of the four- 
 teenth Earl of Derby, retired from the army 
 in 1865, in which year he entered Parlia- 
 ment for Preston, was financial secretary 
 to the War OflBce 1874-77, to the Treasury
 
 Sta 
 
 (682) 
 
 Ste 
 
 1877-78, and was Secretary-at-War from 
 that year till 1880, was Colonial Secretary 
 1885-86, and president of the Board of 
 Trade 1886-88. In the former year he was 
 created a peer, and in the latter became 
 Governor- General of Canada. 
 
 Stansfeld, Right Hon. James {b. 1820), 
 English statesman, entered Parliament in 
 1859 as a Radical, and held a subordinate 
 office in 1863-64, resigning on account of his 
 intimacy with Mazzini. He again held 
 office in 1866, from 1869 to 1871 was secre- 
 tary to the Treasury, and president of the 
 Local Government Board 1871-74. He 
 again occupied that post in the Home Rule 
 ministry. 
 
 Stanton, Edwin (d. 1869), American 
 statesman ; was attorney -general and after- 
 wards war-minister under Lincoln, and 
 continued in office under President Johnson, 
 but quarrelled with him in 1866 ; was re- 
 instated by the Senate after dismissal, but 
 retired after the acquittal of the president. 
 
 Stapledon, Walter {d. 1326), Bishop of 
 Exeter, and founder of Exeter College, 
 Oxford ; was killed in a rising of the 
 London citizens. 
 
 Stapleton, Augustus Granville (jb. 1800), 
 secretary to George Canning ; author of 
 George Canning and his Times (1859). 
 
 Statins, Publius Papinius {b. 61, d. circa 
 98), Roman poet, author of Silvce, Thebats, 
 and Achilleis (unfinished). 
 
 Staunton, Howard (*. 1810, d. 1874), 
 chess-player and Shakespearean scholar; 
 defeated M. de St. Amand, the champion of 
 Europe, in 1843, and published Chess-player'' s 
 Handbook, while he also brought out an 
 edition of the foUo of 1623, and Memorials 
 of Shakespeare. 
 
 Stead, William Thomas {b. 1849), journa- 
 list, conducted the Fall Mall Gazette from 
 1883 to 1889, and exercised no slight influence 
 on opinion in the matters of the Criminal 
 Law, and the state of the navy, etc. 
 
 Stedman, Edmund Clarence (6. 1833), 
 American poet, author of Alice of Monmouth 
 
 (1864), Lyrics and Idylls (1879), and the 
 compilations Poets of America (1885), and 
 
 rictorian Poets. 
 
 Steele, Sir Richard {b. 1671, d. 1729), 
 Irish essayist and dramatist ; while serving 
 in the Guards published his Christian Hero, 
 and in 1702 brought out his first play. The 
 Funeral : or, Gri^fd la Mode. He-afterwards 
 established and wrote with Addison The 
 Tatler (1709), The Spectator (1711). and The 
 Guardian. He was expelled from the House 
 of Commons for his pamphlets The Crisis 
 and The Englishman, but was knighted and 
 
 given a place by George I., to whom hia 
 play The Conscious Lovers (1722) was dedi- 
 cated. 
 
 Steell, Sir John, R.S.A. (b. 1804, d. 1891), 
 sculptor, among whose chief productions are 
 statues of Scott, Wellington, and Burns at 
 Edinburgh, and of the latter at New York 
 and Dunedin. 
 
 Steen, Jan (6. 1636, d. 1689), Dutch 
 painter, bom at Leyden. 
 
 Steenwyk, Henrik van (6. 1550), painter, 
 master of Peter Neefs. Architectural in- 
 teriors were his speciality. 
 
 Steenwyk, Henrik van, "the Younger" 
 (A. 1589), architectural painter, friend of 
 Vandyck, by whose advice he came to 
 England, where he died. 
 
 Steevens, George (*. 1736, d. 1800), pub- 
 lished an edition of Shakespeare's plays in 
 1766, and three years later some notes, which 
 were incorporated with those of Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Stefano (Gittino), Tommasodi {d. 1324, d. 
 1356), fi-esco painter of the school of Giotto. 
 
 Steffens, Heinrich {b. 1773, d. 1848), 
 Norwegian writer, held the chair of natural 
 history successively at Jena, Halle, Breslau, 
 and Berlin. His chief works were Grundziige 
 der Fhilosophischen Naturwissenschaft, Die 
 Vier Norweger, and other novels, and Was 
 ich erlebte. 
 
 Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl, Baron von 
 
 {b, 1757, d. 1831), Prussian statesman, was 
 president of the Westphaliau Chambers from 
 1797 to 1804, when he became minister of 
 finance, but resigned in 1807. He was recalled 
 after the peace of Tilsit, but was proscribec" 
 and exiled by order of Napoleon in 1808. 
 Li 1812 he went to St. Petersburg, and en- 
 couraged Alexander I. against Napoleon, 
 and gained great influence with the allies. 
 His liberal views not being approved, how- 
 ever, he retired till 1827. A monument was 
 erected to him in Berlin in 1875. 
 
 Steinitz, William {b. 1836), Bohemian 
 chess-player, won the championship of the 
 world by his victory over Anderssen in 1866, 
 and took part in numerous tournaments. In 
 1883 he settled in the United States. 
 
 Steinmetz, Karl Friedrich von {b. 1796, d. 
 1877), Prussian general, served in the later 
 campaigns against Napoleon, and dis- 
 tinguished himself in suppressing the revo- 
 lution of 1848 ; defeated the Austrians on 
 three consecutive days in 1866, and com- 
 manded the first army in 1870, but soon re- 
 signed on account of differences with Prince 
 Frederick Charles and Manteuffel. 
 
 Stella [Esther Johnson] (b. 1684, d. 1727), 
 friend and lover of Dean Swift.
 
 Ste 
 
 (683 ) 
 
 Ste 
 
 Stenhouse, John, F.E.S. {b. 1809, d. 1880), 
 Scotch chemist of the school of Liebig; 
 invented the charcoal respirator and a 
 process of waterproofing by paraffin. 
 
 Steno, Nicholas {b. 1638, d. 1687), Danish 
 anatonist. Bishop of HeliopoUs and vicar 
 apostolic of the north, wrote Observations on 
 the Muscles and Glands, aaid other works. 
 
 Stephen, St., first Christian martyr. 
 
 Stephen, King of England {b. 1105, d. 
 1154), was son of Adela, daughter of 
 Wilham I. and of Theobald, Comte de Blois ; 
 obtained the crown on the death of Henry I. 
 chiefly by the iufluence of the Bishop of 
 Wiachester, his brother. His reign was 
 marked by civil war with the EngUsh and 
 Scotch partisans of the claims of the 
 Empress Maud, and also by internal 
 anarchy, the end of the struggle being the 
 Treaty of WaUingford, by which Stephen 
 obtained the crown for Ufe. 
 
 Stephen, Sir James, K.C.B. {b. 1789, d. 
 1859), historical writer, son of James 
 Stephen, master in chancery {d. 1832), was 
 for fourteen years under-secretary for the 
 Colonies, and in 1849 became professor of 
 Modem History at Cambridge. His chief 
 works were Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography 
 and Lectures on the History of France. 
 
 Stephen, Sir James Fitzjames, D.C.L. {b. 
 1829), his eldest son; was called to the bar 
 in 1854, was recorder of Newark 1859-68, 
 and legal member of the Council of India 
 1869-72. From 1879 to 1891. when he re- 
 signed, he was a judge of the High Court, and 
 his chief works are Digest of the Law of Evi- 
 dence, Digest of the Criminal Laiv, and Sis- 
 tory of the Criminal Law of England (1883). 
 
 Stephen, Leslie (*. 1832), brother of the 
 above, was for several years fellow and 
 tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge ; edited 
 the Cornhill for eleven years, and in 1882 
 undertook the editorship of the Dictionary of 
 National Biography, which he resigned in 
 1891. Among his works are History of 
 Enqlish Thouf/ht in the Eighteenth Centuri/ 
 (1876), The Science of Ethics (1882) ; lives of 
 Jolmson, Pope and Swift m the Men of 
 Letters series, and a Life of Henry Faivcett 
 (1885). 
 
 Stephen I., Kmg of Hungary {b. 979, d. 
 1038), was the son of a chieftain named 
 Geysa, and was made Apostolic King by 
 Pope Sylvester. He was active in establish- 
 ing Christianity, and was canonised after 
 his death. 
 
 Stephens rEstienne or Etienne"), a noted 
 f ainily of printers of Paris. Henry (b. circa 
 1460, d. Io20) : his second son Robert {b. 
 1503, d. 1559) in 1550 retired to Geneva on 
 account of his Protestantism, and his 
 
 younger brother Charles {b. 1504, d. 1564), 
 and his eldest sou Henry \b. 1528, d. 1598), 
 were also noted members of the family. 
 
 Stephens, George, LL.D. (b. 1813), 
 Scandniaviau scholar, professor of English 
 language and literature at Copenhagen, 
 whose work has chiefly lain in the direction 
 of Scandinavian and Old Enghsh literature 
 and remains. 
 
 Stephens, James (b. circa 1820), Fenian, 
 fled to Paris after the Yoimg Ireland move- 
 ment, and ten years later (1858) started the 
 Fenian organisation. He was arrested in 
 Ireland in 1865, but escaped from prison and 
 went to America, whence he directed the 
 insurrection of 1867. He was compelled to 
 leave Paris in 1886. Returned to Ireland 
 1891. 
 
 Stephenson, Sir Augustus, K.C.B. {b. 
 1827), was called to the bar in 1852. and 
 became public prosecutor in 1884. 
 
 Stephenson, George {b. 1781, d. 1848), 
 engineer, was bom at Wylam, worked as a 
 collier and brakesman, and in 1815 was 
 presented with 1,000 guineas, and publicly 
 entertained for his invention of a safety 
 lamp. His first engine had been constructed 
 before this, and in 1829 he won a prize of 
 £500 for the best engine, his locomotive, the 
 Rocket, being fitted with the " blast-pipe." 
 
 Stephenson, Robert {b. 1803, d. 1859), his 
 son ; won the mathematical prize in a six- 
 months' course at Edinburgh University, and 
 returned to help his father. He constructed 
 the I'lanet, the model of the modern loco- 
 motive, and won world-wide reputation 
 as a constructor of bridges, and in connec- 
 tion with railways. He entered Parliament 
 for Whitby as a Conservative in 1847. 
 
 " Stepniak," Sergius Dragomanoft" {b. 
 1841), Russian writer; was removed from 
 his professorship of Kieff and exiled in 1876 
 for his pohtical opinions, and then settled at 
 Geneva. Among his works are Hiomada 
 (" Common Things "), Tyrannicide in liussia, 
 and The Turks TFithin and Without, Under- 
 ground Mussia, etc. 
 
 Sterling, Antoinette {h. 1850), contralto 
 singer, was bom in America, and made her 
 first appearance in England in 1873. Two 
 years later she married Mr. John McKinlay, 
 and settled in this country. 
 
 Sterling, John {b. 1806, d. 1844), Scotch 
 writer, son of Edward Sterling (" Vetus ") 
 {d. 1817), was a pupil of Julius Hare at 
 Cambridge, and in 1834 became his curate 
 at Hurstmonceux. He gave up his orders 
 on account of ill-health, became acquainted 
 with Carlyle, who wrote his life, and pub- 
 lished y/r</i«r Cnningsby (1833), some poems, 
 and a tragedy, Strafford (1843).
 
 Ste 
 
 ( 684 ) 
 
 Sti 
 
 stem, Daniel, noin de plume of Marie, 
 Couiifsse d'Agoult {b. 1805, d. 1876), 
 French writer, author of some essays and 
 novels and of Histoire de la Jtevolution de 
 ^4S. She lived some years with Liszt, but 
 afterwards returned to her husband. One of 
 her daughters married Emile Ollivier, and 
 another Ricliard Wagner. 
 
 Sterne, Laurence {l>. 1713, d. 1768), Irish 
 divine and writer, author of Tristram 
 Shandy (1759-67), The Sentimental Journey, 
 and Letters to his Friends (posthumous), 
 etc. 
 
 Stemliold, Thomas (b. circa 1500, d. 
 1549), was joint-author with Hopkins of 
 the first English metrical version of the 
 Psalms. 
 
 Stesichorus (d. circa 560 b.o.), Greek 
 poet, born in Sicily, some fi-agments by 
 whom are extant. 
 
 Stevens, Alfred (b. 1818, d. 1875), EngUsh 
 sculptor, pupil of Thorwaldsen, became 
 director of the Sheffield School of Art in 
 1850, and in 1857 was entrusted with the 
 execution of the Wellington monument in 
 St. Paul's, which was unfinished at hia 
 death. 
 
 Stevens, Joseph (b. 1832), Belgian painter, 
 whose pictures of dogs and other animals 
 were exhibited at Paris and Brussels. The 
 Unconscious Philosopher and An Episode in 
 the Dog Market, Paris, were seen at the Great 
 Exhibition of 1855, and the artist obtained 
 the first prize in the International Exhibition 
 of 1871. His brother, Alfred (4.1828), ac- 
 quired celebrity as a genre painter. 
 
 Stevens, Thaddeus (J. 1793, A 1868), Ameri- 
 can statesman, entered Congress in 1848, and 
 took an active part in the anti-slavery agita- 
 tion, urging rigorous measures against the 
 Confederates. 
 
 Stevenson, Robert (b. 1772, d. 1850), Scotch 
 engineer ; completed the Bell Rock light- 
 house, of which he published an account, 
 and invented the intermittent and flashing 
 exhibition of light. 
 
 Stevenson, Robert Louis (i. 1850), novelist, 
 poet, and essayist, grandson of the above ; 
 gave up the family profession and travelled, 
 afterwards writing the following works, 
 among others : An Inland Voyage (1878), 
 Virginibus Puerisqne (1881), New Arabian 
 J^ights (1882), Treasure Island (1883), A 
 Child's Garden of Verse, Prince Otto (1885), 
 Strange Case of Br. Jekyll and 3Ir. Hyde 
 (1885), Kidnapped (1886), The blaster of 
 Ballantrae (1889), The JFrecker (1892), 2 
 Footnote to History (1892). In 1890 he went 
 to live in Samoa. 
 
 gtevin, Simon (b 1548, d. 1620), Flemish 
 
 mathematician ; was the first to establish the 
 use of decimal fractions. 
 
 Stewart, Alexander Tumey (b. 1802, d. 
 1876), American millionaire, bom in Ire- 
 laud ; devoted part of his wealth to the 
 relief of the Irish peasants, and of the 
 French during the war. He also estab- 
 lished a home for working girls at New 
 York, and a model garden city on Long 
 Island. 
 
 Stewart, Balfour, F.R.S. (*. 1828, d. 
 1887), Scotch physicist; after some years in 
 Australia and at Edinburgh as assistant to 
 Principal Forbes, became director of Kew 
 observatory in 1859, and professor of 
 physics in Owens College in 1870. His 
 chief works were An Elementary Treatise 
 on Meat (1866), and, with Professor Tait, 
 The Unseen Universe (1875), and The Para- 
 doxical Philosophy (1878). 
 
 Stewart, Sir Donald Martin, Bart. G.C.B., 
 etc. {b. 1824), general; entered the Bengal 
 army in 1840, distingmshed himself during 
 the Indian Mutiny, held a command in the 
 Abyssinian war, and cooperated with Sir 
 F. Roberts (Lord Roberts) in the Afghan 
 war of 1879-80. He was commander-in- 
 chief in India from 1881 to 1885, when he 
 became a member of the CounciL 
 
 Stewart, Dugald {b. 1753, d. 1828), Scotch 
 metaphysician, son of Dr. Matthew Stewart, 
 the mathematician, whom he assisted for 
 three years, but was appointed in 1785 pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy at Glasgow. He 
 had great influence over the rising Whig 
 generation, and his Collected Works were 
 edited by Sir W. Hamilton. 
 
 Stewart, Major- General Sir Herbert (b. 
 1843, d. 1885), entered the army in 1864, 
 served in the Zulu war, and was made 
 prisoner by the Boers at Majuba Hill. He 
 had a command in the Egyptian campaigns 
 of 1882 and 1884. and after winning the 
 battle of Abu Klea (January 17, 1885) was 
 mortally wounded a few days later at 
 Gubat. 
 
 Stigand (11th century), became P^'shop of 
 the East Angles in 1043, of Winchester in 
 1047, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1053 
 (probably). He became a strong partisan of 
 the Godwines. and crowned Harold, but made 
 his submission to William after Hastings. 
 He afterwards, however, flew to the " Camp 
 of Refuge" in the Isle of Ely, and was 
 imprisoned for life on his capture in 1072. 
 
 Stilicho {d. 408), general of the Western 
 Empire ; married Serena, niece of Theo- 
 dosius, who entrusted him with the care of 
 his sons. He obtained great influence over 
 Honorius, who had married his daughter, 
 saved Rome from famine, defeated Alario
 
 Sti 
 
 (685 ) 
 
 Sto 
 
 in 403 and drove him from Italy, and simi- 
 larly put an end to the invasion of Rada- 
 gaisus in 405. He afterwards negotiated 
 with Alaric, but was plotted against by 
 Olympius, and murdered at Bavenna. 
 
 Stilling. [See Jung.] 
 
 Stillingfleet, Edward (b. 1635, d. 1699), 
 theologian ; successively Dean of St. Paul's 
 and Bishop of Worcester ; was author of 
 Eirenicon, and had controversies with Locke, 
 Baxter, and the Romanists. 
 
 Stirling, Hon. Sir James (b. 1836), judge ; 
 was called to the bar in 1862, and became 
 judge of the Chancery division in 1886. 
 
 Stirling, James Hutchison, LL.D. {b. 
 1820), Scotch writer; abandoned medicine 
 for literature, and wrote The Secret of Hegel 
 (1865), Thomas Carlyle's Counseh (1886), a 
 translation of Schwegler's History of Fhilo- 
 sophi/, etc. 
 
 Stirling, Mrs. {b. 1817), actress [Fanny 
 Clifton], made her first appearance at the 
 East London theatre, and subsequently 
 played imder Macready at Drury Lane. 
 Her finest parts were Peg Woffington in 
 Masks and Faces and the Nurse in Romeo 
 and Juliet. She retired in 1886. 
 
 StirUng-MeixwelL {See Maxwell.] 
 
 Stobseus, (5th or 6th century), Greek 
 writer ; author of the compilations Antho- 
 logia and Eclogce. 
 
 Stockhausen, Julius {b. 1825), vocalist, 
 bom in Paris, became the pupil of Halle 
 and Garcia and the friend of Ary Scheffer ; 
 appeared in London in 1851, and afterwards 
 fulfilled engagements at the Opera Comique, 
 Paris, and at ILeipzig and Cologne. He also 
 wrote Method of Sinying , and in 1874 became 
 director of the Stem Choral Society in 
 Berlin. 
 
 Stoclnnar, Christian Friedrich, Baron ijb. 
 1787, d. 1863), statesman and physician ; was 
 long attached to King Leopold of Belgium, 
 first as physician and then as secretary, and 
 subsequently became a confidential adviser 
 of Queen Victoria. His Memoirs were trans- 
 lated and edited by Professor Max-Miiller 
 in 187'2. 
 
 Stocks, Lumb, R.A. {h. 1812), engraver; 
 executed fine plates after Macliso, Landseer, 
 Wilkie, Leighton, Sir Noel Paton, and other 
 artists. 
 
 Stockton, Francis Richard (*, 1834), 
 American writer ; author of Rudder Grange, 
 The Great War Syndicate, and other novels. 
 
 Stoddard, Richard Henry {b. 1825), 
 American writer, author of Poems (1852), 
 'l\>wn and Country, Little Red Riding Hood, 
 
 3femoirs of E. A. Foe, etc. His wife {tie« 
 Barstow) has also vmtten novels. 
 
 Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, F.R.S. {b. 
 18iy), mathematician, was senior wrangler 
 and first Smith's prizeman in 1841, and 
 eight years later became Lucasian professor 
 of mathematics. He became president of 
 the Royal Society in 1885, and was returned 
 as a Conservative for Cambridge in 1887. 
 His publications deal with pure and applied 
 mathematics and the undulatory theoiT of 
 Hght. 
 
 Stokes, William, M.D., F.E.S. {b. 1804, 
 d. 1877), physician, son of Dr. Whitley 
 Stokes, whom he succeeded as professor of 
 physics at Dublin. His works include F)iag- 
 nosis and Treatment of the Diseases of the 
 Chest, and Lectures on Continued Fevers. 
 
 Stokes, Whitley, D.C.L. {b. 1830), son of 
 the above ; was law member of the Council 
 of India 1877-82, and president of the Indian 
 Law Commission of 1879. Besides his works 
 on Indian law he published philological 
 works {Frish Glosses, etc.). 
 
 Stokes, Sir John, Lieutenant-General (6. 
 1825), entered the army in 1843, served 
 against the Kaffirs, and in 1855 was chief 
 engineer to the Turkish contingent. He 
 was afterwards commissioner for the Danube, 
 and was appointed in 1876 British repre- 
 sentative on the Suez Canal Board. He 
 retired from the army in 1887. 
 
 Stolberg, Friedrich Leopold, Count von 
 (b. 1750, d. 1819), German writer, author of 
 History of the Religion of Jesus Christ (1811- 
 18), Fie Insel, and some poems and trans- 
 lations. His brother. Christian {b. 1748, d. 
 1821), was also a poet and translator. 
 
 Stone, Edward James, F.R.S. (b. 1831), 
 astronomer ; became Radclifl'e observer at 
 Oxford in 1879, made a catalogue of stars 
 while at the Cape, and in 1882 super- 
 intended the observations of the transit 
 of Venus. 
 
 Stone, Marcus, R.A. {b. 1840), painter, 
 son of Frank Stone, A. R.A. ; exhibited Rest 
 at the Academy in 1858. Among his subse- 
 quent pictures were Stealing the Keys, 
 Henry FILL, and Anne Boleyn, and II y 
 en a Toujours un Autre, which was pur- 
 chased from the Chantrey Bequest fxmd. 
 
 Storey, George Adolphus, A.R.A. (A. 
 1834), English painter ; first exhibited in 
 1852, among: his pictures being, lite Shy 
 Fupil, Meetinfi of William Seymour with 
 Lady Arabella Stuart, and A Royal 
 Challenge. 
 
 Storm, Heinrich Friedrich von {b. 1766, 
 d. 1835), Russian economist, author of Court 
 W A'onomie Politique.
 
 Sto 
 
 (686) 
 
 Str 
 
 story, Joseph {h. 1799, (^. 1845), American 
 jurist, professor of law at Harvard. His 
 chief work was Commentary on the Consti- 
 tution of the United iStates. 
 
 Story, William "Wetmore {b. 1819), son 
 of the above ; published Contracts not under 
 Seal and other legal works, but afterwards 
 devoted himself to literature and sculpture. 
 Among his publications are several poems, 
 Origin of the Italian Language and Litera- 
 ture, Conversations in a Studio, etc., and he 
 has executed numerous monuments, statues, 
 and busts. 
 
 Stothaxd, Thomas, E.A. {b. Vlbb, d. 1834), 
 designer, was called by Turner "the Giotto 
 of England." Filgrim's Progress, Robinson 
 Crusoe, and many other works were illus- 
 trated by him. 
 
 Stoughton, John, D.D. (*. 1807), Con- 
 gregationalist divine ; author of Historg 
 of Religion in England from the Opening of 
 the Long Parliament to 1850 (1881-4), and 
 many other works. 
 
 Stow, John (J). 1525, d. 1605), antiquary, 
 his chief works being Annals of this King- 
 dom from the Time of the Ancient Britons, 
 and Surveg of London. 
 
 Stowe. \See Beecher-Stowe.] 
 
 Stowell, William Scott, Lord (*. 1745, 
 d. 1836), lawyer, elder brother of Lord 
 Eldon; became judge of the Consistory 
 Court and Privy Councillor in 1788, entered 
 Parliament two years later, was nominated 
 judge of the Court of Admiralty in 1798, 
 and received a peerage in 1812. 
 
 Strabo (i. circa 50 B.C.), Greek historian 
 and geographer, born at Amasia in Cappa- 
 docia ; travelled extensively, and wrote 
 Geographia, and some historical memoirs. 
 
 Strada. Famianus {b. 1572, d. 1649), 
 Italian writer, author of History of Wars 
 in the Netherlands, 1550-90. 
 
 Strada, John [Stradano] (b. 1536), Flemish 
 painter ; settled at Florence, where he exe- 
 cuted his Crucifixion and some animal and 
 battle-pieces. 
 
 Stradivarius, Antonio {b. 1670, d. 1728), 
 maker of tiie Cremona violins. 
 
 Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of 
 {b. 1593, d. 1641), English statesman; as 
 member for Yorkshire, opposed the court 
 till 1628, when he received a peerage and 
 was made president of the north ; became 
 Lord-Deputy of Ireland in 1633, where he 
 ruled with a high hand, but created the flax 
 and linen industries ; was impeached in 1640, 
 and was condemned by bill of attainder and 
 executed. 
 
 Strafford, George Byng, Earl of {h. 1830), 
 
 statesman ; was a Liberal member of the 
 House of Commons (as Viscount Enfield) 
 from 1852 to 1874 ; was named under- 
 secretary for Foreign Affairs in 1870, and in 
 1880 for India, being also first Civil Service 
 Commissioner from 1880 to 1888. 
 
 Strangford, George Sidney Smythe, 
 seventh Viscount {b. 1814, d. 1857), politi- 
 cian of the Young England school ; sat for 
 Canterbury from 1841 to 1852, and was for 
 a short time under-secretary for Foreign 
 Affairs. His chief work was Historical 
 Fancies. 
 
 Strangford, Percy William, eighth Vis- 
 count {b. 1825, d. 1869), brother of theabotre; 
 was a great linguist, but left but meagre 
 results, of which XeWcrs and Papers on Philo- 
 logical and Kindred Subjects were the chief. 
 
 Stratford, John de {d. 1348), ecclesiastical 
 statesman, took an active part in the de- 
 position of Edward II., became Chancellor 
 in 1330, and Archbishop of Canterbury three 
 years later ; was removed in 1340 after a 
 quarrel with Edward III. about the supply 
 of funds, but was pardoned and afterwards 
 exercised considerable influence over affairs. 
 His brother, Robeet, Bishop of Chichester 
 {d. 1362), was several times Chancellor. 
 
 Stratford de Redcliffe, Stratford Canning, 
 Viscount {b. 1786, d. 1880), diplomatist, 
 cousiu of George Canning, educated at Eton 
 and King's College, Cambridge, negotiated 
 the Treaty of Bucharest between Russia and 
 Tui-key (1812) ; was sent to Constantinople 
 in 1825 to urge the claims of the Greeks, 
 and seven years later negotiated a treaty 
 between the Porte and Greece. After 
 sitting in Parliament from 1835 to 1842, 
 he was again sent to Turkey, and remained 
 at Constantinople for seventeen years, 
 during which he thwarted Russian intrigues, 
 and induced Austria to occupy the Danubian 
 provinces during the Crimean war. 
 
 Strathnaim, Hugh Rose, Baron {b. 1803, 
 d. 1885), general ; was sent to organise the 
 Turkish defence against Mehemet Ali in 
 1840, was some time charge-d' affaires at 
 Constantinople, and was commissioner with 
 the French army during the Crimean war ; 
 commanded the Central India Field Force 
 during the Mutiny, and was afterwards 
 commander-in-chief in India and Ireland 
 successively. In 1877 he attained the rank 
 of field-marshal. 
 
 Strauss, David Friedrich {b. 1808, d. 1874), 
 German critic ; lost his position at Tiibingen 
 in consequence of his Leben Jesu kritisch 
 bearbeitet (1835). Among his other works 
 the chief were ChristUche Glaubenslehre 
 (1839-41), Life and Times of Ulrich von 
 Huiten (1858), Voltaire (1870), and Ber alte 
 und der nezie Glaube (1872).
 
 Str 
 
 (687) 
 
 Stn 
 
 Strauss, Johann (b. 1825), musical com- 
 poser, whose works include The Blue Danube 
 and many other waltzes. The Forty Thieves 
 Q871), and other operas. His brothers, 
 Joseph {d. 1870) and Edwaed (6. 1835), also 
 acquired reputation as composers and con- 
 ductors. 
 
 Street, George Edmund, R.A. Vb. 1824, d. 
 1881), English architect, assisted Sir Gilbert 
 Scott at Hamburg, restored Christ Church, 
 Dublin, and buUt many chiirches. His 
 designs for the new Law Courts were ap- 
 proved, but only partially carried out. 
 
 Strickland, Agnes {fi. 1806, d. 1874), 
 historical writer ; author (with her sister, 
 Elizabeth) of Lives of the Queens of England 
 (1840-49) &\idi Lives of the Queens of Scotland 
 (1850), and alone of The Bachelor Koigs of 
 England (1862), and other works, fcjhe re- 
 ceived a Civil Lost pension in 1871. 
 
 Strickland, Hugh Edwin {b. 1811, d. 
 1853), naturalist, author of The Dodo and its 
 Kindred, was killed on the railway near 
 Clarborough tunnel. 
 
 Strossmayer, Joseph, D.D. {b. 1815), 
 Austrian divine of liberal tendencies ; became 
 Bishop of Croatia and Bosuia in 1850, and 
 took a leading part in the proceedings of 
 the CEcumenical Council 1869-70. 
 
 Strozzi, Filippo {d. 1538), married one of 
 the Medici, but took the lead in the re- 
 establishment of the Florentine republic in 
 1527, and after its overthrow joined the con- 
 spiracy against Alessandro (1537), after 
 which, when captured, he put an end to 
 his life. 
 
 Strozzi, Giulio {d. 1636), author of the 
 poem Venezia Edificata. 
 
 Strozzi, Niccolo {d. 1650), wrote David 
 of Trebizond, and some idylls and sonnets. 
 
 Strozzi, Palla (b. 1372, d. 1462), Italian 
 scholar and patron, procured MS. of The 
 Folitics and other valuable works, but was 
 exiled from Florence for opposition to the 
 Medici. 
 
 Strozzi, Piero {d. 1558), son of last-named.; 
 attained the rank of marshal in the French 
 army, and served his adopted country in 
 Scotland (1548), and at Calais in 1558, but 
 was mortally wounded at the siege of 
 Thionville. 
 
 Struensee, Johann Fwedrich, Count [b. 
 1737, d. 1772), Danish statesman ; at first 
 court physician, obtained complete control 
 of the administration through his favour 
 with the queen (Caroline Matilda of Eng- 
 land) ; was beheaded on a cliarge of guilty 
 relations with her, which was brought by 
 his enemies. 
 
 Strutt. Joseph {b. 1742, d. 1802), antiquary, 
 
 author of Complete View of the Dresses and 
 Habits of the People of England, Sports atid 
 Pastimes, etc. 
 
 Struve, Friedrich Georg "Wilhelm(*. 1793, 
 d. 1864), Danish astronomer ; became director 
 of the Dorpat observatory iu 1817, and of 
 that at Pultowa in 1839. He had the chief 
 part in the triangulation of Livonia, and the 
 arc of the meridian in Russia and Scan- 
 dinavia measured by him was the longest 
 ever attempted. 
 
 Struve, Georg Adam {b. 1619, d. 1692), 
 German jurist, professor of law at Jena, 
 author of Syntagma Juris Feudalis, and other 
 works. 
 
 Strype, John {b. 1643, d. 1737), English 
 clergyman, author of Ecclesiastical Monu- 
 ments, Annals of the Reformation, and lives 
 of several of the reformers and of others. 
 
 Stuart, Gilbert {b. 1742, d. 1786), Scotch 
 writer ; author of View of Society in Europe, 
 History of the Reformation in Scotland, etc. 
 
 Stuart, Gilbert Charles, "American 
 Stuart" {h. 1756, d. 1828), portrait-painter ; 
 came to England when young, and lived 
 there till 1793. He was a pupil of West, and 
 executed portraits of George III., George 
 IV., Louis XVI., Washington, Reynolds, 
 and other contemporaries. 
 
 Stuart, James, "Athenian Stuart" {b, 
 1713, d. 1788), traveller and antiquary; 
 author of The Antiquities of Athens. 
 
 Stuart, James E. B. {b. 1835, d. 1864), 
 American general ; celebrated for his services 
 to the Confederates, his chief exploits being 
 the night attack of August, 1862, when 
 General Pope's papers were captured, and 
 the raid across the Potomac in the seune 
 year. He was mortally wounded at Ash- 
 land, and died at Richmond. 
 
 Stuart, John McDonald {b. 1818, d. 1866), 
 explorer, crossed Australia from north to 
 south in 1860. 
 
 Stuart-Wortley, Lady Emmeline {b. 1806, 
 d. 1855), traveller, and writer of Etcetera, 
 Portugal and Madeira, and similar works. 
 
 Stubbes, John {b. circa 1541, <^. circa 1600), 
 a Puritan lawyer, whose hand was cut off 
 for a pamphlet opposing the marriage of 
 Elizabeth with the Duke of Anjou. 
 
 Stubbs, William, D.D. (*. 1825), historian 
 and divine ; became Regius professor of 
 modem history at Oxford in 1866, Bishop of 
 Chester in 1884, and of Oxford in 1889. His 
 chief works are Select Charters, Constitu- 
 tional History of England to 14S5 (1874-78), 
 and editions of the Chronicles of Benedict of 
 Petwborrmgh and Roger Hoveden. 
 
 Stueioont, or Dirk van Haarlem (15th
 
 Stn 
 
 (688) 
 
 STd 
 
 century), Dutch painter, whose chief works 
 axe historical pictures now in the royal col- 
 lection at the Hague. 
 
 Sturgeon, WilUam (6. 1783, d. 1850), 
 electrician, was for twenty years in the 
 ranks. He afterwards published Essays on 
 Electro-Magnetism, invented the electro- 
 magnetic coil machine and the electro- 
 magnetic machinery engine, and pubhshed 
 many treatises on similar subj ects. 
 
 Sturm, Jacques (b. 1803, d. 1855), Swiss 
 mathematician ; discovered the best method 
 hitherto known for the solution of numerical 
 equations. 
 
 Suarez, Francisco {b. \bi%, d. 1617), 
 SpMuish Jesuit; author of Defensio Fidei 
 Ciitliolicce contra Anylicance Sectce Errores, 
 which was burnt by the pubUc hangman 
 both at London and Paris (1613). 
 
 Suchet, Louis Gabriel {b. 1770, d. 1826), 
 mai-shal of France ; distmguished himself 
 in the Napoleonic wars, the chief field of his 
 operations being Aragon, where he was 
 commander-in- chief. 
 
 Suckling, Sii- John {b. 1609, d. 1642), Eng- 
 lish poet and dramatist ; was sent to the 
 Tower for an attempt to liberate Strafford, 
 and escaped impeachment by flight to 
 France, where he died. 
 
 Sudbury, Simon de [d. 1381), ecclesiastical 
 statesman ; became Bishop of London in 
 13(j1 and Primate in 1375. He was made 
 Chancellor in 1379, and having been one of 
 the advisers of the poll-tax was murdered 
 by the mob in the Peasant revolt. 
 
 Sue, Marie Joseph Eugene {b. 1804, d. 
 1859), French novelist ; saw some service as 
 an army doctor, and was a member of the 
 Assembly in 1850, but was proscribed after 
 the coup-d'etat. His cliief works were Les 
 Mysteres de Paris (1842), Le Juif Errant 
 (1844-45), and Les Mysteres du Feuple. 
 
 Suetonius Paulinus, Roman general ; 
 subdued Anglesea, and defeated Buddug 
 (Boadicea) in 61. 
 
 Suetonius Tranquillus, Caius {d. circa 
 160), Roman historian ; the only one of 
 whose works which is extant in a complete 
 state is his Vitce Duodeciin Casarum. 
 
 Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of ((f. 
 1545), English soldier; was employed by 
 Henry VIII. in his French wars and in re- 
 ducing the Pilgrimage of Grace. He married 
 Mary Tudor after the death of Louis XII. 
 
 Suffren St. Tropez, Pierre de (b. 1726, d. 
 1788), French admiral : took part in the 
 attack on Port Mahon, was made prisoner at 
 Lagos, and subsequently gained several 
 victories. 
 
 Suger, Abbe (d. 1152), statesman under 
 Louis VI. and Louis VII. ; wrote a life of 
 the former, and organised a crusade, but did 
 not Uve to lead it. 
 
 Suidas (10th or Uth century), compiled 
 a valuable Greek lexicon. 
 
 Suleiman Pasha {b. 1838, d. 1883), Turkish 
 general ; took part m the conspiracy against 
 Abd-el-Aziz, commanded in Servia in 1877, 
 and in the Kusso-Turkish war succeeded 
 Mehemet Ali Pasha as commander-in-chief. 
 After the war he was tried and condemned 
 to fifteen years' imprisonment. 
 
 Sulla, Lucius Comehus {b. 138 B.o.,d. 78), 
 served imder Marius in Africa, and against 
 the Cimbri, and took a prominent part in the 
 Social war ; when consul was deprived of his 
 command against Mithridates by Marius (88 
 B.C.), but gained possession of Rome soon 
 after ; took Athens, and defeated the forces 
 of Mithridates (87-83), and in 82 again 
 mastered Rome, where he proscribed his 
 enemies, and remodelled the constitution in 
 an aristocratic direction. 
 
 Sullivan, Alexander Martin {b. 1830, d. 
 1884), Irish pohtician ; conducted The Nation 
 from 1855 to 1876, and entered ParHamentia 
 1874 as a Home Ruler, but broke with his 
 party on the Land Act of 1881, which he 
 wished to accept. He was author of New 
 Ireland (1877). His brother, Timotht 
 Daniel (J. 1827), entered Parliament in 1880, 
 was Lord Mayor of Dubhu in 1885, and 
 composed God save Ireland and other songs. 
 
 Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour (Jb. 1842), 
 composer ; son of the Sandhurst bandmaster, 
 published his setting of The Tempest 1862, 
 and produced The Prodigal Son in 1860. In 
 1871 appeared the cantata On Shore and Sea, 
 in 1880 The Martyr of Antioch, and in 1886 
 The Golden Legend (Leeds festival). Besides 
 his work in collaboration with W. S. Gilbert, 
 Pinafore, The Mikado, Patience, The Yeomen 
 of the Guard, The Gondoliers, etc., which 
 began in 1871, he composed The Lost Gltord 
 and other songs, several hymns, and the 
 opera Ivanhoe. 
 
 SuUivan, Barry {b. 1824, d. 1891), trage- 
 dian ; made his debut at Cork in 1840, and 
 first appeared in London in 1851 (as Hamlet). 
 He subsequently played with success in 
 Australia, the United States, and Canada, 
 among his best parts being Faulconbridge, 
 Macbeth, and Jaques. His last appearance 
 was at Liverpool in 1887. 
 
 SulUvan, Right Hon. Edward {b. 1822, d. 
 1885), Irish judge ; was Solicitor- General 
 for Ireland (1865-66), Attorney - General 
 (1868-69), and became Master of the Rolls 
 in that year. 
 
 Sully, James {b. 1842), English psycholo- 
 gist ; author of Pessimism : a History and
 
 Snl 
 
 (689) 
 
 Swi 
 
 a Criticism (1877), Illusions, and Outlines of 
 PsycJiology, etc. (1884). 
 
 Sully, Maximilien de Bethune, Due de 
 (b. Ioo9, d. 1641), French statesman: served 
 Henri de Xavarre as soldier and diplomatist, 
 and when he became King of France was 
 named finance minister, in which capacity 
 he did much able work. He negotiated a 
 treaty with England, and retired on the death 
 of Heni'i iV., leaving valuable Meinoires. 
 
 Siilly-Prudliomine.Rene Fran^oisArmand 
 (b. iSSy), French poet, whose chief works are 
 Les Epreuves, Les Vaines Tendresses, and 
 other poems, and a translation of the Be 
 Naturd Jierum of Lucretius. 
 
 Sulpicius Rufus, Servius (b. 105 B.C., d. 
 43), Eoman jiu-ist and orator, friend of 
 Cicero : was the first to give jxmsprudence a 
 scientific form. He was consul in 51 B.C. 
 
 Sulpicius Severus (5th century), eccle- 
 siastical historian ; author of Life of St. 
 Martin of Tours and Abridgment of Eccle- 
 siastical History. 
 
 Sulzer, Johann Georg (b. 1720, d. 1779), 
 Swiss writer, whose chief work was Allge- 
 meine Theorie der schonen Kilnste (1771-74), 
 
 Sumner, Charles (fi. 1811, d. 1874), 
 American statesman and jurist ; delivered a 
 powerful speech against war in 1845 {The 
 True Grandeur of Nations), and in 1850 was 
 elected United States senator. In 1856 he 
 made a speech, The Crime against Kansas, 
 which caused a personal attack upon him by 
 a Southern delegate. In 1859 he made his 
 oration, I7ie Barbarism of Slavery, was 
 chairman of committee on foreign relations 
 1861-71 ; and was a strong supporter of the 
 American claims in the Alabama case. 
 
 Sumner, John Bird, D.D. (J. 1780, d. 
 1862), English divine, became Bishop of 
 Chester in 1828, and Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in 1848. He wrote Records of the 
 Creation and other works. Chaeles Sumnee 
 {h. 1790, d. !874), Bishop of Winchester 
 1827-69, was his brother, whose own son be- 
 came Bishop-SufFragan of Guildford in 1888. 
 
 Sunderland, Robert Spencer, second Earl 
 of {b. 1640, d. 1702), statesman, son of the 
 first Earl, who was killed at Newbury ; was 
 appointed Secretary of State in 1678, and 
 though dismissed for his sui)port of the 
 Exclusion Bill, was soon reinstated. He 
 was president of the Council under James 
 II., but intrigued with France and the 
 Prince of Orange, and served the latter till 
 his retirement in 1697. 
 
 ^Sunderland, Charles, third Earl {b. 1675, d. 
 
 1722), married as his second wife a daughter 
 
 of Marlborough, and having fulfilled several 
 
 diplomatic missions, was Secretary of State 
 
 SS 
 
 during the ascendency of the Whigs (1707- 
 10). In 1715 he became Lord Viiyj Seal; 
 two years later was again Secretary of State, 
 and was First Lord of the Treasury from 
 1718 till the South Sea crash, when, though 
 acquitted, he was dismissed. 
 
 Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of (b. 1516, 
 d. 1547), soldier and poet ; distinguished 
 himself in France and Scotland, but was 
 tried and beheaded for treason on somewhat 
 unsubstantial charges. His works are 
 chiefly songs and sonnets. 
 
 Surtees, Robert [h. 1779, d. 1834), anti- 
 quary, author of History of Durham, etc. 
 The Surtees Society takes its name from him. 
 
 Sussex, H.R.H. Augustus Frederick, 
 Duke of (b. 1773, d. 1843), sixth son of 
 George III., offended his father by his 
 marriage with Lady Augusta Murray and 
 his Whig sympathies. 
 
 Sutton, Manners. [^See Manners-Sutton.] 
 
 Suttou, Sir Richard {d. 1524), English 
 barrister, one of the chief founders of 
 Brasenose College, Oxford. 
 
 Sutton, Thomas {b. 1552, d. 1611), 
 merchant ; having gained great wealth by 
 purchase of property in the north containing 
 coal mines, bought the dissolved manor of 
 the Chartreux, from which was founded the 
 Charterhouse. 
 
 Suwarrow, or Suvarof, Alexander Vassilo- 
 vich (b. 1729, d. 1800), Russian general, rose 
 from the ranks to be field-marshal ; com- 
 manded in the Turkish war 1773-74, re- 
 duced the Tartars in 1783, and in the course 
 of the next Turkish war took Ismail (1790). 
 Aiter the peace of Jassy he was sent against 
 Kosciusko, and his last campaign was that 
 against the armies of Napoleon in Italy and 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Swammerdam, Johannes Q>. 1637, d. 
 1680), Dutch naturalist, author of General 
 History of Insects, and History of the 
 
 Day-fly- 
 
 Swedenborg, Emanuel (*, 1688, d. 1772), 
 founder of the " New Church," was bom at 
 Stockholm, and occupied himself as a scien- 
 tific engineer till 1743, from which time he 
 began to write, when Hving in Sweden or 
 England, among his numerous works being 
 Arcana Coslestia, De Cultu et Amor e Dei, The 
 True Christian Religion, and several scien- 
 tific treatises. 
 
 Swegen, or Sweyn IL [Sueno], {d. 1014). 
 became King of Denmark in 986; invade'd 
 England 994, and was proclaimed king in 
 1013. 
 
 Swift, Jonathan {b. 1667, d. 1745), Irish 
 divine and writer, lived some time with Sir 
 W. Temple, and took orders, beginning his
 
 Swi 
 
 ( 690 ) 
 
 Sza 
 
 political career just before the death of 
 Wiliiam III. He became intimate with the 
 Tory leaders of the reigu of Anne, conducted 
 the Examiner, and wrote pamphlets in their 
 interest; and in 1713 became Dean of St. 
 Patrick's. His chief works were The Tale 
 of a Tub (1704), Gulliver's Travels (1726-27), 
 and TJie Drapier Letters (1725), Journal to 
 Stella, Battle of the Books, etc. 
 
 Swinburne, Algernon Charles {b. 1837), 
 poet and critic, left Oxford without graduat- 
 ing, and in 1865 published AUdanta in 
 Calydon, his first great poem. Besides this 
 he wrote Cha^telard, Bothwell, Mary Stiuirt, 
 Marino Faliero and other tragedies; Songs 
 before Sunrise (1871), A Century ofBoundels, 
 and Foems and Ballads (three series) ; and 
 among his prose works, which appeared in 
 collective form in Essays and Studies (1875), 
 and Miscellanies (1886), the chief are esti- 
 mates of Blake, Ford, Ben Jonson, Shake- 
 speare, and Victor Hugo. He also published 
 parodies (^Specimens of Modern Poets, 1880). 
 
 Swithin, Saint {d. 862), was chaplain of 
 Egbert and Bishop of Winchester. 
 
 Swynford, Katherine, third wife of John 
 of Gaunt, and ancestress of the house of 
 Beaufort. 
 
 Sybel, Heinrich von {b. 1817), German 
 historian and poUtician, held chairs at 
 Marburg, Mimich, and Bonn successively, 
 and in 1875 became director of state 
 archives. He opposed Bismarck's PoUsh 
 policy in the Prussian Landtag, and entered 
 the Reichstag in 1875. His chief work is 
 History of the French Revolution, in two 
 volumes, of which there is an English trans- 
 lation. 
 
 Sydenham, Charles Poulett Thompson, 
 Lord {b. 1799, d. 1841), English statesman ; 
 entered ParUament in 1826, first took office 
 in 1832, became President of the Board of 
 Trade in 1834, and was Governor-General of 
 Canada from 1839 till his death. 
 
 Sydenham, Thomas {b. 1624, d. 1689), 
 physician, fellow of All Souls', Oxford. His 
 workswere printed bythe Sydenham Society, 
 established in 1843. 
 
 Sydney, Algernon. [See Sidney.] 
 
 Sylla. [See Sulla.] 
 
 Sylvester, James Joseph, D.C.L., F.R.S., 
 
 etc. (b. 1814), mathematician, after holding 
 chairs at University College, in the vmi- 
 versity of Virginia, at Woolwich, and at 
 the Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore, 
 became Savilian professor of geometry at 
 Oxford in 1883. He discovered the "theory 
 of reciprocants," invented the plagiograph 
 and other instruments, and published Laws 
 of Verse and other works. 
 
 Sylvester I., Pope {d. 335), elected in 314, 
 is said to have converted Constantine. 
 During his pontificate the Coimcil of Nice 
 (325) was held. 
 
 Sylvester II. [Gerbert], elected in 999, is 
 said to have introduced Arabic numerals, 
 and to have invented clocks. 
 
 Sylvester III. [Anti-pope] was elected in 
 1044, but retired three months later. 
 
 Syme, James {b. 1799, d. 1870), Scotch 
 surgeon, professor of clinical surgery at 
 Edinburgh for many years, author of 
 Fruiciples of Surgery (1832), and other 
 works ; introduced important operative im- 
 provements. 
 
 Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius (4th cen- 
 tury), Roman senator, attempted a revival 
 of Paganism under Gratian and Valentinian. 
 Some of his letters and orations are extant. 
 
 Symonds, John Addington (S. 1840), Eng- 
 lish writer, some time fellow of Magdalen 
 College, Oxford. His chief works are The 
 Renaissance in Italy (seven vols.). Studies of 
 the Greek Foets, a translation of Beuvenuti 
 Cellini's Autobiography, and some volumes 
 of verse. 
 
 Symonds, Sir Thomas, G.C.B. (fi. 1811), 
 admiral (1879) ; entered the navy in 1825, 
 served iu the Crimean war, commanded the 
 Channel fleet (1868-70), and was placed on 
 the retired list in 1881. 
 
 Symons, George James, F.R.S. (J>. 1838), 
 meteorologist, devoted his attention chiefly 
 to the subjects of rainfall and temperature ; 
 was chairman of the committee on the erup- 
 tion of Krakatoa (1884). 
 
 Szalkai, Anthony von {d. 1804), Hun- 
 garian poet, whose Fikko Hertzeg was the 
 first piece composed in the Magyar language.
 
 Taa 
 
 (691) 
 
 Tal 
 
 Taaffe, Eduard, Count (J. 1833), Austrian 
 statesman ; became secretary to the Hun- 
 garian government in 1857, and minister of 
 the interior in 1867 ; was minister of war 
 and president of the council 1869-70 ; agaia 
 became president of the council with the 
 office of minister of the interior in 1879. 
 
 Tabaxi, Abu Jaafar Mohammed (fi. 839, d. 
 922) , an Arabic historian, bom in Tabaristan. 
 His chief work is a, Chronicle, extending from 
 the creation to his own time. The part 
 which treats of the history of the Saracens 
 is considered valuable. 
 
 Tacca, Pietro [d. 1640), Italian sculptor, 
 bom at Carrara, studied under Giovanni da 
 Bologna. His masterpieces are the statues 
 of Ferdinand III. at Leghorn, and of Philip 
 rV. at Madrid. 
 
 Tacitus, Caius Cornelius (h. 55, d. circa 
 130), Roman historian ; married the daugh- 
 ter of the consul Agricola (78), was 
 quaestor imder Vespasian, aedile mider Titus, 
 praetor under Domitian, and consul under 
 Nerva (97). His chief works are the Life 
 of Agricola and the Gerniania, both written 
 about 98, the Histories extending from 68 
 to 96, and the Annals extending from 14 to 
 68. 
 
 . Tacitus, Marcus Claudius {b. 200, d. 276), 
 Roman Emperor ; was elected by the Senate 
 on.the death of AureUan (275). He died in 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 Taffl, Andrea {b. 1213, d. 1294), Florentine 
 artist : according to Vasari introduced into 
 Italy the art of designing in mosaic, which 
 he leamt from a Greek named Apollonio, 
 whose acquaintance he made at Venice, and 
 who became his fellow-worker at Florence. 
 
 Tagliacozzi, or Taliacotius, Gasparo {b. 
 1546, d. 1599), was boru at Bologna, and 
 became professor of medicine and anatomy 
 in the university there. He was renowned 
 for his skill in restoring portions of the 
 human face. 
 
 Taglioni, Maria (A. 1804, d. 1884), ballet- 
 dancer, born at Stockliolra : performed in 
 Paris 1827-32, and in 1838 appeared in 
 London. In 1832 she married Count Gilbert 
 'te Voisins. 
 
 ^d-ine, Hippolvte Adolphe (*. 1828), 
 
 French writer ; became professor at the 
 
 School of Fine Arts in Paris in 1864. He 
 
 has published a History of English Literature 
 
 bb2 
 
 (1864), The Origin of Contemporary France 
 (1875-85), etc. 
 
 Tait, Archibald Campbell {b. 1811, d. 
 188-.i), Archbishop of Canterbury, born at 
 Edinburgh, studied at the universities of 
 Glasgow and Oxford ; opposed the " Oxford 
 Movement;" was head- master of Rugby 
 1842-50, Dean of Carlisle 1850-56, and 
 Bishop of London from 1856 to 1868, when 
 he was made Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 He wrote The Dangers and Safeguards of 
 Modern Theology (1861), etc. 
 
 Tait, Patrick Macnaghten, bom in Edin- 
 burgh, has published papers on The Statistics 
 of Mortality in Lndia, and kindred subjects. 
 
 Tait, Peter Guthrie {b. 1831), man of 
 science, educated at Cambridge, became 
 professor of natural philosophy at Edin- 
 burgh in 1860. He has published works on 
 Quaternions (1866), Heat and Light (1884), a 
 Treatise on Natural Philosophy, written in 
 conjunction with Sir Wilham Thomson, and 
 other works. 
 
 Talbot, Charles, Lord {b. 1684, d. 1737), 
 son of William Talbot, Bishop of Durham, 
 was called to the bar in 1711, entered Parlia- 
 ment in 1719, became Solicitor- General in 
 1726 and Chancellor in 1733. 
 
 Talbot, Edward Stuart {h. 1844), waa 
 appointed fust warden of Keble College, 
 Oxford, in 1870, vicar of Leeds 1889. 
 
 Talbot, John, Earl of Shrewsbury (i. 
 1373, d. 1453), was the son of Richard 
 Lord Talbot, of Goodrich Castle, in Here- 
 fordshire. He distinguished himself in 
 France in the reign of Henry V. , took part 
 in the siege of Orleans (1428-29), and suc- 
 ceeded Suffolk as commander of the Enghsh 
 forces, but was taken prisoner at Fatay 
 (1429) : after his release in 1433 again fought 
 with distiuction in France ; was created Earl 
 of Shrewsbury in 1442 ; was Lord-Lieutenant 
 of Ireland 1446-47; became lieutenant of 
 the duchv of Aquitaine in 1452, and was 
 slain while attempting to relieve Chatillon. 
 
 Talbot, "William Henry Fox {h. 1800, d. 
 1877), man of science; discovered, inde- 
 pendently of Daguerre, the art of fixing 
 images formed in the camei-a Itudda. The 
 process is described in his Pencil of Nature 
 (1844). 
 
 Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon {b. 1795, d. 
 1854), man of letters ; bom at Reading, was
 
 Tal 
 
 (692) 
 
 Tan 
 
 called to the bar iu 1821, represented Read- 
 ing as a Whig 1S35-41 and 1847-49, and was 
 author of the Copyright Act of 1842 ; 
 became a judge of Common Pleas in 1849. 
 His cMef works are Ion, a tragedy (1835), 
 and Memoirs of Charles Lamb (1837-48). 
 
 Taliesin, " the Chief of the Bards," lived 
 in the sixth century. Poems attributed to 
 him may be found in the Archceology of 
 JFales by Owen Jones. 
 
 Tallaxd, Camille d'Hostun, Due de (b. 
 1652, d. 1728), marshal of France ; fought 
 under Turenne ; came to England as am- 
 bassador in 1697 ; in 1 70^' received a command 
 on the Rhine ; defeated the Prince of Hesse 
 at Laudau (1703) ; was completely defeated 
 by Marlborough at Blenheim (1704), and 
 carried a prisoner to England, where he re- 
 mained for seven years. In 1726 he was 
 made minister of state. 
 
 Talleyrand-P^rigord, Charles Maurice de. 
 Prince of Benevento {b. 1754, d. 1838), 
 French diplomatist ; educated at St. Sulpice, 
 was made agent -general for the French 
 clergy in 1780, became Bishop of Autun in 
 1788, was elected a deputy of the clergy to 
 the States -General (1789), advocated the 
 aboUtion of tithes and the transference of 
 church lands to the state, and took a leading 
 part in other measures of the National 
 Assembly ; resigned his bishopric in 1790, 
 was sent on a mission to England in 1792, 
 but was expelled in 1794 and sailed to 
 America ; returned to France in 1796, and 
 became minister of foreign affairs under the 
 Convention. This of&ce he retained under 
 Napoleon, who owed much to his skill in 
 diplomacy, but, differences arising between 
 them, Talleyrand threw in his lot with the 
 Bourbons, and acquiesced in Napoleon's 
 deposition. He was for a short time minister 
 of foreign affairs under Loiiis XVIII., and 
 represented France at the Congress of 
 Vienna, but resigned owing to the Royalist 
 reaction. From 1830 to 1835 he was French 
 minister in London. Hia Memoirs were 
 published in 1891. 
 
 TaUien, Jean Lambert (b. 1769, d. 1820), 
 French revolutionist; after conducting a 
 Jacobin journal called UAmi des Citoyens, 
 became one of the most sanguinary spirits of 
 the Convention, and was foremost in urging 
 the condemnation of Louis XVI. He af ter- 
 war'is adopted milder views, and took a 
 leading part in the overthrow of Robes- 
 pierre. In 1798 he accompanied Bonaparte 
 to Egypt, and on his return was taken 
 prisoner by the English, but was soon after- 
 wards released. 
 
 Tallis, Thomas {b. 1529, d. 1585), was 
 organist of the Chapel Royal in the reign 
 of Elizabeth. In conjunction with Wil- 
 liam Bird he published a collection of 
 
 sacred music (1575), which is highly 
 esteemed. 
 
 Talma, Franc^ois Joseph {b. 1763, d. 1826), 
 French actor ; made his debut at the Comedie 
 Frau(;aise in 1787. He confined himself to 
 tragedy in his later years. Among his finest 
 impersonations were MauguyinXes Templiers 
 (1805) and Charles IX. 
 
 Talmage, Thomas de Witt (J. 1832), a 
 popular American preacher and lecturer. 
 
 Tamberlik, Enrico (6. 1820, d. 1889), 
 Italian operatic singer, fii'st appeared at 
 Naples 1841. 
 
 Tamburini, Antonio {b. 1800, d. 1876), 
 Italian baritone ; first visited London and 
 Paris in 1832. 
 
 Tamerlane. \_See Timur.] 
 
 Tancred {b. 1078, d. 1112), a leader in the 
 first Crusade; was the son of the Marquis 
 Eudes and Emma, sister of Robert Guiscard. 
 The chronicles represent him as the personifi- 
 cation of aU knightly virtues, and he is one of 
 the heroes of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. 
 He was made Prince of GaUlee bjr Godfrey 
 de Bouillon, and succeeded his cousin, 
 Boamund, as governor of Antioch. 
 
 Tancred {d. 1194), King of SicUy, son of 
 Roger, Duke of Apulia, and grandson of 
 Roger n. ; succeeded his cousin, WilHam 
 II., in 1190. He was engaged in a struggle 
 with the Emperor Henry VI., husband of 
 Constance, daughter of Roger, who claimed 
 the throne. 
 
 Tann, Ludwig, Baron von der (J>. 1815, d. 
 1881), Bavarian general; commanded the 
 South German contingent in the Austro- 
 Prussian war (1866), and distinguished him- 
 self in the Franco -German war, defeating 
 General de Failly at Beaumont (1870). 
 
 TannaMll, Robert (*. 1774, d. 1810), Scotch 
 song-writer ; was bom at Paisley, where he 
 followed the trade of a weaver. 
 
 Tanner, Thomas (J. 1674, d. 1735), 
 antiquary : educated at Oxford, became 
 Bishop of St. Asaph in 1732. He published 
 Notitia Monastica, a description of the 
 religious houses of England and Wales 
 (1695), and IjihUotheca Britnnnico-Hibernica 
 (1748), and edited Wood's ^<Ae«(5 Oxonienses 
 (1721). 
 
 Tannhaiiser, a minnesinger of the 13th 
 century, supposed to be the original of the 
 knight in the legend. 
 
 Tansillo, Luigi {b. 1510, d. 1568), Italian 
 poet ; wrote The Tears of St. Peter, II Podere, 
 The Kurss, Egle, a pastoral drama, etc. 
 
 Tantia Topee {b. circa 1819, d. 1859), the 
 lieutenant of Nana Sahib in the Indian
 
 Tar 
 
 ( 693) 
 
 Tav 
 
 Mutiny. He kept up the struggle after his 
 master's flight, but was caught in April, 
 1859, tried, and executed. 
 
 Tarleton, Richard {d. 1589), actor, horn at 
 Condover, in Shropshire ; according to Stowe 
 became one of the queen's players in 1583. 
 He wrote a play called The Seven Deadly 
 Sms. 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus, fifth King of Rome ; 
 was born at Tarquiuii, in Etruria. He suc- 
 ceeded Ancus Martius, and is said to have 
 reigned from 615 to 577 B.C. 
 
 Taxquinius Superbus, seventh King of 
 Rome ; ascended the throne after murdering 
 his father-in-law, Servius Tullius. _ The 
 shameful conduct of his son Sextus, in the 
 outrage of Lucretia, led to the expulsion of 
 the family from Rome, about 510 B.o. 
 
 Tartini, Giuseppe (6. 1692, d. 1770), 
 musical composer, bom at Pisano, in Istria ; 
 became leader of the orchestra in the church 
 of San Antonio at Pisa in 1721. He com- 
 posed numerous concertos and sonatas, in- 
 cluding the famous DeviVs Sonata, and 
 wrote a Treatise on Harmony (1754), and 
 other works on the theory of music. 
 
 Taschereau, Most Rev. Elzear Alexandre, 
 Cardinal (6. 1820), became Archbishop of 
 Quebec in 1871. 
 
 Tasman, Abel Janssen (J. drca 1600, d. 
 after 1645), a Dutch navigator. In 1642 he 
 was sent from Batavia by Van Diemen, 
 governor of the Dutch Indies, on an explor- 
 ing expedition, in the course of which he 
 discovered Van Diemen' s Land, now called 
 Tasmania, and many islands in the Pacific. 
 
 Tasso, Bernardo (6. 1493, d. 1569), Italian 
 poet; wrote L''Amadigi (1560), founded on 
 the romance Amadis de Gaule. 
 
 Tasso, Torquato {b. 1544, d. 1595), Italian 
 poet, son of the preceding, was bom at 
 Sorrento, and studied law at the university 
 of Padua, where he published his earliest 
 poem, Rinaldo, in 1562. In 1565 he entered 
 the service of Cardinal Luigi d'Este, and 
 was invited to the coinrt of his brother, 
 Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara. Whilst there he 
 wrote his pastoral drama Aminta (1573), and 
 in 1575 finished his great epic, La Geru- 
 talemme Liberata, describing the first 
 Crusade, which was published in 1580. In 
 1577 he was imprisoned by Alfonso in a 
 convent, from which he escaped. In 1579 
 he returned to Ferrara, but was confined in 
 a madhouse, where he remained till 1586, 
 when he was released at the intercession of 
 the Duke of Mantua and other princes. In 
 1594 Clement VIII. summoned him to Rome 
 to receive a laurel crown, but he died soon 
 after his arrival. 
 
 Tate, Nahum (6. 1652, d. 1715), born 
 in DubUn, succeeded Shadwell as poet- 
 laureate ; assisted Dryden in the second part 
 of Absalom and Achitophel (1684), and was 
 joint-author with Dr. Brady of a metrical 
 version of the Psalms. 
 
 Tatian {b. circa 130), founder of the 
 Encratite sect ; was bom in Assyria. After 
 reading the Bible he was converted to 
 Christianity, and repaired to Rome, where 
 he became the disciple of Justin Martyr. 
 He subsequently adopted Gnostic views, and 
 returned to Asia, where he founded hia 
 school. His Address to the Greeks is an 
 apology for Christianity. 
 
 Tauchnitz, Karl Christoph {b. 1761, d. 
 1836), a printer and publisher of Leipzig, 
 famous for his editions of classical authors. 
 His nephew. Baron Beenhaed Tauchnitz 
 (jb. 1816, d. 1884), began in 1841 his well- 
 known series of British Authors. 
 
 Tauler, Johann {b. 1290, d. 1361), German 
 mystic, bom at Strasburg; entered the 
 Dominican order, studied at Paris under 
 Eckhart, and afterwards fell under the 
 influence of Nicholas of Basel. His ser- 
 mons, in which he denounced the vices and 
 abuses of the age, are amongst the earliest 
 compositions in the German tongue. 
 
 Taunton, Henry Labouchere, Lord {b. 
 1798, d. 1869), represented Taunton 1830- 
 69 ; was President of the Board of Trade in 
 1846 and 1855; became Secretary for the 
 Colonies in 1858 ; was raised to the peerage 
 in 1859. 
 
 Tausen, or Tagesen, Johan (S. 1494, d. 
 1561), the founder of Danish Protestantism; 
 was born in FUnen. Whilst a student in 
 Germany he came under the influence of 
 Luther, and after his return to Denmark 
 (1521) preached the doctrines of the Re- 
 formation. He was patronised by Frederick 
 I., who made him his chaplain (1526). 
 After Frederick's death he was subjected 
 to some persecution, but in 1542 he became 
 Bishop of Ripen. 
 
 Tavannes, Gaspard de Saulx de (6. 1509, 
 d. 1573), marshal of France ; was an active 
 opponent of the reformed doctrines. He 
 suppressed several Protestant risings, took 
 a prominent part in the battles of Jamac 
 and MontcontouT (1569), and is believed to 
 have instigated the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew. 
 
 Tavemier, Jean Baptiste, Baron d'Au- 
 bonne {b. 1605, d. 1689) traveller, born in 
 Paris, son of a designer of maps, of Dutch 
 origin ; several times visited Turkey, Persia, 
 and the East Indies, and amassed great 
 wealth as a trader in jewels ; was ennobled 
 by Louis XIV. (1669) ; in 1687 was made
 
 Tay 
 
 (694) 
 
 Tay 
 
 director of the East India Company estab- 
 lished by the Elector of Braudeuburg, but 
 died at Moscow whilst joui-neying to the 
 East. 
 
 Taylor, General Sir Alexander {b. 1826), 
 secured the capture of Delhi (1857) by his 
 skill as commander of the engineers. 
 
 Taylor, Alfred Swayne (b. 1806, d. 1880), 
 professor of medical jurisprudence and 
 chemistry at Guy's Hospital ; published a 
 Mamtal of Medical Jurisprudence (1844), etc. 
 
 Taylor, Bayard (i. 1825, d. 1878), American 
 man of letters ; published several works of 
 travel, poems, stories of American life, and 
 a translation of Goethe's Faust (1870-71). 
 In lS75i he was appointed United States 
 minister at Berhn, where he died. 
 
 Taylor, Brook {b. 1685, d. 1731), mathe- 
 matician, educated at Cambridge ; was sec- 
 retary of the Eoyal Society 1714-18. He 
 published several mathematical works, and 
 was the inventor of *' Taylor's theorem." 
 
 Taylor, Charles (S. 1840), became master 
 of St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1881. 
 He has published works on mathematical 
 subjects and on Hebrew literature. 
 
 Taylor, Sir Henry (*, 1800, d. 1886), man 
 of letters ; became in 1824 a clerk in the 
 Colonial OfB.ce, from which he retired in 
 1872. His chief works are his dramas, 
 Fhilip van Artevelde (1834), Isaac Oomtienus 
 (1827), and Edivin the Fair (1842). His 
 Autobiography appeared in 1885. 
 
 Taylor, Isaac {b. 1787, d. 1865), man of 
 letters and mechanician ; belonged to a 
 celebrated literary family. His father was 
 a Nonconformist minister at Ongar. His 
 best-known works are The Natural History 
 of Enthusiasm (1829) and Spiritual Despotism 
 (1835). 
 
 Taylor, Isaac (Jb. 1829), son of the pre- 
 ceding; has published JFords and Flaces 
 (1864), Greeks and Goths: a Sttidy of the 
 Runes (1879), The Alphabet (1883), etc. 
 
 Taylor, Isidore Justin Severin, Baron (3. 
 1789, d. 1879), French traveller and author, 
 of English descent; was appointed royal 
 commissary of the Theatre Franqais in 1825. 
 In 1843 he founded the Association des 
 Artistes Musiciens. He pubUshed Voyages 
 Pittoresques et £omantiques (1820-63), etc. 
 
 Taylor, Jane (b. 1783, d. 1824), sister of 
 Isaac Taylor ; was authoress, with her sister 
 Ants', of Hymns for Infant Minds. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy (b. 1613, d. 1667), divine, 
 born at Cambridge ; after studying in the 
 university of that town, attracted the atten- 
 tion of Archbishop Laud, who presented 
 him to a fellowship at Oxford (1636). He 
 
 soon afterwards became chaplain to Charles 
 I., was rector of Uppingham 1638-42, and 
 accompanied the king to Oxford. About 
 1645 he withdrew into Wales, where he kept 
 a school at Newton, in Caermarthenshire, 
 and afterwards found a shelter in the house 
 of the Earl of Carbery. He removed to 
 Ireland in 1657, and after the Restoration 
 was made Bishop of Down and Connor. 
 His chief works are Hides and Exercises of 
 Holy Living and Dying (1650-1), the Liberty 
 of Fruphesying (1647), Doctor Dubitantium 
 (1660), and his Sermons. 
 
 Taylor, John {b. circa 1580, d. 1654), the 
 " Water Poet," bom at Gloucester; served 
 ia the expedition of Essex to Cadiz (1596) ; 
 afterwards became a waterman on the 
 Thames. He was an ardent Eoyalist. 
 
 Taylor, John {b. 1694, d. 1761), Unitarian 
 divine ; was minister of a congregation at 
 Norwich 1733-57. His chief work was a 
 Hebrew- English Concordance. 
 
 Taylor, Colonel Philip Meadows {b. 1808, 
 d. 1876), was for many years in the service 
 of the Nizam of the Deccan. He published 
 The Confessions of a Thug (1839), and other 
 tales of Indian life. 
 
 Taylor, General Reynell George {b. 1822, 
 d. 1886), distinguished himself in the Pun- 
 jaub campaign of 1848-9. 
 
 Taylor, General Sir Richard Chambre 
 Hayes (Jb. 1819), served with distinction in 
 the Crimean war and the Indian Mutiny. 
 
 Taylor, Rowland {d. 1555), a learned di- 
 vine ; was chaplain to Cranmer, who pre- 
 sented him to the rectory of Hadleigh, in 
 Suffolk. After two trials before Gardiner, 
 he was burnt at the stake near Hadleigh. 
 
 Taylor, Thomas (o. 1758, d. 1835), the 
 " Platoiiist " ; published translations of 
 Plato (1804) and Aristotle (1812). 
 
 Ta,ylor, Tom (fi. 1817, d. 1880), educated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he be- 
 came fellow ; wrote the Ticket-of-Leave Man 
 (1873) and other plays, and edited Funch 
 1874-80. 
 
 Taylor, William {b. 1765, d. 1836), man of 
 letters ; was the son of a merchant at Nor- 
 wich. He published translations of Biirger's 
 Lenore and Lessing's Nathan der Weise, and 
 wrote a Survey of German Foetry. 
 
 Taylor, William Mackergo {b. 1829), 
 American preacher, bom in Scotland ; be- 
 came pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle, 
 New York, in 1872. 
 
 Taylor, Zachary (J. 1784,<f. 1850), American 
 general; distinguished himself iu the war 
 with Mexico (1846-7); was in 1850 elected 
 president of the United States, but died four 
 months after his inauguration.
 
 Teh 
 
 ( 695 ) 
 
 Tern 
 
 Tchemaieff, Michael Gregorovitch (5. 
 1828), Eussian general ; was sent against 
 Khokand in 1863, and took Tashkend (1865) ; 
 commanded the Servian forces in the war 
 with Turkey (1876), and proclaimed Milan 
 king; became governor of Tashkend in 
 1882. 
 
 Teale, Thomas Pridgin (Jb. 1831), was 
 president of the Public Health section of 
 the British Medical Association at Liverpool, 
 1883. He has published Bangers to Health 
 (1879), etc. 
 
 Teck, H.S.H. Francis Paul Charles Louis 
 Alexander, Prince of (b. 1837), only son of 
 Duke Alexander of Wiirtemberg, married in 
 1866 H.R.H. the Princess Mary Adelaide, 
 daughter of H.R.H. the Duke of Cambridge. 
 
 Tegetlioff, Wilhelm, Baron von (*. 1827, 
 d. 1871), Austrian admiral; commanded the 
 Austrian squadron in the Danish war of 
 1864, and gained a victory off Hehgoland ; 
 in 1866 defeated the Italians under Persano 
 at Lissa ; became commander-in-chief of 
 the Austrian navy in 1868. 
 
 Tegetmeier, William {b. 1816), omitholo- 
 ^t, has published The Poultry Book, 
 pigeons, etc., and assisted Darwin in The 
 Variation of Animals and Plants under 
 Domestication. 
 
 Teener, Esaias (*. 1782, d. 1846), Swedish 
 poet ; became professor of Greek in the 
 university of Lund in 1812, and Bishop of 
 Wexio in 1824. Among his poems are 
 Frithjofs Saga (1820-5), Axel, a romance 
 (1821), and The Children of the Lord's 
 Supper, an idyll, translated by Longfellow. 
 
 Teignmouth, John Shore, Lord {b. 1751, 
 d. 1834) , bom in Devonshire ; went to Bengal 
 as a cadet in 1769, became a member of the 
 Supreme Council of Calcutta in 1786, and 
 was Governor-General from 1793 to 1797, 
 when he was created a peer. He was first 
 president of the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society. 
 
 Teissier, Antoine (J. 1632, d. 1715), French 
 writer : left France on the revocation of the 
 Edict of Xantes, and became historiographer 
 to the Elector of Brandenburg. 
 
 Tekeli, Emeric, Count de {b. 1658, d. 1705), 
 Hungarian patriot ; commanded his coun- 
 trymen in their struggle against the nile of 
 Austria. After many successes, lie was 
 forced in 1697 to retire to Turkey, where he 
 died. 
 
 Telesio, Bernardino (*. 1509, d. 1588), 
 Italian patriot, bom at Cosenza, studied at 
 Milan, Rome, and Padua ; attacked tlie 
 method of the schoolmen, and in 1565 pub- 
 lislied his Be Eeii/m Katurd, in wliich he 
 maintains the necessity of basing philosophy 
 
 on the study of nature. He established a 
 school at Naples. 
 
 Telford, Thomas {b. 1757, d. 1834), en- 
 gineer, bom in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, of 
 peasant parents, removed to Edinburgh in 
 1780, and to London in 1783 ; in 1787 be- 
 came county surveyor of Shropshire. Among 
 his chief works are the Ellesmere Canal 
 (1795-1805), the Caledonian Canal (opened 
 in 1823), the road from London to Holy- 
 head (completed in 1815), the Menai Sus- 
 pension Bridge (1819-26), and the St. 
 Katherine's Docks in London (1828). 
 
 Tell, William («?. circa 1350), Swiss patriot, 
 is reputed to have been the means of saving 
 his country from the Austiian yoke. The 
 story of his shooting an apple on his son's 
 head and even his very existence are now 
 considered mythical. 
 
 Tellez, Gabriele, or Tirso de Molina (b. 
 
 1585, d. 1648), Spanish dramatist, became a 
 monk in 1620. He wrote interludes, autos 
 sacramentales, and over three hundred come- 
 dies. 
 
 Temanza, Tommaso {b. 1705, d. 1789), 
 Italian architect; built the church of La 
 Santa Maddalena in Venice, and wrote 
 Lives of the most Celebrated Venetian Archi- 
 tects and Painters (1777). 
 
 Tempelliof, Georg Friedrich (3. 1737, d. 
 1807), German soldier ; commanded the 
 Prussian artillery during the early part of 
 the revolutionary war with France, and 
 afterwards became military tutor to the 
 brothers of Frederick William III. He 
 wrote The Prussian BoDibardier (1781), a 
 History of the Seven Tears' JFar (1783), etc. 
 
 Tempesta, Antonio (*. 1555, d. 1630), 
 artist, bom at Florence, studied under Stra- 
 danus. He is famous for his battle-pieces. 
 
 Temple, Frederick (b. 1821), became head- 
 master of P.ugby in 1858 ; was appointed 
 Bishop of Exeter in 18d3, and of London in 
 1885. He is the author of the paper On the 
 Education of the World in Essays and JRe- 
 views (1860), etc. 
 
 Temple, Sir John {d. 1677), Master of the 
 Rolls in Ireland in the reign of Charles II. ; 
 wrote a Hiftori/ of the Irish Rebellion of 
 1641, published in 1646. 
 
 Temple, Sir Richard, Baronet (b. 1828), 
 entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1846 ; 
 was Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal 1874-7, 
 and Governor of Bombay 1877-80 ; has been 
 president of the Social Science Congress, 
 and was elected vice-chairman of the 
 London School Board in 1885. He has pub- 
 lished Men and Events of my Time in India 
 (1882), etc. 
 
 Temple, Sir William (d. 1628, d. 1699),
 
 Ten 
 
 (696) 
 
 Ter 
 
 son of Sir John Temple, was bom in Lon- 
 don ; after studying at Cambridge, travelled 
 in France, Holland, and Germany ; on his 
 return (1654) joined his father ia Ireland, 
 and sat in the Irish ParUament of 1661 ; 
 ■was in 1665 sent on a secret mission to the 
 Bishop of Munster ; negotiated the Triple 
 Alliance (166S), and was soon afterwards 
 appointed ambassador to the States-General, 
 but was recalled in 1669 ; was again sent to 
 the Netherlands in 1674, and took a leading 
 part in the negotiations which led to the 
 treaty of Nimeguen (167S) ; finally returned 
 to England in 1679, and in 1686 settled at 
 Moor Park in Surrey, where he died. He 
 wrote Observations on the United Frovinces, 
 two volumes of Miscellanies, and Memoirs. 
 
 Tenerani, Pietro (J. 1800, d. 1869), Italian 
 sculptor, bom near Carrara, was a pupU 
 and friend of Thorwaldsen. He became 
 professor in the Academy of St. Luke at 
 Rome. 
 
 Teniers, David, "the Elder " (5. 1582, d. 
 1649), Flemish painter, bom at Antwerp; 
 studied vmder Rubens, and afterwards in 
 Italy, where he remained ten years. His 
 pictures for the most part represent village 
 festivals, groups in taverns, and similar 
 scenes. 
 
 Teniers, David, "the Younger" (b. 1610, d. 
 1685), son and pupil of the preceding, chose 
 the same class of subjects as his father, 
 whom he is generally considered to have 
 excelled. 
 
 Tenison, Thomas {b. 1636, d. 1715), bom 
 at Cottenham in Cambridgeshire, educated 
 at Cambridge ; in 1680 became vicar of St. 
 Martin's-in-the-Fields, where he endowed a 
 free school ; supported the Protestant cause 
 during the reign of James II. ; was ap- 
 pointed Archdeacon of London in 1689, 
 Bishop of Lincoln in 1691, and Archbishop 
 of Canterbury in 1694. 
 
 Tennant, William {b. 1785, d. 1846), poet 
 and Orientalist, bom in Fif eshire ; became 
 professor of Oriental languages at St. 
 Andrews in 1835. His chief work was the 
 humorous poem Anster Fair (1812). 
 
 Tennemann, WUhehn Gottlieb {b. 1761, d. 
 1819), German philosopher, studied at the 
 universities of Erfurt and Jena, and became 
 professor in that of Marburg in 1804. He 
 published a History of Fhtlosophy (1798- 
 1811) and other works. 
 
 Tennent, Sir James Emerson {b. 1804, d. 
 1869), bom at Belfast, for many years re- 
 presented his native town in Parliament, 
 and was secretary' to the Board of Trade 
 1852-67. He published Ceylon 1859), and 
 other books of travel. 
 
 Teimiel, John {b. 1820), artist; began to 
 
 contribute to Fimch in 1851, and, after the 
 death of Leech in 1864, was recognised as 
 ■unrivalled as a designer of political cartoons. 
 
 Tennyson, Alfred, Lord [b. \^m. d. 1892), 
 was the son of the Rev. George Tennyson, 
 rector of Somersby iu Lincolnshire, where 
 he was bom. He was educated at Louth 
 grammar school, and in 1827 published 
 Foems by Tivo Brothers, partly the work of 
 his brother Charles. In 1828 he matricu- 
 lated at Cambridge, where he gained the 
 Chancellor's medal (1829). Foems : Chiefly 
 Lyrical (1830) was followed in 1833 by a 
 volume containing The Falace of Art, (Enone, 
 and other of his best kno^wn pieces. The 
 Gardener''s Daughter, Locksley Hall, and 
 other poems were added in 1842, and in 1847 
 appeared The Frincess, a Medley, in blank 
 verse. In 3[emoriam, a tribute to the memory 
 of Arthur Hallam, was published in 1850. In 
 the same year Tennyson succeeded Words- 
 worth as poet-laureate. Among his subse- 
 quent poems were Maud (1855), The Idi/lls of 
 the King (1859), Enoch Arden (1864), Becket, 
 a drama (1SS4), and Demeter (1889), The 
 Foresters, etc. In 1884 he was created a peer. 
 
 Tenterden, Charles Abbot, Lord (J, 1762, 
 d. 1832), lawyer, became in 1816 a puisne 
 judge of the Common Pleas; during the 
 same year was transferred to the King's 
 Bench ; was made Lord Chief Justice in 
 1818, and raised to the peerage in 1827. In 
 1802 he published the Law of Merchant 
 Ships and Seamen. 
 
 Terburg, Gerhard (b. 1608, d. 1681), Dutch 
 painter, born at Zwoll, became burgomaster 
 of Deventer, where he died. 
 
 Terby, Franqois Joseph Charles, a Belgian 
 astronomer and meteorologist. 
 
 Terence [Publius Terentius Afer] {b. 195, 
 d. 159 B.C.), Roman comic poet, is said to 
 have been the slave of a Roman senator, who 
 
 f ranted him his liberty. Among his come- 
 ies, which are imitations of those of the 
 Greek dramatist Menander, are Andria, 
 Heauton Tifnoronmenos, and Fhormio. 
 
 Terpander, a Greek lyric poet of the 7th. 
 century B.C., born iu the island of Lesbos, 
 added "three strings to the lyre, which had 
 pre^viously only four. 
 
 Terray, Joseph Marie. Abbe {b. 1715, d. 
 1778), became controller-general of the 
 finances under Louis XV. in 1769. After 
 half ruininc the country by his reckless and 
 unjust taxation, he was dismissed by Louis 
 XVI. in 1774. 
 
 Terry, Edward O'Connor (h. 1844), come- 
 dian, is proprietor of the Terry theatre in 
 the Strand, erected in 1887. 
 
 Terry, Ellen {b. 1848), actress, made he*
 
 Ter 
 
 (697) 
 
 The 
 
 first appearance at the Princess' theatre in 
 1856. In 1878 she joined the Lyceum com- 
 pany, and was subsequently associated with 
 the chief productions iinder Mr. Irving's 
 management. Among the parts she has 
 played are Ophelia, Camma in Tennyson's 
 Cup, Desdemona, Juliet, Beatrice, and Queen 
 Katharine of Aragon. 
 
 Tertullianus, Quintus Septimius Florens 
 (h. circa 150, d. circa 230), the earliest of the 
 Latin fathers, was bom at Carthage, where 
 he is said to have practised as an advocate, 
 prior to his conversion to Christianity, the 
 date of which is unknown. He was subse- 
 quently ordained presbyter. Late in life he 
 became a Montanist. Among his chief 
 works are Liber Apologeticus, Ad Martyres, 
 and l)e Corona Militu. 
 
 Tetzel, or Tezel, Johann {b. circa 1470, d. 
 1519), a Dominican monk; was named by 
 Pope Leo X. commissary apostolic in 
 Germany. After carrying on a trafiic in 
 indulgences for many years, he was attacked 
 by Luther, who in 1517 issued his Decla- 
 ration against Indulgences at Wittem- 
 berg. 
 
 Teuffel, Wilhehn Sigismund (J. 1820, d. 
 1872), was appointed professor of classical 
 philology at Tubingen in 1857. His chief 
 work is a History of Bmnan Literature 
 (1870). 
 
 Tewfik, Khedive of Egypt (Jb. 1852, d. 
 1892), was made ruler by the representatives 
 of England and France in 1879. His reign 
 was marked by the rebellion of Arabi 
 (1882-83), and the insurrection of the 
 "Mahdi." 
 
 Thackeray, "William Makepeace (b. 1811, 
 d. 1863), novelist, bom in Calcutta: was 
 educated at the Charterhouse and Cam- 
 bridge ; studied art at Paris, but do+nrmined 
 to devote himself to literature, and in 1837 
 became connected with Fraser^s Magazine, 
 to which he contributed the Great Hoggarty 
 Diamond. In 1840 he published the Faris 
 SJcetch-Book, and in 1842 began to write for 
 Fnnch, in which appeared his Book of Snobs. 
 His first great novel. Vanity Fair (1846-48), 
 was followed by Fendennis (1850), Esmond 
 (1852), The JS'cwcomes (1854), and others. 
 He delivered a series of lectures in England 
 and America on the English Humourists of 
 the Eighteenth Century (1851), and TJie Four 
 Georges (1852-56), and edited the Cornhill 
 Magazine (1859-63). 
 
 Thalberg, Sigismund {b. 1812, d. 1871), 
 musician, studied under Hummel at Vienna, 
 Pixis in Paris, and Moscheles in London ; 
 devoted himself to the pianoforte, and 
 acquired fame in Ms tours through Belgium, 
 Holland. England, Russia, Brazil, and the 
 United States. 
 
 Thales {b. circa 636, d. circa 546 B.C.), 
 Greek philosopher, bom at Miletus, one of 
 the seven sages, was the founder of the 
 Ionian school. He taught that all things 
 have their origin in water. 
 
 Theebaw, ex-King of Ava (i. 1858), suc- 
 ceeded his father in 1878. Owing to his 
 misrule and hostile attitude towards the 
 English, war was declared against him by 
 the latter in 1885, resulting in his deposition 
 and the annexation of Upper Burmah. 
 
 Thelusson. Peter {d. 1797), a London 
 merchant, celebrated as having left the bulk 
 of his wealth to accumulate for the benefit 
 of his descendants. An Act was in con- 
 sequence passed (40 George III., c. 98) which 
 made such bequests illegal. 
 
 Thelwall, John (*. 1764, d. 1834), political 
 agitator and miscellaneous writer, was tried 
 for treason together with Hardy and Home 
 Tooke, but acquitted (1794). He afterwards 
 became a teacher of elocution, 
 
 ThemistiuB, a Greek philosopher and 
 orator of the 4th centtuy, taught for many 
 years at Constantinople. Some of his orations 
 are extant. 
 
 Themistocles (b. circa 514, d. 449 B.C.), 
 Athenian general, defeated the fleet of 
 Xerxes in the battles of Artemisitmi and 
 Salamis (481 B.C.). He was banished in 471, 
 and in 465 retired to the court of Artaxerxes, 
 King of Persia. He is said to have poisoned 
 himself. 
 
 Thenard, Louis Jacques {b. 1777, d. 1857), 
 French chemist, was professor at the College 
 de France 1810-40. His chief work was 
 Traite de Chimie Elementaire (1813-17). 
 
 Theobald, Le-w-is (b. circa 1692. d. 1744), 
 dramatist and critic, was bom at Sitting- 
 bourne in Kent. He incurred Pope's 
 enmity by attacking his edition of Shake- 
 speare, and was the original hero of the 
 Bunciad (1728). His own edition of Shake- 
 speare was published in 1733. 
 
 Theocritus, a pastoral poet of the earlier 
 half of the 3rd century B.C., was born at 
 SjTacuse. He spent much of his life at the 
 court of Ptolemy Philadelphus at Alexandria, 
 but afterwards returned to SjTacuse. He 
 wrote Idyls in the later Doric dialect. 
 
 Theodora (rf. 548), Empress of the East, 
 originally an actress ; became the mistress of 
 the Emperor Justinian, who married her in 
 525. She was notorious for her sensuality 
 as well as for the part she played in court 
 intrigues. 
 
 Theodore {d. 690), a monk of Tarsus, was 
 sent to Enjrland as Archbishop of Canterbury 
 by Pope Vitalian in 668.
 
 The 
 
 ( G08 
 
 Thi 
 
 Tlieodore, King of Abyssinia (6. circa 1818, 
 d. 186S), was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia 
 in ISoo. lu consequence of his imprison- 
 ment of the English consul, Captain 
 Cameron (1S64), an expedition was sent 
 a-^aiust him, commanded by Sir Robert 
 Napier, afterwaAls Lord Napier of Magdala 
 (1867) . Theodore was deserted by his army 
 and died by his own hand. 
 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia {d. 429), Greek 
 ecclesiastical writer ; became Bishop of 
 Mopsuestia in Cilicia in 39i. Nestorius was 
 Ids disciple. His writings were condemned 
 in the Council of Constantinople (553). 
 
 Theodoret (b. circa 336, d. 457), Greek 
 father, bom at Antioch ; became Bishop 
 of Cyrus, in Syria, in 420 ; defended Nes- 
 torius against the attacks of Cyril of Alex- 
 andiia, whom he opposed in the Council 
 of Ephesus (431), but afterwards took part 
 in the excommunication of Nestorius in the 
 Council of Chalcedon (451). He wi-ote 
 Commentaries on the Bible, an Ecclesiastical 
 Eistory (323-428), etc. 
 
 Theodoric, " the Great " {d. 526), 
 originally chieftain of a tribe of Ostro- 
 goths ; was educated at Constantinople ; 
 after overthrowing Odoacer (493) established 
 the Ostrogoth kingdom in Italy, which he 
 sought to consolidate by effecting a imion of 
 Goths and Italians. He fixed his capital at 
 Ravenna, where he erected many beautiful 
 buildings. His Edictum was a body of law 
 for Romans and barbarians alike. 
 
 Theodoric I., King of the Visigoths (d. 
 451), ascended the throne in 419. In con- 
 junction with the Roman general Aetius, he 
 defeated Attda in the battle of Chalons 
 
 (451). 
 
 Theodoric I., King of the West Franks 
 (h. circa 4S5, d. 534), was son of Clovis. On 
 his father's death the kingdom was divided, 
 Theodoric receiving Austrasia as his share. 
 
 Theodosius L, "the Great," Emperor of 
 Rome {b. 346, d. 395), was brought up as a 
 soldier by his father, a distuiguished general. 
 In S79 the Emperor Gratiau made him 
 ruler over the eastern part of the empire. 
 After defeating the Goths (386) he in 388 
 restored to his throne Valeutinian, the 
 brother and successor of Gratian. who had 
 been expelled from Italy by Maximus. In 
 392 Eugeiiius succeeded Valentinian, but 
 was defeated in 394 by Theodosius, who 
 thus became sole ruler over the Roman 
 world. 
 
 Theodosius II. {h. 401, d. 450), son of 
 Arcailius, and grandson of Theodosius the 
 Great ; succeeded his father in 403. During 
 his reign was compiled the collection of laws 
 called Codex Theodosianus. 
 
 Tlieognis, a Greek elegiac poet of the 
 6th century B.O. He was driven from 
 Megara, his native city, by the democratic 
 party, and retired to Thebes. 
 
 Theon of Alexandria, a mathematician 
 of the latter part of the 4th century. He 
 was the father of Hypatia. 
 
 Theopliilus {d. 412), became Patriarch 
 of Alexandria in 385. In the Anthropo- 
 morphic controversy he bitterly opposed 
 Origen, and afterwards extended his enmity 
 to Chrysostom, who sheltered some of 
 Origen's party at Constantmople. 
 
 Theophrastus {b. circa 390, d. circa 237 
 B.C.), Greek philosopher ; bom in Lesbos, 
 studied in Athens under Plato and Aristotle, 
 whom he succeeded as head of the Lyceum 
 (322). His chief work is his Characters, 
 depicting various types of human nature. 
 
 Theresa, Saint (b. 1515, d. 1582), Spanish 
 mystic, bom at Avila, in Old Castile ; en- 
 tered a Carmelite convent in her native 
 tovra (1534), into which she introduced a 
 stricter rule. In 1562 she established a new 
 convent at Avila, and subsequently extended 
 her reforms throughout the whole order. 
 
 Thespis {circa 535), a native of Mount 
 Icaria in Attica ; introduced an actor, who 
 conversed with the chorus at the Dionysiac 
 festivals. This was the first step in the 
 development of Greek tragedy. 
 
 Thevenot, Melchisedec (J). 1621, d. 1692), 
 French geographer ; became royal librarian 
 in 1684. He published Relations de Divers 
 Voyages (1663-72), etc. His nephew, Jean 
 Thevbnot (J>. 1633, d. 1667), travelled m 
 Persia, India, and other countries, and wrote 
 descriptions of his journeys. 
 
 Thibaudin, Jean (*. 1822), French 
 general ; served in the Franco -German 
 war, and was minister of war 1883-85. 
 
 Thibaut, Antoine Frederic Juste {b. 1744, 
 d. 1840), jurist, bom in Hanover; became 
 professor at Heidelberg in 1805. He pub- 
 lished System des Faiidektenrechts (1803), 
 etc. 
 
 Thierry, Jacques Nicholas Augustin (6. 
 1795, d. 1856), French historian, bom at 
 Blois ; became the disciple and secretary of 
 St. Simon in 1814, but left him in 1817 :m 
 1825 published his principal work, The His- 
 tory of the Conquest of England by the 
 Normans. He lost his sight at the age of 
 thirty-one. His brother, Am^d^e SraON 
 DoMiNiatTE Thieeet {b. 1797, (^.18731, 
 published a History of Gaul under the 
 Roman Administration (1840-2), and othar 
 works. 
 
 Thiers, Louis Adolphe {b. 1797. d. I877)t
 
 Thi 
 
 (699) 
 
 Tho 
 
 French statesman, 1)0111 at Marseilles, 
 studied law at Aix; in 1821 removed to 
 Paris, where he became a journalist ; was 
 engaged on his Histoire de la Revolution 
 Frangaise 1823-37 ; in 1830 started the 
 National, and did much towards raising 
 Louis Philippe to the throne ; was minister 
 of commerce and pubhc works 1832-4 ; in 
 1836 formed a ministry in which he was 
 president of the council and minister of 
 foreign aiiairs, and was again premier in 
 1S40. Alter his overthrow in October he 
 devoted himself to his Histoire du Gonm- 
 lat et de V Empire, the last volume of 
 which appeared in 1862. He returned to 
 the Chamber in 1863, opposed the Franco- 
 Prussian war, was declared chief of the 
 executive power in February, 1871, and be- 
 came president of the repubUc in the fol- 
 lowing August. He resigned in May, 1874. 
 
 TMrlwall, Connop ifi. 1797, d. 1875), his- 
 torian and theologian, educated at the 
 Charterhouse and Cambridge ; was or- 
 damed in 1828 ; took part with Julius 
 Hare in translating Niebuhr's History of 
 Rome; in 1834 became rector of Kirby 
 Underdale in Yorkshire, where he wrote 
 most of his History of Greece (1835-47). In 
 1840 he was appointed Bishop of St. David's, 
 
 TMstlewood, Arthur, {b. 1772, d. 1820), 
 was the leader in the Cato Street conspiracy, 
 the aim of which was to assassinate the 
 ministers and establish a provisional govern- 
 ment. He was executed. 
 
 Thistlewood-Dyer, William Turner (3. 
 IS 13), became director of the Royal Gardens, 
 Kew, in 1885. He has published Flora of 
 Middlesex (1869), etc, 
 
 Tholuck, Friedrich August Gottreu {b. 
 179y. d. 1877), German theologian, born at 
 Breslau ; became professor of theology at 
 Halle in 1826. He wrote many works com- 
 bating the scepticism of the time. 
 
 Thomas, Annie [Mrs. Pender Cudhp] {b. 
 1838), a popular novelist. 
 
 Thomas, Arthur Goring {b. 1851, d. 
 1892), musician, studied at Paris ; has com- 
 posed The Sun- Worshippers, a cantata 
 (ISSl), Esmeralda, an opera, produced at 
 Covent Garden (1883), etc. 
 
 Thomas, Charles Louis Ambroise {b. 
 1811), composer, bom at Metz ; became 
 director of the Paris Conservatoire of Music 
 in 1871. His masterpieces are Mignon 
 (1866) and Hamlet (1868). 
 
 Thomas, George Housman (jb. 1824, d. 
 1S6S), painter and wood-engraver ; excelled 
 as a designer of book illustrations. He was 
 for many years on the staff of the Ilhistrnted 
 London JS'eifs. His brother, William 
 LusoN ThosiaB (i. 1830), an eminent 
 
 painter in water - colours, started the 
 Graphic in 1869 and the Daily Graphic in 
 1890. 
 
 Thomas, Theodore {b. 1835), musician, 
 bom in Hanover ; went to the United 
 States in 1845 ; has organised musical festi- 
 vals and concerts in many American towns, 
 and has done much to raise the public 
 taste. 
 
 Thomasius, Christian (b. 1655, d. 1728), 
 Gennan philosopher, born at Leipzig ; be- 
 came a professor in that town, but owing to 
 his freedom of thought was compelled to re- 
 move to Berlin, where he was patronised by 
 the Elector of Braudenburg. He became pro- 
 fessor of jurisprudence in the university of 
 Halle on its foundation in 1694. 
 
 Thompson, Edmund SjTnes, M.D. (b. 
 1837), has published essays on Sciatica, 
 Mediastinal Growths, etc. 
 
 Thompson, Edward Maunde (b. 1840), 
 born in Jamaica ; became principal librarian 
 and secretary of the British Museum in 
 1888. He has edited Eobert of Avesbury's 
 Chronicle for the Rolls Series (1889), and 
 other works. 
 
 Thompson, Sir Henry {b. 1820), bom at 
 FramUngham, Suffolk ; became professor of 
 clinical surgery at University College Hos- 
 pital in 1866. He has published Practical 
 Eithotomy and Lithoirity (1863), etc. 
 
 Thompson, Silvanus PhiUips (*. 1851), 
 became principal of the City and Guilds 
 Technical College, Finsbury, in 1885. He 
 has written works on electricity, and made 
 discoveries in that and kindi-ed subjects. 
 
 Thompson, Lieutenant- General Thomas 
 Perronet {b. 1783, d. 1869), was an early 
 advocate of free trade, and published A 
 Corn-Laiv Catechism in 1827. 
 
 Thompson, William Hepworth (b. 1810, 
 d. 1886), became Regius professor of 
 Greek at Cambridge in 1853, and succeeded 
 Whewell as master of Trinity in 1866. 
 
 Thorns, William John {b. 1803, d. 1885), 
 archa;ol' gist ; was secretary to the Camden 
 Society 1S38-73, and deputy-librarian in the 
 House of Lords 1845-82. He originated 
 Notes and Queries, which he edited 1849-73. 
 
 Thomson, Allen {b. 1809, d. 1884), became 
 professor of anatomy at Glasgow University 
 in 1848. He made important investigations 
 in coimection with embryology. 
 
 Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville {b. 1830, d. 
 1882), was professor of natural history in 
 Edinburgh University 1870-81. He was the 
 scientific chief of the Challenger expedition 
 in 1872.
 
 Tho 
 
 ( 700 ) 
 
 Tho 
 
 Thomson, James (b. 1700, d. 1748), poet, 
 born at Ednam in Roxburghshire ; was 
 educated at Jedburgh and Edinburgh Uni- 
 versity ; came to London in 1725, and there 
 published his Winter (17-i3), Summer (1727), 
 Spring (1728), and Atitionn (1730). About 
 this time he accompanied the son of Lord 
 Chancellor Talbot on a Continental tour. 
 He was afterwards introduced by Lord 
 Lyttelton to Frederick, Prince of Wales, 
 who granted him a pension. In 1746 he 
 was made surveyor-general of the Leeward 
 Islands. Besides the Seasons, he published 
 Liberty (1735-6), The Castle of Indolence, 
 an allegorical poem (1716), several di-amas, 
 and some lyi-ics, of which RuU Britannia 
 is the most famous. 
 
 Thomson, James {b. 1834, d. 1882), 
 poet, born at Port Glasgow ; was brought 
 up at the Caledonian Orphan Asylum, and 
 became a schoolmaster in the army. From 
 1860 to 1875 he contributed to the National 
 Jiefonner, in which was published his City 
 of Lreadful Night (1874). 
 
 Thomson, Joseph (b. 1858), African ex- 
 plorer ; has travelled through Masai Land 
 (1884), and in Morocco (ISSS). He has 
 published accounts of his journeys. 
 
 Thomson, Joseph John (b. 1856), became 
 professor of experimental physics at Cam- 
 bridge in 1884. 
 
 Thomson, William (b. 1819, d. 1890), was 
 educated at Shrewsbmy and Oxford ; be- 
 came provost of Queen's College, Oxford, in 
 1855, Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol in 
 .1861, and Archbishop of York in 1862. He 
 published An Uidl'me of the Necessary Laws 
 of Thought {\M^), etc. 
 
 Thomson, Sir William (J. 1824), bom in 
 Belfast, was educated at Glasgow and 
 Cambridge ; became professor of natural 
 philosophy at Glasgow in 1846. From 1846 
 to 1851 he edited the Cambridge and Dublin 
 Mathematical Journal, to which he contri- 
 buted several important papers. Some of 
 his chief discoveries are announced in the 
 Secular Coating of the Earth (1852), and 
 the Bakeriau lecture, the Electrodynamics of 
 Qualities of M'jtals (1855). He has invented 
 the quadrant, portable, and absolute electro- 
 meters, and other scientific instruments. To 
 the general public he is best known by his 
 work in connection with submarine tele- 
 graphjr (1858-66). In January, 1892, he 
 was raised to the peerage as Lord Kelvin. 
 
 Thorbum, Sir Robert {b. 1856), entered 
 the Newfoundland House of Assembly, and 
 became premier, but resigned in 1889. He 
 represented Newfoundland in the Colonial 
 Conference held in London in 1886. 
 
 Thoreau, Henry David {b. 1817, d. 1862), 
 
 American naturalist ; was a friend of 
 Emerson, and a member of the Transcen- 
 dental school. In 1845 and the following 
 years he Uved a hfe of complete solitude, 
 described in Waldcn (1854). He became 
 acquainted with John Brown in 1859, and 
 devoted the rest of his life to the Liberationist 
 cause. 
 
 Thoresby, Ralph {b. 1658, d. 1725), 
 antiquary; published Ducatus Leodiensis 
 (1715), and Vicuna Leodiensis (1724), works 
 on the topography and antiquities of Leeds. 
 
 Thornbury, George Walter (b. 1828, d. 
 1870), published a Life of Turner (1861), Old 
 and New London (1873-74), etc. 
 
 Thome, Richard Thome {b. 1842), Milroy 
 lectui-er to the Royal College of Physicians, 
 has published pa^jers on the progress of 
 preventive medicme, diphtheria, etc. 
 
 ThomhUl, Sir James (^>. 1676, d. 1734), 
 painter, bom at Weymouth ; after educating 
 himself in England, travelled in Holland 
 and France ; on his return was conunissioned 
 by Queen Anne to paint the dome of St. 
 Paul's ; decorated the refectory and saloon 
 of Greenwich Hospital, and some of the 
 rooms in Hampton Court. His daughter 
 married Hogarth. 
 
 Thornton, Bonnell (*. 1724, d. 1768), 
 humorist and miscellaneous writer ; was the 
 associate of George Colman in a periodical 
 entitled the Connoisseur, and published a 
 translation of Plautus (1766), etc. 
 
 Thornton, Sir Edward (b. 1817), diplo- 
 matist ; was envoy - extraordinary and 
 minister plenipotentiary to Brazil (1865-67) 
 and the United States (1867-81), ambassador 
 to the Czar (1881-84), and to the Sultan 
 (1884-86). 
 
 Thornycroft, Mary {b. 1814), daughter of 
 John Francis, sculptor ; married the sculjitor, 
 Mr. Thornycroft, in 1840 ; afterwards studied 
 at Rome under Gibson and Thorwaldsen. 
 Among her chief works is the Skipping Girl 
 (1855). 
 
 Thornycroft, W. Hamo, A.R.A. (b. 1850), 
 
 sculptor, son of the preceiliug ; first exhibited 
 at the Royal Academy in 1871- He has 
 executed statues of Artemis (1880), and 
 Teucer (1881), etc. 
 
 Thorold, Anthony Wilson (b. 1825), be- 
 came Bishop of Rochester in 1877 ; was 
 transferred to Winchester in 1891. 
 
 Thorpe, Thomas Edward (b. 1845), pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in the Normal School of 
 Science and Royal School of Mines, South 
 Kensington : has published a Dictionary of 
 Applied Chemistry, etc. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, Albert Bertel {b. 1770, d
 
 Tao 
 
 (701) 
 
 Tie 
 
 1841), Danish sculptor, of Icelandic origin ; 
 studied at the free school of the Academy of 
 Copenhagen, and was sent by that body to 
 Eome in 1796. His first great work was his 
 Jason (1802). Except for a visit to Denmark 
 in 1819-20, when he executed the statues of 
 Christ and the Twelve Apostles for the Frue 
 Kirke at Copenhagen, he remained ia 
 Rome till 1837. After that date he, for the 
 most part, lived in Denmark. His master- 
 pieces include the Entry of Alexand-er into 
 Babylon (1812), the statue of Prince Ponia- 
 towski, and the Dyinff Lion at Lucerne. 
 
 Thou, Jacques Auguste de {b. 15-53, d. 
 1617), French historian ; studied law at 
 Orleans and afterwards under Cujacius at 
 Valence ; in 1578 became clerk to the par- 
 Uament of Paris ; was named coimcillor of 
 state in 1588, and in 1593 chief librarian to 
 the kiag. He took a leading part in draw- 
 ing up the Edict of Nantes. His chief work 
 is Historia Sui Temporis, extending from 
 1546 to 1584. 
 
 Thrasybulus {d. 389 b.c), Athenian gene- 
 ral ; was exiled by the Thirty TjTants, and 
 withdrew to Thebes, whence he led an expe- 
 dition into Attica, and after defeating the 
 Spartans at Phyle and Munychia, overthrew 
 the Thirty, setting up a commission of ten in 
 their place. This body also opposed Thrasy- 
 bulus, and were supported by the Spartans, 
 but a reconciHation was effected, and the 
 exiles were recalled. 
 
 Throgmorton, Sir Nicholas {b. eirca 1513, 
 d. 1571), English diplomatist; was sent by 
 Elizabeth as ambassador to France and to 
 Mary, Queen of Scots. 
 
 Thucydides {b. circa 471, d. circaiOl B.C.), 
 Greek historian, bom at Athens ; is said to 
 have been descended from Olorus, King of 
 Thrace. At the outbreak of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war he received a command, but 
 failed to relieve AmphipoUs when beseiged 
 by Brasidas, and was banished (423 B.C.). 
 After twenty years of exile, during which 
 he is sujjposed to have written his History 
 of the Peloponnesian War, he returned to 
 Athens about 403. 
 
 Thurloe, John (b. 1616, d. 1668), bom at 
 Abbots Roding, in Essex ; became Secretary 
 of State to Oliver Cromwell, and retained 
 the oifice under his son, Eichard. After the 
 Restoration he was for a short time im- 
 prisoned. 
 
 Thurlow, Edward, Lord {b. 1732, d. 1806), 
 bom in Suffolk ; was called to the bar in 
 1734, became Solicitor- General in 1770, and 
 Attorney- General in 1771 ; was Lord Chan- 
 cellor 1778-92, except for a short interval in 
 1783. 
 
 Thurston, Sir John Bates (fi. 1836), high 
 
 commissioner and consul-general for tha 
 Western Pacific. 
 
 Thurston, Robert H. (b. 1839), a dis- 
 tinguished American engiaeer. 
 
 Tibaldi, Pellegrino (J. 1527, d. eirca 1592), 
 painter and architect, bom at Bologna, 
 studied at Rome ; about 1570 was chosen 
 architect of the cathedral of Milan ; in 1586 
 was summoned to Spain, and superintended 
 the building of the Escurial till 1595, when 
 he returned to Milan. 
 
 Tiberius Claudius Nero [b. 42 B.C., d. 37 
 
 A.D.), Roman Emperor; was the stepson of 
 Augustus, who married his mother. L via. 
 In B.C. 12 he married the emperor's ' au ;h- 
 ter, JuHa. He distinguished him>eil in 
 the German wars during the lifetime of 
 Augustus, whom he succeeded in 14 a.d. 
 About 22 A.D. he placed aU power in the 
 hands of his favourite, iElius bejanus, who 
 afterwards fell under his suspicion, and was 
 put to death in 31. In 26 Tiberius retired to 
 the island of Caprese, where he is said to 
 have studied astrology and to have indulged 
 in gross licentiousness. He was assassinated 
 by Macro, commander of the Praetorian 
 Guards. 
 
 TibuUus (b. eirca 43, d. 19 B.c), Roman 
 poet ; was patronised by Messala Coryiuus, 
 whom he accompanied in his expedition to 
 Gaul (31). He wrote four books of Elegies. 
 
 Tichbome, Charles Robert, has carried on 
 important investigations in connection with 
 chemistry andpharmacy. He has published 
 The Mineral Tvaters of Europe, etc. 
 
 TickeU, Thomas (b. 1686, d. 1740), man of 
 letters, bom in Cumberland, educated at 
 Oxford ; became the friend of Addison, 
 through whose influence he was made 
 imder- secretary of state (1717). He was 
 secretary to the Lords Justices of Ireland 
 1724-40. His writings include several 
 poems, and papers published in the 
 Spectator. 
 
 Ticknor, George (b. 1791, d. 1871), Ameri- 
 can author, travelled in Europe (1815-19); 
 was professor of modem languages at 
 Harvardi (1819-34). He wrote a History of 
 Spanish Literature (1849), and a Lip of 
 Prescott (1864). 
 
 Tidemand, Adolphus (*. 1816, d. 1876), 
 Norwegian painter, studied at Copenhagen 
 and Dusseldorf. He gained a European 
 reputation by his contributions to the great 
 exhibitions. 
 
 Tieck, Johann Ludwi^ {b. 1773, d. 1853), 
 poet and novelist, bom m Berlin, studied at 
 Halle and Gottingen ; formed a friendship 
 with A. W. von Schlegel, and became a 
 leader of the Romantic school ; after residing
 
 Tie 
 
 (702) 
 
 Tin 
 
 in various German towns and visiting Italy 
 
 ilSOo) and England (1817), settled in 
 )resden, where he was director of the 
 theatre from 1819 to 1840, when he was in- 
 vited to Berlin by Frederick Wilham IV. 
 Among his chief works are the di-amas of St. 
 Genoceva (1800) and The Emperor Octavian 
 (1804), Taks, some of which were trans- 
 lated bv Carlyle, Fhantasus (1812-15^ and 
 translations of IJoh Quixote (1799-1802) and 
 Shakespeai-e (1825). 
 
 Tiedemann, Dietrich {b. 1748, b. 1803), 
 became professor of philosophy at Marburg 
 in 1786. He wrote the Bysteni of Stoic 
 Fhilosophy (1776), the Spirit of Speculative 
 Fhilosophy (1790-97), etc. 
 
 Tiemey, George {b. 1761, d. 1830), states- 
 man : entered Parliament in 1796, opposed 
 Pitt, with whom he fought a duel (1798), 
 was Irish Secretary, and afterwards presi- 
 dent of the Board of Trade under Fox and 
 Grenville (1806-7), became leader of the 
 Opposition in the House of Coromons in 
 1817 ; was master of the Mint 1827-28. 
 
 Tilden, Samuel Jones {b. 1814, d. 1886), 
 American politician ; was called to the bar 
 in 1841 ; became chairman of the Democratic 
 State Convention in 1866 ; took a leading 
 part in exposing the "Tammany Ring" 
 (1871); was elected governor of New York 
 in 1874. 
 
 Tillemont, Louis Scbastien le Nain de {b. 
 1637, d. 1698), French historian ; studied at 
 Port Royal, and was ordained priest in 1676. 
 He wrote a History of the Emperors during 
 the First Six Centuries of the Church, and 
 an Ecclesiastical History which covers the 
 same period. 
 
 Tilloch, Alexander {b. 1759, d. 1825), born 
 at Glasgow ; invented improvements in 
 printing, and drew out a patent for stereo- 
 typed plates ; in 1787 came to London, 
 where he edited various periodicals, starting 
 the Philosophical Magazine in 1797. 
 
 Tillotson, John (J). 1630, d. 1694), son of 
 a Yorkshire clothier ; was brought up as a 
 Calvinist, and sent to Clare Hall, Cambridge ; 
 conformed to the Church of England at the 
 Restoration ; became lecturer at St. Lawrence 
 Jewry in 1664 ; was made a prebend of Can- 
 terbury in 1670, and dean in 1672 ; opposed 
 Charles II. 's attempts to make concessions 
 to the Roman Catholics (1672) ; after the 
 Revolution was made Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (1691). He published many eloquent 
 Sermons. 
 
 Tilly, John Tserclas, Count of (*. 1559, d. 
 1632), general, bom in South Brabant; 
 distinguished himself in the Thirty Years' 
 war, contributing greatly to the victory of 
 Prague (1620), and succeeded Wallenstein as 
 
 commander-in-chief of the imperial forces 
 (1630). He was defeated and mortally 
 wounded in an engagement with Gustavus 
 Adolphus on the Lech. 
 
 Timbs, John, F.S.A. (b. 1801, d. 1875), 
 miscellaneous writer; published Curiosities 
 of London (1855), etc. 
 
 Timoleon [d. 337 B.C.), a Corinthian of 
 noble birth, put his brother Timophaues to 
 death for attempting to make himself 
 tyrant (364) ; was in 344 sent to aid the 
 Syracusans against the tyrant Dionysius and 
 the Carthaginians ; overthrew Dionysius in 
 343, and in 339 defeated a Carthaginian 
 ai-mament ; passed the remainder of his life 
 at Syracuse. 
 
 Timon, the "Misanthrope," an Athenian 
 of the 5th century B.C., who became dis- 
 gusted with mankind and lived in seclusion. 
 
 Timon, the "Phliasian," Greek philo- 
 sopher of the 3rd century B.C., was a dis- 
 ciple of Pyrrho the sceptic. He wrote Silli, 
 a satire against all schools of philosophy. 
 
 Timothy, Saint (d. circa 97), born in 
 Lycaonia, was brought up as a Christian 
 by his mother, Eunice : accompanied St. 
 Paul in his missionary joiu-neys : became 
 Bishop of Ephesus, and is said to have been 
 stoned to death in that town. 
 
 Timur, or Tamerlane (b. 1335, d. 1405), 
 Tartar conqueror, was bom in Sogdiana. 
 After establishing his power over the tribes 
 of Tm-kestan, he conquered Korassan, Can- 
 dahar, Bagdad, Northern India, and Syria, 
 and finally attacked Bajazet, Sultan of the 
 Turks, whom he overthrew at Ancyra in 
 1402. He died whilst marching to attack 
 China. 
 
 Tindal, Matthew (b. circa 1657, d. 1733), 
 bom in Devonshire, was the son of a clergy- 
 man. He professed Romanism under James 
 II., but afterwards recanted, and eventually 
 became a deist. He wrote Christianity as 
 Old as the Creation (1730), and other attacks 
 on revealed religion. 
 
 Tindal, Nicholas {b. 1687, d. 1774), nephew 
 of the preceding, translated and contmued 
 Rapin's History of England. 
 
 Tindale, or Tyndale, William (b. circa 
 1480, d. 1536), English reformer, bom in 
 Gloucestershire, studied at Oxford and 
 Cambridge ; in 1524 retired to Hamburg, 
 where he printed part of his New Testament ; 
 carried on his translation of the Bible at 
 Worms (where he was joined by his asso- 
 ciate Fryth), Marburg, and elsewhere, but 
 was arrested at Antwerp in 1535, and burnt 
 at Vilvorde the following year. 
 
 Tintoretto, H [Jacopo Eobusti] [b. 1512,
 
 Tip 
 
 (703) 
 
 Tol 
 
 d. 1594), Venetian painter, obtained his title 
 from the fact that his father •was a dyer 
 {iintore). He studied under Titian, and also 
 modelled his style on that of Michelangelo. 
 The Miracle of the Slave, in the Academy 
 of Venice, is considered his masterpiece. 
 
 Tippoo SaMb {b. 1749, d. 1799), was the 
 son of Hyder Ah, sovereign of Mysore, 
 whom he succeeded in 1762. In 1784 he 
 assumed the title of Sultan. He carried on 
 the struggle against the English intermit- 
 tently till 1792, when he was forced by 
 Lord Cornwalhs to sue for peace, and sur- 
 rendered part of his territory. In 1799 the 
 war was renewed, and Tippoo was slain 
 whilst defending his capital of Seringa- 
 patam. 
 
 Tiraboschi, Girolamo (b. 1731, d. 1794), 
 Italian author, born at Bergamo ; was ap- 
 pointed professor of rhetoric at Milan in 
 1766, and in 1770 became hbrarian to the 
 Duke of Modena. He wrote a History of 
 Italian Literature (1772-83), etc. 
 
 Tirard, Pierre Emmanuel (J. 1827), has 
 been twice prime minister of France. 
 
 Tiscbendorf, Lobegott Friedrich Con- 
 stantin von {b. Iblo, d. 1874), German bib- 
 lical scholar ; became professor of theology 
 at Leipzig in 1850. He made three journeys 
 to the East in search of materials for his 
 revised text of the New Testament (1854-65), 
 and discovered the Codex Sinaiticus in a 
 monastery on Mount Sinai. His edition of 
 the Septuagint appeared in 1840. 
 
 Tissaphemes [d. 
 Lower Asia under Darius 
 xerxes ; favoured the Spartans during the 
 Peloponnesian war. He was executed at 
 Sardis by order of CyruB. 
 
 Tisza, Koloman {h. 1830), was prime 
 minister of Hungary 1875-90. He resisted 
 the aggressions of Eussia in 1876-8. 
 
 Tite, Sir William (*. 1802, d. 1873), an 
 English architect. His chief work is the 
 Royal Exchange, completed in 1844. 
 
 Titian [Tiziano VecelU] {b. 1477, d. 1576), 
 Venetian painter, studied under Giovanni 
 Bellini, and was much influenced by his fel- 
 low-pupil Giorgione ; in 1511 was employed 
 in decorating the ducal palace at Venice ; in 
 1514 was invited to the court of Alphonso, 
 Duke of Ferrara, for whom he executed 
 several works ; painted the portrait of 
 Charles V. during his visit to Bologna in 
 1529; visited Rome 1545-6, and was after- 
 wards several times summoned to Germany 
 by Charles V. Among his masterpieces is 
 the Bacchus and Ariadne in the National 
 G}aUery, London. 
 
 TitienB, or Tietjens, Theresa (b. 1834, d. 
 
 395 B.cJ, Satrap of 
 II. and Arta- 
 
 1877), operatic singer, born at Hamburg, 
 made her first appearance in London m 
 1858. She was for many years prima donna 
 at Her Majesty's theatre. 
 
 Titus Flavlus Vespasianus (b. 40, d. 81), 
 
 Roman Emperor ; served under his father, 
 Vespasian, in Syria, and, after the return of 
 the latter to Rome, brought the Jewish war 
 to a close by his capture of Jerusalem (70). 
 He succeeded Vespasian in 79, and showed 
 himself a wise and beneficent ruler. 
 
 Tocqueville, Alexis Charles Henri Clerel 
 de (b. 1SU5, d. 1859), French poHtical phi- 
 losoplier, bom at Verneuil ; visited America 
 in 1831-2, and after his return published De 
 la Lemoci-atie en Amiriqiie (1835-40) ; was 
 minister of foreign affairs in 1849 ; in 1851 
 withdrew to Normandy, where he wrote 
 L'Ancien Regime (1856), etc. 
 
 Todd, Charles [b. 1826), became Govern- 
 ment astronomer and superintendent of 
 telegraphs in South Australia in 1855, and 
 postmaster-general in 1870. 
 
 Todd, Robert Bentley (fi. 1810, d. 1860), 
 was appointed professor of physiology in 
 King's College in 1837. Among his works 
 was a Cyclopcedia of Anatomy and Fhysiology 
 (1836-59), written in conjunction with Dr. 
 Grant. 
 
 Todlixmter, Isaac {b. 1820, d. 1884), was 
 educated at Cambridge, where he became 
 fellow of St. John's College. He published 
 some well-knov?n mathematical treatises. 
 
 Todleben, Franz Eduard, Count (b. 1818, 
 d. 1884), Russian general, of German ex- 
 traction ; during the Crimean war con- 
 structed the fortifications of Sebastopol, 
 which he defended in person ; took part in 
 the war against Turkey and reduced Plevna 
 (1877). 
 
 Togml Beg [d. 1063), grandson of Seljuk, 
 and founder of the Seljuk dynasty of 
 Turks. After the conquest of Korassan and 
 the capture of Ispahan (1051), he marched 
 to Bagdad to the relief of the KaHf Kaim, 
 expelled the Buvides, and received the title 
 of "Prince of Princes," with the virtual 
 sovereignty of the Saracen dominions in 
 Asia. 
 
 Toland, John (b. 1670, d. 1722), deist, 
 born near Londonderry, of Roman Catholic 
 parents, studied at Glasgow, Edinburgh, 
 and Leyden ; pubUshed Christianity not 
 Mysterious (1696), etc. 
 
 Tollens, Hendrik {b. 1780, d. 1856), Dutch 
 poet, bom at Rotterdam, wrote many dra- 
 matic ballads and patriotic songs. 
 
 Tolstoi, Alexis Constantinovitch, Count 
 (b. 1818, d. 1875), Russian author, served in
 
 Tol 
 
 (704) 
 
 Tor 
 
 the Crimean war ; published the Death of 
 Ivan Che Ternble, aud other dramas, Prince 
 Sei-ebrennin^ an historical novel (1863), and 
 some epic narratives. 
 
 Tolstoi, Leo Nikolaievitch (b. 1828), Rus- 
 sian author and social reformer, studied at 
 the university of Kazan ; served in the 
 Crimean war ; has pubUshed War and Peace 
 (1860), Anna Earenina (1875-7), The Kreut- 
 zer Sonata (1889), also several essays in 
 moral philosophy, including My Heligion 
 (1885). 
 
 Tomlinson, Charles, F.R.S. (b. 1808), has 
 published numerous papers on scientific sub- 
 jects ; also a translation of Dante's Inferno 
 (1877), etc. 
 
 Tomlinson, Herbert [b. 1845), demonstra- 
 tor of uatural philosophy at King's College, 
 London; has contributed scientific papers to 
 the Proceedings of the Royal Society, the 
 Philosophical Magazine, etc. 
 
 Tommaseo, Nicolo (b. 1802, d. 1874), 
 Italian patriot and author, took part in the 
 revolutionary movement of 1847-49, holding 
 office in the provisional government as 
 minister of religion and education. He 
 pubhshed a Dictionary of Synonyms (1832), 
 a collection of the popular songs of Tuscany, 
 Corsica, Dalmatia, and Greece (1839), etc. 
 
 Tone, Theobald Wolfe [b. 1763, d. 1798), 
 Irish revolutionist, founded the Society of 
 United Irishmen in 1793 ; in 1795 took refuge 
 in America to avoid prosecution; in 1796 
 removed to France, and held a command in 
 the abortive expedition of Hoche to Bantry 
 Bay ; having landed in Ireland to excite an 
 insurrection, was arrested and condemned to 
 death, but committed suicide in prison. 
 
 Tooke, John Home (b. 1736, d. 1812), son 
 of John Home, a London poulterer, was 
 educated at Eton and Cambridge ; was ap- 
 pointed incumbent of New Brentford in 
 1760 ; became the associate of John Wilkes ; 
 in 1777 was fined and imprisoned for attack- 
 ing the conduct of the king's forces in 
 America ; was tried for high treason in 
 1794, but acquitted. In 1782 he adopted the 
 surname of his benefactor, William Tooke 
 of Pui-ley. He wrote a well-known etymo- 
 logical work, the Diversions of Parley (1786- 
 1805). 
 
 Tooke, William {b. 1744, d. 1820), was 
 chaplain to the Russian Company at St. 
 Petersburg (1774-92), and pubhshed several 
 works on Russian history. His son, Thomas 
 Tooke (6. I774, d. 1858), drew up the petition 
 of the merchants of London for free trade, 
 presented to ParUament in 1820, and pub- 
 lished a History of Prices and the State of 
 the Circulation, and a Sketch of the State of 
 the Corn Trade in the last Two Centuries. 
 
 Toole, John Lawrence (b. 1832), comedian, 
 made his fii^st appearance at the Haymarket 
 in 1852 ; in 1880 became manager of the 
 Folly theatre, henceforward known as 
 "Toole's." 
 
 Topete, Juan Battista (6. 1821, d. 1885), 
 Spanish pohtician and sailor ; took a leading 
 part in the revolution of 1868 ; held office 
 under Amadeus. 
 
 Toplady, Augustus Montague (b. 1737, d. 
 1778), an English clergyman ; in 1775 settled 
 in London, where he preached in the French 
 Protestant chapel, Lincoln's Inn Fields. 
 His Calvinist views led him to attack Wesley. 
 Many of his hymns are well known, es- 
 pecially Rock of Ages. 
 
 Torelli, Giuseppe {b. 1721, d. 1781), 
 Italian mathematician ; edited the works of 
 Archimedes. 
 
 Torfesen, or Torfaeus Thormod (b. 1636, 
 d. 1719), historian, born in Iceland ; became 
 historiographer for Norway to Christian V. 
 of Denmark. He published Historia Rerum 
 Norvegicaruin (1711), etc. 
 
 Torquemada, Juan de (*. 1388, d. 1468), 
 Cardinal, bom at Valladolid; opposed the 
 followers of WycUf and Huss at the Council 
 of Basel (1431), and took part in the endea- 
 vour to reconcile the Greek and Roman 
 Chm-ches at that of Florence (1439) ; be- 
 came Bishop of Palestrina in 1455, and of 
 Sabina in 1464. He wrote Commentaries on 
 Gratian's Decretal, etc. 
 
 Torquemada, Tomasde {b. 1420, d. 1498), 
 became the first inquisitor-general in Spam 
 in 1483. 
 
 Torrens, William Torrens McCullagh (b. 
 1813), first entered Parhament in 1847 ; was 
 instrumental in passing the Artisans' 
 Dwellings Bill, and establishing the London 
 School Board. 
 
 Torricelli, Evangelista {b. 1608, d. 1647), 
 Italian mathematician, inventor of the 
 barometer ; was the friend of Galileo, whom 
 he succeeded as professor at Florence. 
 
 Torrigiano, Pietro (b. 1474, d. 1522), 
 rtalian sculptor, bom at Florence ; was the 
 fellow student of Michaelangelo, whose nose 
 he broke in a quarrel; entered the service 
 of Henry VIII., and executed the tomb of 
 Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey ; after- 
 wards removed to Spain, and died at Seville. 
 
 Torrington, George Byng, Viscount {d. 
 1773), EngUsh admiral ; distinguished him- 
 self in the battle of Malaga, and the relief 
 of Barcelona (1706) : in 1718 completely de- 
 feated the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro. 
 
 Torstenson, Leonard, Count {b. 1603, d. 
 1651, commander-in-chief of the Swedish
 
 Tos 
 
 (705) 
 
 Tre 
 
 forces in the Thirty Years' war ; defeated 
 the Imperialists at Jankowitz (1645), and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Tosti, or Tostig (d. 1066), Earl of 
 Northumberland, brother of Harold, King 
 of England ; took part in the invasion of 
 Harald Hardrada, King of Xorway, and 
 was slain with him at the battle of Stam- 
 ford Bridge. 
 
 Totila {d. 552) (also called Baduila), was 
 chosen King of the Ostrogoths in 541. 
 After capturing Eome (546), he re-estab- 
 lished the Gothic dominion in Italy, but 
 was defeated and slain by Narses. 
 
 Tott, Franqois, Baron de (*. 1733, d. 
 1793), French diplomatist ; for many years 
 resident at Constantinople ; introduced im- 
 portant reforms into the Turkish anny and 
 navy. He wrote Memoires sur les Titrcs et 
 les Tartares (1784), etc. ; died in Hungary. 
 
 Toumefort, Joseph Pitton de {b. 1656, d. 
 1708), French botanist, born at Aix ; after 
 travelUng in Europe and the East (1700-2), 
 became professor of medicine in the College 
 de France. He published several works on 
 botany. 
 
 Toumeur, Cyril (circa 1600), English 
 dramatist, author of The Revenger''s Trag- 
 edy (1607), and TheAtheisfs Tragedy (1612). 
 Nothing is known concerning his Ufe. 
 
 Toussaint L'Ouverture, Francois Do- 
 minique (b. 1743, d. 1803), son of African 
 slaves, was bom in San Domingo. He was 
 in 1796 appointed by the Directory chief of 
 the army of San Domingo, and afterwards 
 established his authority throughout the 
 island, which he ruled with justice and 
 vigour. When Bonaparte sought to restore 
 slavery in San Domingo (1801), Toussaint 
 resisted, but was forced to surrender, and 
 was sent to France, where he died in 
 prison. 
 
 Towers, Joseph {b, 1737, d. 1799), miscel- 
 laneous writer ; became a Unitarian 
 minister in 1774. 
 
 Townley, Charies {b. 1737, d. 1805), anti- 
 quary, bom in Lancashire ; during a long 
 residence in Eome formed a collection of 
 antiquities, known as the "Townlejr 
 Marbles," which was purchased after his 
 death by the British Museum. 
 
 Townshend, Charles, Viscount (b. 1676, 
 d. 1738), Whig statesman ; was ambassador 
 to the States -General (1709-10), and nego- 
 tiated the Barrier Treaty, for which he was 
 censured by the House of Commons (1712); 
 became Secretary of State and Prime Minister 
 on the accession of George I., but was dis- 
 missed in 1716 ; returned to office as Secre- 
 tary of State under Walpole in 1721, but 
 T T 
 
 quarrelled with him in 1730, and retired to 
 his seat of Raynham in Norfolk. 
 
 Townshend, Charles {b. 1725, d. 1767), 
 grandson of the preceding, was secretary at 
 war under Bute, and paymaster of the 
 forces in the Rockingham Mmistiy (1765) ; 
 as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Chat- 
 ham in 1776 was responsible for the taxa- 
 tion of the American colonies, which led to 
 the war of Independence. 
 
 Toynbee, Amold (b. 1852, d. 1883), poUti- 
 cal economist, fellow and tutor of Balhol 
 College, Oxford ; took a deep interest in the 
 welfare of the labouring classes, and lived 
 much amongst them in the East End of 
 London. Toynbee Hall, in Whitechapel, 
 was founded after his death to further his 
 schemes of improvement. 
 
 Tracy, Benjamin {b. 1830), American 
 politician ; became secretary of the navy in 
 
 1889. 
 
 Tradescant, John (d. 1652), horticulturist 
 and collector of curiosities ; was gardener to 
 Charles I. 
 
 Traill, Kenry Duff (J. 1842), journalist, 
 contributed volumes on Sterne and Cole- 
 ridge to the English Men of Letters series ; 
 has also published Uves of William III. 
 (1888) and Strafford (1889), etc. 
 
 Trajan [Marcus Ulpius Trajanus] {b. 55, d. 
 117), Roman Emperor, bom in Spain; was 
 consul in 91 ; became in 97 the associate of 
 Nerva, whom he succeeded in 98 ; was vic- 
 torious over the Dacians (101-5), and ex- 
 tended the Roman Empire in the East. 
 
 Traquair, Ramsay Heatley {b. 1840), 
 keeper of the natural history collections in 
 the Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh ; 
 has published papers on fossil ichthyology, 
 etc. 
 
 Tredgold, Thomas {b. 1788, <?. 1829), bom 
 near Durham ; after following the trade of 
 a carpenter in Scotland, came to London, 
 where he established himself as a civil en- 
 gineer. He published The Steam Engine 
 (1827), etc. 
 
 Tregelles, Samuel Prideaux {b. 1813, d. 
 1875), Biblical scholar; was engaged from 
 1830 onwards on his critical edition of the 
 text of the New Testament, completed in 
 
 1872. 
 
 Trelawny, Edward John {b. 1792, d. 
 1881), bom in Cornwall; entered the navy 
 when eleven years old. His early career is 
 recorded in his Advcnttires of a Younger Son. 
 He afterwards became the friend of Shelley 
 and Byron, and wrote Mecollections of those 
 poets (1858), republished in a revised form 
 m 1878.
 
 Tre 
 
 (706) 
 
 Tro 
 
 Tremellius, Emmanuel {b. 1510, d. 1580), 
 Protestaut divine ; boru at Ferrara of 
 Jewish parents ; was converted to Chris- 
 tianity by Cardinal Pole, and to Protes- 
 tantism by Peter Maityr ; came to England 
 in the reign of Edward VI. ; in loob re- 
 moved to Gei-many, and became professor 
 of Hebrew at Heidelberg and afterwards at 
 Sedan. 
 
 Trench, Richard Chenevix (b. 1807, d. 
 1886), became professor of theology in 
 King's College in 1847 ; Dean of Westmin- 
 ster in 1856, and Archbishop of Dublin in 
 1864. He published Jfotes on the Miracles 
 (1846), Study of Words (1851), two volumes 
 of poems, etc. 
 
 TrencH, William Steuart {b. 1808, d. 
 1872), author of Realities of Irish Life 
 (1869). 
 
 Trenck, Friedrich, Baron von der {b. 
 1726, d. 1794), a Prussian officer, famous 
 for his prison adventures, which are nar- 
 rated in his Memoirs (1786-7). He was 
 guillotined during the French Revolution. 
 
 Trendelenburg, Friedrich Adolf {b. 1802, 
 d. 1872), beciirae professor of philosophy at 
 Berhn in 1833. He wrote on the philosophy 
 of Aristotle, and opposed Hegel and Herbart. 
 
 Trevelyan, Sir Charles Edward, Bart. {b. 
 1807, d. 1886), Indian civilian; was governor 
 of Madras in 1859, and financial minister in 
 India 1862-5 ; was instrumental in effecting 
 administrative reforms both in India and at 
 home. He published the Education of the 
 People nf India, etc. 
 
 Tre.ely?n, Sir George Otto, Bart. {b. 
 1838), sou of the preceding, and nephew of 
 Lord Macaulay, entered Parliament as a 
 Liberal in 1865 ; was Irish Secretary 1882-4, 
 and Secretary for Scotland 1892. He has 
 published the Life and Letters of Lord 
 Macaulay (1876), and Hie Early Times of 
 Charles James Fox (1880). 
 
 Treviso, or Trevigi, Girolamo da [b. 1508, 
 d. 1544), Itahan painter ; after residing some 
 time at Bologna, entered the service of 
 Henry VIII. of England, who employed 
 him as an architect and engineer. He was 
 mortally wounded at the siege of Boulogne. 
 
 Tribonianus (b. circa 475, d. circa 545), 
 Roman lawyer, bom in Pamphylia ; became 
 consul under Justinian, and was president of 
 the commission employed by him to compUe 
 the Pandects, Institutes, and Code. 
 
 Tricoupis, Charilaos {b. 1832), Greek poU- 
 tician, was appointed minister of foreign 
 affairs in 1866 ; has several times been prime 
 minister. 
 
 Trimen, Henry {b. 1843), director of the 
 
 Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon ; has pub- 
 lished several works on botanical subjects. 
 
 Trimen, Roland {b. 1840), zoologist; has 
 published tSouth African Butterflies (1887-9), 
 etc. 
 
 Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah {b. 1741, d. 1810)^ 
 wrote Fabulous Histories and other books 
 for children. 
 
 Tripe, John WiUiam, M.D. [b. 1821), a 
 writer on medical subjects, became public 
 analyst in 1872. 
 
 Tristan da Cimlia {d. circa 1520), Portu- 
 guese navigator, set out from Lisbon in 
 1506 ; discovered the islands which bear his 
 name, and explored the coasts of Africa. 
 
 Tristram, Rev. Henry Baker (b. 1822), 
 has published Bible Places (1871), Tlie Land 
 of Moab (1874), and other works of travel. 
 
 Trivet, Nicholas [d. 1328), English Domi- 
 nican ; wrote Annates Sex Regain Anglias, a 
 chronicle extending from 1136 to 1307. 
 
 Trochu, Louis Jules (b. 1815), French 
 general ; on the outbreak of the Franco- 
 Gennan war became governor of Paris, and 
 after the proclamation of the Republic, 
 commander-in-chief of the forces, but re- 
 signed early in 1871, and retired in 1873. 
 
 Trogus Pompeius, a Roman historian of 
 the time of Augustus, born in Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis. His Universal History siurvives 
 only in the abridgment of Justin. 
 
 TroUope, Anthony [b. 1815, d. 1882), 
 novelist, son of Mrs. Frances TroUope, was 
 educated at Winchester and Harrow ; in 
 1834 entered the Post Office Department, 
 from which he retired in 1862. Among his 
 novels are Barchester Towers i^?>b1), Framley 
 Parsonage (1861), and The Last Chronicle of 
 Barset (1867). 
 
 Trollope, Right Rev. Edward (b. 1817), 
 became Bishop Suffragan of Nottingham in 
 
 1877. 
 
 Trollope, Frances {b. 1778, d. 1863^, 
 wrote I)omestic Life of the Americans (1832), 
 and many novels. 
 
 TroUope, Thomas Adolphus {b. 1810), son 
 of the preceding ; has published several 
 novels and works on Italian history. 
 
 Tromp, Martin Harpertzoon (b. 1597, 
 d. 1653), Dutch naval commander, became 
 lieutenant -admiral in 1637 ; defeated a 
 large Spanish fleet in 1639; was defeated 
 by Blake in May, 1652, but gained a victory 
 over him in the following November ; after 
 several other engagements was mortally 
 wounded in an action with Monk off 
 Scheveningen. 
 
 Tromp, Comelis (S. 1629, d. 1691), Dutch
 
 Trii 
 
 (707') 
 
 Tnr 
 
 admiral, son of the preceding ; distin- 
 guished himself against the EugUsh in the 
 war of 1673. He became grand admiral of 
 HoUand in 1677. 
 
 Triibner, Nicholas (*. 1817, d. 1884), a 
 publisher of works of philology, rehgious 
 philosophy, and Oriental literature. He was 
 bom at Heidelberg, and established his busi- 
 ness in London in 1852. 
 
 Truro, Thomas Wilde, Lord [h. 1782, d. 
 1855), was called to the bar in 1817 ; entered 
 Parliament as a Whig in 1831 ; became 
 Solicitor-General in 1840; was Attorney- 
 General in 1841, and Lord Chief Justice of 
 the Common Pleas from 1846 to 1850, when 
 he became Lord Chancellor, and was raised 
 to the peerage. 
 
 Tseng, His Excellency the Marquis [h. 
 1836, d. 1890), Chinese diplomatist, was in 
 1878 appointed minister to the coiu-ts of 
 London and Paris, to which that of St. 
 Petersburg was added in 1879. 
 
 Tucker, Abraham (h. 1705, d. 1774), Eng- 
 lish metaphysician ; wrote Tlie Light of 
 Nature Fiirsued, etc. 
 
 Tucker, Josiah (b. 1711, d. 1799), divine 
 and writer on politics and commerce, became 
 Dean of Gloucester in 1758. On the out- 
 break of the American war he recommended 
 a separation of the colonies from the mother 
 country. 
 
 Tudela, Benjamin of {d. 1173), Jewish 
 rabbi, bom at Tudela in Navarre; visited 
 Turkey, Persia, and other countries, and 
 wrote an account of his travels. 
 
 Tuke, D. Hack (h. 1827), editor of the 
 Journal of Mental Sdence ; has published 
 works on insanity, hypnotism, etc. 
 
 TuUoch, John [b. 1823, d. 1886), became 
 principal of the theological college of St. 
 Andrew's University in 1854. He published 
 Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy 
 in England in the Eighteenth Century (1872), 
 Facts of Religious Life (1876), etc. 
 
 Tullus Hostllius [d. 638 B.C.), third king 
 of Rome, succeeded Numa in 670 B.C. He 
 carried on wars against the Albans and 
 Sabines. 
 
 Tunis, the Beys of, were hereditary 
 princes, sometimes tributary to the Sultan, 
 but more often to the Dey of Algiers. 
 Hamuba Pasha (1782-1814) established the 
 virtual independence of his country. Mtr- 
 HAMAB Bey reigned 1814-23. Hussein Bet 
 (1823-35) and Sroi Mustapha Bey (1835-9.) 
 sought protection from the French against 
 the encroachments of the Porte. The French 
 in their turn became aggressors, but, with 
 English aid, the independence of Tunis was 
 maintained during the reigns of SiDi Ahmed 
 Bet (1839-55) and Sroi MuHAitAD Bet 
 tt2 
 
 (1855-9). The efforts of the English to 
 establish more cordial relations between 
 Tunis and the Porte having eventually 
 failed, the French in 1881 invaded the 
 country, and Muhamad es Sadtk [h. 1813), 
 who had become Bey in 1859, was forced to 
 sign a treaty instituting a French protec- 
 torate. 
 
 TimstaU, Cuthbert (J. 1474, d. 1559), 
 English prelate ; studied at Oxford, Cam- 
 bridge, and Padua, and became one of the 
 most learned scholars of his age. Under 
 Henry VIII. he held the offices of Master of 
 the Rolls (1516-21) and keeper of the privy 
 seal (1523-30); was sent ou embassies to 
 the Emperor and to France, and became 
 successively Bishop of London (1522) and 
 Durham (1530). Deprived during the reign 
 of Edward VI., he was restored on the 
 accession of Mary, but again deprived by 
 Elizabeth, who placed him imder the cus- 
 tody of Archbishop Parker. 
 
 Tupper, Sir Charles {b. 1821), bom in 
 Nova Scotia; was in 1883 appointed high 
 commissioner in Great Britain for the 
 Dominion of Canada. 
 
 Tupper, Martin Farquhar (ft. 1810, d. 
 1889), poet and prose writer, author of Fro- 
 verbial Fhilosopliy (1838), etc. 
 
 Turenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, 
 Vicomte de (b. 1611, d. 1675), French 
 general, son of the Due de Bovdllon, and 
 grandson of William I., Prince of Orange, 
 entered the French army in 1630 ; became 
 marechal de camp in 1634 ; in 1643 was 
 placed in command of the forces in Ger- 
 many, where he remained till the close of 
 the Thirty Years' war (1048), distinguisliing 
 himseK by his retreat from Marienthal and 
 his victory at Nordlingen (1645) ; opposed 
 Conde with success in the war of the Fronde 
 (1652-9) ; was made marshal -general in 
 1660; became a Roman Catholic in 1668; 
 greatly distinguished himself in the war with 
 Holland (1672-5), in the course of which he 
 was killed by a cannon shot. 
 
 Target, Anne Robert Jacques (J. 1727, d 
 1781), French statesman, was from 1761 to 
 1774 intendant of Limoges, where he en- 
 couraged agricultm^e and introduced im- 
 provements in the administration ; became 
 comptrolle»- general of finances in 1774, but 
 was dismissed in 1776. 
 
 TurguenefF, Ivan Sergyevitch [b. 1818, d. 
 1883), Russian novelist, studied at the uni- 
 versity of Berlin ; after the Franco -German 
 war removed to Paris, where he mainly 
 resided till his death. Among his novels 
 are A Nest of Nobks (1858), Fathers and 
 Sons (1862), and Virgin Soil (1877). 
 
 Turner, Dawson (h. 1775, d. 1858), botanist 
 and antiquary; published a work on Fuci 
 (1808-19), etc.
 
 Tnr 
 
 (708) 
 
 Tyr 
 
 Turner, Godfrey Wordsworth (b. 1825, d. 
 lSi)l), joui'uulist, was for mauy years special 
 correspondent to the JJaily Telegraph. 
 
 Turner, Joseph Mallord William {b. nib, 
 d. ISJl), landscape painter; son of a hair- 
 dresser in Covent Garden, studied at the 
 schools of the Eoyal Academy; became 
 A.R.A. in 1799, and R.A. in 1802, and soon 
 won a reputation as a painter both iu water- 
 colours and in oils. In 1807 he began tlie 
 Liber Studioriim, a series of prints for the 
 most part executed by himself. For England 
 and Wales, the Southern Coast, and other 
 series of engravings, he prepared di-awiugs, 
 which are now highly prized. Among the 
 finest of his oU-paiatings in the National 
 Gallery, London, are Dido Building Carthage 
 and The Sun Rising in a Mist. 
 
 Turner, Sharon (b. 1768, d. 1847), his- 
 torian ; was at the age of fifteen articled to 
 an attorney in the Temple, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in ms business. His chief work is a 
 History of the Anglo-Saxons (1799-1805). 
 
 Turner, William {d. 1568), divine and 
 naturalist, bom at Morpeth, educated at 
 Cambridge; became a preacher of the re- 
 formed doctrines, and was forced to with- 
 draw to Italy iQ the reign of Henry VIII. ; 
 was made Dean of Wells by Edward VI. ; 
 removed to Germany on the accession of 
 Mary, but returned under Elizabeth. He 
 wrote a Herbal (1568) and several works 
 agaiast the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 Turner, Sir William [b. 1832), became 
 professor of anatomy in the imiversity of 
 Edtaburgh in 1867. 
 
 Turpin, or TUpin {d. circa 800), Bishop of 
 Rheims, formerly supposed to be the author 
 of a chi'onicle entitled Be Vita Caroli Magni 
 et Rolandi, which is now believed to be a 
 romance of a later date. 
 
 Tiirr, General Stephen {b.\ 825) , Hungarian 
 patriot; entered the Russian army in 1848; 
 deserted to the Hungarian in 1849, and dis- 
 tinguished himself in the revolution which 
 ensued ; was arrested by the Austrians at 
 Bucharest in 1855, and only escaped the 
 penalty of death through the representations 
 of the British Government. He served in. 
 the Crimean war and the Itahan war of 
 Independence. 
 
 Tusser, Thomas {b. circa 1515, d. circa 
 1580), Enghsh poet, author of Five Hundred 
 Foints of Good Husbandry (1557). 
 
 Twain, Mark, pseudonjon of Samuel 
 Langhome Clemens {b. 1835), American 
 humorist, bom at Florida, in Missoxrri. 
 After living in Nevada and San Francisco, 
 he remived in 1867 to New York, where he 
 published his Jumping Frog. In the same 
 year he started on a journey to Italy and 
 the East, recorded in Tlie Innocents Abroad 
 
 (1869). Among liis other writings are Tlie 
 Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), A Tramp 
 Abroad (1880), and Huckleberry Finn (1885). 
 
 Twisleton, Hon. Edward Turner Boyd 
 {p. 1809, d. 1874), was chief poor-law com- 
 missioner in Ireland 1839-49. In 1871 he 
 published a work proving that Sir Philip 
 Francis wrote the Letters of Junius. 
 
 Twiss, Horace {b. 1787, d. 1849), barrister, 
 sat in Parliament 1828-32; wrote a Bio- 
 graphy of Lord Eldon (1844). 
 
 Twiss, Sir Travers (jb. 1809), jurist, was 
 educated at Oxford, where he filled the 
 chaii- of political economy 1842-49, and that 
 of civil law 1855-70; became a Queen's 
 Counsellor in 1867, and was (Queen's Ad- 
 vocate 1867-72. He published The Laiv of 
 Nations in Times of War (1863). 
 
 Tyler, John {b. 1790, d. 1862), American 
 statesman, born in Virginia, entered Congress 
 in 1816 ; became vice-president imder Harri- 
 son in 1840, and president in 1841. During 
 his government Texas was annexed to the 
 United States. (Jn the outbreak of the war 
 he espoused the side of the South. 
 
 Tyler, Wat {d. 1381), a native of Essex, 
 headed the peasant rising in 1381. 
 
 Tylor, Edward Bm-nett {b. 1832), became 
 in 1884 keeper of the Oxford University 
 museum and reader in anthropology. He 
 has published Primitive Culture (1871), the 
 GifEord lectures on Natural Religion (1888), 
 etc. 
 
 Tyndall, John (*. 1820), man of science, 
 born in County Carlo w, Ireland, joined the 
 Irish Ordnance Survey in 1839 ; was a rail- 
 way engineer 1844-7 ; studied at the uni- 
 versities of Marburg and Berlin (1848-51) ; 
 became professor of natural philosophy in 
 the Royal Institution in 1853. After an 
 expedition to Switzerland with Professor 
 Huxley in 1856 wrote, in conjunction with 
 him, a treatise On the Structure and Motio)i 
 of Glaciers ; presided at the meeting of the 
 British Association at Belfast, in 1874. 
 Among his works are Heat as a Mode of 
 Motion (1863), and Fragments of Science. 
 
 Tyrconnel, Richard Talbot, Earl of {d. 
 1691), commander of the forces in Ireland, 
 and viceroy under James II. ; died whilst 
 preparing to resist WilUam of Orange. 
 
 T3rrtseus, a Greek poet of the 7th 
 century B.C., probably bom in Attica. He 
 became commander of the Lacedaemonian 
 army, and so animated the Spartan soldiers 
 by his strains that they comj ietely defeated 
 the Messenians. 
 
 Tyrwhitt, Thomas (*. 1730, d. 1786), 
 EngHsh man of letters, published, among 
 other works, an edition of Chaucer's Canter- 
 bury Tales (1772-8).
 
 Uba 
 
 709) 
 
 Urb 
 
 Ubaldini,Petniccio (16th century), Italian 
 writer and illimunator, came to England in 
 the reign of Edward VI. He wrote Vita di 
 Carolo Magno (1581), Description of Scotland, 
 and other works. 
 
 ijberweg, Friedrich {b. 1826, d. 1871), 
 German philosophical writer, professor at 
 Konigsberg, and author of System der 
 Logik und Geschichte der loyischen Lehren 
 (translated by T. Lindsay in 1871) and 
 Grundriss der Geschichte d^r Philosophie 
 von Thales, translated by Morris and Porter 
 in 1875. 
 
 Uccelli, Paolo {d. 1475), Florentine 
 painter of the naturalist school, whose real 
 name was Doni. Among his works, which 
 are now rare, is the Battle of San Egidio in 
 the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Udal, Nicholas {b. circa 1504, d. 1556), 
 English scholar, head-master of Eton and 
 afterwards of Westminster ; wrote Ralph 
 Roister Doister, the first English comedy, 
 which was discovered in 1840. 
 
 Udine, Giovanni da («. 1487, d. 1564), 
 Italian painter, pupil of Giorgione ; assisted 
 EafFaelle with his cartoon;?, decorated the 
 Vatican loggia, and was a skilful delineator 
 of still life. 
 
 Ugolino. \^See Gherardesca.] 
 
 UMand, Johann Ludwig (*. 1787, d. 1862), 
 German poet, whose Gedichte appeared in 
 1815 : took an active part in the rising of 
 Germany against Napoleon, was a member 
 of the Wiirtemberg Assembly between 1819 
 and 1830, and in 1848 was a deputy to the 
 Frankfort Assembly. Most of his works 
 have been translated into English, and his 
 life, by his widow, appeared in 1874. He 
 was professor at Tubin<;eu for three years 
 (1830-3). 
 
 Ukert, Friedrich {b. 1780, d. 1851), Ger- 
 man geographer; author of Geography of 
 the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 inioa, Alonso de (d. circa 1580), Spanish 
 historian : author of Vita deW gran Capitano 
 Ferdinando Gonzaga, under whom he had 
 served. 
 
 UUoa, Don Antonio (b. 1716, d. 1795), 
 Spanish mathematician ; was captured by 
 the English on his return from PerTi, but 
 soon released and elected F.B.S. He was 
 
 author of Travels, and a work on South 
 
 America. 
 
 UlpMLas (or Wulfila) {b. 311, d. 381), was 
 appointed in 341 bishop of the Goths north 
 of the Danube. His translation of the Bible 
 is the most ancient work in a Teutonic lan- 
 guage ; but fragments only are extant. 
 
 XJlpianus, Domitius {d. 228), Eoman 
 juiist; friend and minister of Alexander 
 Severus, was muidered in a mutiny excited 
 by the reforms he had, as praetorian prefect, 
 introduced. Excerpts from his works are in 
 the JJigest. 
 
 Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden {b. 
 1656, d. 1693), daughter of Frederick LEI. of 
 Denmark, and wife of Charles XI. of 
 Sweden, by whom she became the mother of 
 Charles XII. and Ulrica. 
 
 Ulrica Eleonora {d. 1741), her daughter; 
 married Fredeiick of Hesse- Cassel, and on 
 the death of Charles XII. came to the 
 throne of Sweden, but soon resigned in 
 favour of her consort. 
 
 Ulugh-Begh, or Olek Bek {d. 1449), Tatar 
 prince ; was put to death by his son after a 
 long reign. He left works on astronomy, 
 geography, and chronology. 
 
 Unger, Franz (J). 1800, d. 1870), Austrian 
 scientific writer, professor of botany at 
 Vienna ; visited Scandinavia and the East 
 for piu-poses of geological research, and was 
 author of Anatomic mid Fhysiologie der 
 Pjlanzen, Iconographia Rlantarum Fossilium, 
 and many other works. 
 
 Urban L, Pope {d. 230), was elected in 222. 
 
 Urban II. [Eudes] M. 1099), elected in 
 1088, when Bishop of Ostia; continued the 
 policy of Gregory VTI., and opposed the 
 Emperor Henry IV., who set up an anti- 
 pope against him, and took Rome ; convened 
 the Council of Clermont in 1095, at which 
 the first Crusade was proclaimed, and Philip 
 I. of France was excommunicated ; in 1098 
 made the Norman counts of Sicily apostolic 
 legates, and in the same year held the 
 Council of Bari. 
 
 Urban III. [Crivelli] {d. 1187), elected in 
 1085 ; opposed the usiu^ations of Bar- 
 bar ossa. 
 
 Urban IV. [Panthaleon] (d. 1264), elected
 
 Urb 
 
 (710) 
 
 Vai 
 
 in 1261, instituted the feast of Corpus 
 Christi, and increased the number of car- 
 dinals. 
 
 Urban V. [Guillaume de Grimoard] {b. 
 1302, (/. 1370), elected in 1362 ; left Avignon 
 in 1367, and re-entered Rome with the em- 
 peror, but retiurued before his death ; sent 
 missiouai-ies to Tartary and Georgia, and 
 attempted to set on foot a new crusade. 
 
 Urban VL [Prignano] (rf. 1389), was 
 elected in 1378, when Ai'chbishop of Bari, 
 but soon deposed on account of his meditated 
 reforms, Clement VII. being set up as anti- 
 pope. The latter, however, was only recog- 
 nised by France, Naples, and Savoy, though 
 the struggle continued throughout the life- 
 time of Urban. 
 
 Urban VII. [Castagna] {b. 1521, d. 1590), 
 was elected September 15th, 1590, but only 
 reigned thirteen days. 
 
 Urban VIII. [MafEei Barberini] (b. 1568, d. 
 1644) was elected in 1623, founded the Col- 
 lege " De Propaganda Fide, " created many 
 cardinals, was a patron of the learned, and 
 published some poems. He suppressed the 
 Jesuits and condemned Jansenius. 
 
 Ure, Andrew (b. 1778, d. 1857), Scotch 
 chemist ; became Andersouiau professor at 
 Glasgow in 1806, published in 1821 his Dic- 
 tionary of Chemistry, and in 1839 Dictionary 
 of Arts, Mamfactures, and Mines, being 
 also author of other scientific works. 
 
 Urfe, Honors d' {b. 1567, d. 1624), French 
 writer ; author of the romance, L'Astree 
 (1610), which has been frequently trans- 
 lated ; served as a soldier in the wars of the 
 League. 
 
 Urquhart, David {b. 1805, d. 1877), Scotch 
 Eussophobist politician and writer ; author 
 of Progress of Russia in the West, North, 
 and Soifth (1853), and other works; re- 
 presented Stafford in ParHament fi'om 1847 
 to 1852, and opposed Lord Pahnerston's 
 
 policy. He introduced the Turkish bath 
 into England. 
 
 Urqubajt, or Urchard, Sir Thomas (17th 
 century), philologist; author of Logopan- 
 dekteision: or, an Introduction to the Universal 
 Language, and of a translation of Rabelais. 
 
 Urquijo, Luis de {b. 1768, d. 1817), Spanish 
 statesman ; abolished slavery, and introduced 
 vaccmation into Spain ; was foreign minister 
 (1798-1800), after which he was imprisoned 
 by the Inquisition, but in 1808 became 
 secretary of state. 
 
 Urraca, Queen of Castile and Leon (rf. 
 1126), by her marriage vdth Alfonso I. of 
 Aragou imited that crovra to those of 
 Castile and Leon, but afterwards made war 
 on her husband and excluded liim from 
 Castile. She also quarrelled with her son 
 and her sister, Theresa of Portugal. 
 
 Ursinus, anti-pope ; opposed St. Damasus 
 in 366, and was subsequently banished by 
 Valentinian I. in 385. 
 
 Ursinus, Zacharias {b. 1534, d. 1583), 
 Silesian reformer ; went with Melancthon to 
 the conference of Worms, and drew up the 
 
 Heidelberg Catechism. 
 
 Ussher, James {b. 1580, d. 1656), Irish 
 divine; became Bishop of Meath in 1620, 
 and four years later Archbishop of Armagh. 
 His chief work was Annates Veteris et Novi 
 Testainenti (1650-54), the author, by Crom- 
 well's order, being buried in Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 Uwins, Thomas {b. 1782, d. 1857), EngUsh 
 painter ; was some time secretary of the 
 Water Colour Society, and from 1847 to 
 1855 keeper of the National Gallery, Lon- 
 don, where are three of his pictures. He 
 became R.A. in 1838. 
 
 Uzziah, or Azariah, King of Judah, reigned 
 808 B.o. to 766. 
 
 Vahl, Martin (J. 1749, d. 1804), Norwe- 
 gian botanist, held chairs at Copenhagen ; 
 wrote fiymbolce Botanicce, and continued 
 Flora Danica. 
 
 VaiUant, Jean Baptiste {b. 1790, d. 1872), 
 marshal of France ; served in the Napo- 
 leonic wars, and was made prisoner in 1813, 
 but was present at Waterloo, and was sent 
 to Algeria in 1830 and 1834. He became 
 field-marshal after the coup-d'' etat of 1851, 
 was war minister 1854-9, and, having 
 
 served in Italy, was in 1860 made minister 
 I of the house of the emperor. 
 
 ; Valllant, Jean Foi {b. 1632, d. 1706), 
 j numismatist, was taken by the Algerines, 
 and remained a slave for some months; 
 and when again chased by corsairs, swal- 
 lowed the medals he had ^vith him. He 
 afterwards travelled in Persia and Egypt 
 collecting. 
 
 VaiUant. S6bastien {b. 1669, d. 1722),
 
 Val 
 
 (711) 
 
 Van 
 
 botajiist, whose chief work was Botanicon 
 Farisiense. 
 
 Valdes, Juan de {d. 1540), Spanish theo- 
 logian ; retii'ed to Naples to escape the 
 Inquisition, where, after his death, his 
 followers were persecuted. His chief work 
 was his Hundred and Ten Considerations 
 (translated by Nicholas Ferrar). 
 
 Valens, Flavius {b. 328, d. 378), Emperor 
 of Rome, a Pannoniaii by birth ; reigned in 
 the East while his brother ruled in the West, 
 and was killed in a revolt of the Goths. 
 
 Valentine ('2nd century), Egyptian theo- 
 logian ; founded a Gnostic sect at Rome, 
 and obtained many adherents in the East. 
 
 Valentinian I., Emperor of Rome [b. 321, 
 d. 375), was declared Emperor in 3Gi, and 
 shared his power with his brother, Valens ; 
 carried on wars with the Gauls, and was kiUed 
 in a campaign against the QuadL 
 
 Valentinian II. {d. 392), his son, reigned 
 with Gratian till 383 ; was deposed by Maxi- 
 mus but restored by Theodosius, and was 
 finally assassinated. 
 
 Valentinian III. {b. 419, d. 455), was pro- 
 claimed in 425. During his reign Britain 
 was abandoned, and Italy invaded by Attila. 
 The Emperor having caused Aetius to be 
 killed was himself ultimately murdered. 
 
 Valerianus, Publius, Emperor of Rome, 
 WIS proclaimed by the army in Rhastia in 
 2 j4, but defeated in 260 by Sapor, King of 
 Pevsi.i. and imprisoned for life. 
 
 Valerius Maximus ^Ist century), Latin 
 writer, author of Be I'actis Dictisque 3Iemo- 
 rabilibiiy, one of the first books printed. 
 
 Valette, Jean Parisot de la {b. 1494, d. 
 1568), gi-and master of the Knights of St. 
 John, repulsed an attack on Malta by the 
 Sultan Solyraan in 1565, and founded the 
 town of Valetta. 
 
 Valla, Lorenzo (d. circa 1457), Italian 
 writer, disproved the genuineness of the 
 donation of Constantine, and carried on con- 
 troversies with Poggio and other scholars. 
 Besides several philosoj)hical books and a 
 History of Ferdinand of Arngon, he wTote 
 Elegantice Sermonis Latini, his chef-d'ceuvre. 
 
 VaUance, or Valiancy, Charles (b. 1721, 
 d. 1812), British officer; made a survey of 
 Ireland, and published an Irish grammar 
 and dictionary. 
 
 Valle, Pietro della {h. 1586, d. 1652), 
 ItaUan traveller ; visited Persia, Arabia, 
 and Egypt, and published Viaggi descritti 
 in Lettere Familiari. 
 
 Valli^re, Louise, Duchesse de la {b. 1644, 
 d. 1710), mistress of Louis XIV., by whom 
 
 she had four children. She was originally 
 maid of honour to Henrietta, Duchess of 
 Orleans, and when superseded by Madame 
 de Montespan took the veil. 
 
 VaUisneri, Antonio {b. 1661, d. 1730), 
 ItaUan physician, professor of medicine at 
 Padua and F.R.S. A genus of plants bears 
 his name, and his Opera Fisico-Mediche ap- 
 peared in 1727. 
 
 Valpy, Richard {b. lloA,d. 1836), English 
 scholar, head-master of Reading grammar 
 school, published Greek and Latin gram- 
 mars, which were long in use. His son, 
 Abbaham John {d. 1854), edited the Belphin 
 Latin Classics. 
 
 Valsalva, Antonio Maria (J. 1666, <^.1703), 
 Italian physician, president of the Institute 
 of Bologna and F.R.S. His great work was 
 De Aiire Humana Tractatus. 
 
 Vambery, Arminius {b. 1832), Hungarian 
 traveller, went through the deserts of the 
 Oxus to Khiva and Samarcand between 
 1861 and 1864, and became on his return 
 professor of Oriental languages at Pesth. 
 He several times visited England, where his 
 Travels and Adventures in Central Asia ap- 
 peared in 1864, and his life and Adventures 
 in 1883. He has written many other works. 
 
 Vanbrugh, Sir John (6. 1666, d. 1726), 
 architect and dramatist ; designed Blenheim 
 Palace and Castle Howard, and wrote The 
 Jielapse. The Frovoked Wife, The Confederacy, 
 and other comedies. 
 
 Van Buren, Martin {b. 1792, d. 1862), 
 American statesman, supported the war 
 against Great Britain, and was elected 
 senator in 1821, and president 1837. 
 
 Vancouver, George {d. 1798), British 
 sailor ; was with Cook in his second and 
 third voyages, and in 1791 was named com- 
 mander of an expedition to ascertain the 
 means of communication between the North 
 Pacific and the North Atlantic. Vancouver's 
 Voyage was published three years later, and 
 his name was given to an island on the 
 coast surveyed by him. 
 
 Vandamme, Dominique (b. 1771, d. 1830), 
 French general; after serving throughout 
 the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, was 
 captured at Kuhn in 1813, and sent to Siberia. 
 He returned, however, in the next year, re- 
 joined Napoleon, and offered to defend Paris 
 after Waterloo, but was banished at the re- 
 storation, and lived in America till 1824. 
 
 VanderbUt, ComeHus (b. 1794, d. 1877), 
 American millionaire ; was successively a 
 New York ferryman, captain of a steamer, 
 and a hotel proprietor. He made the 
 greater ])art of his fortune by his steain- 
 Uuers, aud by railway speculations. His
 
 Von 
 
 ( 712 ) 
 
 Van 
 
 son, William (i. 1821, d. 1885), greatly- 
 increased the fortune left to him, and was 
 for a time the richest man in the world. 
 
 VaJi der Heist. {See Heist.] 
 
 Van der Neer, Aart {b. circa 1619), Dutch 
 marine painter, several of whose works are 
 in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Vandervelde, Willem (h. 1610, d. 1693), 
 painter, called "the Old," to distinguish 
 him from his son, was born at Leyden, but 
 came to England, and was pensioned by 
 Charles II. He excelled in the delineation 
 of marine subjects, being present at several 
 battles between the English and the Dutch 
 for the purposes of his art. 
 
 Vandervelde, "Willem {b. 1633, d. 1707), 
 his son, was born at Amsterdam, and came 
 with his father to England. He also excelled 
 Lq sea-pieces, of which the National Gallery, 
 London, holds two specimens. 
 
 Vander Werfif, Adrian (b. 1659, d. 1722), 
 Dutch historical painter, pupil of Van der 
 Neer. Many of his pictures are at Munich. 
 
 Van der Wey den, Eoger(rf. 1464), Flemish 
 painter of the school of Van Eyck. His 
 Deposition in the Tomb is in the National 
 Gallery, London, which also possesses an 
 Ecce Homo and three other pieces from the 
 hand of another artist of the name, who 
 died in 1529. 
 
 Van de Weyer, Sylvain (i. 1802, d. 1874), 
 Belgian statesman ; was prominent in the 
 movement for separation from Holland, and 
 became the first foreign minister of the 
 new kingdom. He was also twice ambassador 
 in London, and was minister of the interior 
 from 1835 to 1849. He died in London. 
 
 Van Diemen, Antoni {b. 1593, d. 1645), 
 Dutch explorer, sailed on five voyages of 
 discovery, finding Van Diemen's Land. 
 
 Vandyck, Sir Anthony (b. 1599, d. 1641), 
 portrait painter, after studying under Ru- 
 bens visited Italy and England, and in 1631 
 was made royal painter by Charles I. and 
 knighted. Several of his works are in the 
 National Gallery, London, and his Cru- 
 cifixion is at St. Martin's, Ghent. 
 
 Vane, Sir Henry (i. 1612, d. 1662), re- 
 pubhcan and Puriten ; became governor of 
 Massachusetts about 1635, but soon returned 
 to England, entered Parliament, and was 
 appointed treasurer of the navy. He took 
 an active part against Strafford, and was the 
 principal mover of the Covenant in England, 
 and the Self-Deuying Ordinance. Although 
 he was not one of the regicides, he was 
 beheaded at the Restoration on this ground. 
 
 Van Eyck. \See Eyck.] 
 
 Van Eelmont. [See Helmont.] 
 
 Vanhomrigh, Hester {d. 1723) [Vanessa], 
 pupil and triendof Swift; died of grief be- 
 cause he was unwilling to marry her. 
 
 Van Huysum. \_See Huysum.] 
 
 Vanini, Giulio Cesare Q>. 1585, d. 1619), 
 Italian pliilosopher ; entered the Carmelite 
 order, and acquired a great reputation as a 
 preacher ; came to England, and oifered to 
 join the Church, but was thrown into the 
 Tower (1614). After publishing at Paris his 
 Be Admirandis Natur<B, Itegmce, I)eaeque, 
 Murtalium Arranis (1616), he was con- 
 demned by the Inquisition as an atheist, and 
 burnt at Toulouse. 
 
 Vanloo, Jean Baptiste {b. 1684, d. 1745), 
 French painter, born at Aix, obtained a 
 high reputation both in France and England 
 as a portrait painter. His brother, Chaeles 
 (d. 1765), became painter to the king and 
 director of the Academy, and was invited 
 by Frederick to Berlin. 
 
 Van Mander, Caxel {b. 1548, d. 1606), 
 Flemish writer and artist, pupU of Lucas de 
 Heere; foimded a school of painting at 
 Haarlem, and wi'ote Het Schilder £ock 
 [Lives of the Painters), 
 
 Van MUdert, William (b. 1765, d. 1836), 
 English divine, author of Life of Waterland ; 
 became Bishop of Llaudaff m 1819, Dean of 
 St. Paul's in 1820, and Bishop of Durham 
 in 1826. 
 
 Vanni, Francesco {d. 1609), Italian painter 
 in the style of Barocci. His St. Raymond 
 Walking on the Sea is at Siena, and The 
 Scourging of Christ and Death of Cecilia are 
 at Rome . His two sons were artists of repute. 
 
 Van OS, Pieter Gerard (*. 1776, d. 1839), 
 Dutch painter and engraver in the manner 
 of Paul Potter ; died at the Hague. 
 
 Vanossa. [See Alexander VI.] 
 
 Vansittart, Nicholas {b. 1766, d. 1831), 
 EngUsh statesman (created Lord Bexhill in 
 1823) ; was Chief Secretary for Ireland 
 1805-6; Secretary to the Treasury in the 
 Grenville Ministry ; and Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer 1812-1823. 
 
 Van Somer, Paul [b. 1576, d. 1621), Dutch 
 portrait painter, lived in England after 
 1606, and executed portraits of James I., 
 Prince Henry, Bacon, and many others. 
 
 Van Sweiten, Gerard [b. 1700, d. 1772), 
 physician, bom at Leyden ; laid the founda- 
 tion of a medical school at Vienna, and 
 wrote Commentary on the Aphorisms of 
 Boerhaave, whose pupil he had been. 
 
 Vanucci, Andrea. [See Andrea del Sarto.] 
 
 Vanvitem, Luigi {b. 1700, d. 1773), Italian
 
 'Vap 
 
 (713) 
 
 Van 
 
 architect of Flemisli exti-action, became 
 architect of St. Peter's, Rome, in 1726. His 
 chief work was the palace of CaSerta, which 
 he built for the King of Naples. 
 
 Vapereau, Louis Gustavo {b. 1819), French 
 biographer, was some time secretary to 
 Victor Cousin, and in 1877 became inspector- 
 general of public instruction. He edited the 
 JJietionnaire JJniiersd des Contemporains, 
 and Dictionnaire Univer&el des Litteratures. 
 
 Vargas, Luis de (b. 1502, d. 1568), Spanish 
 painter, whose works are chiefly to be found 
 in his birthplace, Seville. 
 
 Varius Rufus, Lucius (rf. 9), Latin poet, 
 friend ox Horace and Virgil; wrote a 
 biography of the latter which is lost, only 
 fragments of his works being extant. 
 
 Varley, Comehus (6. 1781, d. 1873), 
 water-colour painter, brother of John ; was 
 the inventor of the graphic telescope. 
 
 Varley, John (i. 1778, d. 1842), English 
 painter, one of the founders of the Water 
 Colour Society, to whose exhibitions he 
 sent frequent contributions. Linnell and 
 William Hunt were among his pupils. He 
 wrote a practical Treatise oti Perspective, 
 and other works. 
 
 Vamliageii von Ense, Karl August {b. 
 1785, d. 18.3S), German historian and diplo- 
 matist ; entered the Austrian army, and was 
 wounded at Wagram, and served with the 
 Russians during the war of Liberation. In 
 1814 he entered the Prussian diplomatic 
 eervice, and was charged with several 
 missions, being secretary to Hardenberg at 
 the Congress of Vienna. His chief works 
 were Biographische Benkmale, Denkwiirdiff- 
 knten and Kahel. 
 
 Varro, Marcus Terentius {h. 116 B.C., d. 
 26 B.C.), Latin writer; took part with 
 Pompey, but made his peace with Caesar, 
 and enjoyed the favour of Augustus. He 
 wrote 490 works, of whicli two only, De Re 
 Jiusticd, and De Liiu/"' Lntina, are extant. 
 Augustine made use of his Antiquitatum 
 Libri, the lost chef-d'ceuvre at Varro. 
 
 Varthema, Ludovico di (16th century), 
 Venetian traveller, the narrative of whose 
 travels in Asia and the East Indies appeared 
 in 1510, an English version being published 
 in 1863 by Mr. Winter Jones. It contains 
 the earliest mention of Australia. 
 
 Varus, Publius Quintilius («?. 9), Roman 
 general, whose name is remembered on 
 account of his defeat by the Germans under 
 Arminius, and the despairing exclamation of 
 AuguBtufl in reference to it. 
 
 Vasa. [See Gustavua Vasa.] 
 
 Vasari, Giorgio (A. 1511, d. 1574), Italian 
 
 painter and writer, pupil and imitator of 
 Michelangelo, left some portraits of merit, 
 and was skilled as a goldsmith and architect, 
 but is chiefly remembered by his Lives oj 
 the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and 
 Architects, first published in 1550, and 
 frequently translated and added to. 
 
 Vasco di Gama. [-Se;* Gama.] 
 
 Vataces, John Ducas {d. 1254), Emperor 
 of Nicaea, successor of Theodore Lascaris 
 and husband of his daughter Irene, de- 
 feated his rivals, formed a fleet but was 
 unsuccessful in his attempts on Constanti- 
 nople. In 1237 the German Emperor 
 Eiederick II. formed an alliance with him. 
 
 Vattel, Emmerich von (b. 1714, d. 1767), 
 Swiss publicist ; after leaving the court of 
 Frederick the Great became minister of 
 Augustus II. of Saxony. His chief work was 
 Droit des Gens : ou, Principes de la Zoi 
 Naturelle Appliqttes a la Conduite aux 
 Affaires des Nations et des Souverains, 
 
 Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre de (b. 1633, 
 d. 1707), marshal of France; served first in 
 the Spanish army, but having been made 
 prisoner entered the French service, and 
 became chief engineer. He conducted fifty- 
 three sieges, and erected thirty-three 
 fortresses. At Maestricht (1672) he intro- 
 duced the system of parallels, Lille (1667), 
 Mons (1691), and Charleroi (1694), being, 
 among other places, invested by him. He 
 left memoirs in manuscript, called Mes 
 Oisivetis. 
 
 Vaughan, Charles John, D.D. {b. 1816), 
 divine, senior classic in 1838, was head- 
 master of Harrow 1844-59 ; vicar of Don- 
 caster 1860-69 ; became master of the 
 Temple in 1869, and Dean of Llandaif in 
 1879, but refused further promotion. He 
 published notes on several of the Epistles 
 and some volumes of sermons. 
 
 Vaughan, Henry, ' ' the Silurist " (,d. 1693) , 
 Enghsh poet, author of Olor Iseanus {The 
 Swan of the Usk), Silex Scintillans, and some 
 devotional works. His brother, Thouas {d. 
 1665), wrote some works on magic. 
 
 Vaughan, Herbert, D.D. (A. 1832), was 
 consecrated Romanist Bishop of Salford in 
 1S72, and in 1892 became Archbishop of 
 Westminster. 
 
 Vaughan, Robert {d. 1868), Nonconformist 
 divine ; established the British Quarterly 
 Bevieiv, and wrote Life and Opinions of John 
 de Wycliffe, Memorials of the Stuart 
 Dynasty, etc. 
 
 Vaulabelle, Achille de (J. 1799, d. 1879), 
 French historian and journalist ; author of 
 L'Histoire des Deux Restaurations, and other 
 works.
 
 Vau 
 
 (714) 
 
 Ver 
 
 Vauvenargues, Luc de Clapiers, Marquis 
 de {b. 1715, d. 1747), French writer, served 
 some time with the ai-my in Italy and 
 Germany. He wrote Intruductiun a la Con- 
 naissance de VEsprit Humain suivie de Jie- 
 Jiexions et de Maximes. 
 
 VeccMetta, II [Lorenzo di Pietro] (b. 1412, 
 rf.l480), Italian jiaiuter, sculptor, and archi- 
 tect, most of whose works are at Siena. 
 
 Vega, Garcilasso de la. \_See Garcilasso.] 
 
 Vega, Lopez de la (b. 1562, d. 1635), 
 Spanish poet, wrote his Hermosura de 
 Angelica while serving with the Armada. 
 He was also author of Arcadia and numerous 
 plays written after his entry into the 
 Franciscan order. 
 
 Veitch, John, LL.D. (6. 1829), philo- 
 sophical writer, assisted Sir W. Hamilton at 
 Edinburgh, and became professor of logic 
 at St. Andrews in 1860, and afterwards at 
 Glasgow. His chief works are a work on 
 Descartes (sixth edition, 1879), a memoir of 
 Sir W. Hamilton, Essays in Philosophy, and 
 History and Foetry of the Scottish Border 
 (1878). 
 
 Velasquez, Don Diego Rodriquez da 
 Silva {b. 1599, d. 1660), Spanish painter, 
 studied xmder Herrera the Elder and 
 Pacheco, and was named court painter 
 under Philip IV., who became his friend and 
 frequently employed him. Nearly all of his 
 works are at Madrid, but the National 
 Gallery, London, has several, including 
 Philip IV. Hunting the TFild Hoar, Adora- 
 tion of the Shepherds, and Or land'} Muerto. 
 He excelled in all kinds of subjects. 
 
 Velleius Paterculus (b. 19 b.o.), Roman 
 historical writer. 
 
 Venddme, Louis, Due de {b. 1654, d. 1712), 
 French general, a descendant of Henri IV. ; 
 took Barcelona in 1697, commanded in Italy 
 against the ImperiaUsts, and during the 
 Spanish Succession war was defeated at 
 Oudenarde, but won the battle of Villa - 
 viciosa (1710). 
 
 Vendramini, John (b. 1769, d. 1839), line- 
 engraver, born in Italy, studied some time 
 in England under Bartolozzi, and died in 
 London. His best work was the transcript of 
 Piombo's liaising of Lazarus. 
 
 Veneziano, Agostino (d. circa 1540), 
 Venetian engraver, whose chef-d'ceuvre ia 
 The Skeletons after Bandinelli. 
 
 Veneziano, Antonio {b. circa 1310, d. 
 1384), painter, from whose hand are three 
 tine frescoes in the Campo Santo, Pisa. 
 
 Veneziano, Domenico {b. 1420, d. 1476), 
 painter, two only of whose pictures (at 
 Florence) are now preserved. 
 
 Venius, or Van Veen, Otto {b. 1556, d. 
 1634), Dutch painter, was the master cf 
 Rubens. 
 
 Ventura, Joachim {b. 1792, d. 1861), 
 Italian preacher, called the " Bossuet of 
 Italy ; " became general of the Theatines in 
 183U, was friend of the Popes Leo XII. and 
 Pius IX. , preached the funeral sermon over 
 O'Connell, and attempted to organise an 
 Italian Confederacy under the Pope. He 
 was offered the presidency of the Assembly 
 at Rome in 1848, but declined it, and passed 
 his last years in France. 
 
 Verdi, Giuseppe {b. 1814), Italian com- 
 poser, son of an innkeeper, produced a 
 musical drama at La Scala, Milan, in 1839, 
 but first gained a name by his I Lombardi 
 (1843). He was a member of the Parma 
 Assembly in 1859, and was elected to the 
 Italian Parliament in 1861, becoming senator 
 in 1872. Among his operas may be named 
 Rigoletto (1851), II Trovatore (1853), La 
 Traviata (1854), Aida (1871), and Otello 
 (1887), Falstaf{\%'d2), etc. 
 
 Vere, Sir Francis {b. 1554, d. 1608), 
 English general; distinguished himself 
 against Spain in the Netherlands and at 
 Cadiz. A monument was erected to him in 
 "Westminster Abbey, and his Commentaries 
 appeared in 1657. His brother. Sir Hoeaoe 
 (d. 1635), succeeded to his command in the 
 Netherlands, and was created Lord Tilbury 
 by Charles I. 
 
 Verelst, Simon {b. 1664), Flemish flower 
 and fruit painter, obtained great popularity 
 in England. 
 
 Vergil, Polydore {d. 1555), English writer, 
 born in Italy, was the last collector of Peter's 
 pence in England, and in 1513 became Pre- 
 bendary of St. Paul's. He was author of 
 Historia Anglica — a work more valuable for 
 its Latin than its history. 
 
 Vergniaud, Pierre Victorin (b. 1753, d. 
 1793), French revolutionist, one of the chiefs 
 of the Gironde, by whose fall he suffered, 
 being sent to the guillotine by Robespierre. 
 He was a great orator. 
 
 Vennuyden, Sir Cornelius {d. after 1656), 
 Dutch engineer, came to England in 1621, 
 and was knighted for reclaiming Hatfield 
 Chase. He afterwards carried out the drain- 
 ing of Bedford Level, but did not himself 
 profit thereby. 
 
 Verne, Jules {b. 1828), French writer, 
 wrote several comedies, but is known chiefly 
 by his scientific romances. Twenty Thousand 
 Leagues under the Sea, Around the World in 
 Eighty Days, etc. 
 
 Vemet, Claude (6. 1714, d. 1789), French
 
 Ver 
 
 (715) 
 
 Vic 
 
 painter of sea-pieces, whose Castle of St. 
 Angelo is in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Vemet, Antoine Horace [Carle Vernet] 
 {b. IToS, d. 1835), son of Claude, excelled 
 in depicting battles and horses. Among his 
 works are Triumph of ^miiius Faulus and 
 Morning of the Battle of Austerlitz. 
 
 Vemet, Jean Horace [Horace Vemet] {b. 
 1789, d. 1863), son of Carle, received in- 
 struction from his father, and became 
 attached to the Bonaparte regime, fighting 
 for it at Clichy in 1815, and illustrating its 
 achievements. In 1828 he became director 
 of the school of art at Rome. Among his 
 pictures may be named Napoleon on the Eve 
 of fFaterloo, The Bridge of Areola, and The 
 Smalah of Abd-el-Kader Surprised. 
 
 Vernon, Edward (b. 1684, d. 1757), English 
 admiral ; took Porto Bello ia 1739, but failed 
 in the attempt on Carthagena in the fol- 
 lowing year. 
 
 Vernon, Robert {b. 1774, d. 1849), patron 
 of fine arts; presented the "Vernon Gallery " 
 to the British nation in 1847. 
 
 Veronese, Paolo [Cagliari] {b. 1532, d. 
 1588), Italian painter, was bom at Verona, 
 mad a study of Tiziano at Venice. His 
 Marriage at Cana, in the Louvre, and 
 Adoration of the Magi and Family of 
 JJarius at the Feet of Alexander, in the 
 National Gallery, London, are fine speci- 
 mens of his art. 
 
 Verres, Caius, was propraetor of Sicily 
 73-71 B.C., and was prosecuted by Cicero 
 for his cruelties there. 
 
 VerrocMo, Andrea del {b. 1432, d. 1488), 
 Italian sculptor and paiuter, was the master 
 of Leonardo da Vinci and Lorenzo di Credi. 
 He left many specimens of his sculpture at 
 Rome and Venice, but only one painting. 
 The Baptism, at Florence. 
 
 Vertue, George {b. 1684, d. 1756), English 
 engraver, executed prints for Rapin's His- 
 tory, and of portraits of Charles I., twelve 
 English poets, etc. He also collected 
 materials for a history of art vsx England, 
 which were utilised by Horace Walpole. 
 
 Vesalius, Andreas {b. 1514, d. 1564), 
 anatomist, bom at Brussels, accompanied 
 Charles V. in his campaigns as physician, 
 and also attended Philip II. He died in 
 Zante, where he had been wrecked on his 
 return from Jerusalem. His great work 
 was Be Corporis Ilumani Fabrica. 
 
 Vespasianus, Titus Flavius (6. 9, d. 79), 
 Emperor of Rome ; having served with dis- 
 tinction in Germany, Britain, and S}T^a, 
 was proclaimed emperor in 69, and reigned 
 ten years. 
 
 VespuccL \_See Amerigo.] 
 
 Vestris, Madame Lucia Elizabeth {b. 
 1797, d. l!:i54), English actress ; she was the 
 granddaughter of Bartolozzi, and made 
 her debut in 1815. Having, meanwhile, 
 been deserted by her first husband, she 
 came back to London in 1819, and 
 acted at Drury Lane, the Haymarket, 
 the Olympic, and other houses till her 
 retirement from the stage in 1854, her 
 Phoebe in Paul Pry being very popular. 
 In 1838 she married Charles Matthews, 
 the younger. This lady is not to be 
 confoimded with Maeie Dugazon Ves- 
 TEis, the French tragedienne, who died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Vezin, Hermann {b. 1829), actor, was bom 
 in America, and iu 1850 came to England. 
 Among his best parts have been Jacques, 
 Dan'l Druce, and Dr. Primrose. 
 
 Viardot-Garcia, PauUne {b. 1821), Italian 
 singer, daughter of Manuel Garcia and sis- 
 ter of Malibran, first appeared in London 
 in 1839 as Desdemona, and subsequently 
 visited all the chief Continental towns, re- 
 tiring in 1862. She composed an opera and 
 some songs. 
 
 Vice, Giovanni Battista (b. 1668, d. 1743), 
 Italian philosopher, whose chief work was 
 Fincipi di una JS'uova Scienza (1725). 
 
 Victor, Claude, Duo de Belluno (i. 1768, 
 d. 1841), marshal of France, was at first 
 a drummer-boy, but became general of 
 division in 1799. He distinguished himself 
 at Marengo, and received his baton after 
 Friedland, and gained some successes in 
 Spain, but lost the battles of Talavera (1809) 
 and Barossa (1811). He deserted Napoleon 
 in 1814, and was war minister from 1S21 to 
 1823. 
 
 Victor Amadeus II., King of Sardinia and 
 Duke of Savoy (i. 1666, d. 1732), renewed 
 the persecution of the Waldenses ; was recog- 
 nised as heir to the crown of Spain at the 
 Peace of Utrecht and was given Sicily, but 
 received Sardinia in exchange in 1720. He 
 abdicated in 1730, but soon after attempted 
 to resume the crown. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel II., first King of Italy 
 
 {b. 1820, d. 1878), became King of Sardinia 
 on the abdication of his father in 1849, ajid 
 immediately began to reorganise the kingdom 
 and to enforce toleration. He sent a con- 
 tingent during the war with Russia to help 
 the alHes in the Crimea, and in 1859 he se- 
 cured the alliance of France in his struggle 
 with Austria. The price agreed on was the 
 cession of Savoy and Nice, but the result 
 was the union of Italy under the ruler of 
 Sardinia. By the lielp of Prussia the libera- 
 tion of Venice was gained in 1866, and Roma
 
 Vic 
 
 (716) 
 
 Vin 
 
 ■was evacuated by the French in 1870. Victor 
 Emmanuel was called by his people " Re 
 Galanttwrno." 
 
 Victoria Alexandrlna, Queen of Great 
 Britain and EmiJiess of India (b. 1819), 
 daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth 
 son of George III., was crowned on June 28, 
 1837. She married, in 1840, Prince Albert 
 of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who died in 1861, 
 by whom she had nine children. The 
 chief events of the reign have been the 
 establishment of the penny post (1840), the 
 repeal of the Corn Laws (1846), the annexa- 
 tion of the Punjaub (1849), the Great Exhi- 
 bition (18.51), the Crimean war (1854-5), the 
 Indian Mutiny (1857-8), followed by the 
 assumption of sovereignty over India, the 
 second and third Reform Bills (1867 and 1884), 
 wars in Afghanistan, China, South Africa, 
 and Egypt, and the Fenian and Home Rule 
 agitations in Ireland. The jubilee of the 
 Queen's accession was celebrated in 1887. 
 Five attempts were made on her life, in 
 1840, 1842 (three), and 1882. 
 
 Vida, Marco Girolamo {b. 1490, d. 1567), 
 Bishop of Alba, and author of the Christiad, 
 a Latin poem. 
 
 Vien, Joseph, Comte (b. 1716, d. 1809), 
 French historical painter, whose chef-d'oeuvre 
 is the Freaching of St. Denis, in the church 
 of St. Roch, Paris. 
 
 Vigilantius, (5th century), presbyter of 
 Barcelona ; opposed asceticism, and was de- 
 nounced by Jerome. 
 
 Vigny, Alfred, Comte de {b. 1799, d. 1863), 
 French writer, author of Foemes Antiques et 
 Modernes (1826-37), Cinq-Mars, a romance 
 (1837), some plays, and Destinees (posthu- 
 mous poems). 
 
 Villani, Giovanni {d. 1348), Italian writer, 
 author of Istorie Fiorentine. which was first 
 printed in 1537. The author died of the 
 plague. His brother Matteo continued his 
 history. 
 
 Villari, Pasquale (b. 1827), Italian writer, 
 became professor of history at Pisa in 1859, 
 and at Florence in 1866. His chief works are 
 Snronarola and his Times (translated 1863), 
 and Machiavelli and his Times (1877-82), 
 which has also been translated. 
 
 Villars, Louis, Due de {b. 1653, d. 1734), 
 marshal of France, served in his youth under 
 Conde and Turenne, and after being twice 
 ambassador at Vienna, suppressed the Cami- 
 sard rising (1705), but was defeated by 
 Marlborough at Ramillies and Malplaquet. 
 He took Denain in 1712, but saw no more 
 service till the year of his death, when he 
 commanded for a short time in Italy. 
 
 Villeliardouin, Geoffroy de {d. circa 1213), 
 
 French historian, negotiated an alliance with 
 Venice in 1199, and went on the crusade 
 which followed, describing it in his Histoire 
 de la Frise de Constantinople par les Franqais 
 et les Venitiens. 
 
 Villemain, Abel Francois (*. 1790, d. 
 1870), French writer ; assisted Guizot at the 
 Sorbonne, and became professor of eloquence, 
 and was minister of public instruction from 
 1839 to 1844. Among his works are Cours 
 de la Litterature Fran(;aise (1828-38), and 
 Souvenirs d'Histoire et de Litterature. 
 
 VUleneuve, Pierre Sylvestre de {b. 1763, 
 d. 1806), French admiral ; commanded the 
 right wing at Aboukir, and plaimed the 
 invasion of England in 1804, being given 
 the command of the fleet. He was defeated 
 by Sir R. Calder off Ferrol and then, 
 against his will, fought the battle of Tra- 
 falgar, after which he was for some months 
 a prisoner in England. His death was prob- 
 ably due to suicide caused by his disgrace. 
 
 Villeroy, Francois, Due de(*. 1643,fi?. 1730), 
 marshal of France, was defeated at Ramillies, 
 and elsewhere showed his incompetence. 
 An ancestor of his, who died in 1617, was a 
 minister of state under Francis I., Charles 
 IX., Henri III., and Henri IV. 
 
 Villiers. \_See Buckingham.] 
 
 Villiers, Right Hon. Charles Pelham {b. 
 1802), politician ; was first elected for Wolver- 
 hampton in 1835, and took a leading part in 
 the Anti-Corn Law agitation. He was 
 named Judge Advocate -General in 1853, 
 and was president of the Poor Law Board 
 from 1859 to 1866. 
 
 Vincent. [See St. Vincent.] 
 
 Vincent, Charles Howard {b. 1849), was 
 director of Criminal Investigations from 
 1878 to 1884, and entered Parhament in 1885. 
 
 Vincent, Sir Edgar, K.C.M.G. {b. 1857), 
 his brother, became financial adviser to the 
 Khedive in 1883, and afterwards governor of 
 the Ottoman bank. 
 
 Vincent de Paul, Saint {b. 1576, d. 1660), 
 French philanthropist; was captured and 
 made a slave by Tunisian pirates, but was 
 afterwards almoner to Marguerite de Valois 
 and tutor to Cardinal de Retz. He founded 
 in 1617 the Confrerie de Charite, reformed 
 the galley-slaves, and in 1634 instituted the 
 Sceurs de Charite. 
 
 Vinci, Leonardo da (b. 1452, d. 1519), 
 Italian painter and sculptor, entered the 
 service of the Duke of Milan, and executed 
 there an equestrian statue of Francesco 
 Sforza ; studied anatomy with Delia Torre, 
 and painted his Last Supper about 1497. 
 In 1502 he became architect to Caesar
 
 Vin 
 
 (717) 
 
 Vol 
 
 Borgia, and was afterwards painter to Louis 
 XII. and Francis I. of France. Among 
 his other great works are the Vierge aux 
 Mockers and La Joconde in the Louvre. 
 
 Viner, Charles {b. 1680, d. 1756), lawyer, 
 author of Genei'al Abridgment of the Laws 
 of England ; founded the Vinerian professor- 
 ship at Oxford. 
 
 Vinet, Alexandre (A. 1797, d. 1847), Swiss 
 writer, seceded from the Protestant Chm'ch, 
 and wrote Essai sur la Manifestation des 
 Convictions Jieligieyises, et sur la Separation 
 de VEglise et de VEtat, Discours sur Quelques 
 Sujets Religieux (^Vital Christianity), and 
 some Uterary works. 
 
 VioUet-le-Duc, Eugene [b. 1814, d. 1879), 
 French architect and writer ; restored Notre 
 Dame, La Sainte Chapelle, and other 
 chiu-ches, and published Military Archi- 
 tecture in the Middle Ages, Restoration, 
 and other works. He was a strong re- 
 publican, and commanded a body of engineers 
 at the siege of Paris. 
 
 Viotti, Giovanni {b. 1753, d. 1824), violin- 
 ist; was very successful at Paris and in 
 England, but was compelled to leave the 
 latter country on suspicion of being a spy. 
 He returned in 1795, and in 1818 became 
 director of the Paris opera. He composed 
 concertos in A, B, C, and D. 
 
 Vircho-w, Rudolf {b. 1821), German patho- 
 logist; after being involved in trouble on 
 account of his share in the movement of 
 1848, obtained chairs of pathological ana- 
 tomy at Wurzburg and Berlin (1856), 
 having recently published his Cellular Path- 
 ology. Three years later he returned to 
 politics, and ultimately became leader of 
 the Liberal opposition in the Prussian 
 Assembly, and was challenged to a duel 
 in 1865 by Bismarck. In 1878 he retired 
 from public Hfe. He was much consulted 
 during the iUness of the Emperor y^ed- 
 erick. 
 
 Virgil [Publius Virgilius Maro] {b. 70 
 B.C., d. 19 B.C.), Roman poet, bom near 
 Mantua, found patrons in Maecenas and 
 Augustus, who restored to him his estate. 
 He died at Bnmdusium on his return 
 from a visit to Greece. His chief works 
 were The Eclogues or Bucolics, The Georgics, 
 and the ^neid, the latter of which has 
 been translated by, among others, Dryden, 
 Conington, and William Morris. 
 
 Vlsconti, Matteo, was named vicar of 
 the Empire in Lombardy in 1294, and suc- 
 ceeded nis uncle Ottone in the sovereignty, 
 which was held by the family till 1447. 
 
 Vlsconti, Ottone (d. 1295), was forced by 
 Urban IV. on the people of Milan as 
 archbishop, and after a long struggle 
 
 with his rival, Delia Torre, became lord 
 of Milan. 
 
 I Vissclier, Cornelius {b. 1629, d. 1658), 
 , Dutch engraver; executed a great number 
 i of prints, which were catalogued in 1863 
 by W. Smith, F.S.A. 
 
 Vitellitis, Aulus (i. 15, d. 69), Emperor of 
 Rome, was raised to the purple by the 
 German legions in January, 69 ; but though 
 his rival, Otho, was defeated, his own army 
 was soon after routed, and its leader put to 
 . death at Rome. 
 
 Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus (1st century), 
 Latin writer on architecture, whose De 
 Architecturd has been frequently trans- 
 lated. 
 
 Vivian, Richard Hussey, Lord {b. 1775, 
 d. 1842), English general, distinguished 
 
 j himself in the Peninsvda war, especially 
 at Conmna and Toulouse. He after- 
 wards entered Parliament, became master- 
 
 i general of the ordnance in 1835, and a peer 
 
 I in 1841. 
 
 Vogel, Sir Julius {b. 1835), colonial states- 
 
 I man ; after being head of the government 
 
 , of Victoria for many years, went to New 
 
 i Zealand in 1869, held ofiRce under Fox and 
 
 Waterhouse, and was prime minister in 
 
 succession to the latter. From his resigna- 
 
 [ tion in 1876 till 1881 he was agent-general, 
 
 and from 1884 to 1887 again held office in 
 
 New Zealand. He published in 1890 the 
 
 I novel A.D. 2000. 
 
 Vogt, Karl (i. 1817), Swiss writer, pro- 
 ; fessor of natural history at Geneva, and 
 j author of Lessons on Man, his Place in 
 I Creation, Science and Superstition, and 
 
 I several similar works. 
 
 I 
 
 Vogii6, Vicomte Melchior de (b. 1848), 
 French writer ; author of Histoires Orientales, 
 Le Fils de Pierre le Grand, etc. ; was elected 
 to the Academie in 1888. 
 
 Volney, Constantino, Comte de (b. 1757, d. 
 1820), French traveller; was a member of 
 the States- General, and was imprisoned 
 during the Terror, but ennobled by Napoleon 
 and the Bourbons. His chief works were 
 Voijiige en Syrie et en Egypte, and Ruins .- or 
 Mt'dddtions oti the Jievolutiom of Empire. 
 
 Volpato, Giovanni (b. 1733, d. 1802), 
 Italian engraver; author of Principles of 
 Design; was father-in-law and teacher of 
 Raphael Morghen. 
 
 Volta, Alessaudro {b. 1745, d. 1826), 
 natural philosopher ; was for thirty years 
 professor at Pavia, and became F.R.S. 
 Besides making other discoveries, he in- 
 vented the voltaic pile or electrical column. 
 
 Voltaire (6. 1694, d. 1778), whose original
 
 Vol 
 
 (718) 
 
 Wag 
 
 name was Fraii9ois Marie Arouet, was born 
 at Paris, educated by the Jesuits, aud became 
 a, protege oi Niuon de I'Enclos. In 1716-17 
 he was imprisoned in the Bastille on suspicion 
 of writing a libel on the king, and Aedipe 
 was produced in 1718. After another im- 
 prisonment he went to England, where, in 
 17-8, the Henriade was published. He 
 escaped prosecution by disavowing his 
 writings, and in 1736 began to correspond 
 \yiih Frederick the Great. After the rise of 
 the Pompadour he secured a reception at 
 court and at the Academie. In 1750 he went 
 to the court of BerHn, where he stayed three 
 years, the result being a historical quarrel. 
 Soon after this he. settled at Feruey, where 
 the rest of his life was spent, but before his 
 death he visited Paris, and was received as 
 a popular hero. He wrote numerous plays 
 and romances (Oandide, Zadig), etc., Histoire 
 de Charles XII., Steele de Louis XIV., and 
 other historical works, and Essai sur les 
 Mceurs et P Esprit des Nations. 
 
 Volterra, Daniele de {b. 1509, d. 1566), 
 Italian artist, pupil of Michelangelo. His 
 masterpiece, Trie Bescent from the Cross, was 
 torn by the French, who attempted to take 
 it from Trinita de Monti at Borne. 
 
 Vortigem, British chief ; invited the 
 Saxons to help him against the Picts and 
 Scots, who, however, joined the enemy. 
 
 Vos, Simon de {b. 1603), Dutch painter, 
 hunting- pieces being his speciality, belonged 
 to a well-known family of artists. 
 
 VOSB, Johann Heinrich {b. 1751, d. 1826), 
 German poet, a native of Mecklenburg. His 
 best work was Zwue (1795). He translated 
 parts of Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Theocritus, 
 and other writers, and also the whole of 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Vossius, Gerard {b. 1557, d. 1649), Dutch 
 philologist, friend of Grotius ; was director 
 of the colleges of Dort and Leyden and 
 Prebendary of Canterbury. He wrote Aris- 
 tarchus, a treatise on gi'ammar, and other 
 works. Isaac Vossius, Canon of Windsor 
 (*. 1618, d. 1689), was his son. 
 
 Vries, Hans Fredeman de {b. 1527, d. 1604), 
 Dutch painter, celebrated for his mastery 
 of perspective. 
 
 Vroom, Hendrik Comelis (b. 1566), Dutch 
 marine painter ; drew the designs for the 
 tapestry in the House of Lords, illustrative 
 of the defeat of the Armada. 
 
 w 
 
 Waagen, Gustav Friedrich (J. 1794, d. 
 1868), German writer, professor of art-his- 
 tory at Berlin. His chief work was Kunst- 
 werke tmd Eiinstler in England and Paris, 
 of which there are several EngUsh versions. 
 
 Wace {d. circa 1184), Anglo-Norman 
 poet, made Canon of Bayeux by Henry 11. ; 
 was author of the Roman du Hou and Ze 
 Brut d'Angleterre. 
 
 Wace, Henry, D.D. (6. 1836), theologian, 
 became Prebendary of St. Paul's in 1881 
 and principal of King's College, London, 
 in 1883 ; edited with Dr. W. Smith the 
 Dictionary of Christian Biography, and pub- 
 lished Boyle and Bampton Lectures (1874 
 and 1879). 
 
 Waddin^on, William Henry {b. 1826), 
 French statesman of English parentage and 
 education (Chancellor's medallist at Cam- 
 bridge in 1849, and rowed in the race with 
 Oxford) ; after publishing some works on 
 classical archaeology, entered public life in 
 1871 as a supporter of Thiers, and in 1876 
 became minister of public instruction. He 
 was afterwards minister of foreign affairs 
 (1877), French plenipotentiary at Berlin 
 
 (1878), president of the Council (1879), and 
 
 in 1883 became ambassador in England. 
 
 Wade, Sir Thomas Francis, K.C.B. {b. 
 1818), became British minister in China in 
 1871, having previously been attached to 
 the Elgin mission (1857-60), to which his 
 knowledge of Chinese was of great service. 
 He published in 1867 Tzu-Erh Chi (Fro- 
 gressire Chinese Course). 
 
 Wadham, Nicholas {b. 1536, d. 1609), 
 foiinded the college at Oxford which bears 
 his name, and which was finished in 1613. 
 
 Wagenaar, Jan (b. 1709, d. 1773), Dutch 
 writer, historiographer of Amsterdam ; wrote 
 a History of Holland (in twenty-one volumes), 
 and other works. 
 
 Waghorn, Thomas {b. 1800, d. 1850), 
 British naval oificer, projected the overland 
 route to India. He ruined himself in the 
 undertaking, but received a pension shortly 
 before his death. 
 
 Wagner, Wilhelm Richard {b. 1813, d. 
 1883), German composer, bom at Leipzig, 
 was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden, 
 from 1842 to 1849, during which time were
 
 Wall 
 
 (719) 
 
 Wal 
 
 produced Eienzi, Der Fliegende Hollander 
 (1843), and Tannhaiiser (1845). He was 
 obliged to leave Dresden for political 
 reasons, and Lohengrin was first heard at 
 Zurich in 1850. From 1864 he enjoyed the 
 patronage of Ludwig II. of Bavaria, under 
 whose auspices Tristan und Isolde, JJie 
 Meistersinger, etc. , were produced. Parsifal 
 was his last work. Wagner came to Lon- 
 don in 1877, and died in Italy. He was 
 twice married, his second wife beiug Cosiiiia 
 von Biilow {iiee Liszt). His (jtsammelte 
 Schriften und Dichtungen contain his theory 
 of the opera. 
 
 Wahliab, Mohammed Ebn Abdel ( 1 8 th cen- 
 tury), Mohammedan reformer and fouader 
 of the Wahhabees, bom in Arabia, his 
 father being a sheikh, condemned the wor- 
 ship of the Prophet, the use of tobacco and 
 wine, and other usages, against which, with 
 the help of his son-iu-law. Sheikh Ibu 
 Sa'ud, he took forcible measures. His 
 doctrines spread widely, especially among 
 the Bedouins. 
 
 Waltz, Georg {b. 1813, d. 1886), German 
 historian, pupil of Eanke, and professor at 
 Gottingen (1848-75) ; edited for some time 
 the Monumenta Germanics Historica, and 
 wrote a History of the German Constitution, 
 a History of Schleswig-Holstein (1851-4) 
 and other works. 
 
 Wake, William (b. 1657, d. 1737), divine, 
 successively Dean of Exeter, Bishop of 
 Lincoln, and Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (1716), attempted to bring about a union of 
 the English and Gallican churches. 
 
 Wakefield, Edward Gibbon {b. 1796, d. 
 1862), colonial organiser ; while in prison for 
 abduction wrote his Letter from Sydtey 
 (1829), advocating the system of colonisation 
 called by his name, which, after his release, 
 was carried out by the South Australian 
 Association. He was secretary to Lord 
 Durham in Canada in 1838, and next year 
 obtained the annexation by Great Britain 
 of New Zealand, in the colonisation of 
 which he took an active part. In 1849 he 
 published TJie Art of Colonisation. 
 
 Wakefield, Gilbert {b. 1756, d. 1801), 
 scholar and critic, was imprisoned for a 
 letter to the Bishop of LlandafF directed 
 against the Government. He seceded from 
 the Church of England, and wrote, among 
 other works, Inquiry into the Opinions of the 
 Christian Writers of the Three First Cen- 
 turies Concerning the Person of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Wakefield, Priscilla {d. 1832), established 
 at Tottenham the "Frugality Bank" (the 
 first savings bank), and wrote works for 
 the young. 
 
 Wakley, Thomas (A. 1795, d. 1862), phy- 
 sician, and coroner for Middlesex. He 
 
 established the Lancet in 1823, and as editor 
 had to meet actions against it by Abemethy 
 and Bransby Cooper. He sat for Finsbury 
 in Parliament from 1835 till 1862. 
 
 Waldeck, Christian August, Prince of {b. 
 17-44, d. 1778), served with credit in the 
 Austrian army against the French, and 
 became member of the Aulic Council, and 
 died m Portugal, wJiither he had gone to 
 reorgamse the army. 
 
 Waldeck, George Frederick, Prince of 
 {b. 1620, d. 1692), distiaguished himself as 
 faeld-marshal in the imperial service against 
 the French, and against the Turks at the 
 siege of Vienna (1683). Afterwards, as 
 marshal-general in the Dutch service, he 
 commanded against the armies of Louis 
 XIV. 
 
 Waldemar, King of Sweden {b. 1242, d. 
 1302), was elected in 1250, but defeated by 
 his brother, Magnus I., ia 1279, and died in 
 prison. 
 
 Waldemar I., "the Great," King of 
 Denmark {b. 1131, d. 1182), became king in 
 1157 ; after a struggle with his rivals, put 
 down the piracies of the Wends, refused to 
 do homage to the Emperor Frederick Bar- 
 barossa, but assisted him against Henry the 
 Lion (q.v.). Some of his laws are still in 
 force. 
 
 Waldemar II. , " the Victorious " (d.llil), 
 came to the throne in 1202, on the death of 
 his elder brother : made Norway tributary ; 
 conquered Eastern Pomerania (now Prussia) 
 in 1210 ; received the title of King of the 
 Wends from Frederick II. for his assistance 
 against Otto ; conquered but lost Esthonia, 
 and was obliged to renounce his German 
 territories in order to procure his release 
 from Henry, Count of Schwerin. The title 
 Waldemae III. is variously given to the 
 son of Waldemae II. (1218-31), and to the 
 son of Christopher II., the latter reigning 
 1340-1375. 
 
 Walden, Thomas [Netter] (d. 1430), 
 principal of the CarmeUtes in England, 
 and confessor of Henry V. ; wrote Doc- 
 trinale Antiquum Fidei Fcclesiee Catholicce, 
 against the Lollards, and was perhaps 
 author of Fasciculi Zizaniorum Johannis 
 WycUf. 
 
 Wales, Prince of. \^Sce Albert Edward.] 
 
 WalewsM, Alexandre Colonna, Count 
 {b. 1810, d. 1868), French statesman, natural 
 son of Napoleon I. by a Polish countess ; 
 becnme a French subject after the failure 
 of the rising of 1830, and was much em- 
 ployed diplomatically by Napoleon III., 
 being also foreign minister from 1855 to 
 1800, and president of the Corps Legislatif 
 in 1865.
 
 Wal 
 
 (720 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 Walford, Edward {b. 1823), English 
 writer, author of numerous works, among 
 which may be named Londoniana, The 
 County Families of the United Kingdom, part 
 of Old and Xew London, Greater London, and 
 sevei-al biographical and educational books. 
 
 Walford, Mrs. Lucy Bethia, novelist ; pub- 
 lished in Bli(ckwood''s Magazine The Babi/s 
 Grandmother, A Stiffnecked Generatio)i, and 
 other works, and also wrote Mr. Smith, etc. 
 She married in 1869 Mr. A. S. Walford. 
 
 Walid L, Ommiad Kialif of Damascus {d. 
 715), came to the throne in 705, and acquired 
 Armenia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia from the 
 Greek Empire, tlie great mosque of Damascus 
 being also begun in his reign. 
 
 WaUd II., "Al Fassik" {b. 703, d. 744), 
 succeeded Hescham in 743, but was soon 
 after put to death. 
 
 Walker, Clement {d. 1651), political 
 writer .; autlior of History of Independency , 
 from a Presbyterian standpoint ; was im- 
 prisoned by Cromwell, and wrote a violent 
 treatise against him when in the Tower. 
 
 Walker, Francis Amasa (A. 1840), Ameri- 
 can economist and statistician, son of Amasa 
 Walkee {d. 1875), author of The Science of 
 Wealth (1866), was wounded and made 
 prisoner in the Civil war. He was professor 
 of political economy at Yale from 1873 to 
 1881, his Political Economy being published 
 in 1883. 
 
 Walker, Frederick, A.E.A. {b. 1840, d. 
 1875), painter ; engraved the illustrations to 
 Thackeray's novels, and exhibited both at 
 the exhibitions of the Society of Painters in 
 Water Colours and at the Royal Academy. 
 His Tag rants (1868), now in the National 
 Gallery, London, and The Bathers (1867), 
 were his best pictures. 
 
 Walker, George {cl. 1690), Lnsh clergy- 
 man, received the thanks of Parliament for 
 his defence of Derry against James II., and, 
 after being named bishop of that see, was 
 killed at the battle of the Boyne. 
 
 Walker, John (b. 1732, d. 1807), lexico- 
 gi-apher, liis chief work, a Critical Pro- 
 nouncing Dictionary, being published in 
 1775. 
 
 Walker, Robert {d. circa 1659), painter; 
 executed several portraits of Cromwell (one 
 of which is in the British Museum), as well 
 as of Blake and other contemporaries. 
 
 Walker, Thomas (b. 1784, d. 1836), 
 humorist ; was an active police magistrate, 
 but is chiefly remembered by his weekly 
 publication. The Original (1835). 
 
 Walker, William Sidney (b. 179'), d. 1846), 
 poet and scholar, educated at Eton and 
 
 Trinity College. Edited a Corpus Poetarum 
 Latinarum ; left, besides Poetical Pemains, 
 copious notes on the text and versification of 
 Shakespeare, which were embodied in books 
 published in 1854 and 1860. 
 
 Walker- Arnott, George {b. 1799, d. 1868), 
 botanist ; lield the chair of botany at 
 Glasgow from 1845 till his death, travelled 
 extensively, and collaborated with Hooker 
 in his British Flora and other works. 
 
 Wall, Joseph, "Governor Wall" {d. 
 1802) ; was tried and hanged for the murder 
 of Benjamin Armstrong, who received eight 
 hundred lashes by his orders as governor of 
 Goree in 1782, the soldier having demanded 
 for the men arrears of pay. 
 
 Wall, William (d. 1728), divine, incumbent 
 of Shoreham ; was author of History of 
 Infant Baptism. 
 
 Wallace, Alfred Russel, F.R.S. (6.1822), 
 scientific writer ; visited South America and 
 the Malay Archipelago, publishing the re- 
 sults of his observations on his return, 
 among his other works being Contributions 
 to the Theory of Natural Selection (1871), Cn 
 Miracles and Modern Spiritualism (1875), 
 Land JUationalisation (1882) , and Darwinism 
 (1889). The discovery of the evolution hypo- 
 thesis was arrived at by him at the same 
 time as by Darwin. In 1884 he pubHshed 
 a strong attack upon vaccination. In 1881 
 he received a Civil List pension of £100. 
 
 Wallace, Lewis (b. 1827, at Brookville, 
 Indiana), American general, diplomatist, 
 lawyer and author. He served as first lieu- 
 tenant in the Mexican war ; engaged in the 
 practice of law in Indiana from 1848 ; be- 
 came a brigadier-general in 1861; served 
 through the Civil war. From 1881 to 1885 
 he was United States minister to Turkey. 
 Author of 77(6 Fair God (1873), Ben Hur 
 (1880), The Boyhood of Christ (1888), The 
 Prince of India' {^n)'. 
 
 WaUace, Sir WilHam {d. 1305), Scotch 
 hero ; headed the rising of 1297 against the 
 English, and won a victory at Cambus 
 Kenneth, after which he crossed the border, 
 and was named guardian of Scotland on 
 his return. Next year, however, he was 
 defeated by Edward I. at Falkirk, after 
 which, deserted by the nobles, he carried on 
 a guerilla warfare for seven years. After 
 being imprisoned in France, whose aid he 
 had sought, he was declared an outlaw in 
 1304, and having been captured next year 
 was sent to London and hanged. 
 
 WaUace, WilUam Vincent [b. 1814, d. 
 1865), musical composer, bom at Waterford ; 
 travelled in both hemisi^heres, and lived for 
 some time in Mexico and New York. 
 Among his operas were Maritana (1846)^
 
 Wal 
 
 (721) 
 
 Wal 
 
 Lurline (1860), and The Amber Witch 
 (1861), and he left also many songs. 
 
 Wallenstein, Albrecht, Grai von Wald- 
 stein (A. 1583, d. 1634), Duke of Friedland, 
 Imperialist general, of noble Bohemian 
 family ; after servLug against the Tui'ks, the 
 Venetians, and Bethlen Gabor, raised an 
 army at his own expense in 1626 for the em- 
 peror, and defeated Mansfeld and the Danes. 
 In 1630 he was deprived of his command by 
 the jealousy of the League, but was soon 
 recalled to oppose Gustavus Adolphus. The 
 Swedish king was repulsed at Breitenfeld 
 (1632), but Wallenstein was defeated at 
 Liitzen, where Gustavus fell. After his 
 defeat he negotiated with France, and 
 having been outlawed by the emperor, was 
 assassinated at Eger. 
 
 Waller, Edmund (o. 1605, d. 1687), Eughsh 
 poet ; sat in the Long Parliament, and was 
 imprisoned in 1643 for complicity in a 
 RoyaKst plot, but was restored to his estates 
 by Cromwell, and enjoyed the favour of 
 Charles H. and James II. He is remem- 
 bered by his love poems, addressed to Lady 
 Dorothea Sidney, under the name of 
 "Sacharissa." 
 
 Waller, Sir WilUam {b. 1697, d. 1668), a 
 Presbyterian member oi the Long Parlia- 
 ment ; became second in command on the 
 outbreak of war with the king. He gained 
 some successes in the west, but was re- 
 moved by the Self-Denying Ordinance, and 
 afterwards twice imprisoned. 
 
 WalliB, Henry (b. 1830), painter, his chef 
 d^eeuvre being The Death of Chatterton. 
 Many of his subjects are drawn from the Ufe 
 of mediaeval Venice. 
 
 WaUis, Eobert (i. 1794, d. 1878), line- 
 engraver, executed plates for Turner's 
 pictures. His engraving of Lake Nemx being 
 especially valued. 
 
 Wallon, Henri Alexandre {h. 1812), French 
 historian and politician ; had a considerable 
 share in the establishment of the third 
 republic, and in 1875 became minister of 
 public instruction. Among his works are 
 Jeanne d'' Arc, Richard II., and Le Trihuuid 
 Revolntxonnaire de Paris (1886). In 1878 
 he was candidate for membership of the 
 Acadi'mie against M. Renan. 
 
 Walpole, Horace {b. nn,d. 1797), Eng- 
 lish writer, youngest son of Sir Robert, and 
 friend of Gray ; retired from public Ufe 
 in 1768, and thenceforth devoted himself 
 chiefly to the fine arts. He wrote Memoirs, 
 The Castle of Otranto, a novel, Historic 
 Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard 
 III., and other works, and his published 
 correspondence extends from 1735 to 1797. 
 In 1791 he became Earl of Orford. 
 V V 
 
 Walpole, Sir Eobert (b. 1676, d. 1745), 
 statesman ; entered Parliament as a Whig 
 in 1701, became Secretary -at -War in 1708, 
 and having been one of the managers of 
 Sacheverell's impeachment was expelled the 
 House by the Tories on the fall of Marl- 
 borough on a charge of corruj)tion. He 
 again held office from the accession of 
 George I. till 1717, and from 1720 till his 
 resignation in 1742 was the most influential 
 minister, his power being founded on his 
 conduct in relation to the failure of the 
 South Sea scheme, and later on the favoxir 
 of Queen Caroline. He was created Earl of 
 Orford in 1742. 
 
 Walpole, Right Hon. Spencer Horatio {b. 
 1806), statesman; was Home Secretary 
 under Lord Derby in 1852, and in 1858-59 
 held the same ofiice, as also in 1866-67. He 
 represented Cambridge University from 1856 
 to 1882: 
 
 Walpole, Spencer (Jb. 1839), son of the 
 above ; became lieutenant-governor of the 
 Isle of Man in 1882, and published a History 
 of England from 1815, a. Life of Mr. Perceval, 
 and other historical works. 
 
 Walsh, Right Rev. WilKam John {b. 1841), 
 Irish Catholic divine : became president of 
 Maynooth College in 1880, and Archbishop 
 of Dublin 1885. He acts with the Na- 
 tionahst party, but declared against Mr. 
 Parnell on the decision of the Divorce Court 
 against him. 
 
 Walshe, Walter Hayle, M.D. {b. 1816), 
 Irish physician ; was for several years pro- 
 fessor of medicine in University College, 
 London, resigning in 1862, and published 
 Practical Treatise on the Lungs, and several 
 other works. 
 
 Walsingham, Sir Francis {b. 1536, d. 
 15'.»()), statesman; having been ambassador 
 at Paris for tliree years, became Secretary of 
 State in 1573. He was one of the com- 
 missioners for the trial of Mary Stuart, 
 whose designs, and those of the Jesuits, he 
 succeeded in thwarting by his elaborate 
 system of espionage. 
 
 Walsingham, Thomas (15th century), 
 Benedictine monk ; author of a History jyf 
 England from 1^3 to the Death of Henry V., 
 and other works. 
 
 Walter, John (i. 1773, d. 1847), succeeded 
 his fatlier in the proprietorship of the Times 
 in 1803, and was a member of Parliament for 
 several years. It was under his mau;ige- 
 ment that steam-power was first applied to 
 printing in 1814. 
 
 Walter, John (b. 1818), son of the above, 
 whom he succeeded in the chief proprietor- 
 ship of the Times, represented Nottingham 
 as a moderate Liberal from 1847 to 1859, and
 
 Wal 
 
 ( 722 ) 
 
 War 
 
 Berkshire from 1859 to 1865, and from 1868 
 to 1885. 
 
 Waltber, Bernard {d. 1504), German 
 astrouomer, and supposed discoverer of the 
 regular effect of atmospheric refraction. 
 
 Walther von der Vogelweide {ft. 1200), 
 miuuesinger ; patronised by Frederick II. 
 (whose crusade in 1228 he accompanied), 
 and other German princes of the time; 
 travelled widely, took part in the poetical 
 contest in the Wartburg (1206), and wrote 
 love songs and uatioual airs, which have 
 been since modernised. A life of the poet 
 was written by Uhlaud. 
 
 Walton, Brian (*. 1600, d. 1661), EngHsh 
 divine ; projector and editor of the Polyglot 
 Bible (1651-57), was deprived of his prebend 
 at St. Paul's as a delinquent, but on the 
 Restoration became chaplain to tl^e king 
 and Bishop of Chester. 
 
 Walton, Izaak {b. 1593, d. 1683), was for 
 some time a hosier in Fleet Street, and took 
 part with the Royalists during the Civil 
 war. The Compleat Angler : or, Contem- 
 plative Mail's Jtecreatioii, appeared in 1653, 
 and a facsimile of the first edition was 
 printed in 1879. Walton also wrote lives of 
 Dr. Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, and other 
 friends and contemporaries. 
 
 Wanklyn, James Alfred {b. 1834), chemist ; 
 was professor of chemistry at the London 
 Institution 1863-70, and lecturer at St. 
 George's Hospital 1877-80. With some 
 others he invented the ammonia process of 
 water analysis, and (with W. J. Cooper) the 
 moist combustion process, and published 
 Bread Analysis, Treatise on Tea, Coffee, and 
 Cocoa, with other works. 
 
 Wappera, Gustaf, Baron {b. 1803, d. 1874), 
 Belgian painter ; founded a new national 
 school, examples of which were TJie Devo- 
 tion of the Burgomasters of Leyden, The 
 Farting of Charles I. with his Children, and 
 The Defence of the Island of Rhodes. 
 
 Warbeck, Perkin {d. 1499), landed in 
 Ireland in 1492, calling himself Richard, 
 Duke of York, and five years after, with the 
 support of the Duchess of Burgundy, of 
 France and of Scotland, invaded Cornwall. 
 Having been induced to quit sanctuary, he 
 was sent to the Tower and executed, a con- 
 fession of his imposture being published ; but 
 his identity has never been satisfactorily 
 established. 
 
 Warburton, Eliot (Jb. 1810, d. 1852), Eng- 
 lish writer, author of The Crescent and the 
 Cross (an account of his travels in the East), 
 Monoirs of Prince Rupert, etc. ; perished in 
 the Amazon, which was burnt in the Bay of 
 Biscay. 
 
 Warburton, WilUam (b. 1698, d. 1779), 
 divine and writer, was successively chaplain 
 to the king. Dean of Bristol, and Bishop of 
 Gloucester, his chief works having been 
 A Critical and Fhilosophlcal Inquiry into the 
 Causes of Prodigies and Miracles as Related by 
 Historians, The Divine Legation of Moses, 
 and editions of Shakespeare and Pope. 
 
 Ward, Adolphus William, Litt. D. {b. 
 1837), English writer; became professor of 
 history and literature at Owens College 
 in 1866, and subsequently vice-chancellor of 
 the Victoria University. Besides contribu- 
 tions to the Dictionary of National Bio- 
 graphy, etc., he published ^iiiory of Greece, 
 The House of Austria in the Thirty Years' 
 War, and several other works. 
 
 Ward, Artemus, 
 Farrer IBrowne {b. 
 humorist ; after 
 years a journalist, 
 1861, and visited 
 published sketches 
 as Tlie Complete W 
 
 nom de plume of Charles 
 1834, d. 1867), American 
 having been for some 
 began to give lectm'es in 
 England in 1866. His 
 were collected and issued 
 orks of Artemus Ward. 
 
 Ward, Edward Matthew, R.A. {b. 1816, 
 d. 1879), historical painter, pupil of Wilkie, 
 several of whose pictures {^The Disgrace of 
 Lord Clarendon, The South Sea Bubble, etc.) 
 are in the National Gallery, London ; com- 
 mitted suicide while suffering from de- 
 pression. 
 
 Ward, H. Marshall, F.R.S. (*. 1854), 
 physiological botanist ; was sent to report on 
 the causes of the coffee leaf disease in 1879, 
 and in 1885 became professor of botany at 
 Cooper's Hill. His chief works are The 
 Diseases of Plants, and Timber, and Some of 
 its Diseases. 
 
 Ward, James, R.A. {b. 1769, d. 1859), 
 animal painter, his most famous works 
 being The Bull Bait, The Bull, and Land- 
 scape with Cattle, now in the National 
 Gallery, London. 
 
 Ward, John Quincey Adams (b. 1830), 
 American sculptor, among whose produc- 
 tions are colossal statues of Washington 
 and Garfield, and The Pilgrim at New- 
 York. 
 
 Ward, Maiy Augusta {b. 1851), English 
 writer, niece of Matthew Arnold, and 
 author of Robert Elsmere (1888), a trans- 
 lation of Amiel's Journal (1885), and The 
 History of David Grieve (1892), married in 
 1872 Mr. T. Humphry Waed (b. 1845), 
 journalist, editor of Men of the Reign, The 
 Reign of Queen Victoria, and other works. 
 
 Ward, Robert Plumer (b. 1765, d. 1846), 
 politician and novelist, held several sub- 
 ordinate offices between 1805 and 1810 ; 
 wrote Tremaine and other novels, and His- 
 tory of the Law of Nations. His son, Sir
 
 War 
 
 (723) 
 
 Wat 
 
 Henet Waed (d. 1860), held the office of 
 governor of the Ionian Islands (1849), of 
 Ceylon (1856) aaid of Madras (I860). 
 
 Ward, William George, D.D. (Jb. 1812, d. 
 1882), theologian; -while fellow of Balliol 
 took part in the Tractarian movement, and 
 in 1844 published The Ideal of a Christian 
 Church Considered in Comparison with its 
 Existing Practice, which was condemned by 
 Convocation. The writer shortly after 
 joined the Boman Church. 
 
 Warham, William {b. 1460, d. 1532), divine, 
 was Master of the Rolls and Lord Chan- 
 cellor under Henry VII. ; became Bishop of 
 London in 1503, and Primate next year, but 
 resigned the Great Seal in 1515, bemg again 
 ofiEered it on the fall of Wolsey. 
 
 Warner, Charles Dudley {b. 1829), Ameri- 
 can humorist; author of My Summer in a 
 Garden (1870), The Gilded Age (with Mark 
 Twain), Studies in the South and West, etc. 
 
 Warner, John {d. 1666), English divine, 
 successively Dean of Lichfield and Bishop 
 of Rochester, founded Bromley College near 
 that town, and also some scholarships at 
 Balliol College, Oxford. 
 
 Warner, William (b. circa 1558), poet, 
 
 author of Albion'' s England. 
 
 Warre, Edmond, D.D. (b. 1836), was ap- 
 pointed head-master of Eton College in 1884, 
 having been assistant-master since 1860. 
 
 Warren, Colonel Sir Charles, F.R.S. {b. 
 1840), administrator; conducted excavations 
 for the Palestine Exploration Fund, and 
 wrote Underground Jerusalem, and other 
 works on the subject; held commands in 
 the Gaika war and Bechuanaland, and as 
 administrator of Griqualand West organised 
 a volunteer force in the Zulu war of 1880. 
 He was employed in Egypt (1882), Bechu- 
 analand (1884-5), and was Commissioner of 
 the Metropolitan Police 1886-8, after which 
 he became governor of the Straits Settle- 
 ments. 
 
 Warren, Sir Peter {b. 1703, d. 1752), 
 admiral, took Louisbourg in 1745, and 
 defeated a French attempt to recover it. 
 He was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 _ Warren. Samuel {h. 1807, d. 1877), Eng- 
 lish lawyer and writer, whose chief works 
 were Diary of a Late Physician, Ten Thou- 
 sand a Year (1841), and The Moral and 
 Intellectual Development of the Age (1854), 
 was appointed Master in Lunacy in 1859. 
 
 Warton, Thomas {b. 1728, d. 1790), author 
 of History of English Toetry (1774-81), was 
 professor of poetry at Oxford 1757-67, and 
 was named poet-laureate in 1785. Besides 
 some satires, h« also published an edition 
 
 T7U2 
 
 of Theocritus. His brother, Joseph {d. 
 1800), succeeded to the chair of poetry, and 
 was head-master of Winchester for many 
 years. 
 
 Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of, "the 
 Bang-maker" {b. circa 1420, d. 1471), was 
 created EaxI in 1449, and joined the York- 
 ists, getting Edward IV. crowned by his in- 
 fluence, and defeating his enemies at Towton 
 (1461); quarrelled with Edward, and restored 
 Henry VI. in 1470, but was defeated and 
 slain at Bamet next year. 
 
 Warwick, Edward Plantagenet, Earl of 
 {d. 1499), son of George, Duke of Clarence, 
 and grandson of the above ; was imprisoned 
 and beheaded by Henry VII. as the heir of 
 the Yorkist claims. 
 
 Washington, George (*. 1732, d. 1799), 
 American leader, son of a Virginian planter ; 
 was defeated by a sujierior French force at 
 Great Meadows, and shared in the disaster 
 of Braddock (1755) ; opposed the taxation 
 of the colonies, and was named commander 
 of the Continental army in 1775, and though 
 badly supported brought the war to a suc- 
 cessful issue by the capture of Yorktown 
 (1781). In 1789 he was elected first Presi- 
 dent of the United States of America, was 
 re-elected in 1793, and resigned in 1797. 
 
 Watelet, Claude Henri (b. \1\% d. 1786), 
 wrote and illustrated L'Art de Eeindre, a 
 poem (1760). 
 
 Waterhouse, Alfred, R.A. (J. 1830), archi- 
 tect and painter, the chief specimens of 
 whose skill are the South Kensington 
 Museum, GLrton College, Cambridge, and 
 the Manchester Assize Courts. 
 
 Waterland, Daniel {b. 1683, d. 1740), 
 divine ; held a controversy with Clarke on 
 the Trinity, and with Tindal the Deist, and 
 also wrote a History of the Athanasian 
 Creed. 
 
 Waterloo, Anthony {d. 1662), Dutch 
 engraver and landscape painter, whose pic- 
 tures are rare. 
 
 Waterton, Charles {b. 1782, d. 1865), 
 naturalist, author of Wanderings in South 
 Ar.ierica between IS 12 and 18Z2, and Essays 
 in Natural History. 
 
 Watson, Charles {b. 1714, d. 1757), admiral, 
 cooperated with Clive in India (1754-7), 
 especially in the attack on Chandemagore. 
 
 Watson, John Forbes, M.D. {b. 1827, d. 
 189li), was reporter on the products of India 
 and director of the India Museum 1858-79, 
 and had charge of the Indian departments 
 in tlie London Exhibition of 1862, that of 
 Paris in 1867, and of Vienna in 1873. He 
 published Industrial Survey of India and 
 other works.
 
 Wat 
 
 (724) 
 
 WeT) 
 
 Watson, Lord {b. 1828), was Solicitor- 
 Geueral lor Scotland 1874-6, Lord Advo- 
 cate 1676-80, and in the latter year became 
 Lord Justice of Appeal and a life-peer. 
 
 Watson, Musgrave {b. 1804, d. 1866), 
 sculptor, whose chief works are the statue 
 of Queen Elizabeth in the Royal Exchange, 
 and those of Lords Eldon and Stowell in the 
 library of University College, Oxford. 
 
 Watson, Richard {b. 1737, d. 1816), divine, 
 author of Apology for the Bible (against 
 Tom Paine) and Ghemical Essays, also of 
 An Address to the People of Great Britain 
 (1798), in support of the French war; be- 
 came Bishop of Llandaff in 1782. 
 
 Watson, Thomas (b. 1646, d. circa 1690), 
 Nonconformist divLue ; was imprisoned for 
 his share in a plot to restore Chaiies II. His 
 chief work was his Body of Divinity. 
 
 Watson, Sir William (6. 1715, d. 1787), 
 received the Copley medal in 1745 for dis- 
 coveries in electricity, and was also a dis- 
 tinguished botanist. 
 
 Watt, James (*. 1736, d. 1819), engineer, 
 was son of a Greenock merchant ; as instru- 
 ment-maker to Glasgow University improved 
 Newcomen's engine by the separate con- 
 denser and by making steam the motive- 
 power, and afterwards made engines of his 
 own. He also invented the copying-press. 
 
 Watteau, Antoine {b. 1684, d. 1721), 
 French painter ; founded the conventional 
 pastoral school in French art. 
 
 Watts, Alaric (b. 1797, d. 1864), English 
 poet, author of Lyrics of the Heart (1851), 
 received a pension and an appointment at 
 Somerset House. 
 
 Watts, George Frederick, R.A. (6. 1820), 
 painter, gained a reputation by his Carac- 
 tacus Led in Triumph through the Streets of 
 Rome (1842). Among his chief works are 
 Fata Morgana (1848), Love and Death 
 (1877), Time, Death, and Judgment (1878), 
 and portraits of Joachim, Manning, William 
 Morris, etc. 
 
 Watts, Isaac (b. 1674, d. 1748), Noncon- 
 formist divine ; is chiefly remembered by his 
 Dinne and Moral Songs, his metrical ver- 
 sions of the Psalms, and his hymns. 
 
 Watts, Theodore (*. 1836), art-critic and 
 poet, friend of D. G. Rossetti, his criticism 
 being chiefly foimd in the Encyclopedia Bri- 
 tannica (niuth edition), and the Athenceum, 
 while The Armada and the Ode to Mother 
 Carey's Chickens are his best-known poems. 
 
 Wauters, !fimile (6. 1846), Belgian artist, 
 his subjects being chiefly historical ; painted 
 in 18S1 the panorama Cairo and the Banks of 
 the NxU. 
 
 Way, Albert (Jb. 1805, d. 1875), antiquary, 
 founder of the Archaeological Institute, 
 whose Journal he edited for many years. 
 
 Way, Hon. Samuel James {b. 1836), Aua- 
 traUan statesman ; was appointed attorney- 
 general of South AustraUa in 1875, chief 
 justice in 1876, and in 1890 Ueutenant- 
 govemor. He directed the government of 
 the colony in 1877-79, in 1883, and 1889. 
 
 Waynflete, William {d. 1486), ecclesiastical 
 statesman ; after being the first head of 
 Eton College and master of Winchester, 
 became Bishop of Winchester in 1447, and 
 was for four years (1456-60) Lord Chancellor. 
 He was the founder of Magdalen College, 
 Oxford. 
 
 Webbe, Samuel (*. 1740, d. 1816), English 
 musician, originally a cabinet-maker, com- 
 posed many glees and part-songs. 
 
 Weber, Karl Maria von (A. 1786, d. 1826), 
 German composer, came of a musical family, 
 and was couuected vrith Mozart, being also 
 a pupU of Michael Haydn, and husband of 
 CaroUne Brand. He was named theatrical 
 director at Prague in 1813, and four years 
 later became conductor of German opera 
 at Dresden, and superintended the produc- 
 tion of Oberon at Covent Garden shortly 
 before his death. His greatest works were 
 the operas Der Freischutz (1821) and Eury- 
 anthe (1823), the Jubilee Overture (1818), 
 and settings of national airs. 
 
 Webster, Augusta (weVDaviss), poet, her 
 early works appearing over the signature 
 " Cecil Howe," but her chief poems, A 
 Woman Sold (1867), The Auspicious Day, 
 /♦■ a Day, and other dramas were published 
 u^der her own name. She was a member of 
 the London School Board for several years. 
 
 Webster, Benjamin (*. 1800, d. 1882), 
 actor and manager; became lessee of the 
 Haymarket in 1829, and produced some of 
 the best contemporary plays which were 
 interpreted by Macready and the best 
 players of the day. Of his own parts 
 Triplet {Masks and Faces) and Robert 
 Landry {The Dead Heart) were among the 
 best. He afterwards held the management 
 of the Adelphi and other houses, where his 
 One Touch of Nature was produced in 1859. 
 
 Webster, Daniel {h. 1782, d. 1852), Ameri- 
 can statesman ; entered Congress in 1812, 
 took an active part in the debates concerning 
 the war with England, and in 1818 distin- 
 guished himself as an advocate in the Dart- 
 mouth College case. He made notable 
 orations on the bi-centenary celebration of 
 the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers and on 
 otlier anniversaries, and was secretary of 
 state under Hairison (1840-43), and again 
 held tliat office from 1850 till his death, 
 being a prominent Whig leader.
 
 Web 
 
 (725) 
 
 Wei 
 
 Webster, John (I7th century), English 
 drdmatist, who&e chief plays were The JVhite 
 Devil, The Duchess of MaJfi (1616), and 
 Appius and Virgi7iia. 
 
 Webster, Noah {b. 1758, d. 1843), Ameri- 
 can lexicographer; author of a Dictionary 
 of the English Language (1806), American 
 Dictionarg, etc. 
 
 Webster, Sir Richard {b. 1842), Charter- 
 house and Trinity College, English lawyer ; 
 became Queen's Counsel ia 1878, was 
 Attorney -General 1885-86, and again iu 
 Lord Salisbury's second ministry. He led 
 the case for the Times against the Irish 
 members in 1888-89. 
 
 Webster, Thomas, R.A. (b. 1800, d. 1886), 
 English artist, best known by his popular 
 pictures — The Smile, The Frown, and The 
 Boy with Many Friends (exhibited 1841). 
 
 Wedgwood, Josiah (J>. 1730, d. 1795), 
 potter ; set up at Burslem in 1759, and seven 
 years later founded the village of Etruria, 
 at the same time opening a branch in. 
 London. He made a large fortune, his 
 greatest work being the imitation of the 
 Barberini (Portland) vase in 1790. 
 
 Wedmore, Frederick {b. 1844), writer on 
 art, his chief works being Studies in F)igHsh 
 Art, Masters of Genre Painting (1880), and 
 a Life of Balzac. He made known in Eng- 
 land the works of Mt'ryon the etcher. 
 
 Weekes, Henry, E.A. (*. 1807, d. 1877), 
 Englisli sculptor, among his best productions 
 being America in the Albert Memorial, and 
 busts of Queen Victoria after her accession, 
 and of Dean Bnckland in the National 
 Portrait Gallery, London. 
 
 Weenix, Jan, "the Elder" (*. 1621, d. 
 1660), Dutch painter, excelled in the paint- 
 ing of birds. 
 
 Weenix, Jan, "the Younger" {b. 1640, d. 
 1719), son of the above. His speciality 
 weis hunting pieces and pictures of dead 
 game. 
 
 Weever, John {d. circa 1662), antiquary, 
 author of Ancient Funeral Momitnents in 
 Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Weir, Harrison William (b. 1824), artist 
 and writer on natural history, his chief 
 books being The Poetry of Nature and 
 Animal Stories, Old and Neiv, his pictures 
 dealing with similar subjects, besides illus- 
 trations of popular publications. 
 
 Weishaupt, Adam {b. 1748, d. 18.^0), 
 fomided in 1776 the order of the " Illu- 
 minati," in order to combat the influence 
 of the Jesuits, but this, as a secret society, 
 was looked upon with disfavour by the 
 German princes. 
 
 Weisse, Christian Felix {b. 1726, d. 1804), 
 German writer, friend of Lessing, and 
 author of Der Kinder- Freund. 
 
 Weld, Charles Robert {b. 1818, d. 1869), 
 miscellaneous writer, his chief work being 
 his History of the Royal Society. He was a 
 friend of Sir John Franklin, whose expe- 
 ditions he assisted to organise. 
 
 Weldon,John (a. 173G), English composer, 
 pupil of Purcell and organist of the Chapel 
 Royal ; composed many anthems and songs. 
 
 Welldon, James Cowell {b. 1854), scholar ; 
 after a distinguished course at Cambridge, 
 became head-master of Dulwich in 1883, 
 and of Harrow in 1885. He pubUshed a 
 translation of Aristotle's Politics. 
 
 Wellesley, Richard Colley, Marquis (i. 
 1760, d. 1842), statesman, elder brother of the 
 Duke of WelUngton ; succeeded to the Lish 
 title of Earl of Mornington on the death of 
 his father, and in 1785 entered the English 
 House of Commons. In 1797 he became a 
 British peer, and was named Governor- 
 General of India, a post which he held till 
 1805. He was created marquis in 1799. On 
 his return he joined the Canningites, and in 
 1809 was sent as ambassador to Madrid to 
 support his brother, and in the same year 
 became Foreign Secretary, holding office for 
 about two years. On the death of Perceval 
 he was invited to take office, but was unable, 
 and for the next ten years supported Catholic 
 Emancipation with the Whigs. From 1821 
 to 1828 he was Lord -Lieutenant of Ireland, 
 and again in 1833-34. He retired from 
 public life in 1835. 
 
 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley [Wesley], 
 Diike of {b. 1769, d. 1852), was educated at 
 Eton and the Military Academy of Angers, 
 and entered the army in 1787. As lieutenant- 
 colonel he served in Holland (1794), and in 
 1797 was sent to India. In 1799, under 
 General Harris, he stormed Seriugapatam, 
 ^'°eated the Mahrattas at Assaye in 1803, 
 and returned home two years later. After 
 serving at Copeuliagen (1806), and sitting 
 in Parliament for two years (being Irish 
 Secretary in 1807), he was sent to Portugal 
 in 1808. Having won the victories of Roli^a 
 and Vimiera, he was superseded, but m 
 1809 was again in the Peninsula. He 
 was made a peer for the victorj- of Talavera, 
 and won the battle of Busaco iu 1810, after 
 which he constructed the lines of Torres 
 Vedras. This was followed by Fuentes d' 
 Ofloro (1811), the capture of CiudadRodrigo 
 and Badajoz (1812), and the victory of 
 Salamanca in the same year. He was now 
 created marquis, and after the battle of 
 Vittoria drove the French across the 
 Pyrenees. After being made field-marshal 
 and duke, he attended the CoTigresB of 
 Vienna, which he left to meet Napoleon at
 
 Wei 
 
 ( 726) 
 
 Wes 
 
 Waterloo. In 1827 lie became commander- 
 in-chief, and in 1828 was for the first time 
 Premier. After yielding on the Catholic 
 question, he resigned in 1830 on that of 
 reform, incurring great unpopularity. In 
 1834 he again held office, but resigned next 
 year, and in 1841 joined the Cabinet of Sir 
 R. Peel. He attended the House of Lords 
 to the last, and received a state funeral at 
 St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 WeUs, Charles Jeremiah (*. 1800, d. 1879), 
 poet and friend of Keats ; published the 
 drama Joseph and, his Brethren in 1822, but 
 is said to have destroyed most of his work, 
 which was highly praised by Hazlitt and 
 Swinburne among others. He left England 
 in 1840, and died in France. 
 
 Wells, Charles William (Jb. 1757, d. 1817), 
 natural philosopher and physician to St. 
 Thomas's Hospital; published in 1814 his 
 Essay on Dew, which was reprinted in 
 1866. 
 
 Wells, Henry Tan worth, R.A. (b. 1828), 
 artist ; made his reputation as a miniaturist, 
 among his best efforts being Victoria Regiiia 
 (1880) and Friends at Tewden (1882). 
 
 WeUs, Sir Thomas Spencer, Bart., M.D. 
 (b. 1818), surgeon ; served in the Crimean 
 war, in the Smyrna and Bankoi hospitals, 
 and on his return made a speciality of gynae- 
 cology. In 1883, in which year he was 
 president of the Royal College of Surgeons, 
 he received a baronetcy. 
 
 Welsli, John {d. 1622), Presbyterian 
 divine ; resisted the church policy of James 
 I. in Scotland, and in 1606 was exiled for 
 high treason to France. He married a 
 daughter of John Knox. 
 
 Wemyss, Right Hon. Francis Charteris, 
 Earl of {b. 1818), politician ; represented 
 East Gloucestershire 1841-46, and Had- 
 dingtonshire (1847-82) as Lord Elcho. He 
 was a lord of the Treasury 18.53-54, and 
 was an active supporter of the Volunteer 
 movement, and an opponent of State inter- 
 ference. 
 
 Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia and Em- 
 peror (Jb. 1361, d. 1419), ruled with great 
 cruelty, cancelling debts due to the Jews, 
 He was deposed from the empire in 1400, 
 but retained the Bohemian crown. 
 
 ^ Wendover, Roger of {d. 1237), monk of 
 St. Alban's ; author of Flores Historiarum, 
 which was translated by Dr. Giles (Bohn's 
 Antiquarian Library). 
 
 Wensleydale, James Parke, Baron {b. 
 1782, d. 1868), became a judge of the Coiirt 
 of King's Bench in 1823, and was trans- 
 ferred to the Exchequer six years later. In 
 1856 he was created a life peer, but his 
 
 right to sit in the House of Lords was dis- 
 puted. 
 
 WentwortlL [^See Strafford.] 
 
 Wemer, Abraham {b. 1750, d. 1817), 
 German geologist, of great authority till the 
 days of Lyell, his great work being New 
 Theory on the Formation of Mineral Veins. 
 
 Werner, Friedrich Zacharias (b. 1768, d. 
 1823), mad German dramatist, patronised by 
 Schlegel and Madame de Stael. His chief 
 works were Die Sohne des Thais (1803), and 
 The Twenty-fourth of February (1815). He 
 divorced three wives, and in 1814 became a 
 Roman priest. 
 
 Wesley, Charles (b. 1708, d. 1788), divine, 
 younger brother oi John Wesley (q.v.), is 
 chiefly remembered by his hymns. 
 
 Wesley, John (J>. 1703, d. 1791), founder 
 of the Wesleyan " Methodists," a name 
 given to him while at Oxford in 1730 from 
 his strict observances. From 1735 to 1737 
 he was in Georgia on a mission to the In- 
 dians, and soon after his return began 
 preaching and organising a rehgious move- 
 ment. He at first acted with Whitefield and 
 the Moravians, but differences afterwards 
 arose between them. 
 
 Wesley, Samuel (*. 1766, d. 1837), com- 
 poser, nephew of the above; was a brilliant 
 organist from childhood, possessing great 
 facility in extempore playing. His anthem 
 Blesst'd be the God and Father is, perhaps, 
 his best-known work. 
 
 West, Benjamin {b. 1738, d. 1820), painter; 
 became president of the Royal Academy in 
 1792. Among his pictures are Orestes and 
 Pylades (now ra the National Gallery, Lon- 
 don) The Death of Wolfe, and Death on the 
 Pale Horse. 
 
 Westbury, Richard Bethell, Lord (b. 1800, 
 d. 1873), lawyer; took silk in 1840, entered 
 Parliament in 1851, and soon after became 
 SoHcitor - General. As Attorney - General 
 (1856 and 1859) he framed the Probate and 
 Divorce and Fraudulent Trustees Acts, and 
 was Lord Chancellor from 1861 to 1865. 
 
 Westcott, Brooke Foss. D.D. (b. 1825), 
 theologian ; after a brilliant course at Cam- 
 bridge, became fellow of Trinity in 1849, 
 Canon of Peterborough in 1869, and Regius 
 professor of di^•^mty in 1870. In 1890 he was 
 consecrated Bishop of Durham. His chief 
 works are A General Survey of the History 
 of the Canon of the New Testament in the First 
 Four Centuries, and Introduction to the Study 
 of the Gospels. 
 
 Westmacott, Sir Richard, R.A. (b. 1775, d. 
 1856), sculptor; was knighted in 1837, hia 
 chief productions being the statues of
 
 Wes 
 
 (727) 
 
 Whi 
 
 Addison, Pitt, Fox, and Perceval, in "West- 
 minster Abbey, of Lord W. Bentinck at 
 Calcutta, and the pediment of the British 
 Museum. 
 
 Westmacott, Richard, R.A. (*. 1799, d. 
 1872), son of the above ; besides executing 
 several busts and statues, and the pediment 
 of the Royal Exchange, wrote A uandbook 
 of Sculpture, Ancient and Modern (1864). 
 
 Westwood, John Obadiah, F.L.S. {b. 
 1805), entomologist; held from 1861 the 
 professorship of zoology at Oxford, and 
 published Entomologist^ s Text-Book, in addi- 
 tion to numerous monographs. 
 
 Wliaxncliffe, James Wortley Mackenzie, 
 Lord (b. 1776, d. 1845), politician; moved a 
 resolution in the Commons in 1812 for "a 
 strong and efficient miuistry," and when 
 raised to the peerage, was the leading Tory 
 who supported the Reform BiU. He held 
 offices m 1834 and 1841 under Peel, but 
 was opposed to free trade. 
 
 Wlxaxton, Thomas, Marquis of (d. 1640, 
 d. 1715), was a leading Whig politician 
 imder William III. and his successors, and 
 was Lord- Lieutenant of Lreland for two 
 years under Anne. He is said to have 
 been the author of Lillibicllero. His son 
 (6. 1698, d. 1731), after an intrigue with the 
 Pretender, was created duke by George I. 
 
 Whately, Richard, D.D. (b. 1787, d. 1863), 
 divine ; after having been principal of Alban 
 Hall and professor of political economy at 
 Oxford, was named Archbishop of Dublin 
 in 1831. He published Elements of Logic 
 (1826), and other works, and his religious 
 views were broad. 
 
 Wlieatley, Henry Benjamin {b. 1838), 
 bibliophile, author of Wnat is an Index ? 
 Sow to Form a Library, and editor of 
 WraxaWs Memoirs. 
 
 Wlieaton, Henry {b. 1785, d. 1848), Ameri- 
 can jurist, reporter of the Supreme Court 
 of the United States, and subsequently 
 ambassador in Prussia and professor of 
 international law at Harvard ; pubUshed 
 Elements of International Law (1836), 
 and several works on similar subjects. 
 
 Wieatstone, Sir Charles, F.R.S. (*. 1802, 
 d. 1875), English physicist ; took out in 1837 
 a joint patent with Sir W. F. Cooke for the 
 first telegraphic instrument ; had a share in 
 the invention of the stereoscope, and devised 
 an automatic telegraph and various other 
 instruments. He twice received the Royal 
 medal at the Royal Society, and in 1848 won 
 the Copley medal. 
 
 Wheeler, Sir Hugh (*. 1789, d. 1857), 
 British officer ; was in command of the 
 Cawnpore district on the outbreak of the 
 
 Indian Mutiny, and after a resistance of 
 three weeks, was massacred by Nana Sahib 
 with whom he had concluded an armistice. 
 
 WheweU, WiUiam, D.D. (*. 1794, d. 1866), 
 philosophical writer ; was son of a carpenter, 
 but having been sent to Cambridge was 
 second wrangler in 1816, became professor 
 of mineralogy in 1828, of moral theology 
 ten years later, and in 1841 master of 
 Trinity, being the same year president of 
 the British Association. His chief works 
 are History of the Inductive Sciences (1837), 
 Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, repub- 
 lished as History ofScientiJic Ideas (1858-61) , 
 and an edition of Grotius. 
 
 Whistler, James McNeill {b. 1835), etcher 
 and painter of American birth, came to 
 Europe in 1857, and settled in England soon 
 after. Among his paintings are portraits 
 of Carlyle, of his own mother (purchased 
 by the French government) and of Sarasate. 
 He was elected in 1886 president of the 
 Society of British Artists. His etchings are 
 very numerous and excellent. His lectures 
 and books have created some stir. 
 
 Whiston, WiUiam {b. 1667, d. 1752), 
 mathematician ; was elected professor of 
 mathematics at Cambridge in 1703, but 
 deprived some years later on account of 
 his religious opinions, and finally became 
 a Baptist. Is chiefly remembered as the 
 translator of Josephus. 
 
 Whitbread, Samuel (*. 1758, d. 1815), Whig 
 politician; entered ParUament in 1790, be- 
 came intimate with Fox, and in 1805 con- 
 ducted the attack on Lord Melville. His 
 marriage with a daughter of Earl Grey 
 increased his influence, but he ultimately, 
 in an attack of insanity, put an end to his 
 life. 
 
 WWte, Andrew Dickson (J>. 1832), Ameri- 
 can educationist ; was chosen first presi- 
 dent of Cornell University in 1867, in which 
 institution he endowed a school of history 
 and political science, giving to it his own 
 library. He was American minister in 
 Germany 1879-81, and published European 
 Schools of History and Folitios (1887), and 
 other works. 
 
 Wliite, Gilbert {b. 1720, d. 1793), natural- 
 ist, author of Natural History of Selborne 
 (Hants), first published in 1789, was for 
 some time fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 
 
 Wliite, Henry Kirke {b. 1785, d. 1806), 
 poet, bom of poor parents at Nottingham ; 
 was sent to Cambridge, where he killed 
 himself by over-reading. His Remains were 
 edited by Southey. 
 
 Wliite, Joseph Blanco {b. 1775, d. 1841), 
 theological and general writer; of Spanish 
 orio-in ; left the Roman Church for the
 
 Whi 
 
 (728) 
 
 Wig 
 
 Anglican, but ultimately became a Uni- 
 tarian. He enjoyed the friendsliip of Col- 
 eridge, Newman, Mill, and Whately, the 
 last of whom published his Life and Corre- 
 spondence (1866). His autobiography was 
 edited by J. H. Thorns in 1845. 
 
 White, Sir Thomas {h. 1492, d. 1666), 
 founder of St. John's College, Oxford ; was 
 Lord Mayor during Wyatt's rebellion. 
 
 Wnite, Sir WiUiam Arthur {b. 1824, d. 
 1891), English diplomatist; went to Servia 
 in 1875 as consul-general and was sum- 
 moned to the Constantinople Conference 
 1876-7. Having been appointed envoy at 
 Bucharest, he conducted the negotiations 
 relating to Servia and Bulgaria in 1885, 
 and next year was appointed ambassador 
 at Constautiuople. 
 
 WMte, William Henry, F.R.S. (b. 1845), 
 became director of naval construction in 
 1885, being thus responsible for all the 
 new ships which were ordered to be built 
 at that time. He published A Manual of 
 Naval Architecture, which has been adopted 
 officially in Germany and Italy as well as at 
 home. 
 
 Wmtefleld, George (*. 1714, d. 1770), 
 preacher; joined the Wesleys at Oxford, 
 and afterwards went to Georgia, on his 
 return from which he began his field- 
 preaching. In 1748 he became chaplain 
 to the Countess of Huntingdon, and died 
 in New England, which he had visited for 
 the seventh time. 
 
 WWtehead, Charles (*. 1804, d. 1862), 
 poet and novelist, author of Autobiography 
 of Jack Ketch, Richard Savage (1842), The 
 Solitary, and other poems. 
 
 WMtelock, Bulstrode (*. 1605, d. 1676), 
 statesman; took an active part ia the pro- 
 ceedings of the Long Parliament, but 
 opposed the trial of the ting. He was 
 much trusted by Cromwell ia spite of 
 frequent disa^eements, but is now chiefly 
 known by his Memorials of the English 
 Affairs. 
 
 Wlutgift, John (*. 1530, d. 1604), divine ; 
 having held many important offices at 
 Cambridge, became Bishop of Worcester in 
 1577, and in 1583 Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, in which office he sternly enforced 
 uniformity. 
 
 WMtman, Walt (A. 1819, d. 1892) , Ameri- 
 can poet; was in his early years a printer 
 and journalist, and for some years built 
 houses in Brooklyn. In 1854 he began to 
 write, and next year the first issue of Leaves 
 of Grass appeared, but it was long before 
 they obtained any sale, and were even 
 threatened with suppression. In 1862 the 
 poet went to the seat of war, where he 
 
 devoted himself to the care of the wounded, 
 and held for some years government clerk- 
 ships. In 1883 a tinal Leaves of Grass was 
 published at Philadelphia as well as Speci- 
 men Days and Collect, prose writings. 
 
 WMttier, John Greenleaf {b. 1807), Ameri- 
 can poet, of Quaker parentage ; was in early 
 life a farmer's boy and shoemaker's assistant, 
 and then became a journahst. In 1836 he 
 became a secretary of the Anti-Slavery 
 Society, and published many l3rrics in the 
 Pennsylvania Freeman. Among his chief 
 works are Legends of New England, Songs 
 of Labour, National Lyrics, Snow-Bound 
 (1866), Ballads of New England (1870). 
 
 Whittington, Sir Eichard {Jl. 1400), was 
 Lord Mayor in 1397, 1406, and 1419 ; was 
 a mercer by trade, and lent large simis to 
 Henry IV. and his son. He had a share in 
 the rebuilding of the nave at Westmiaster, 
 and left his fortune to the community. 
 
 WMtwortli, Charles, Earl (*. 1754, d. 
 1825), diplomatist, son of the author of 
 An Account of Mussia ; was, Hke his father, 
 ambassador for several years in Russia, but 
 is best remembered by his interview with 
 Napoleon in 1802 when ambassador at Paris. 
 He was made viceroy of Ireland in 1814. 
 
 Wbitworth, Sir Joseph, Bart. {b. 1803, 
 d. 1887), mechanician ; invented, when at 
 Manchester, the true plane, and applied to 
 steel the process known by his name. He 
 founded the Whitworth scholarships for the 
 promotion of mechanics and engineering. 
 
 Wlijrte Melville. [See Melville.] 
 
 Wickliffe. \_See Wycliffe.] 
 
 Wieland, Christoph {b. 1733, d. 1813^, 
 German poet, author of Oberon^ (1780), 
 Musarion, and other poems, his chief prose 
 work being Geschichte der Abderiten, He 
 translated Lucian and Cicero's Letters, and 
 produced the first German version of Shake- 
 speare. 
 
 Wier, Johann {b. 1515, d. 1588), Flemish 
 physician, author of Be Prcestigiis Bcemo- 
 num et Lncantationibus et Venejiciis (1564]), 
 the first great attack upon the belief in 
 witchcraft. 
 
 Wiertz, Antoine (*. 1806, d. 1865), Bel- 
 gian painter, specimens of whose work were 
 Fatroclus, Christ in the Tomb, and Satan and 
 Eve. He wrote also an £loge de Rubens. 
 
 Wiffen, Jeremiah (6. 1792, d. 1836), Quaker 
 poet, best known for his translation of Tasso. 
 His brother, Benjamin {d. 1867), discovered 
 and translated the Alfabeto Christiana of 
 Valdes, of whom he also wrote a life. 
 
 Wigan, Alfred (A. 1814, d. 1878), actor,
 
 Wil 
 
 (729) 
 
 Wil 
 
 played vrith success in Still Waters Bun 
 Deep, The Bengal Tiger, etc., and was 
 manager of the St. James's for three years 
 (1860-3). He married Leonoba Pincott {d. 
 1884). 
 
 Wilberforce, Ernest [p. 1840), son of the 
 
 Bishop of Winchester, became Canon of 
 
 Winchester in 1878, and first Bishop of 
 Newcastle ia 1882. 
 
 Wilberforce, Samuel, D.D, (4. 1805, d. 
 1873), was third son of W. Wilberforce, 
 and an active High Church leader, who 
 became Bishop of Oxford in 1845, and of 
 Winchester in 1869. He was an able speaker 
 in the House of Lords, and had much social 
 influence. 
 
 Wilberforce, William {b. 1759, d. 1S33), 
 philanthropist, entered Parliament in ^/SO, 
 and seven years later entered upon the 
 movement against the slave trade, his 
 aboUtion motion in 1789 gaining the support 
 of the leaders of every party in the House, 
 though it was not carried for fifteen years. 
 Just before his death slavery itself was 
 abolished in the British dominions. 
 
 WUde, Henry, F.E.S. (A. 1833), made 
 several discoveries in electricity ; constructed 
 the "dynamo" in 1865, and succeeded in 
 applying his inventions to the search -light 
 now used in the navy. He was the fitrst to 
 call himself by the name "electrical en- 
 gineer." 
 
 Wilde, Oscar (J. 1856), poet and art-critic, 
 Bon of the next, gained much distinction at 
 Dublin and Oxford, and in 1879 took a 
 prominent part in the aesthetic movement. 
 He published some poems in 1880, delivered 
 art-lectures in America next year, and after- 
 wards wrote Vera and Lady Windermere^s 
 Fan (plays), Dorian Gray (a novel), and 
 many critical articles. 
 
 WUde, Sir William Wills (*. 1796, d. 
 1869), Irish physician, author of Practical 
 Observations on Aural Surgery (1853), and of 
 a Memoir of Beranger, finished by his wife 
 {nee Elgee), who, under the pseudonym 
 "Speranza," published poems and transla- 
 tions. 
 
 Wilfred, Saint {b. 634, d. 709), having re- 
 turned from a visit to Rome, took a leading 
 part in the Synod of Whitby, which adopted 
 Roman views on the subject of Easter and 
 other questions. He was then made Arch- 
 bishop of York, but was soon deprived, 
 being reinstated in 667. Twice subsequently 
 he was deposed, but reinstated on appeal to 
 the Pope. 
 
 WiUielmina, H^Bne Pauline Marie, Queen 
 of the Netherlands, was bom in 1880, and 
 succeeded to the crown, under her mother's 
 regency, in 1890. 
 
 Wilkes, Charles {b. 1801, d. 1877), American 
 naval officer : discovered several islands in 
 Antarctic region, and in 1861 caused a dis- 
 pute with Great Britain by his seizure of 
 Confederate commissioners on the Trent, a 
 British vessel. 
 
 Wilkes, John {b. 1727, d. 1797), politician, 
 with whose name is connected the abolition 
 of general warrants (1762), the freedom of 
 constituencies in the choice of members, 
 and the right of reporting the debates of the 
 House of Commons. He was prosecuted for 
 his attack on the king in the North Briton 
 (No. 45), was outlawed, and excluded the 
 House till he had been four times re-elected 
 for Middlesex. The resolutions against him 
 were expimged in 1782. 
 
 Willde, Sir David (i. 1785, d. 1841), 
 Scotch painter, was elected R.A. in 1811, 
 and was knighted in 1836. Among his best- 
 known works are The Blind Fiddler, Chelsea 
 Feusioners Heading the Gazette of the Battle of 
 Waterloo, and some portraits. Several of his 
 pictures are in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Wilkins, Sir Charles (b. 1749, d. 1836), 
 Orientalist, employed in the Bengal Civil 
 Service ; published a Sanscrit grammar and 
 several translations. 
 
 Wilkins, David {b. 1685, d. 1745), Arch- 
 deacon of Suffolk, and author of Concilia 
 Magnce Britannice. 
 
 Wilkins, WiUiam {b. 1778, d. 1839), archi- 
 tect, designed, among other buildings, St. 
 George's Hospital and the National Gallery, 
 London. 
 
 Wilkinson, James John Garth (b. 1812), 
 medical writer and biographer of Sweden- 
 borg (1849), whose Animal Kingdom he 
 also translated ; pubUshed The Ministry of 
 FLealth, and many other works. 
 
 Wilks, Samuel, M.D., F.R.S. (J. 1824), 
 physician, author of Lectures on Diseases of 
 the Nervous System, was a member of two 
 commissions on the Contagious Diseases 
 Act (1868 and 1871), and filled the offices of 
 president of the Pathological Society, vice- 
 president of the Royal College of Phy- 
 sicians, etc. 
 
 Willan, Robert {b. 1757, d. 1812), phy- 
 sician, author of Description and Treatment 
 of Cutaneous Diseases, 
 
 Willaumez, Jean Philibert (*. 1763, d. 
 1845), French admiral, accompanied the 
 expedition in search of La Perouse, and sub- 
 sequently rendered important services in 
 attacking the English colonies, his breaking 
 of the blockade of the He de France being a 
 brilliant exploit. 
 
 WUle, Johann Georg (b. 1715, d. 1806), 
 German engraver ; made a reputation by hifl
 
 Wil 
 
 (730) 
 
 Wil 
 
 prints of Gerard Douw, Miens, and other 
 artists. 
 
 Willems, Jan Fraus (b. 1792, d. 1846), 
 Dutch scholar, whose chief work was Bu- 
 sertation on the Butch Language and Litera- 
 ture in Connection with the Houthern Provinces 
 of the Netherlands (1819-24). 
 
 Willes, Sir James Shaw {b. 1814, d. 1876), 
 judge; was chietiy instrumental in promot- 
 ing legislation for the reform of common law 
 procedure, was raised to the bench in 1855, 
 and committed suicide under stress of bad 
 health. 
 
 Williain of Malmestoury [d. 1143), Eng- 
 lish historian, author of Be Gestis Regum 
 Anglorum (449-1126), Htstorice Novellx (a 
 continuation), and lives of Dunstan, St. 
 Patrick, and others. 
 
 William, "the Lion," Kin§ of Scotland 
 {d. 1214), came to the throne in 1165 ; took 
 part in the rising of the sons of Henry II. in 
 1173, and having been captured was com- 
 pelled to do homage for his kingdom, which 
 homage was redeemed by a payment to 
 Richard I. 
 
 WiUiam of Orange. {See Orange.] 
 
 Williain I., "the Conqueror," King of 
 England and Duke of Normandy (A. 1027, 
 d. 10S7), defeated Harold at Hastings in 1066, 
 and received the crown ; put down various 
 rismgs of the English and Normans, and 
 asserted his supremacy over Scotland in 
 1072, being also engaged in constant war 
 with France. 
 
 William II. (*. 1056, d. 1100), succeeded 
 his father in 1087, though not the eldest 
 son ; obtained the help of the English against 
 Robert, who was supported by many of the 
 nobles, and in 1096 acquired Nomiandy. 
 His reign was marked by the establishment 
 of feudalism and a quarrel with Anselm on 
 the Investiture question. The manner of 
 his death is uncertain. 
 
 William III. {b. 1650, d 1702), having 
 married Mary, daughter of James 11., was 
 regarded as a Protestant reserve against the 
 latter, and in 1688 was called in to replace 
 him. He defeated James at the Boyue in 
 1690, obtained the acknowledgment of his 
 title from Louis XIV. by the Peace of 
 Eyswick (1697), but had prepared a grand 
 alliance to renew the war with him just 
 before he died, Louis having favoured the 
 claim of James Edward. 
 
 WiUiam IV. {b. 1765, d. 1837) succeeded 
 George IV. in 1830, having been admiral of 
 the fleet since 1801. He assisted the pass- 
 ing of the Reform Bill of 1832 by agreeing 
 to create peers should it be necessary. 
 
 WiUiam I., German Emperor and King 
 
 of Prussia (i. 1797, d. 1888), came to the 
 Prussian throne in 1861, having been regent 
 since 1857; wrested the supremacy of Ger- 
 many from Austria by the war of 1866, and, 
 with the help of Bismarck and Moltke, de- 
 feated the French and took from them 
 Alsace-Lorraine (1870-71). The King of 
 Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at 
 Versailles in January, 1871. 
 
 WUliam II. (6. 1859), succeeded the Em- 
 peror Frederick in June, 1888, and took an 
 active personal part in the government of 
 the empire, having early brought about the 
 resignation of Bismarck. He married in 
 1881 the Duchess of Sleswig-Holstein-Son- 
 derburg-Augustenburg. 
 
 William I., King of the Netherlands (d. 
 1772, d. 1843), son of WUliam IV., Prince 
 of Orange ; served against the French in 
 the revolutionary wars, was proclaimed 
 sovereign of Holland in 1813, and King of 
 the Netherlands in 1815, but by the revolu- 
 tion of 1830 Belgivun separated from Hol- 
 land, of which country WiUiam remained 
 king till his abdication in 1840. 
 
 WUliam H. (b. 1792, d. 1848) was edu- 
 cated in England, and served in the Pen- 
 insula campaigns, and was also present at 
 Waterloo, where he was wounded. He 
 was King of Holland from 1840 to 1848. 
 
 Wmiam III. {Ji. 1817, d. 1890) came to 
 the throne in 1849, and «iid much to develop 
 the resources of Holland and to reform the 
 finances. 
 
 WUUams, Helen Maria (6. 1762, d. 1827), 
 English writer, author of Letters from 
 France, etc. ; was arrested and imprisoned 
 on the fall of the Girondins. 
 
 WiUiams, John (b. 1582, d. 1650), divine, 
 successively Dean of Westminster, Bishop 
 of Lincoln, and Archbishop of York (1641) ; 
 was Lord Keeper from 1621 till the death of 
 James I., but was imprisoned for four years 
 as the result of a Star Chamber prosecution 
 instituted by Laud, whose patron he had 
 been. He held Conway Castle for the king 
 during the war. 
 
 WiUiams, John {b. 1796, d. 1839), mis- 
 sionary, author of Narrative of Missionary 
 Enterprise in the South Seas, where he dis- 
 covered Raratonga and organised a govern- 
 ment. He was murdered by the natives at 
 Erromanga. 
 
 WiUiams, John (*. 1811, d. 1862), Welsh 
 scholar, author of Ecclesiastical Antiquities 
 of the Cymry, and editor of Annales Cam- 
 bria and other works in the Rolls series. 
 
 WiUiams,Roger(J. 1599,^.1683), the foun- 
 der of Rhode Island ; landed at Boston in 
 1631, and settled in Rhode Island five years
 
 Wil 
 
 (731) 
 
 Wil 
 
 later, for wtich, after a visit to England, he 
 obtainsd a charter in 1(343. 
 
 Williams, Hon. Roland Vaughan (b. 1838), 
 judge ; took silk Ln 1889, and was appointed 
 a judge of the Court of Queen's Bench in 
 1890. 
 
 WiUiams, Rowland (i. 1817, d. 1870), 
 divine, became professor of Hebrew and 
 vice-principal of Lampeter in 1850, but had 
 to resign in consequence of his contribution 
 to Essays and Reviews. 
 
 Williams, Samuel {b. 1788, d. 1853), wood- 
 engraver, lounder of the modem school. 
 
 Williams, Sir William Fenwick [b. 1800, d. 
 1883), general; defended Kars from June 
 16 to November 30, 1855, against the 
 Russians, but was compelled at last to 
 capitulate. He received a baronetcy and a 
 pension, and was afterwards commander of 
 the forces in Canada, governor of Gibraltar, 
 and constable of the Tower. 
 
 Williams, William Mattieu (b. 1820'), 
 scientific writer, author of The Fuel of the 
 Sun, A Simple Treatise cm Seat, etc. 
 
 Williamson, Alexander William, F.R.S., 
 etc. {b. 1824), chemist ; for many years (till 
 1887) professor of chemistry at University 
 College ; was president of the British Asso- 
 ciation in 1873, and published, among other 
 works, Chemistry for Sttulents, On the 
 Atomic Theory^ and On a New Method of 
 Gas Analysis (with W. J. Russell). 
 
 Williamson, Benjamin, F.R.S. (*. 1827"), 
 mathematician ; author of Treatises on the 
 Differential and the Integral Calculus (1871 
 and 1872), was appointed in 1884 professor 
 of natural philosophy in Dublin University. 
 
 Williamson, William, F.R.S., etc. {b. 
 18 IG), biologist; gained a reputation by the 
 publication in 1848 of Monographs on the 
 Minute Organisms of the Levant and On the 
 Recent Foraminifera of Great Britain, and 
 in 1851 became the first professor of biology 
 and geology at Owens College. He after- 
 wards received the Royal medal of the 
 Royal Society for his memoirs on Organisa- 
 tion of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. 
 
 Willibrod, Saint {d. 737), Northumbrian 
 monk ; evangeUsed Friesland, and was made 
 Bishop of Utrecht. 
 
 Willis, Browne (i. 1682, d. 1760), antiquary, 
 his oliief work being Survey of the Cathedrals 
 of England. 
 
 Willis, Francis {d. 1807), physician : while 
 in holy orders established a private limatic 
 asylum in Lincolnshire, and afterwards 
 became known aa the medical attendant of 
 George in. 
 
 Willis, Nathaniel P. (i. 1807, d. 1867), 
 American writer; founded and edited The 
 American Monthly Magazine (afterwards 
 The New York Mirror) , and wrote Fencillings 
 by the Way, Inklings of Adventure, etc. 
 
 Willis, Rev. Robert, F.R.S. {b. 1800, d. 
 1875), mechanician and writer; was ap- 
 pointed in 1837 Jacksoniau professor of 
 natm-al philosophy at Cambridge. He in- 
 vented the lyophone and the oaontograph, 
 and wrote several works on architecture — 
 Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle 
 Ages and of Italy, etc. 
 
 WiUis, Robert (b. 1799, d. 1878), medical 
 biographer ; hbrarian to the College of 
 Surgeons, edited the works of Harvey, and 
 wrote his life, as well as those of Spinoza 
 and Servetus. 
 
 WiUis, Thomas (b. 1621, d. 1675), anato- 
 mist, author of Cerebri Anatotne, cui Accessit 
 Nervorum Descriptio et Ustis. 
 
 Wills, Sir Alfred {b. 1828), judge, be- 
 came Queen's Counsel in 1872; was ap- 
 pointed judge of the Queen's Bench in 1884, 
 and was president of the Railway Commis- 
 sion (1888). 
 
 Wills, WiUiam Gorman (*. 1828, d. 1891), 
 dramatist ; author of The Man o' Airlie, 
 Charles I., Eugene Aram, Olivia, and other 
 plays. He also wrote several novels, Mel- 
 ehior, a poem, and a life of Chantrey, and 
 had been in early life at Dublin a successful 
 portrait painter. 
 
 Wills, William John (d. 1834, d. 1861), 
 Australian explorer ; emigrated in 1852, and 
 in 1860 joined the expedition of Burke into 
 the interior of Australia, which traversed 
 the continent from Melbourne to the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, but ended in the death of the 
 leaders. 
 
 Wilson, Alexander (*. 1766, d. 1813), 
 ornithologist ; was brought up as a weaver 
 at Paisley, but went to America in 1794, and 
 brought out, after years of travelling and 
 hard work, his American Ornithology. 
 
 WUson, Sir Archdale, Bart., G.C.B. (b. 
 1803, d. 1874), British officer; was the first 
 to defeat the mutineers during the Sepoy 
 rising, and stormed Delhi on Se^ tember 14, 
 1857, for which service he received a 
 baronetcy, and a pension from the East 
 India Company. He afterwards took part 
 in the capture of Lucknow. 
 
 Wilson, Sir Charles Rivers, K.C.M.G. 
 {b. 1831), administrator ; was named comp- 
 troller-general of the National Debt Office 
 in 1874, and in 1878, after his report on 
 the resources of Egypt, was made minister 
 of finance in that country. In 1880 he 
 became president of the International
 
 Wil 
 
 (732) 
 
 Win 
 
 Commission for the Liquidation of the 
 Egyptian Debt. 
 
 Wilson, Sir Charles William, K.C.B., 
 F.K.S. (*. 1836), British ofacer ; served 
 in the Egjrptian campaign of 1882-83, and 
 was head of the intelligence department in 
 the expedition for the relief of Gordon, 
 which he described in From Korti to Khar- 
 toum (1S85). He also edited Picturesque 
 Falestme, Sinai, and Egypt (1880). 
 
 Wilson, Sir Daniel {b. 1816), philologist; 
 became president of Toronto University in 
 1881, and was author of Archmology and Pre- 
 hiitsric Annals of Scotland, Prehistoric Man, 
 and other works. 
 
 Wilson, George (b. 1808, d. 1870), re- 
 former ; was elected chairman of the Anti- 
 Corn Law League in 1839, and received a 
 public testimonial on his retirement. He 
 was subsequently president of the National 
 Reform Union. 
 
 Wilson, Right Hon. James (b. 1805, d. 
 1860), politician ; began hfo as a hatter, but 
 subsequently founded and edited The Econo- 
 mist, and wrote several financial pamphlets. 
 Having entered Parhament, he became sec- 
 retary to the Board of Control, financial 
 secretary to the Treasxuy, vice-president of 
 the Board of Trade, and in 1859 financial 
 member of the Council of India. 
 
 Wilson, Sir James Erasmus (J. 1809, d. 
 1884), surgeon ; made an extensive study of 
 dermatology, and was a skilful operator, 
 writing several works on the subject. He 
 fovmded a chair of dermatology at the Col- 
 lege of Surgeons and of pathology at Aber- 
 deen, and he bore the cost of the passage of 
 Cleopatra's Needle to England, 
 
 Wilson, John [Christopher North] (b. 1785, 
 d. 1854), Scotch writer, friend of Words- 
 worth and his circle ; published some poems 
 before 1820, and in 1823 The Trials of Mar- 
 garet Lyndsay, but gained his name chiefly 
 by his criticisms published in Blackwood,^ s 
 Magazine (1822-35). He also obtained the 
 chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh, on 
 his retirement from wmch he obtained a 
 CivU List pension. 
 
 Wilson, John, D.D. (J. 1804, d. 1875), 
 OrientaHst ; went to Bombay as a missionary 
 in 1828, and became a great linguist. Among 
 his works were The Parsi Religion, The 
 Lands of the Bible, and Indian Caste. His 
 son, Andeew Wilson {d. 1881), wrote With 
 the Ever- Victorious Army, an account of 
 Gordon in China. 
 
 Wilson, Richard (i. 1713, d. 1782), land- 
 scape painter, called the English Claude. 
 Several of his pictures, including Ntobe, are 
 in the National Gallery, London. R. A. 1768. 
 
 Wilson, Sir Robert (b. 1777, d. 1849), 
 general ; published an account of Aber- 
 cromby's campaign in Egypt, containing 
 charges of cruelty against Bonaparte at 
 Jaffa, and was attached to the aUied armies 
 in the campaigns against Napoleon during 
 ahnost the whole of the war. He represented 
 Southwark from 1818 to 1831. 
 
 Wilson, Thomas (b. 1663, d. 1755), divine ; 
 was made Bishop of the Isle of Man in 1697 
 by the Earl of Derby, to whom he had been 
 chaplain. He translated the Gospels into 
 Manx, and did much good. His works were 
 published in 1780. 
 
 Winchester, William Paulet, Marquis of 
 (d. 1572), statesman; was made marquis by 
 Edward VI., and became lord high treasm-er 
 in 1551, holding that office also under Mary 
 and Ehzabeth. He built Basing House. 
 
 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim {b. 1717, 
 d. 1768), German writer on art, friend of 
 Mengs, his chief work being Geschichte der 
 Kunst des Alterthums. He was assassinated 
 at Trieste, on his way from Vienna to 
 Italy. 
 
 Windham, Sir Charles Ash (6. 1810, d. 
 1870), English general; commanded at In- 
 kermann after the fall of Cathcart, and 
 distinguished himself in the attack on the 
 Redan, while he also served in the Indian 
 Mutiny. 
 
 Windham, William (*. 1750, d. 1810), 
 statesman ; was elected for Norwich as a 
 Whig in 1783, was Secretary-at-War under 
 Pitt for seven years, after which he remained 
 in opposition till 1806, when in the " Ministry 
 of All the Talents " he resvuned his former 
 office. His portrait by Reynolds is in the 
 National Gallery, London. 
 
 Windhorst, Ludwig {b. 1812, d. 1891), 
 German poUtician ; was minister of justice in 
 Hanover, and by his Austrian poHcy contri- 
 buted to its annexation by Prussia, after which 
 he was returned to the Prussian Chamber, 
 and ultimately became leader of the Ultra- 
 montane party in the German Reichstag. 
 
 Windischgratz, Alfred, Prince {b. 1787, d. 
 1862), Austrian field-marshal; suppressed 
 the Slav movement at Prague in 1848, his 
 wife being shot by the insurgents, and in the 
 same year capttired Vienna from the revo- 
 lutionists. 
 
 Winmarleigh.Lord [John Wilson-Patten] 
 (b. 1802, d. 1892), statesman; entered Parli- 
 ament in 1830, represented Lancashire as a 
 Conservative from 1832 to 1868, and the 
 northern division till 1874, when he was 
 created a peer. He was Chairman of Com- 
 mittees (1852-53), Chancellor of the Duchy 
 of Lancaster (1867-68), and Irish Secretary 
 September-December, 1868.
 
 Win 
 
 (733) 
 
 Wol 
 
 Winslow, Forbes Beniguus, M.D. {b. 1810, 
 d. 187-1), phj-sician ; made a speciality of 
 insanity, establishing two private asyluu:^ 
 and publishing several worta on the subject 
 (Plea of Insanity in Criminal Cases, Obscure 
 IJiseases of the Brain, etc.) 
 
 Winslow, Jacques Bengne {b. 1669, d. 
 1760), Danish anatomist, author of Exposi- 
 tion Anatoinique de la Structure du Corps 
 Humain, a work frequently translated. 
 
 Winslow, John Ancmm {b. 1811, d. 1873), 
 American naval officer ; when in command 
 of the Kearsarge sunk the Alabai,^ off Cher- 
 bourg, Jime 19th, 1864. 
 
 Wtastanley, Henry {d. 1703), built the 
 fii-st Eddystone UgLthouse (begun in 1696), 
 and perished with it in a great storm. 
 
 Wint, Peter de (4. 1784, d. 1849), English 
 water-colour painter of the old school, whose 
 scenes were generally taken from the vicinity 
 of Lincoln. 
 
 Winter, Jan Willem de (*. 1750, d. 1812), 
 Dutch admiral; fled to France after the 
 defeat of the Burgher party, and served in 
 the French army, but returned in 1795 ; was 
 made vice-admiral, and was defeated by 
 Duncan off Texel in 1797. 
 
 Winther, Basmus Ferdinand (6. 1796, 
 d. 1870), Danish poet, author of Traesnit 
 (TFoodcuta) and other lyrics; received a 
 pension as state -poet in 1851. 
 
 Winwood, Sir Ealph (d. 1617), statesman 
 and diplomatist; was Secretary of State 
 from 1614 till his death, and left Memorials 
 of Affairs of State in the Eeigns of Qtteen 
 Elizabeth and Jatnes I. 
 
 Wiseman, Nicholas Patrick (b. 1802, d. 
 1865), Romanist divine, born in Spain, but 
 educated in England ; was named cardinal 
 and Archbishop of Westminster in 1850, 
 and was the author of several theological 
 works. 
 
 Wishart, George {d. 1546), Scottish re- 
 former and friend of Knox; was, on his 
 return to Scotland, burnt for heresy, having 
 probably been concerned in plots against 
 Cardinal Beaton's life. 
 
 Wishart, George {b. 1602, d. 1671), Scotch 
 writer, chaplain to Montrose, a Latin history 
 of whose campaigns he wrote ; was after- 
 wards Bishop of Edinburgh. 
 
 Wither, George (A. 1588, d. 1667), satirist 
 and poet ; author of Abuses Stript and 
 Whipt, Hymns and Songs of the Church, 
 and Britain's Remembrances, an account in 
 verse of the Plague, during which he did 
 good service. He took the side of the Par- 
 liament in the war, and was imprisoned at 
 the Restoration. 
 
 Witheringrton, WUliam, R.A. {d. 1865), 
 landscape painter, whose Hop-Garden and 
 Stepping Stones are in the National Gallery, 
 London. 
 
 Witt, Henrietta Guizot de (6. 1829), 
 French writer, daughter of Guizot; edited 
 several of her father's works, and wrote 
 Contes d'une Mere a ses JPetits Enfants, etc. 
 
 Witt, John de ib. 1625, d. 1672), Dutch 
 statesman ; became grand pensionary of 
 Holland in 1653, and conducted the second 
 war with England. He obtained the aboli- 
 tion of the office of stadtholder, which, 
 however, was regained by the Orange 
 family in 1672, when the French invaded 
 the country, and De Witt and his brother 
 ComeUus were murdered. 
 
 Wittgenstein, Priuz von (b. 1769, d. 1843), 
 Russian field-marshal ; distinguished him- 
 self in 1812 against the French, commanded 
 the Russian and Prussian forces in the 
 campaign of 1813, and held commands in 
 the following years. 
 
 Wofflngton, Margaret (fi. 1718, d. 1760), 
 actress, friend of Garrick ; was distinguished 
 in comedy, her Sylvia in the Mecruiting 
 Officer being one of her best parts. 
 
 Wohler, Friedrich (b. 1800, d. 1882), Ger- 
 man chemist, professor of medicine at Got- 
 ttngen ; wrote a treatise on chemistry, and 
 achieved the isolation of aluminium. 
 
 Wohlgemuth, Michael (6. 1484, d. 1519), 
 German painter and engraver, master and 
 friend of Diirer, whose portrait (now at 
 Munich) he painted. 
 
 Wolcot, John, "Peter Pindar" {b. 1738, 
 d. 1819), satirist, physician, and clergyman, 
 author of Lyric Odes (against the Acade- 
 micians), Feeps at St. James's and the 
 Louisiad. 
 
 Wolf, Christian Friedrich August (A. 1 759, 
 d. 1824), German critic, pupil of Heyne, with 
 whom he carried on a controversy ou the 
 subject of the authorship of the Homeric 
 Poems. The Prolegomena ad Homerum (17^5) 
 was the first attack on the single authorship 
 of the Iliad and Odyssey respectively. Ha 
 was professor of philosophy at Halle from 
 1783 to 1807, and afterwards at Berlin. 
 
 Wolfe, Charles {b. 1791, d. 1823), Irish 
 divine and poet, author of The Burial of 
 Sir John Moore, etc. 
 
 Wolfe, James {b. 1726, d. 1759), British 
 general; after serving vdth distinction in 
 the Austrian Succession war, in the expedi- 
 tion against Rochefort (1757), and under 
 Lord Amherst in North America, was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the force sent 
 against Quebec, which he took, but feU in
 
 Wol 
 
 (734) 
 
 Woo 
 
 the battle. There is a monument to him 
 in Westminster Abhej', and his portrait is 
 in the National Portrait Gallery, London. 
 
 Wolff, Joseph, D.D. {/>. 1795, d. 1862), 
 German traveller and missionary, bom a 
 Jew; entered the Roman Church in 1812, 
 but came to London in 1819, and soon be- 
 came an Anglican. He went on two missions 
 to the Jews, travelling through Egypt, Pales- 
 tine, Cyprus, Persia, and Armenia on his first 
 journey (1821-26), and on his second visiting 
 Bokhara and India in addition. After a 
 third journey, in the course of which he 
 visited the United States and was ordained, 
 he set out for Bokhara in 1843 in search of 
 Stoddart and Conolly, returning two years 
 later. His Travels and Adventtires appeared 
 in 1860-61. 
 
 Wolff, Sir H. Drummond, G.C.B., etc. 
 {b. 1830), diplomatist, son of the above; 
 entered the Foreign Office in 1846, and was 
 secretary to the government of the Ionian 
 Islands from 1857 to 1864. He entered 
 Parliament as a Conservative ten years later, 
 and in the Parliament of 1880 was a member 
 of the Fourth Party. In 1885 (when he be- 
 came a Privy Councillor) he was sent on a 
 special mission to the Sultan, and after being 
 engaged in the reorganisation of Egjrpt, was 
 named envoy to Persia in 1887. In 1892 he 
 became ambassador at Madi'id. 
 
 Wollaston, WiUiam Hyde {b. 1766, d. 
 1828), chemist; gained the gold medal of 
 the Royal Society for his discovery of the 
 malleabiUty of platinum. 
 
 Wollstonecraft, Mary {b. 1759, d. 1797), 
 author of ] liidicafiou of the Rights of Women; 
 ■was married to William Godwin just before 
 her death, their daughter Mabt, author of 
 Frankenstein, etc., becoming the wife of 
 Shelley. 
 
 Wolseley, Garnet Joseph, Viscoimt,G. C.B., 
 etc. (6. 1833), general, bom near Dublin; 
 entered the army in 1850, was wounded in 
 the Bxirmese war, and served in the Crimean 
 campaign, and in the Indian Mutiny. He 
 became major-general in 1868, and after 
 commanding the Red River expedition 
 (1870) was knighted. In 1873-74 he con- 
 ducted the campaign against the King of 
 the Ashantis, :or which he received a 
 grant of £25,000 and other honours. In 
 1878 he became high commissioner of Cyprus, 
 and next year was sent to complete the Zulu 
 war. After being quarter-master-general 
 (1880-82) he planned and carried out the 
 defeat of Arabi Pasha, after which he was 
 raised to the peerage. In 1882 he became 
 adjutant-general, and advocated the short 
 service system, and in 1884-85 commanded 
 the force sent against the Mahdi for the 
 relief of Gordon, on his return from which 
 he was created viscount. He was appointed 
 
 Commander-in-chief in Ireland 1891. He 
 has published several military handbooks. 
 
 Wolsey, Thomas (*. 1471, d. 1530), eccle- 
 siastical statesman ; was employed diplo- 
 matically by Henry VII., and made Dean of 
 Lincoln, becoming in the next reign suc- 
 cessively Dean of York, Bishop of Lincoln, 
 and Archbishop of York, while holding at 
 the same time the sees of Bath and Wells, 
 Durham, and Winchester. He became also 
 Chancellor ( 1 565) , cardinal, and papal legate, 
 and aimed at being pope. His overthrow, 
 in 1529, was caused by the jealousy of the 
 great nobles and his disagreement with the 
 king on the divorce question. He founded 
 Christ Church (Cardinal College), Oxford, 
 where there is a portrait of him by Holbein, 
 and built a palace at Hampton Court. 
 
 Wood, Anthony {b. 1632, d. 1695), anti- 
 quary; author of History and Antiquities 
 of Oxford wi^ Athence Oxonienses (1691). 
 
 Wood, Sir Charles [Lord Halifax] (6. 
 1800, d. 1885), statesman ; entered Parlia- 
 ment in 1875, and represented Halifax as 
 a Whig for thirty-two years (from 1832). 
 After holding a subordinate office under 
 Lord Melbourne, he was made Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer by Russell in 1846, and 
 held oflice till 1852. He afterwards served 
 under Lord Aberdeen and Palmerston, being 
 First Lord of the Admiralty 1855-58, and 
 Secretary for India 1859-66, when he re- 
 signed with a peerage. He was Lord Privy 
 Seal from 1870 to 1874. 
 
 Wood, EUen [Mrs. Henry] (*. circa 1820, 
 d. 1887), novelist; author of East Lynne 
 (1861), The Channin^s, Johnnie Ludlow, and 
 numerous other stones. 
 
 Wood, Sir Henry Evelyn, K.C.B., V.C, 
 
 etc. (6. 1838), general; served in the naval 
 brigade in the early part of the Crimean 
 war, but in 1855 entered the army, and 
 gained the Victoria Cross and much dis- 
 tinction during the Mutiny. He served in 
 the Ashanti war, won the battle of Ulundi 
 in the Zulu campaign, and was second-in- 
 command in the Boer war. He served also 
 in the Egyptian campaign of 1882, and 
 commanded the army of occupation till the 
 year 1885, when he received a post at home. 
 
 Wood, John (b. 1811, d. 1871), captain in 
 the Indian navy ; discovered the source of 
 the Oxus in 1838, an account of his Journey 
 appearing in 1842. 
 
 Wood, Rev. John George (*. 1827, <?. 1889), 
 popular naturalist ; author of Illustrated 
 Nattiral History, The Natural History of 
 Man, and numerous smaller works. 
 
 Wood, Mrs. John \_nee Vining] {b. circa 
 1845), comedy actress ; shortly after her 
 debut in England, became manageress of the
 
 Woo 
 
 (735) 
 
 Wor 
 
 Empire theatre, New York. In 1869 she 
 took the St. James's theatre, and appeared 
 in several burlesques. At the Haymarket 
 she played with great success in 'The Crisis 
 (1878) and The Urerland Route (1882), and 
 afterwards at the Court theatre, of which 
 she became joint lessee in 1888. 
 
 WoodfaOl, William (d. 1803), printer of 
 the Tublic Advertiser, in which appeared 
 the Letters of Junius; was also the first 
 regular reporter of parliamentary debates. 
 
 WoodhulL ISee Martin.] 
 
 Woods, Sir Albert WHliam {b. 1816), 
 entered the College of Arms in 1838, became 
 IJancaster Herald in 1841, and Garter-King- 
 at-Arms in 1869, 
 
 Woods, Henry, A.R.A. (b. 1847), painter, 
 whose pictures are chiefly Venetian studies ; 
 was one of the original staff of the Graphic. 
 
 Woodward, Henry, F.R.S., etc. (Jb. 1832), 
 geologist, son of SaitoklWoodwaei), author 
 of Geology of Norfolk, and brother of Pro- 
 fessor S. P. WooDWAUD, who wrote Manual 
 of Mollusca; entered the natural history 
 department of the British Museum, in which 
 his brother was serving, and after many 
 services to geological science, became in 
 1880 keeper of the department of geology. 
 
 Woodward, John (b. 1665, d. 1728), ge- 
 ologist ; wrote A Natural History of the 
 Earth (1695), and founded a chair of geology 
 at Cambridge. 
 
 Woolett, "William {b. 1735, d. 1785), en- 
 graver, his prints of West's Beath of Wolfe 
 and Wilson's landscapes being especially 
 excellent. 
 
 Wooley, Celia Parker {b. 1848), American 
 novelist ; author of Love and Theology 
 (Rachel Armstrong) and A Girl Graduate. 
 
 Woolner, Thomas, R.A. (6. 1825, d. 1892), 
 sculptor of the Pre-Raphaelite school ; gained 
 a name by his Death of Boadicea (exhibited 
 in Westminster Hall 1844) ; afterwards exe- 
 cuted statues and busts of Carlyle, Tenny- 
 son, Darwin, Gladstone, and other con- 
 temporaries, and also published some poems 
 {My Beautiful Lady, etc.). 
 
 WoolBton, Thomas {h. 1669, d. 1732), 
 theologian ; was prosecuted for his deistical 
 work. Six Discourses on Miracles. 
 
 Worcester, Edward Somerset, Marquis of 
 {d. 1667), inventor ; after suffering exile and 
 imprisonment for his services to Charles 
 I. during the war, devoted himself to 
 mechanics, and published in 1663 his Cen- 
 tury of Inventions, in which he anticipated 
 the invention of the steam-engine. In 
 1865 a book deahng with his life, and re- 
 printing his work, was pubhshed by Mr. 
 Dircks, C.E. 
 
 Worcester, Joseph Emerson {b. 1784, d. 
 1865), American lexicographer; compiled a 
 t Dictionary of the English Language, which 
 appeared in 1860. 
 
 Worde, Wynkyn de {d. circa 1534), Eng- 
 lish printer; assisted Caxton, and after- 
 wards carried on his busiaess, first making 
 use of title-pages. His Polychronicon (1495) 
 is esteemed his chef-d^ ceuvre. 
 
 Wordswortli, Christopher, D.D. (*. 1807, 
 d. 1885), diviue, son of the master of Trinity 
 (d. 1846), and nephew of the poet ; after a 
 distinguished career at Cambridge, became 
 head-master of Harrow in 1836, Canon of 
 Westminster in 1844, and Bishop of Lincoln 
 in 1869. He was author of Athens and 
 Attica, Memoirs of W. TFordsu-orth (1851), 
 an edition of the Greek Testament (1856-60), 
 and many controversial and learned works. 
 
 Wordswortli, Charles {b. 1806), elder 
 brother of the preceding ; was distinguished 
 both as scholar and athlete at Oxford, and 
 having been second master at Winchester 
 and warden of Glenalmond, became Bishop 
 of St. Andrews in 1852. He was one of the 
 revisers of the New Testament, and, besides 
 other works, pubhshed an autobiography in 
 
 Wordsworth, John, D.D. (b. 1843), son 
 of the Bishop of Lincoln ; after having been 
 fellow and tutor of Brasenose, Oriel pro- 
 fessor of interpretation, and Bampton lec- 
 turer (1881) at Oxford, became Canon of 
 Rochester in 1883, and Bishop of Salisbury 
 in 1885. He 'pnhMB'hed Fragments and Speci- 
 mens of Early Latin (1874) among other 
 works, and was active in attempting union 
 with the Old CathoUcs. 
 
 Wordswortli, WUliam {b. 1770, d. 1850), 
 poet, was bom in Cumberland ; visited 
 France in the early years of the revolution 
 1790-91, and in the following gained the 
 friendship of Coleridge by the publication 
 of his first poems, and went to hve near him 
 in Somersetshire. The friends went on a 
 walking tour, the result of which was 
 Lyrical Ballads, published in 1798 at Bristol. 
 After a tour in Germany, Wordsworth and 
 his sister lived at Grasmere till 1808, the 
 poet being married in 1802, and The Prelude 
 (begun in 1799) being finished in 1805. In 
 1813 Wordsworth was named distributor of 
 stamps for Westmoreland, and henceforth 
 lived at Rydal Moimt. The Excursion ap- 
 peared next year, and in 1815 The White 
 Doe ofRylstone was published. Other poems 
 followed, but the whole fragment of The 
 Recluse was not pubhshed till 1888. In 1843 
 Wordsworth became poet-laureate. 
 
 Worlidge, Thomas {b. 1700, d. 1766), 
 painter and engraver, his etchings in the 
 manner of Rembrandt being pecuharly good.
 
 Wor 
 
 (736) 
 
 Wyk 
 
 Worms, Baron Henry de, P.O., F.R.S. 
 
 (b. IS 10), statesman ; entered Parliament as 
 a Conservative in 1880, held the office of 
 secretary to the Board of Trade in both 
 ministries of Lord Salisbury, until in 1888 
 he became und?r-secretary for the Colonies. 
 He was president of the International Con- 
 ference for the Abohtion of the Sugar 
 Bounties, and pubhshed I'Ae Earth and its 
 Mechanisvi, an edition of Count BeusVs 
 Memoirs, and other works. 
 
 Womum, Ralph Nicholson {b. 1812, d. 
 1.S77), writer on art; was appointed keeper 
 of the National Gallery in 1855. He wrote a 
 History of Painting, a Life of Holbein, and 
 other works. 
 
 Woronzow, Mikhail, Pi-ince (b. 1782, d. 
 1856), Russian general, educated in Eng- 
 land ; was wounded at Borodino, com- 
 manded the cavalry at Leipzig (1813), and 
 as governor of the Caucasus crushed the 
 rising of Schamyl. 
 
 Worsley, PliiUp Stanhope {d. 1866), poet, 
 his chief work being lus translation oi 
 Homer into English verse. 
 
 Wouvermans, Philip {b. 1619, d. 1668), 
 Dutch painter of battle-pieces, landscapes 
 and hunting-scenes, many of which are in 
 the Dulwich gallery, Loudon. 
 
 Wrangel, Friedrich, Graf von {b. 1784, d. 
 1877), Prussian field-marshal ; served in the 
 Napoleonic wars, and in 1864 commanded 
 the allied army against Denmark. 
 
 Wrangel, Karl Gustaf, Count {b. 1613, d. 
 
 1676), Swedish general and admiral, dis- 
 tinguished in the Thirty Years' war ; suc- 
 ceeded to the chief command of the army in 
 1645, and won the battle of Sommershausen 
 in 1648. In the Polish war he rendered 
 great service both as admiral and general. 
 
 WraxaU, Sir Nathaniel, Bart. {b. \lb\, d. 
 1831), traveller and writer; visited aU parts 
 of Europe, and entered Parliament in 1780. 
 He left several historical inemoirs, the chief 
 of which is Historical Memoirs of my own 
 Time, for a libel in which on Count Woron- 
 zow he was fined and imprisoned. Pos- 
 ihumous Memoirs appeared in 1836. 
 
 Wray, Robert Bateman (*. 1715, d. 1770), 
 engraver of gems, among his masterpieces 
 being a Lying Cleopatra, a head of Medusa, 
 and heads of Milton. 
 
 Wren, Sir Christopher {b. 1632, d. 1723), 
 architect, son of Matthew Wren, Bishop 
 of Ely ; was elected to a professorship at 
 Gresham College in 1657, and three years 
 after at Oxford, and became president of 
 the Royal Society in 1680. His chief designs 
 were St. Paul's, Chelsea and Greenwich 
 hospitals, and the Monument. 
 
 WrigM, Sir Robert Samuel, judge ; had 
 a very distinguished career at Oxford, was 
 called to the bar in 1865, and after being 
 some years junior common law counsel to 
 the Treasury, was made a Justice of the 
 High Court in 1890. 
 
 Wright, Thomas {b. 1810, d. 1877), anti- 
 quary ; one of the founders of the Camden 
 Society and the original Shakespeare Society. 
 His "hief works were History of Domestic 
 Mati/ters in England in the Middle Ages, and 
 History of Caricature and the Grotesque in 
 Literature. 
 
 Wyatt, James {b. 1746, d. 1813), architect ; 
 built the Pantheon, Oxford Street ; became 
 an academician in 1785, and was president 
 1805-6. 
 
 Wyatt, Sir Matthew Digby (J). 1820, d. 
 1877), architect; Slade professor of art at 
 Cambridge, and author of What Illumina- 
 tion Was and What Illumination Should Be, 
 Art Treasures of the United Kingdom, etc. 
 
 Wyatt, Richard James {b. 1795, d. 1850), 
 sculptor, pupil of Rossi ; his chief productions 
 were Penelope (executed for the Queen in 
 1841), Ino and the Infant Bacchus, and 
 Olycera. 
 
 Wyatt, Sir Thomas (Jb. 1503, d. 1542), 
 statesman and poet, his works being pub- 
 lished in 1557. 
 
 Wyatt, Sir Thomas (A. 1534, d. 1554), 
 soldier ; did good service against the French 
 under Henry VIII., but was beheaded in 
 the reign of Mary for heading a Protestant 
 rising in Kent. 
 
 Wycherley, William {b. 1640, d. 1715^, 
 dramatist, author of Love for Love, The 
 Country Wife, The Plain Dealer, etc. 
 
 Wycliffe, John {b. 1324, d. 1387), divine ; 
 actively opposed the Mendicant Friars, and 
 in 1361 was elected master of BalHol Hall; 
 obtained the favour of John of Gaunt by his 
 reply to the pope's claim for tribute, and in 
 1 374 obtained the living of Lutterworth. In 
 1377 he was suromoned to St. Paul's to 
 answer a charge from the pope of heretical 
 opinions, but was protected by the court. 
 Next year he was again accused but with 
 no effect, and after this he was occupied 
 with his translation of the Bible and attacks 
 on transubstantiation, his opinions on which 
 he was forced partially to withdraw, and 
 was expelled from Oxford. 
 
 Wydeville, or Woodville, Elizabeth {d. 
 1498), widow of Sir John Grey; was 
 married to Edward IV. in 1484. 
 
 Wykeham, WiUiam of (4. 1324, d. 1404), 
 Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor of 
 England (1367-71); founded Winchester 
 College and New College, Oxford.
 
 Wyn 
 
 (737) 
 
 Yea 
 
 Wynants, Jan {b. 1600, d. circa 1675), 
 Dutch laudscape painter; founder of the 
 school of which Vandevelde and Wouver- 
 mans were exponents. 
 
 W5mdiiain, Charles (b. 1841), actor; first 
 appeared at Washington, and served as a 
 surgeon during the American Civil war. 
 He made his debut in London in 1866, and 
 three years later played Charles Surface at 
 
 New York. In 1877 he became lessee of 
 the Criterion, where Rover in Wild Oats 
 and David Garrick were among his best 
 
 parts. 
 
 Wyndiam, Sir William {b. 1687, d. 1740), 
 Tory statesman, one of the chief opponents 
 of Walpole ; held office tinder Anne as Secre- 
 tary-at-War (1710), and Chaaicellor of tiie 
 Exchequer (1713). 
 
 Zanthippe 
 
 Socrates. 
 
 (5th century B.C.), 'wife of 
 
 Xanthippus (5th century B.C.), Athenian 
 admiral ; father of Pericles ; defeated the 
 Persians at Mycale 479 B.C. 
 
 Xavler, Saint Francis, " the apostle of the 
 Indies" (b. 1506, d. 1552), one of the first 
 disciples of Loyola; sailed for the East in 
 1541, and preached in India and Japan, 
 dying when on the way to China. 
 
 Xenophanes (^. 500 b.c), Greek philo- 
 sopher and poet; founder of the Eleatic 
 school. 
 
 Xenophon (*. circa 444; d. circa 359 B.C.), 
 Athenian general and historian ; led the ten 
 thousand Greeks in their retreat after the 
 
 battle of Cnnasa (401 B.C.) ; wrote Anaiatiaf 
 
 Mellenica, and Memorabilia Socratis. 
 
 Xerxes I., King of Persia {d. 465 B.C.), 
 came to the throne in 485 B.C., invaded 
 Greece in 480, but was defeated at Salamis. 
 He was murdered in 465. 
 
 Xerxes IL {d. 425 B.C.) succeeded Arta- 
 xerxes I. in 425, but was murdered two 
 months later by Sogdianus. 
 
 Ximenes de Cisneros, Francisco {h. 1437, 
 d. 1517), Spanish cardinal, confessor to Isa- 
 bella of Castile and Archbishop of Toledo ; 
 founded the imiversity of Alcala, led an ex- 
 pedition against the Moors in 1509, and was 
 appointed regent on the death of Ferdinand 
 the Catholic. He published the Complu- 
 tensian Folyglot Bible (1514-17). 
 
 Takonb {d. 879) founded in 872 the 
 SofFaride dynasty in Persia. 
 
 Yakoub Khan (*. circa 1847), Amir of 
 Afghanistan, son of Sheee Ali, whom he 
 succeeded in 1879 as nominee of the British, 
 but being suspected of complicity in the 
 murder of Cavagnari (September 3), was 
 deposed and sent to India. 
 
 Yalden, or Youlding, Thomas (rf. 1736), 
 poet and friend of Addison; wrote The 
 Temple of Fame, and other works. 
 
 YarreU, William {b. 1784, d. 1856), natu- 
 ralist ; author of History of British Fishes 
 (1835-9), and History of British Birds 
 (1839-43). 
 
 Yates, Anna Maria \nee Graham] (J. 1737, 
 
 v V 
 
 d. 1787), tragic actress, wife of Biohasd 
 
 Yates, the comedian (d. 1796). She played 
 Lady Macbeth and Cleopatra with Garrick 
 in 1759. 
 
 Yates, Edmund (Jb. 1831), novelist, sou of 
 Feederick Yates, actor ; held a position in 
 the Post Office for some years. He edited 
 Temple Bar for some years, published Black 
 Sheep, Broken to Harness, Mirth and Metre 
 (1854, with F. Smedley), and other novels, 
 besides Personal Reminiscences (1884). In 
 1874 he established The World. 
 
 Yeames, William Frederick, R.A. {b. 
 1835), historical painter; first exhibited at 
 the Academy in 1859, being elected associate 
 in 18GG and full member in 1878. Among 
 his pictures are Arming the Young Knight
 
 Tel 
 
 (738 ) 
 
 You 
 
 (1865), Dr. Harvey and the Children of 
 Charles I. (1871), Amy Robsart (1877), La 
 Bigolante (1879), Tender Thoughts (1883), 
 etc. 
 
 Yelverton, Sir Henry {b. 1562, d. 1630), 
 judge; became Attorney- General in 1616, 
 justice of the King's Bench in 1625, and of 
 the Common Pleas in the same year. His 
 Reports were published in 1661. 
 
 Yeo, Gerald, M.D., F.R.S. (*. 1845), 
 surgeon ; was bom in Dublin and educated 
 at Trinity College, but in 1875 became 
 professor of physiology at King's College, 
 London, and published Manual of Physi- 
 ology for the Use of Students of Medicine. 
 
 Yeo, Isaac Bumey, physician ; was elected 
 F.R.C.P. in 1876, and professor of clinical 
 therapeutics at King's College in 1885. 
 Among his works are Climate and Health 
 Resorts and On Consumption. 
 
 Yezdedjerd III., King of Persia (*. 617, d. 
 651), the last of the Sassanide dynasty ; 
 after his defeat by the Moslems, fled to 
 China, but was betrayed to and killed by 
 his enemies. 
 
 Yonge, Charles Duke (*. 1812, d. 1891), 
 historical writer ; held the professorship of 
 modem history at Queen's College, Belfa-st, 
 from 1866 till his death, and published 
 besides History of the British Navy (1863), 
 History of France 1589-1830, and other his- 
 torical works, an English-Greek Lexicon. 
 
 Yonge, Charlotte M. {h. 1823), novelist and 
 historical writer; author of The Heir of 
 Redely ffe. The Dove in the Eagle's Nest, and^ 
 other stories, besides Latidmarks of History' 
 Cameos from English History (reprinted 
 from the Monthly Packet), etc. 
 
 Yorck,Johann David (*. 1759, d. 1839), 
 Prussian general, chiefly remembered by Ids 
 conduct in signing a convention with the 
 Russians in 1812, though his government 
 was still nominally an ally of Napoleon. 
 
 York, Frederick, Duke of {b. 1763, d. 
 1827), second son of George III. ; com- 
 manded the British forces m Flanders in 
 the campaign of 1793, and afterwards the 
 Russo-English expedition against Holland 
 (1799). He was appointed commander-in- 
 chief in 1794. 
 
 York, George, Duke of {b. 1875), only 
 surviving son of Albert Edward, Prince of 
 Wales. Created Duke of York 1892. A 
 commander in the Royal Navy. 
 
 York, Henry Benedict Stewart, Cardinal 
 (fi. 1725, d. 1807), was the last male of the 
 Stewart dynasty. 
 
 York, Richard, Duke of {d. 1460), the 
 father of Edward LV. ; was made Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland in 1449, and on his 
 return in 1454 Lord Protector of England, 
 
 and after the first battle of St. Albans again 
 held that ofiice. War having again broken 
 out, however, he claimed the crown, but 
 was defeated and killed at Wakefield. 
 
 York, Richard, Duke of, his grandson; 
 was probably murdered in the Tower with 
 Edward V. in 1483. 
 
 Yorke, Charles (b. 1722, d. 1770), states- 
 man, second son of Lord Hardwicke ; having 
 been Solicitor-General, and twice Attorney- 
 General (1762-3 and 1765-6) became Lord 
 Chancellor in 1770, but put an end to his 
 life soon after. 
 
 Yorke, Philip. {See Hardwicke, Earl of.] 
 
 Yoiing, Sir Allen, Arctic explorer ; made 
 an attempt in the Pandora to accomplish the 
 North-West Passage in 1875, and next year 
 was employed to communicate with the 
 dep6ts of the Government expedition in 
 Smith's Sound. The Two Voyages of the 
 Pandora was published in 1879. 
 
 Young, Arthur (Jb. 1741, d. 1820), writer 
 on agriculture ; for many years secretary to 
 the Board of Agriculture ; published A Tour 
 through the Southern Counties of England, 
 Annals of Agriculture, Agricultural Survey 
 of Prance, and Tour in Ireland. 
 
 Young, Brigham (A. 1801, d. 1877), 
 Mormon "prophet," son of a New Eng- 
 land farmer ; became president on the death 
 of Smith in 1844, and two years later led 
 his followers to Salt Lake valley. Salt Lake 
 City being built soon after. In 1852 he pro- 
 claimed polygamy, which had been con- 
 demned by the Mormon Church, and in 
 1856, after having been United States 
 governor for several years, he was super- 
 seded, troops being sent to enforce the de- 
 cision of the government. 
 
 Young, Charles Mayne (*. 1777, d. 1856), 
 actor ; made his debut in 1798, and in 1807 
 played Hamlet with success at the Hay- 
 market. In 1812 he played Cassius with 
 Kemble, and in 1822 at Drury Lane took 
 Othello and lago alternately with Edmund 
 Kean. He was last seen in 1832. 
 
 Young, Edward {b. 1684, d. 1765), poet, 
 chaplain to George II., and clerk-of-the- 
 closet to the Princess Dowager of Wales. 
 His chief work was Night Thoughts, which 
 had great vogue in its day. 
 
 Young, Right Hon. George, Lord {b. 
 1819), Scotch judge ; was twice Solicitor- 
 General for Scotland, and in 1869 became 
 Lord Advocate, being appointed a lord of 
 session in 1874. 
 
 Young, Dr. James (b. 1811, d. 1883), 
 chemist ; discovered a mode of distilling oil 
 from shale, and founded the Scotch mineral 
 oil industry. He fitted out the expedition 
 for the recovery of his friend Livingstone's
 
 -r 
 
 You 
 
 ( 739) 
 
 Zen 
 
 body, and he also endowed a chair of 
 technical chemistry at Anderson's College, 
 Glasgow. 
 
 young, Robert {d. 1700), criminal ; fabri- 
 cated the story of a plot against James II., 
 for which several persons were tried, and in 
 1692 forged the signatures of Marlborough, 
 Bancroft, and others to a document in favour 
 of a restoration of the late king. He was 
 defeated in this and a similar conspiracy, and 
 was finally hanged for coining. 
 
 Young, Thomaa, M.D. (*. 1773, d. 1829), 
 
 natural philosopher ; promulgated the theory 
 of interferences in his Lectures on Natural 
 rhilosophy and Mechanical Arts at the Royal 
 Institution (1807). His Miscellaneous JFor&s 
 appeared m 1855. 
 
 Yussef-ben-Abdel Rahman AI-Feliri (d. 
 
 759), last Mohammedan Emir of Spain. 
 
 Yussef ben Taxtyn (d. 1105), founder of 
 the kmgdom of Morocco ; made four expe- 
 ditions against the Christians in Spain, con- 
 quering the whole of the south from 
 Badajoz to Valencia. 
 
 z 
 
 Zachaiia, Just Friedrich {b. 1726, d. 1777), 
 German comic poet, translated Paradise Lost 
 mto German hexameters. 
 
 Zacharia, Karl Salomon {b. 1769, d. 1843), 
 (ierman jurist, professor at Wittenberg and 
 Heidelberg, and author of Vterzig Uucher 
 voni Staate, etc. 
 
 Zacharias, Pope {d. 752), a Greek ; elected 
 m 741, prohibited the Venetian slave trade, 
 and sanctioned the deposition of the Mer- 
 wings by Pepin le Bref. 
 
 Zagoskin, Mikhail {b. 1789, d. 1852), 
 Russian vrriter, author of George Milo- 
 »la/vsky and other novels, and some comedies 
 and essays. 
 
 Zaleucus [temp, incert.), legislator of the 
 Epiiiephyrian Locrians, whose code is said 
 to have been the first written one possessed 
 by the Greeks. 
 
 ZalusM, Josef (b. 1701, d. 1774). PoUsh 
 noble, whose library was seized by the 
 Russians, and became the nucleus of the 
 Imperial library at St. Petersburg. 
 
 ZamoysU, John Sarins (*. 1541, d. 1605), 
 Pohsh statesman; chancellor and general 
 under Stephen Bathori and his successor, 
 was named at his death "Defender of his 
 country and protector of the sciences " 
 His grandson [d. 1665) distinguished himself 
 agamst the Russians. 
 
 ZamoysM, Andrew (b. 1716, d. 1792), of 
 the same family ; prepared a code for Poland 
 ^ 27m ' ^^^^' ^* firs* rejected, was adopted 
 
 Zanzibar, Ali-bin-Sa'id, Sultan of (b. 
 1856), came to the throne in 1890, in succes- 
 sion to his brother. RHAUFA-BiN-SA'ri), who 
 accepted the British protectorate, and carried 
 vv2 I 
 
 out the treaties made by his predecessor 
 in 1873-75 for the suppression of the slave 
 trade. 
 
 Zarathustra. [See Zoroaster.] 
 
 Zebelir Pasha (i. circa 1830), began to be 
 known about 1870 as a large slave-dealer, 
 but was induced to give up the trade by 
 being made governor of the Soudan. He 
 was superseded by Gordon in 1873, against 
 whom his son rebelled, for which Zebehr 
 was sentenced to death. In 1884 Gordon 
 demanded his re-appointment, which was 
 refused, and next year the pasha was 
 arrested for correspondence with the Mahdi, 
 and was detained at Gibraltar till 1887. 
 
 Zedlitz, Joseph, Baron von {b. 1790, d. 
 1862), German poet, author of Stem von 
 Sevilla, Kerker und Krona (plays), and some 
 lyrics (1832). u- j y, 
 
 Zedner, Joseph (*. 1804, d. 1871), German 
 Hebraist, of Jewish birth ; was appointed 
 assistant in the British Museum in 1846, and 
 drew up the catalogue of Hebrew books. 
 
 Zeller, Eduard {b. 1814), German philo- 
 sopher ; having held chairs at Marburg and 
 Heidelberg, was appointed professor at 
 Berlin in 1872. His chief works are History 
 of Greek Philosophy (of which an English 
 version appeared in 1881), History of German 
 Philosophy since Leibnitz (1875), The Contents 
 and Origin of the Acts of the Apostles (Eng- 
 lish translation, 1853), and studies of Strauss 
 and Renan. 
 
 Zelotti, Battista (b. 1632), Italian fresco- 
 painter, imitator of Paolo Veronese. His 
 portrait is in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Zenghis Kban (b. 1162, d. 1227), Khan of 
 the Moguls and Tatars, conquered territories
 
 Zen 
 
 (740) 
 
 Zol 
 
 (rhich at his death extended from Northern 
 China to Tartary, his wars being said to have 
 cost 5,000,000 lives. His dominions were 
 divided among his four sons. 
 
 Zeno (d. circa 263 B.C.), Greek philo- 
 sopher, founder of the Stoic school ; horn in 
 Cyprus ; was accidentally shipwrecked on the 
 coast of Attica when trading, and became a 
 student at Athens. He is said to have put 
 an end to his life. 
 
 Zeno, Emperor of the East {d. 491), 
 assumed the purple in 474, but was next 
 year driven out by Basilicus, who, however, 
 was banished in 477. In 482 Zeno published 
 his Senoticon, an attempt to put aai end to 
 ecclesiastical disputes. 
 
 Zeno, Antonio and Niccolo (1 4th century), 
 Venetian navigators, are said to have dis- 
 covered America before Columbus. 
 
 Zeno, Carlo {d. 1418), grand-admiral of 
 Venice ; greatly distinguished himself in war 
 and diplomacy, particularly in the contest 
 witli the Genoese. 
 
 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra (3rd century), 
 married Odenathus, who was named 
 "Augustus" by GaUienus in 264, and on 
 his death, three years later, reigned alone ; 
 but in 272 Aurelian invaded her territories, 
 defeated and captured her, and took her to 
 Eome in 274. 
 
 Zeuss, Johann Kaspar (b. 1306, d. 1856), 
 German historian and philologist ; author of 
 Grainmatica Celtica (1853). 
 
 Zeuxis {ft. 450 b.c), Greek painter, whose 
 picture of Helen for a temple at Croton was 
 his most celebrated work. 
 
 Zhukovsky, Vasili Andreevich {b. 1783, d. 
 1852), Russian poet, tutor to Alexander II., 
 and author of Svietlana, and a translation of 
 Gray's Elegy. 
 
 Ziethen, Johann Joachim von {b. 1699, 
 d. 1786), Prussian general, favourite of 
 Frederick the Great, to whom he rendered 
 great services in all his wars, his greatest 
 exploit being the victory of Torgau (No- 
 vember, 1760). 
 
 Zimisces, John, Emperor of the East {d. 
 976), an Armenian in the service of 
 Nicephorus Phocas, with whose wife he 
 intrigued, and in 969 conspired against and 
 assassinated the emperor. He associated 
 himself in the purple with the sons of 
 Romanus II., and carried on wars with the 
 Russians, Bulgarians, and Saracens. 
 
 Zimm ermann, Agnes {b. 1847), pianist; 
 came to England at an early age, and studied 
 at the Academy of Music under Cipriani, 
 Potter, and Macfarren, making her debut at 
 the Crystal Palace in 1863. Besides her 
 
 compositions, she published standard editions 
 of the sonatas of Beethoven and Mozart. 
 
 Zinunermann, Johann Georg (Jb. 1728, 
 d. 1795), physician and writer ; attended 
 Frederick the Great, and was physician 
 to George III. at Hanover ; became 
 insane soon after the death of the former. 
 His great work was his essay Ueber 
 die Einsamkeit (Solitude), which appeared 
 m 1784-85. 
 
 Zimmem, Helen {b. 1846), naturalised 
 English woman, boni at Hamburg ; published 
 works on the life and writings of Schopen- 
 hauer and Lessing, Tales from the Edda 
 (1882), and The Hanse Towns (1889). 
 
 Zingarelli, Nicolo {b. 1752, d. 1837), 
 Italian composer, whose chief work is The 
 Destruction of Jerusalem, an oratorio. 
 
 Zinzendorf, Nicolaus von Graf {b. 1700, d. 
 1760), founder of the Moravian settlement 
 at Herrnhut ; travelled much in America for 
 religious purposes, and in 1737 met John 
 Wesley in London. 
 
 Zlska [Zi^ka], Johann (b. 1360, d. 1424), 
 Bohemian reformer ; fought in the English 
 ai-my at Agincourt, and also served in the 
 Polish army, being present at Tannenberg, 
 became a leader of the Hussites after the 
 Council of Constance, and having defeated 
 the emperor, obtained toleration, and was 
 made governor of Bohemia, but died of the 
 plague soon after. 
 
 Zizim [Djem] {b. 1459, d. 1495), Ottoman 
 prince ; conspired against his brother Baja- 
 zet II., and lied to Rhodes, where the grand- 
 master, however, kept him in prison. He 
 was afterwards in the hands of Pope 
 Alexander VI., but was given up to Charles 
 VIII. of France just before his death, 
 probably due to poison. 
 
 Zee, Empress of the East {d. after 919), 
 fourth wife of Leo the Philosopher, who 
 banished the patriarch for refusing to 
 sanction the marriage. On the recall of the 
 latter she was banished, and finally died in 
 a monastery. 
 
 ZofFany, Johann (b. 1735, d. 1810), German 
 painter, settled in England, and became a 
 member of the Academy. He executed 
 portraits of George IH., Gainsborough, 
 Wilkes, Fox, and other contemporaries. 
 
 Zoilus (4th century), Greek rhetorician, 
 criticised unfavourably the works of Homer, 
 Plato, and others. 
 
 Zola, fimile {b. 1840), French novelist of 
 the " natirralist " school, began Hfe as an 
 employe of the Hachette firm, but in 1863 
 published Contes a Ninon. Among his chief 
 works are Therhse Raquin (1867), Les Rougon 
 Macquart (1871-92) — a series of which
 
 Zop 
 
 (741) 
 
 Zwi 
 
 UAssomtnoir and Nana, Germinal (1885), 
 Za Terre (1887), La BHe Humaine 
 (1889), La Debacle, etc., are the most 
 striking. 
 
 Zoppo, Marco (Jl. 1450), Italian painter, 
 founder of the Bolognese school. Has works 
 are at Bologna, Venice, and Berlin. 
 
 Zoroaster [ZarathustraJ , the time of 
 whose hi'e is uncertain, founded the national 
 religion of Persia (the chief principle of 
 which is the doctrine of duaUan), as em- 
 bodied in the Zend-Avesta. 
 
 ZorrUla, Manuel Ruiz {b. 1834), Spanish 
 politician ; became minister of public works 
 after the revolution of 1868, and was after- 
 wards minister of justice and president of 
 the Cortes. He was a supporter of Amadeus 
 of Savoy, and was his minister while King 
 of Spain, and having subsequently been 
 engaged in many republican conspiracies, 
 was banished by Alfonso XII. 
 
 Zosimus (5th century), Greek writer, 
 author of a history of the Roman Empire 
 from a pagan standpoint. 
 
 Zucchero, or Zuccaro, Taddeo {b. 1629, d. 
 1566), Italian painter, whose best works 
 were the frescoes in the Consolazione at 
 Rome, and some paintings executed for 
 Cardinal Alessandro Famese at Caprarola. 
 
 Zucchero, Federico {b. 1543, d. 1609), his 
 brother and pupU ; painted the roof of the 
 Duomo at Florence, came to England in 
 
 1574, and took portraits of Queen Elizabeth, 
 Mary Stuart, and others, and in 1595 
 founded the Academy of St. Luke at Rome. 
 
 Zumpt, Karl Gottlob {b. 1792, d. 1849), 
 German scholar, whose chief work was his 
 Latui grammar (1818), of which several 
 English editions have appeared. His 
 nephew, AtratrsT {d. 1877), wi-ote The 
 Criminal Law of the Roman Eepublic, and 
 other works. 
 
 Zurbaran, Francisco {b. 1598, d. 1662), 
 painter, called " the Spanish Caravaggio." 
 Most of his works are at Seville, but the 
 National Gallery, London, contains a minor 
 specimen. 
 
 Zurita, Geronimo {b. 1612, d. 1581), 
 Spanish historian, author of Annates de la 
 Corona de Aragon. 
 
 Zwingle, or Zwingli, Ulrich {b. 1484, d. 
 1531), Swiss reformer ; served in Italy as a 
 soldier, visited Erasmus at Basel in 1514, 
 and two years later at the monastery of 
 Einsiedlen began to preach freely. In 1519 
 he was appointed to the cathedral at Ziirich, 
 having previously opposed the sale of indul- 
 gences by Sansom. Attempts were made to 
 prohibit his preaching, but the reformation 
 grew at Ziirich. 'hi 1529 Zwingle met 
 Luther and Melanchthon at Marburg, but 
 two years later he fell in the battle of Kappel 
 in the war with Beme. 
 
 Zwlmer, Ernest F. {b. 1802, d. 1861), 
 German architect. 
 
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