»
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 It ^* 
 
 \YU 
 
 '^^. 
 ,>.^
 
 €:i)c i^i^torical ^cric^ for 13ible ^tunent^- 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 Professor CHARLES F. KENT, Ph.D., of Yale University, 
 
 AND 
 
 FRANK K. SANDERS, Pu.D., D.D. 
 
 efolumc IX. 
 
 OUTLINES 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 STUDY OF BIBLICAL HISTORY AND 
 LITERATURE.
 
 The Historical Series for Bible Students. 
 
 Edited by Professor CHARLES F. KENT, Ph.D., of Yale University, 
 and Professor FRANK K. SANDERS, Ph.D., of Yale University. 
 
 IN response to a widespread demand for non-technical yet scholarly and reli- 
 able guides to the study of the history, literature, and teaciiing of the Old 
 and New Testaments, and of the contemporary history and literature, this series 
 aims to pre;>ent in concise and attractive form the results of investigation and 
 exploration in these broad fields. Based upon thoroughly critical scholarship, it 
 will emphasize assured and positive rather than transitional positions. The series 
 as a whole is intended to present a complete and connected picture of the social, 
 political, and religious hfe of the men and peoples who figure most prominently in 
 the biblical records. 
 
 Each volume will be complete in itself, treating comprehensively a given sub- 
 ject or period. It will also refer freely to the biblical and monumental sources, 
 and to the standard authorities. Convenience of size, clearness of presentation, 
 and helpfulness to the student, will make the series particularly well adapted for 
 (i) practical text-books for college, seminary, and university classes ; (2) hand- 
 books for the use of Bible classes, clubs, and guilds; (3) guides for individual 
 study; and (4) books for general reference. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE HEBREW PEOPLE. 
 
 1. The United Kingdom. Sixth edi- Charles F. Kent, Ph.D., Professor of 
 
 tion. Biblical Literature, Yale University. 
 
 2. The Divided Kingdom. Sixth edi- 
 
 tion. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE. 
 
 3. The Babylonian, Persian, and Greek Charles F. Kent, Ph.D., Professor of 
 
 Periods. I'iblical Literature, Yale University. 
 
 4. The Maccabean and Roman Period James S. Riggs, D.D., Professor of Rib- 
 
 ( including Nevif Testament Times). lic.il Criticism, Auburn 'J'lieological Sem- 
 
 inary. 
 
 CONTEMPORARY OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. 
 
 5. History of the Egyptians. James H. Breasted, Ph D., Assistant 
 
 Professor of Semitic Languages and 
 Egyptology, The University of Chicago. 
 
 6. History of the Babylonians and As- George S. Goodsperd, Ph.D., late Pro- 
 
 syrians. fessor of Ancient History, The Univer- 
 
 sity of Chicagii. 
 
 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORIES. 
 
 7. The Life of Jesus. Rush Rhees, President of the University 
 
 of Rochester. 
 
 8. The Apostolic Age. George T. Purves, Ph D., D.D., late 
 
 Professor of New Testament Literature 
 and Exegesis, Princeton Theological 
 Seminary. 
 
 OUTLINES FOR THE STUDY OF BIBLICAL 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 9. From Earliest Times to 200 A. D. Frank K. Sanders, Ph.D., D.D, Pro- 
 
 fessor of P.iblical Literature, Yale Uni- 
 versity, and Henry T. Fowler, Ph.D , 
 Professor of Biblical Literature and His- 
 tory, Brown University. 
 
 Volumes i, 2, 3, 4. 6, 7, 8, g now ready.
 
 ^^
 
 OUTLINES 
 
 FOR THE STUDY OF 
 
 BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK KNIGHT SANDERS, Ph.D., D.D. 
 
 SOMETIME DEAN OF THE THEOLOGICAL FACULTY AND PROFESSOR OF 
 BIBLICAL HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY, YALE UNIVERSITY 
 
 AND 
 
 HENRY THATCHER FOWLER, Ph.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE AND HISTORY 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY 
 
 WITH MAPS AND CHARTS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 CHARLES SCJRIBNEll'S SONS 
 1906 
 
 ^
 
 V 
 
 Copyright, 1906, 
 By Charles Scribxer's Sons. 
 
 Publislied October, 1906. 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, IT. S. A.
 
 
 c: 
 
 TO 
 
 OUR HONORED TEACHER AND 
 GENEROUS FRIEND 
 
 WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER 
 
 TO WHOSE UNFAILING ENTHUSIASM AND REVERENT SCHOLARSHIP 
 
 WE OWE THAT LOVE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY WHICH HAS 
 
 MADE THE TEACHING OF THE BIBLE A 
 
 CONTINUOUS PRIVILEGE 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED 
 
 IN AFFECTIONATE AND GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE 
 
 •1 70A<>31
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The present course of study is the outgrowth of 
 eighteen years of experiment in the effort to give an 
 orderly view of the development and significance of 
 the Bible. The students by whose needs the work has 
 been shaped have included not only those who were 
 looking forward to the work of the ministry, but gradu- 
 ate students pursuing special studies in Oriental history 
 and literature, and undergraduates interested in the 
 study of the Bible as a factor in broad culture. During 
 these years, because of the rapidly increasing appre- 
 ciation of the place of the Bible in general education, 
 the third class has become by far the most important 
 of the three. 
 
 Growing out of the effort to meet such varied needs, 
 these outlines will, it is hoped, prove acceptable to 
 more than one class of students. They have been pre- 
 pared with four classes especially in mind : the college 
 student who has no professional interest in the subject, 
 but desires to understand something of the Bible in 
 its rightful place in human history ; the graduate stu- 
 dent specializing in Oriental history or literature who 
 needs a comprehensive view of the whole sweep of 
 ancient Semitic civilization; tlie professional student of 
 theology whose saneness of interj)retation will largely
 
 Viii PREFACE 
 
 depend upon his grasp of the Bible as a historically 
 connected whole ; and the general student of the Bible 
 who finds an increasing joy in its mastery. 
 
 As the title of the volume indicates, it contains merely 
 outlines which direct the student in the systematic 
 study of the Bible itself and in the discriminating use 
 of the best reference literature. The topics are so 
 arranged that one or more phases of the work may be 
 omitted without breaking the continuity of the course. 
 For example, those desiring a scientific grasp of the 
 history will give their chief attention to the sections 
 dealing with the sources. Others, whose main interest 
 lies in the books of the Bible and their contents, will 
 emphasize especially the sections which treat of the 
 literature of each period. No pains have been spared 
 to make the outlines definite enough to become a help- 
 ful guide to the student who does his work without 
 further direction, and yet elastic enough to give free 
 play to the experienced teacher. The difficulty of this 
 combination need not be emphasized ; the authors fully 
 realize that their work will be open to criticism because 
 it fails to meet fully either ideal. 
 
 Care has been taken to make the outlines complete 
 and accurate as well as constructive. In a field so 
 broad and diversified there is constant liability to a 
 lack of proportion in treatment and to error in detail. 
 On questions with reference to which competent scholars 
 have still a difference of opinion, the endeavor has been 
 made to indicate clearly the nature of the problem and 
 to enable the student to investigate it for himself. So
 
 PREFACE ix 
 
 far as the authors may seem to impose conchisions 
 upon those who are following their guidance, these are 
 believed fairly to represent the consensus of opinion of 
 the sober and reverent scholarship of to-day. 
 
 Our thanks are due to Professor Charles F. Kent, 
 Ph.D., of Yale University, who has reviewed the earlier 
 portions of the volume, and to Professor ' Clyde W. 
 Votaw, Ph.D., of the University of Chicago, for similar 
 service in the section relating to the Apostolic age. 
 
 F. K. S. 
 H. T. F. 
 
 September 15, 1906.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Sections 1-3. Pages 3-9 
 
 Sectiox 1. Scope of the Study. 2. Geueral Plan of the Study. 
 3. Bibliography. 
 
 PART I 
 
 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 
 
 Sections 4-9. Pages 13-29 
 
 Section 4. Importance of the Ancient Semites in the History 
 of Civilization. 5. Geography of the Ancient Semitic World. 
 6. The Semitic Peoples. 7. Records of Earliest Semitic 
 Civilization. 8. Ancient Babylonia until about 1200 b. c. 
 9. Ancient Syria and Palestine until about 1200 B- C 
 
 II 
 
 TRADITIONS OF THE IIEBKEWS REGAKDING THE 
 BEGINNINGS OP HUMAN HISTORY — Gii>'KSis 1-1I-" 
 
 Sections 10-20. Pages 30-49 
 
 Section 10. First Creation Account of Genesis and the Baby- 
 lonian Creation Narrative. Genesis 1-2*'. 11. Second Cre- 
 ation Account of Genesis. Genesis 2^" 25. 12. Paradise and 
 the Fall. Genesis 2* ", ;3i-^. 13. Story of Cain and Abel. 
 Genesis l^'i®*. 11. The Two Lists of Antediluvians. Genesis 
 4^*'^-5. l.j. The Deluge Narrative in Genesis and in Baby-
 
 xii CONTENTS 
 
 Ionian Literature. Genesis 0-9^^ IG. Noah, the First Vine- 
 yard Keeper, and his Sons. Genesis 9'^°-^^. 17. Table of the 
 Nations. Genesis 10. 18. Tower of Babel. Genesis Ifi"^. 
 19. The Postdiluvians. Genesis 1P°"-^ 20. General View of 
 Genesis 1-1 l^e. 
 
 Ill 
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW PIISTORY — Genesis 112' to 
 
 First Samuel 7 
 
 Sections 21-26. Pages .50-72 
 
 Section 21. Period of the Patriarchs. Genesis ll^'^-SO. 22. 
 
 Period of the Exodus. 23. Period of the Wilderness Sojourn. 
 
 24:. Conquest of Canaan. 25. Period of the Judges. 26. 
 
 Beginnings of Hebrew Literature. 
 
 IV 
 
 AGE OF UNITED KINGDOM 
 Sections 27-30. Pages 73-81 
 Section 27. Period of Saul. 28. Period of David. 29. Period of 
 Solomon. 30. Literature in the Age of the United Kingdom. 
 
 V 
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 
 Sections 31-34. Pages 82-114 
 Section 31. Pre-Assyrian Period (c. 937-842 B.C.). 32. Assy- 
 rian Period of Israel's History (842-722 b. c). 33. Assyrian 
 Period of Judah's History (842-639 b. c). 34. Babylonian 
 Period of Judah's History (639-586 b. c). 
 
 PART II 
 
 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 VI 
 
 AGE OF THE BABYLONIAN EXILE (586-538 b. c.) 
 Sections 35-36. Pages 117-126 
 Section 35. Period of Earlier Years of Exile (586-561 b. c). 
 36. Period of Later Y'ears of Exile (561-538 b. c).
 
 CONTENTS Xlll 
 
 VII 
 
 PERSIAN AGE (538-332 B.C.) 
 Sections 37-38. Pages 127-139 
 
 Sectiox 37. Period of Partial Restoration (538-c. 450 B.C.). 
 38. Period of Restoration of the City Walls and Establish- 
 ment of the Priestly Law (c. 450-332 b. c). 
 
 VIII 
 
 GREEK AGE (332-168 B.C.) 
 
 Sections 39-40. Pages 140-148 
 
 Section 39. Period of Alexander and of the Struggle of his 
 Successors (332-198 b. c). 40. Period of Seleucid Rule (198- 
 168 B.C.). 
 
 PART III 
 
 LATER JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 IX 
 
 MACCABEAN AGE (168-63 b.c.) 
 
 Sections 41-42. Pages 151-161 
 
 Section 41. Period of Struggle for Independence (1G8-142 b. c). 
 42. Period of Independence (142-03 b. c). 
 
 X 
 
 ROMAN AGE (63 b. C.-135 a. r..) 
 
 Sections 43-45. Pages 162-168 
 
 Section 43. Period of the Last Hasmoneans and of Herod T 
 (03-4 B.C.). 44. Period of the House of Herod and tlie 
 Roman Governors (4 n. C.-70 a. n.). 45. Period from the 
 Clo.se of the Jewish War to the Overthrow of Rar-Cochba 
 (70 or 73-135 a. d.).
 
 Xiv CONTENTS 
 
 PART IV 
 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 XI 
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 
 Sections 46-48. Pages 171-188 
 
 Section 46. Introduction to the Life of Jesus. 47. General 
 Discussion of the Life of Jesus. 48. The Gospels as Litera- 
 ture. 
 
 XII 
 
 APOSTOLIC AGE (c. 30-100 a. d.) 
 
 Sections 49-51. Pages 189-216 
 
 Section 40. Period of the Rise of the Church and its Spread 
 in Syria (c. 30-44 a. d.). 50. Period of Gentile Missions 
 (C.44-G4 A. D.). 51. Later Apostolic Age (c. 64-100 a. d.). 
 
 APPENDIX 
 Selected BinLioGuAPHY. Pages 219-228. 
 
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 
 Pages 229-233
 
 LIST OF MAPS 
 
 The Old Testament World Fronti'sjiiece 
 
 Western Asia before XVIIItli Egyptian Dynasty . . Plate I 
 Western Asia under XVIIIth and XlXth Egyptian 
 
 Dynasties „ I 
 
 Palestine at the time of the Conquest »> II 
 
 Palestine after the Conquest v H 
 
 Palestine under David „ II 
 
 The Divided Kingdom » II 
 
 Western Asia at the time of the Disruption .... „ III 
 
 Assyrian Empire under Shalmaneser IT „ III 
 
 Assyrian Empire at end of 8th Century b. c. ... „ HI 
 
 Assyrian Empire under Ashurbanipal » HI 
 
 Western Asia in the Babylonian Period, 5G0 b. c. . . „ IV 
 
 Western Asia under Darius, SOO b. c ,, IV 
 
 The Empire of Alexamler the Great, 323 b. c. . . . „ TV 
 
 Western Asia after the Battle of Tpsns, 301 r. c. . . „ IV 
 Western Asia in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 
 17G-lfi4 15. c „ V 
 
 Jiidea under Judas and Jonathan, 101-1 12 B. c. . . j, V 
 
 Jiidca under Alexander Jannaens, 104-78 b. c. . . . „ V 
 
 Kingdom of Ilerod the Great, 30-4 b. c » VI 
 
 Palestine under Sons of Herod, 4 b. c.-6 a. d. . . . „ VI 
 
 Palestine in the time of Christ »> VI 
 
 Palestine under Ilerod Agrij)i)a, 44 a. d » VI
 
 INTRODUCTION
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 § 1. Scope of the Study. 
 
 1. The Study as History. 
 
 Even a cursory reading of the Bible shows the contact 
 of Israel with all the important nations of antiquity, 
 from ancient Egypt to the Roman Empire. A thorough 
 study of Biblical history must obviously involve an ex- 
 amination of the relations of Israel with the great 
 nations whose life touched hers in manifold ways dur- 
 ing no less than fourteen centuries. It demands also 
 a survey of the still more ancient Semitic civilization 
 out of which Israel sprang and from which she inherited 
 much that had been developing for several thousand 
 years before her ancestors first entered Palestine. 
 
 Although the course of study outlined in this volume 
 is concerned primarily with the history of Israel and of 
 early Christianity because of their master influence 
 upon later civilization, it touches upon the history of 
 ancient Babylonia, Egypt, Plifcnicia, Assyria, the Baby- 
 lonia of Nebuchadrezzar, and the Persian, Greek, and 
 Roman empires. Tlu; student of the Bible must make 
 a general survey of tlie growth of civilization from the 
 dawn of history until Christianity had been planted 
 throughout tlie Gra3CO-Roman world. Such an approach 
 to Biljlical history has become possible in recent years 
 through the great advances made in the understanding
 
 4 OUTLINES OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE 
 
 of ancient history, notably through the discovery and 
 decipherment of the records of Egypt, Babylonia, and 
 
 Assyria. 
 
 2. Tfie Study as Literature. 
 
 Out of the life of ancient Israel and of early Chris- 
 tianity grew those writings which are known as the 
 sixty-six books of the Protestant Bible. The thirty- 
 nine books of the Old Testament constitute the canon 
 approved by the Jews of Palestine ; the Greek-speaking 
 Jews of Alexandria and elsewhere included some four- 
 teen other books which Protestants now call the Old 
 Testament Apocrypha. The twenty-seven books of the 
 New Testament, selected by the gradual agreement 
 of the early church, have been adopted as the second 
 great division of the Scriptures by all branches of the 
 Christian church. 
 
 In the present course of study all the Biblical books 
 are read, as nearly as possible, in the order of their 
 writing, and in connection with the history of their 
 times. This treatment emphasizes the fact that the 
 books grew up in closest connection with human life, 
 and were often addressed, in the first instance, to vital 
 needs occasioned by the vicissitudes of the nation. It 
 further emphasizes the fact that the experiences of the 
 various writers were often the means of their provi- 
 dential guidance into the truths to which they gave ex- 
 pression. This method of study enables the books to 
 throw their light on the conditions out of which they 
 arose and to which tliey were addressed. On the other 
 hand it frequently makes clear the meaning of other- 
 wise obscure writings, through the liglit reflected from 
 the conditions of the times.
 
 INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 Treating the Biblical books as literary products of 
 the successive ages of Israel's history tends also to 
 make prominent their rich and varied character as the 
 culled fruit of a nation's literature. It leads to an ap- 
 preciation of the great variety of literary forms, both 
 of prose and poetry, that they exhibit. Without some 
 recognition of these distinctive forms, the meaning of 
 the writings can hardly be rightly apprehended. In 
 this course, accordingly, the Biblical books are studied 
 from both the historical and the literary points of view. 
 Such a study should add to a trustworthy interpreta- 
 tion of these writings a sympathetic knowledge of the 
 life out of which they grew and a personal fellowship 
 with the noble company of prophets and apostles, 
 whose spirit is forever embodied in them. 
 
 A great literature is such because it worthily ex- 
 presses eternal truth. The study of historical settings 
 and of literary expression must ever be subsidiary to 
 the apprehension of the message. The dominant value 
 of the historical and literary studj- of the Bible is that 
 it naturally introduces the student to the Biblical point 
 of view in regard to God and man and the universe. 
 Some results of such study have been happily expressed 
 by one who is primarily a student of general history : 
 " In the light thus obtained the sacred text has been 
 transformed ; out of the old chaos of hopelessly con- 
 flicting statements in religion and morals has come, in 
 obedience to this new conception of development, the 
 idea of a sacred literature which mirrors the most 
 striking evolution of morals and religion in the history 
 of our race." ^ If literature be defincsd as " the lastinjr 
 
 1 Anilrew 1). ^Vllite, " History of Wurfure of Science with Tlieol- 
 ogy," vol. ii. p. 394.
 
 6 OUTLINES OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE 
 
 expression in words of the meaning of life," ^ then an 
 appreciative study of the Bible from the literary point 
 of view will reveal this collection of books as supreme 
 literature, expressing the meaning of life in terms of 
 its deepest and most permanent needs, hopes, purposes, 
 and relationships. 
 
 A historical study of Biblical literature must not 
 fail to include some survey of all the significant Jewish 
 writings composed before the fall of Jerusalem in 70 
 A. D. An acquaintance with these is essential to an 
 understanding of later Judaism and early Christianity. 
 The greater part of the Old Testament Apocrypha and 
 of other Jewish writings of the period from 200 B. c. to 
 70 A. D, are included in this volume. 
 
 § 2. General Plan op the Study. 
 
 1. The Four Farts. 
 
 The entire course is divided into four parts, as 
 follows : 
 
 Hebrew History and Literature. 
 Early Jewish History and Literature. 
 Later Jewish History and Literature. 
 Early Christian History and Literature. 
 
 The division between Parts one and two is made 
 by the destruction of Jerusalem in 58G b. c, when the 
 flower of the nation was carried into exile. This marks 
 the close of Hebrew history. Part two includes the 
 history of the Jewish community in its successive sub- 
 jection to Babylonia, Persia, and Greece for more than 
 four hundred years. Part three opens with the success- 
 ful revolt of the Maccabeans, beginning in 168 b. c.,and 
 
 1 Barrett Wendell, " A Literary History of America."
 
 INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 closes with the last hopeless rebellion of the Jews 
 against Rome, terminating in 135 a. d. Chronologi- 
 cally Part four is included within Part three. The 
 founding and development of early Christianity clearly 
 demands a treatment separate from that of later 
 Judaism. 
 
 2. Method of Studying the History. 
 
 In the study of the history, so far as possible, the 
 earliest records, whether historical narratives, contem- 
 porary inscriptions, or prophetic addresses, are analyzed, 
 dated, and read. One who has thus become familiar 
 with the principal sources for the history of a period is 
 prepared to read critically the discussions in modern 
 historical treatises. In connection with reading the 
 history, the outline aims to help the student to note its 
 salient points and to organize the material. As indi- 
 cated in paragraph one the history is treated in its 
 broad international relationships ; the influences due to 
 the nation's geographical position and to the character 
 and ambition of her neighbors are emphasized. 
 
 3. Combination of History and Literature. 
 
 In connection with each period, the writings of the 
 time are considered both as sources and as literature. 
 By a careful analysis of the material of study under the 
 captions of (1) sources, (2) discussion of the history, 
 and (3) literature of the time, each point of view is 
 kei)t distinct, and yet the close connection between the 
 liistory and the literature is maintained so that the 
 Biblical revelation, which came both in life and word, 
 is seen as an organic whole.
 
 8 outlines of biblical literature 
 
 § 3. Bibliography. 
 
 The present volume forms an integral part of the 
 Historical Series for Bible Students, to the other vol- 
 umes of which constant reference is made. In con- 
 nection with Parts one and two the student should 
 have at hand Kent's " History of the Hebrew People " 
 and " History of the Jewish People " or some other 
 recent critical history such as that of G. W. Wade, 
 H. P. Smith, or R. Kittel (see Appendix). One should 
 also have access to recent histories of the Babylonians 
 and Egyptians. Those of Goodspeed and Breasted in 
 the Historical Series are reliable and convenient. More 
 complete treatises are Rogers, " History of Babylonia 
 and Assyria," and Breasted, " History of Egypt." The 
 short history of Egypt by Newberry and Garstang is 
 excellent for reference. For the Egyptian, Assyrian, 
 and Babylonian inscriptions bearing upon Old Testa- 
 ment history, the most convenient manual in English 
 is that of Price. The student who reads German 
 may consult the comprehensive " Kcilinschriftliche 
 Bibliothek " edited by Schrader, McCurdy's " History, 
 Prophecy, and the Monuments" is also helpful. In 
 reading the Old Testament books as historical sources 
 the volumes of Kent's " Student's Old Testament" will 
 be of great assistance. The Biblical material should 
 always be read from these volumes or from the Revised 
 Version, preferably the American Standard edition. 
 In connection with Part three the student should have 
 at hand Riggs' " History of the Jewish People " or 
 Schiirer's " History of the Jewish People in the Time 
 of Christ." In this part of the course a translation of 
 the Old Testament Apocrypha (Revised Version) will 
 be needed. For thorough work, translations of other
 
 INTRODUCTION 9 
 
 Jewish literature of tlie age should he accessible. 
 Reference is made to these in their proper connection. 
 In the study of Part four Rhees' " Life of Jesus " or 
 some other recent historical treatment of the Life will 
 be necessary. References to several of the best are 
 given in the text. A critical history of the apostolic 
 age will also be needed. Those of Bartlet and Yotaw 
 are recommended ; the works of McGiffert and Weiz- 
 siicker are more thorough treatises. 
 
 For the entire course of study Hastings' " Dictionary 
 of the Bible " will be of constant service. It is more 
 uniformly useful for the general student than the " En- 
 cyclopaedia Biblica " to which frequent reference is 
 made. The " Biblical Introduction " of Bennett and 
 Adeney covers the entire Bible and is very helpful for 
 the student. References to other standard Old and 
 New Testament Introductions are everywliere made. 
 Other books which should be consulted, if possible, are 
 indicated in their appropriate connections. A complete 
 list of these is given in the Appendix. 
 
 The references are limited to books available in 
 English and within the range of the average Biblical 
 student. Technical bibliographies are to be found in 
 many of tlie works referred to. It has therefore 
 seemed inadvisable to burden these pages with reference- 
 lists intended to be exhaustive.
 
 PART I 
 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 
 
 § 4. Importance of the Ancient Semites in the 
 History of Civilization. 
 
 To southwestern Asia, the home of the Semites, 
 where history throws its dawning light upon human 
 society, we can trace the origin of much that is most 
 vital in civilization. Thence came three of the world's 
 most influential religions, the beginnings of practical 
 science, and the first successful example of empire 
 building.^ In spite of the great antiquity of civiliza- 
 tion in tlie Nile valley, it is now recognized that " the 
 Euphrates had long nurtured a civilization which had 
 advanced far, before that of Egypt awoke "^ and that 
 the social development of the newer region was greatly 
 influenced by that of the older life in Asia. Both the 
 written language and the geographical names of ancient 
 Canaan bear clear testimony to the fact that this region, 
 too, had felt the influence of the earlv Bal)vl()nian life 
 in deepest measure. Some of the most vital elements 
 of this early culture were spread farther still, along the 
 coasts of the Mediterranean, by the Phoenician traders. 
 
 The traditions of early Israel trace the origin of her 
 race to the fruitful valley of the Euphrates. When 
 
 1 McCurdy, " History, Propliocy, and tlic Monumctits," i, p. 6. 
 
 2 Newberry aud Garstiiug, " Short History of Aucient Egypt," p, 11.
 
 14 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Israel's ancestors came into Canaan, they settled in 
 the midst of a society which had likewise been de- 
 veloped under influences that came from the vigor- 
 ous, expanding life of Babylonia. In the study of 
 Hebrew history, accordingly, a general knowledge of 
 the earlier life of the Euphrates valley and of its in- 
 fluence upon pre-Israelite Canaan is fundamental. 
 "Without this knowledge, the history and writings of 
 the Hebrews cannot be rightly apprehended and inter- 
 preted. In the present outlines the first section is 
 devoted to early Semitic history. 
 
 § 5. Geography of the Ancient Semitic World. 
 
 In speaking of the importance of southwestern Asia, 
 two divisions have been especially mentioned, — the 
 valley of the Euphrates, and Canaan. These are the 
 two parts of the region which chiefly concern one in 
 securing the necessary background for a study of 
 Hebrew origins. In examining a map of the ancient 
 oriental world,i one will observe a crescent-shaped ter- 
 ritory extending from the Persian Gulf to the borders 
 of Egypt, bounded, on the concave side, by the Aralnan 
 desert, and on the longer, convex side, by chains of 
 mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 The principal districts to be noted in this region are 
 Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, Aram (lying between 
 the Euphrates and Canaan, or including also a portion 
 of the country between the Tigris and Euphrates), 
 Phoenicia, and Canaan. The cities of Babylon, Nine- 
 veh, Hamath, Sidon, Tyre, Damascus, and Jerusalem 
 should be identified at the outset, although they do not 
 appear in the history of the earliest times. The situ- 
 
 ^ See frontispiece.
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 15 
 
 ation of Carchemisli, wliere a ford of the Euphrates 
 made the principal connection between the halves of 
 the crescent, should also be noted. Here caravans in 
 peace and armies in war, from Assyria and Babylonia, 
 crossed on their route to Canaan or Egypt. It thus 
 came about that those from the far east approached 
 Canaan from the north and not directly across the 
 desert. Indeed, from the standpoint of the Palestinian, 
 " the children of the East " were nomads of the neidi- 
 boring Arabian desert, while the Babylonian or Assyrian 
 was one from the north. 
 
 Aside from the region described above, the ancient 
 Semites inhabited Arabia, with the fertile district of 
 Saba at its southwestern extremity, and Ethiopia, 
 across the Red Sea in Africa. While not properly 
 Semitic territory, the lands of Elam, Media (Madai), 
 and Egypt should be included in any survey of the 
 ancient Semitic world. 
 
 The map at the beginning of this volume should be 
 carefully studied and the following references may 
 profitably be read : JMcCurdy, " History, Propliocy, 
 and the Monuments," I., § 17 ; Goodspeed, " History of 
 Babylonians Jind Assyrians," pages 3-13 (for eastern 
 portion) ; G. A. Smith, " Historical Geography of Holy 
 Land," pages 6-13 (for western portion of northern 
 crescent) ; " Enc. Biblica," II., cols. 1087-1003. In 
 reading, note : (1) the extent of the crescent-shaped 
 territory ; (2) the general character of the land ; 
 (3) the significance of the two great rivers ; (4) the 
 various names of the chief divisions of the land ; (5) the 
 natural connections of its different parts with each 
 other and with other ancient seats of civilization.
 
 16 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 § 6. The Semitic Peoples. 
 
 The ancient Semites may, perhaps, be best divided 
 into two principal groups, the Aramaeans and Arabs. 
 Of these, the first includes the Babylonians and Assyr- 
 ians, the Mesopotamian and Syrian Aramceans, the 
 Phoenicians and Canaanites, and the Hebrews, Moab- 
 ites, Ammonites, and Edomites. The Arabs may 
 conveniently be divided into those of northern and 
 central Arabia, those of southern Arabia, and the 
 African Arabs of Abyssinia. In the northern division 
 are to be reckoned the Amalekites, Midianites, and 
 various other tribes mentioned in the Old Testament. 
 According to this division the grouping may be 
 represented as follows : 
 
 Babylonians and Assyrians, 
 
 Mesopotamian and Svrian Aramaeans, 
 
 Aramaeans -' . . . i /-i " •<. 
 
 Phoenicians and Canaanites, 
 
 ^Hebrews, Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites. 
 
 I Northern Arabs, 
 Arabs \ Southern Arabs, 
 
 (^African Arabs. 
 Whence the Semitic race originally migrated is an 
 unsettled question, but it is generally agreed that 
 Arabia was the centre from which it spread directly 
 into the regions indicated above. At intervals, through- 
 out historic times, the tendency to pour out of Arabia 
 into the fertile plains and valleys bordering the desert 
 plateau has manifested itself with resistless force. 
 
 At least one or two of the following references may 
 profitably be read : Hastings, " Pict. Bib.," Extra Vol., 
 pages 72-83 ; McCurdy, " History, Prophecy, and the 
 Monuments," I., §§ 17-21, or Hast. "Diet. Bib.," Extra
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 17 
 
 Vol., pages 83-91; Kent, "United Kingdom," §26; 
 Barton, " Sketch of Semitic Origins," ch. i. ; Keane, 
 " Ethnology," pages 391-395. In reading, note : (1) 
 the different classifications that may be adopted ; (2) 
 the varions theories as to the cradle of the Semites ; 
 (8) the probable course of migration from Arabia into 
 the more fertile bordering territory ; (4) the probable 
 order of the migrations and settlements of the various 
 groups of Aramaean Semites. 
 
 § 7. Kecords of Earliest Semitic Civilization. 
 
 During the nineteenth century the labors of explor- 
 ers in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates have 
 unearthed many and varied relics and records of the 
 most ancient civilization known to man. The discov- 
 eries include architectural remains of palaces, temples, 
 towers, and walls. The vast structures of Nineveh, 
 Babylon, and still more ancient seats of power have 
 been brought to view. Pottery, sculptures, royal in- 
 scriptions, business archives, even libraries, buried for 
 millenniums, have all borne their testimony to the 
 political, social, intellectual, and religious life of the 
 peoples who inhabited these regions ages before Greece 
 and Rome come into the light of history. The narra- 
 tive of the discovery and decipherment of these records 
 is the story of one of the greatest of the many great 
 achievements of scholarship in the nineteenth century. 
 
 At least one of the following references should be 
 read : Goodspced, " History of Babs. and Assyrs.," 
 pages 14-36 ; Jastrow, " Religion of Babylonia and 
 Assyria,"" pages 6-1 9 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," L, pages 
 220-223 ; " Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 423-429 ; Price, " Mon- 
 uments and 0. T," chs. iv., v; Rogers, "History of
 
 18 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Babylonia and Assyria," I., pages 84-199, 225-253; 
 Hilprecht, "Explorations in Bible Lands," pages 
 7-579; Kent, "Discovery and Decipherment of An- 
 cient Inscriptions " (in preparation). In reading, note : 
 
 (1) how largely the knowledge of the sites, language, 
 and civilization of ancient Babylonia had been lost ; 
 
 (2) early efforts at exploration ; (3) great results that 
 attended the explorations of the middle of the nineteenth 
 century ; (4) work done since 1873 ; (5) the early clues 
 for deciphering the language ; (6) striking features of 
 the written records; (7) nature and variety of the 
 records of this ancient civilization. 
 
 § 8. Ancient Babylonia until about 1200 b. c. 
 1. General Data. 
 
 (1) Situation, Area, and Fertility. 
 
 From the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates to 
 the Persian Gulf is a distance of about 800 miles. The 
 land included between the two rivers divides itself 
 naturally into two parts. The northern one of these, 
 commonly known by the Greek name of Mesopotamia, 
 is a great plain of limestone and selenite, in area al- 
 most equal to England. The northern and western 
 portions of this plain are broken by mountains and are 
 of a fertile character, as is also that part of Assyria 
 which lies east of the Tigris, while the lower portion 
 of Mesopotamia is much more barren. The southern 
 of the two principal parts, commonly styled Babylonia, 
 is of alluvial character, and in ancient times was 
 about equal in area to the combined territory of Holland 
 and Belgium or to the southern half of Louisiana, the 
 latter a re2;ion to which it has been likened in character. 
 On the east of the Tigris, the Babylonian plain stretches
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 19 
 
 away for a distance of some thirty to fifty miles, to the 
 mountains of Ehim. On the west it merges into 
 the Arabian desert, twenty or thirty miles from the 
 Euphrates, where the low hills check the overflow of 
 the river. The fertility of ancient Babylonia led to 
 astounding reports of productiveness.^ 
 
 Some one of the following references may profitably 
 be read for fuller information : Goodspeed, " Hist. Babs. 
 and Assyrs.," ch. i. ; Jastrow, " Religion of Bal)y- 
 lonia and Assyria," pages 26-80 ; Rogers, " Hist. Bab. 
 and Assyr.," I., pages 266-301 ; McCurdy, " History, 
 Prophecy, and the Monuments," I., §§ 71-73, 86; 
 "Enc. Bib.^^ I., cols. 350, 420-421. Notice: (1) the 
 natural boundaries of the country as a whole, with the 
 absence of any natural division between the districts of 
 Babylonia and Assyria; (2) distinguishing physical 
 characteristics of Mesopotamia and of Babylonia ; (3) 
 influence of rivers and canals ; (4) character of climate ; 
 (5) fertility and products of the soil ; (6) limitations in 
 building material ; (7) the chief cities of Babylonia 
 aud Assyria. 
 
 (2) Composite Character of the Population. 
 
 It is an unsettled question whether the Semites, 
 when they entered Babylonia, found a race already 
 living in the region, from which they adopted the arts 
 of civilization, or whether Semitic and other races were 
 already mingled together there at the earliest period 
 known to us. Two or three of the following discus- 
 sions of the question should be read. In favor of the 
 former view : Sayce, " Babylonians aud Assyrians," 
 pages 1-6; Rogers, "Hist, of Bab. and Assyr.," I., 
 
 1 See Herodotus, I. 193.
 
 20 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 pages 302-311 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., pages 214, 
 215. In favor of the latter view : Jastrow, " Religion 
 of Babylonia and Assyria," pages 32-34 ; ^ McCurdy, 
 " History, Prophecy, and the Monuments," II., §§ 82, 
 83 ; Goodspeed, " Hist, of Babs. and Assyrs.," §§ 26, 
 51 (seems to incline toward latter view). 
 
 2. Dawn of History in Babylonia (before 4000 b. c). 
 
 (1) Form of Government. 
 
 The earliest type of government discernible in an- 
 cient Babylonia is the city state. There were two 
 groups of such states. The southern of these consisted 
 of Eridu, Lagash (Shirpurla), Ur, Larsa, Uruk (Erech), 
 and Isin ; the northern, of Agade, Sippar, Nippur, 
 Kutha, and, at a later date, Babylon. Consult frontis- 
 piece map in Goodspeed, " Hist. Babs. and Assyrs." 
 Reference may also be made to Rogers, " Hist. Bab. 
 and Assyr.," I. pages 289-296. 
 
 (2) Duration of First Historic Period. 
 
 Most students of Babylonian history are agreed that 
 our knowledge of it extends back at least as far as 
 4500 or 5000 B. c, and that the culture then existing 
 testifies to a long period of development far removed 
 from anything that could be styled a state of savagery. 
 On the material side this civilization had reached the 
 agricultural stage, with the construction of irrigating 
 canals and cities. On the intellectual side, language 
 had been reduced to a written form, with all that this 
 means for indefinite possibilities of further progress. 
 
 1 See also his article in "Am. Journal Semit. Languages," xxii. No. 2. 
 For what seems a concession on tlie part of Professor Jastrow to the 
 other view, see Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," Ext. Vol., p. 73a,
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 21 
 
 On the religious side, there was already developed an 
 organized priesthood with temples. 
 
 Read Goodspeed, " Hist. Babs. and Assyrs.," pages 
 49-56, or Rogers, '' Hist. Bab. and Assyr.," pages 
 3-19-359. 
 
 3. Period of Expansion and Unification about (4000- 
 2300 B. c). 
 
 Physical needs and ambition for power naturally led 
 the city states of ancient Babylonia to acts of aggres- 
 sion against their neighbors, and, in addition to such 
 obvious motives, a strong religious impulse tended in 
 the same direction. Each state had its local deity, 
 whose glory was thought to be furthered by conquests 
 that showed his superiority to the gods of otl)cr cities, 
 the gods of conquered districts becoming subject to the 
 deity of the victorious city. 
 
 The early struggles for supremacy seem to have been 
 confined to the lower valley of the Tigris and Euphra- 
 tes ; but about 4000 b. c. a mighty conqueror, Lugal- 
 zaggisi of Uruk, made expeditions to the Mediterranean 
 and to the mountains at the north of Mesopotamia. 
 He styled himself " King of Uruk," " King of the 
 Totality." About 3800 b. c. most students of Babylon- 
 ian history date the famous reign of Sargon I. This 
 ruler and his son, who had their seat of government in 
 Agade, carried their arms into Armenia, Elam, Arabia, 
 and to the coast of the Meditcrrauean. Later the rule 
 shifts to the south, with Shirpurla the controlling 
 centre for a considerable period. By about 3000 b. c, 
 Ur had made itself dominant. Her kings seem to 
 have ruled united Babylonia. In Ijoth north and south 
 they built temples and they assumed the title " King of
 
 22 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Simmer and Akkad " (northern and southern Babj- 
 lonia). From about 2800 to 2500 b, c, Ur was again 
 the seat of power, with its rulers calling themselves 
 " King of the Four Regions." Contract tablets, dated 
 from events in these reigns, testify to campaigns in 
 Aram, Arabia, and Elam. The sovereignty of Ur was 
 followed by a period of strife between different centres, 
 but about 2400 b. c. a dynasty arose at the city of 
 Babylon which was destined, after a few generations, 
 to make that city the centre of power and culture for 
 all this region. Five kings, however, ruled in this new 
 line, before a monarch of great significance appeared. 
 In the meantime Larsa was the seat of another dynasty 
 of which the second king called himself " King of 
 Shumer and Akkad " ; and then Elam, so often invaded 
 from the plain of Babylonia, attacked in turn. Uruk 
 and Larsa had to bear the brunt of the shock, and 
 Larsa became a centre of Elamite power. The Elam- 
 ite rule humbled the aspiring cities of the south and 
 terminated the long period of expansion and unification 
 which had extended over more than a millennium and 
 a half and had spread the influence of the Euphratean 
 culture to the Mediterranean. 
 
 For a full account of the history, so briefly summa- 
 rized above, reference should be made to Goodspeed, 
 "History of Babs. and Assyrs.," pages 57-70, or 
 Rogers, "Hist, of Bab. and Assyr.," I., pages 361- 
 385. Short accounts may be found in Hastings, " Diet. 
 Bib.," L, pages 224-226, and " Enc. Bib.,"' L, cols. 
 443-444.
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 23 
 
 4. First Dijnastij at Bah //Ion (about 2400-2100 b. c). 
 
 The city of Babylon itself did not appear as a centre 
 of iufiiience until the history of the region which we 
 know as Babylonia was already more than two thousand 
 years old. The long period of expansion and unifica- 
 tion terminated at the time when the Elamites had 
 overrun the south, and Babylon had appeared in history 
 as a seat of government in the north. It was about 
 a century later that the first important ruler, the sixth 
 of the line, came to the throne of Babylon. This great 
 monarch, Hammurabi, has left records of his enlightened 
 efforts for the agricultural development of the land, 
 and a great law code, cut in the enduring rock, which 
 carries our knowledge of the history of jurisprudence 
 back a thousand years before the age of Moses. As 
 yet no inscription has been discovered giving the de- 
 tails of his wars ; but it is evident that he destroyed the 
 Elamite power in Babylonia, and his assumption of the 
 ancient titles " King of Shumer and Akkad," " King 
 of the Four Quarters of tlic World," seems to indicate 
 that his power extended far. In Larsa and Sippar he 
 erected temples to the sun-god, and at Babylon and 
 Eorsippa he enlarged those already standing. His 
 great canal running down through the heart of Baby- 
 lonia made the bordering territory fertile ; and the 
 granary built at Babylon stored the increased crops 
 of grain. It may be that Lugalzaggisi and Sargon I. 
 exceeded Hammural)i in the extent of their sway, but 
 Hammurabi made Babylon the centre of culture for 
 southwestern Asia during millenniums. Assyria, in 
 time, conquered her, but could only borrow and imitate 
 her civilization. When political power rcturtied for a
 
 24 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 brief period to Babylon, seventeen hundred years after 
 Hammurabi, the great rulers Nabopolassar and Ne- 
 buchadrezzar imitated his inscriptions. Hammurabi's 
 son proved an efficient ruler, and the dynasty continued 
 down to about 2100 b. c. 
 
 For a fuller account of this dynasty reference should 
 be made to Goodspeed, " History of Babs. and Assyrs., 
 pages 107-119, or Rogers, " Hist. Bab. and Assyr.," I., 
 pages 386-395. A short account may be found in 
 Hastings, "Diet. Bib." I., pages 226-227, or " Enc. 
 Bib.," I., cols. 444-445. The great code of Hammu- 
 rabi has been discovered, translated, and published 
 since the writing of all the above accounts. It is an 
 invaluable document, throwing light upon all phases 
 of the social organization of ancient Babylonia, and is 
 of especial interest to the Biblical student, because of 
 its close parallels with many laws of the later Old 
 Testament legislation. For a translation of this code, 
 reference may be made to : C. H. W. Johns, " Bab. 
 and Assyr. Laws, Contracts, and Letters," pages 44-68, 
 or Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," Ext. Vol. , pages 599-608 ; 
 Harper, " The Code of Hammurabi." For information 
 concerning the code, see : Hast., " Diet. Bib.," Ext. 
 Vol., pages 584-599, 608-612; "Biblical World," 
 Mar. 1903, Dec. 1904 ; Johns, " Laws, Contracts, and 
 Letters," pages 4-6. 
 
 5. Second and Tliird Dynasties at Babylon and Rise 
 of Assyria (about 2100-1200 B.C.). 
 
 The dynasty which followed that of Hammurabi 
 lasted, probably, about three hundred years. The 
 later Babylonian king list gives the names of eleven 
 rulers, but no contemporary inscriptions have been
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 25 
 
 found. The age would seem to have been one of 
 peace. 
 
 The third dynasty, commonly known as the Kassite, 
 was of foreign origin. The Kaslius, or Kassites, came 
 down from the mountains north of Elam and seem to 
 liave gained a foothold in southern Babylonia during 
 the later years of the second dynasty. The king list 
 gives the number of successive Kassite rulers as thirty- 
 six and the dynasty must have dominated Babylonia for 
 full five hundred years. The beginning of this foreign 
 rule marked, it is thought, a retrogression in civiliza- 
 tion, but, in time, the vital influences of Babylonian 
 culture made themselves felt once more. An inscrip- 
 tion, preserved from the central portion of this long 
 dynasty, shows that the ruler then on the throne con- 
 trolled the regions of the middle and upper Tigris and 
 the slopes of the eastern mountains. 
 
 By about the middle of the fifteenth century b. c, a 
 new Semitic power appeared, pushing from its centre 
 on the eastern bank of the Tigris southwestward 
 toward the northern boundary of Babj^lonia proper. 
 For this period of history, the Tel-el-Amarna tablets, 
 found in Egypt in 1887, lift the curtain high and show 
 the conditions of the times as involving international 
 diplomacy on a wide scale. Egypt had now entered 
 upon a career of expansion. She had won the control 
 of Palestine and Syria and secured a monopoly of trade. 
 The Babylonian infiuence, however, had left such a 
 strong impress that even the local Egyptian governors 
 of Palestine reported to the Pharaoh in tlic writing and 
 language of Babylonia, which was also the instrument 
 of diplomatic correspondence between Babylonia and 
 Egypt.
 
 26 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 By 1400 B. c. Babylon and Assyria were face to face, 
 disputing over the boundary between them. A mar- 
 riage alliance in the royal families served to secure 
 temporary peace, but wars broke out later, and, soon 
 after 1300, an Assyrian king was actually master of 
 Babylon for several years. When he was expelled, the 
 Babylonians gained territory from Assyria, and, not far 
 from 1200 b. c, they confined Assyria to her original 
 narrow territory. Soon the Assyrians won back some 
 cities in the disputed territory between the two centres, 
 and with the next Kassite king the long dynasty 
 closed. 
 
 For a fuller account of the Kassite period reference 
 should be made to Goodspeed, " History of Babs. and 
 Assyrs.," pages 121-154, or Rogers, " Hist, of Bab. 
 and Assyr.," I., pages 395-424. Short accounts may 
 be found in Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., page 227, and 
 " Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 446-447. For information as 
 to the Tel-el-Amarna tablets see: Breasted, "Hist. 
 Egypt," pages 332-337, 382-389, 393 ; Price, " Mons. 
 and 0. T.," pages 111-112. 
 
 § 9. Ancient Syria and Palestine until about 
 1200 B. c. 
 1. Bahyloyiian Dominance (about 4000-1700 b. c). 
 
 It has already been seen (§ 8, 3) that, as far back as 
 4000 B. c, expeditions were made from Babylonia to 
 the Mediterranean coast. Nothing is known, however, 
 of the details of history in Syria and Palestine till a 
 time almost twenty-five hundred years later, yet subse- 
 quent conditions bear indubitable testimony to the 
 duration and depth of the Babylonian influence on the 
 land. The later use of Babylonian language and writ-
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 27 
 
 ing, already referred to, names of places, religion, tra- 
 ditions, and art, all testify to the earlier Babylonian 
 influence, long after Babylon's political power had re- 
 ceded from the land. 
 
 For a discussion of the Babylonian influence see ; 
 Paton, " History of Syria and Palestine," pages 49-55 ; 
 Maspero, " Struggle of Nations," pages 14-19 ; Breasted, 
 " Hist, of Egypt," pages 258-262. 
 
 2. Egyptian Dominance (about 1550-1200 b. c). 
 
 About 1550 B. c, while the Kassites ruled Babylon 
 and a century before they came into contact with the 
 rising power of Assyria, Palestine came under the 
 sway of Egypt. The Egyptian monarchy was already 
 ancient at this time, but its earlier history had showed 
 no such tendency to expansion as characterized early 
 Babylonia. For a considerable period prior to 1600 
 B. C. Egypt fell under a foreign dynasty called the 
 Hyksos. After that date, the native Egyptians arose 
 and succeeded in expelling these rulers. Ahmose, or 
 Aniosis I., the leader of the new movement, pursued 
 the Hyksos into Palestine and put the tribes he found 
 there under tribute. The second ruler of the new 
 native dynasty (the Eighteenth Dynasty) possibly pene- 
 trated as far as the Euphrates. It is doubtful whether 
 he really established rule over such distant regions, but 
 his second successor, Thutmose, or Thutmosis, III., 
 about 1470 b. c, made Syria, as far as the Eui)hrates, 
 tributary, and even crossed the river into northwestern 
 ]\resopotamia. Under the rule of this monarch, Egypt 
 reached the height of its power, with a territory ex- 
 tending from Etliiopia to Asia Minor and from Pha3- 
 nicia to the Euphrates. Egypt's rule over this great
 
 28 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Asiatic territory was not very long continued, for she 
 did not know how to bind such heterogeneous and 
 wide-spread members into a permanent empire. The 
 Tel-el-Amarna letters, a little later, show the local 
 Egyptian governors at feud with each other or appeal- 
 ing frantically for help against foreign invaders to a 
 central government that seems rarely to have given aid 
 when and where it was most needed. From the north 
 the Hittites advanced into Syria, while other invaders 
 from the east, called the Habiri, pressed in upon both 
 Syria and Palestine. A century after the great victo- 
 ries of Thutmose III. Egypt had lost even nominal 
 sway over all her Asiatic dominions except Palestine. 
 In the north of Syria the Hittite was now dominant, 
 and the Amorite kingdom had established itself as 
 far south as Tyre and Galilee, while the Habiri had 
 effected settlements in various places. 
 
 A new dynasty which came to the Egyptian throne 
 did some vigorous campaigning in Palestine, but could 
 not push far north of Galilee. During the reign of an 
 early monarch of the line, he entered into a treaty with 
 the Hittites, who retained the greater part of Syria, 
 while Palestine and the Phoenician coast were secured 
 to the Egyptians. This ruler, Ramses, or Ramesu, II., 
 is of especial interest to the Bible student, since he 
 built Pithom and so must be the Pharaoh referred 
 to in Exodus as bringing the Israelites into bondage. 
 The next Pharaoh, Merneptah, maintained friendly 
 relations with his Hittite neighbors, but his reign was 
 followed by a period in which several kings ruled in 
 quick succession, and which terminated in anarchy. 
 The Hebrew exodus, if it involved any large number, 
 could hardly have occurred earlier than this time of
 
 EARLY SEMITIC HISTORY 29 
 
 confusion, when Egypt was so disturbed internally that 
 she could not maintain much control outside her own 
 borders. 
 
 For a brief account of Syria and Palestine prior to 
 1200 B.C., read Kent, "United Kingdom," §§ 20-24. 
 For fuller discussion of the history, reference may be 
 made to : Paton, " Early History of Syria and Pales- 
 tine," pages 74-136 ; McCurdy, " History, Prophecy, 
 and the Monuments," I., pages 152-223. For Egyptian 
 history during the period of her dominance in Pales- 
 tine, reference may be made to Breasted, " History of 
 the Egyptians" (in preparation), or his larger work, 
 " Hist, of Egypt," pages 233-501 ; Newberry and Gar- 
 stang, " Hist, of Ancient Egypt," pages 121-167 ; 
 Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., pages 660-662; " Enc. 
 Bib.," n., cols. 1238-1242.
 
 II 
 
 TRADITIONS OF THE HEBREWS REGARDIXG 
 
 THE BEGINNINGS (3F HUMAN HISTORY — 
 
 GENESIS I-ll^« 
 
 Having traced the general history of Babylonia, 
 Syria, and Palestine, down to the age when the Israel- 
 ites were to enter the promised land, that is, to abont 
 1200 B. c, a strict compliance with logical order would 
 require us to pass immediately to the investigation of 
 Israel's origin. This method would, however, leave 
 no convenient place for the study of the entire body 
 of highly significant and interesting narratives in 
 Genesis l-ll^^. These accounts deal with pre-historic 
 times and belong chronologically before the material of 
 Section L , but some knowledge of matters therein 
 included is essential to an understanding of the rela- 
 tion of these narratives to their Assyro-Babylonian 
 parallels. 
 
 § 10. First Creation Account of Genesis and the 
 Babylonian Creation Narrative. Genesis 1-2^^. 
 
 1. Structure of the Genesis Narrative. 
 
 Group the events of creation by days in parallel 
 columns of three days each and compare the columns, 
 noting the symmetrical structure of the two. Note 
 the recurring phrases of the narrative and any other 
 interesting elements of literary style.
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 31 
 
 2. Teachings of the Genesis Narrative. 
 
 Xote : (1) the conceptions of God and man wliicli are 
 clearly implied in the account ; (2) the idea with which 
 the account culminates. 
 
 3. Tlie Assyro-Bahylonian Creation Account. 
 
 Read at least one of the following- references and 
 note the points of resemblance and difference between 
 the Hebrew and Assy ro-Baby Ionian narratives: Kent, 
 " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 360-370 ; Driver, 
 " Genesis," pages 20-35 ; Davis, " Genesis and Semit. 
 Tradit.," pages 1-22 ; Jastrow, " Religion Bab. and 
 Assyr.," ch. xxi. ; Ryle," Early Narratives Gen.," pages 
 14-23; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., pages o04-o06 ; 
 Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 80-85 ; Worcester, 
 " Gen. in Light Modern Knowledge," pages 109-126 ; 
 " Bib. World," Jan., 1891, pages 6-16. 
 
 4. Genesis 1-2** and Modern Science. 
 
 In the last century several geologists undertook to 
 show substantial harmony between the first creation 
 account of Genesis and modern science. In order to 
 do this, it was necessary to assume that the " days " of 
 creation were really long ages. AVith this granted, the 
 general order of creation was found to be much the 
 same according to Genesis and the conclusions of 
 geology. Several disagreements, however, can hardly 
 be denied. Note carefully the clear representation of 
 Genesis that vegetable life flourished two periods be- 
 fore animal life appeared, that fishes and birds 
 appeared together and preceded all land animals, 
 that the heavenly bodies appeared after the earth, tliat 
 animals were at first vegetarian, and that the sky is a
 
 32 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 solid dome, supporting the waters above the heavens 
 (v. 7, cf. Pss. 148"^). For the arguments in favor of 
 harmony, see Guyot, " Creation " ; Dana, " First Chap- 
 ter of Genesis and Science " ; Dawson, " Origin of the 
 World according to Revelation and Science," " Eden 
 Lost and Won." For discussions presenting the pre- 
 vailing view of Biblical scholars, see Driver, "Genesis," 
 pages 19-26 ; Mitchell, " World before Abraham," 
 pages 115-119 ; Ryle, " Early Nars. Gen., " pages 23- 
 31 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., page 507. 
 
 § 11. The Second Creation Account op Genesis. 
 Genesis 2*^-25. 
 
 1. Structure of Narrative. 
 
 Compare Genesis 2^''~25 ^j{^|^ Genesis 1-2^^" in refer- 
 ence to : (1) order of events ; (2) rigidity and repe- 
 tiousness of style ; (3) name of the Creator. 
 
 2. Teacliings of the Narrative. 
 
 Compare the teachings of the first and second, crea- 
 tion accounts concerning man and God ; what have 
 they in common ? which is the more sublime ? 
 
 3. Other Traditions of Ma7i^s Creation. 
 
 No such close parallel is found for the second crea- 
 tion account in the Assyro-Babylonian literature as for 
 the first. For the Babylonian story of man's creation 
 from earth and tlie blood of the god Marduk or Belos, 
 see Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," page 369 ; Jastrow, 
 "Relig. Bab. and Assyr.," pages 444-450; Davis, 
 "Gen. and Semit. Tradit.," page 36. For the Egyp- 
 tian story of man shaped from clay at the potter's 
 wheel, see Davis, " Gen. and Semit. Tradit.," page 37 ;
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 83 
 
 Worcester, " Gen. in Light Mod. Knowl.," pages 96-102 
 (includes other Egyptian ideas of creation). 
 
 4. Genesis 2*^~25 ^^^^^i Modern Science. 
 
 No efforts have been made to bring the narrative of 
 Genesis 2*^"25 into harmony with modern science. 
 
 For general discussion of the second creation account 
 see: Driver, "Gen.," pages 35, 36, 52; Mitchell, 
 "World before Abraham," pages 119-123, 136-141; 
 Ryle, " Early Nars. Gen.," pages 32-42 ; Davis, " Gen. 
 and Semit/Tradit.," pages 36-54; "Bib. World," 
 Feb., 1894, pages 97-108. 
 
 § 12. Paradise and the Fall. Genesis 2^''^\ 31-21 
 1. Location of the Garden. 
 
 Note carefully the statements of Genesis as to tlic 
 location of the garden and the rivers, observing the 
 vagueness and uncertainty of the description. Through- 
 out the centuries many theories have been propounded 
 as to the location of Paradise. It has been sought, not 
 only in every part of the world, but even outside of it ; 
 from the second to the tenth century, many holding 
 that it was half on earth and half in heaven. It was 
 thought of as beyond the western sea or in the east, 
 shut in behiud terrible mountains.^ With present 
 knowledge, there is general convergence on the view 
 that the tradition placed the garden in southern 
 JJabylonia. vSee : Driver, " Gen.," pages 57-60 ; J\[it- 
 chell, " World before Abraham," pages 123-133 ; Ryle, 
 " Early Nars, Gen.," pages 43-45 ; Davis, " Gen. 
 and Semit. Tradit.," pages 55-62 ; Hastings, " Diet. 
 
 1 Geikie, " Hours with tlie Bible," I., pages 107-109. 
 
 3
 
 34 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Bib.," L, pag-es 643-644; Worcester, "Gen. in Light 
 Mod. Knowl.," pages 151-153. 
 
 2. Conditions of Life Pictured. 
 
 Note the ideas of the narrative as to labor before and 
 after sin. 
 
 3. Teachings of the Narrative. 
 
 Note: (1) the anthropomorphic character of the pic- 
 ture of God ; (2) the motive of man's sin or the real 
 nature of the temptation ; (3) the consequences of sin ; 
 (4) the outlook for man's future. Is the narrative 
 consistent with man's moral experience in all ages ? 
 Is it consistent with the course of man's history as 
 interpreted by the doctrine of evolution ? Cf. Kent, 
 " Origin and Perm. Val. of 0. T.," pages 230-235. 
 
 4. Parallels among Other Nations. 
 
 A few years ago, it was thought that the story of the 
 temptation and fall was depicted on a Babylonian 
 cylinder. This represented two figures in human form, 
 seated, facing a tree, and extending their hands as 
 though to grasp the fruit hanging from it. Between 
 the backs of the two figures, on the opposite side of 
 the cylinder from the tree, was a serpent. It has been 
 pointed out, however, that the differences in many 
 details are too great to enable us to feel that we have 
 here the same traditions. See Delitzsch, '' Babel and 
 Bible," page 48, for view that it was probably connected 
 with story of the fall ; Davis, " Gen. and Semit. Tra- 
 dit.," pages 65-67, and picture facing page 63, for 
 arguments against identification. Worcester, " Gen. 
 in Light Mod. Knowl.," pages 197 ff., presents at 
 length arguments pro and con.
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 35 
 
 While no parallel to this story has been found in 
 other Semitic traditions, the setting of the story points 
 very strongly to Babylonia for its origin. The situation 
 of the garden has already been noted, and sacred trees 
 appear constantly as emblematical representations in 
 the Assyrian and Babylonian sculptures. Many have 
 identified the cherubim with the winged, man-headed 
 bulls of Assyro-Babylonian sculpture and of Ezekiel's 
 visions, and some have suggested a connection between 
 Tiamat of the Babylonian creation story and the ser- 
 pent tempter. The serpent appears too commonly, 
 however, in early legend, as a symbol of dark and evil 
 power, to afford any clear connection between the He- 
 brew story and Babylonian tradition. The conception 
 of a primitive golden age is, if possible, still more uni- 
 versal than the dread of the serpent in ancient folk 
 lore. 
 
 For general discussion of the story of Paradise and 
 the Fall, see : Driver, " Gen.," pages 44, 51-57, 60, 61 ; 
 Mitchell, "World before Abraham," pages 141-159; 
 Kent, " Beginnings Hcb. Hist," pages 370-373 ; Ryle, 
 " Early Nars. Gen.," pages 32-60 ; Davis, " Gen. and 
 Semit. Tradit.," pages 64-84 ; Worcester, " Gen. in 
 Light Mod. Know].," chs. viii.-xii. ; " Bib. World," :Mar. 
 1894, pages 176-188. 
 
 § 13. Story of Cain and Abel. Genesis, 4i~'"''' 
 
 1. Circumstances Assumed, hut not Exi)lained. 
 
 Reading the narrative, note: (1) sacrifice presup- 
 posed, but no account of institution ; (2) blood revenge 
 assumed ; (3) no exjjlanation why offering of Abel was 
 preferred, or how the preference was indicated.
 
 86 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 2. Purpose. 
 
 Consider the purpose of the narrative : (1) in relation 
 to the story of the development of civilization ; (2) in 
 relation to the moral teaching of the series of narratives. 
 
 For general discussion of the story of Cain and Abel, 
 aee: Driver, "Gen.," pages 62, 63, 71, 72; Mitchell, 
 " World before Abraham," pages 159-1G8 ; Ryle, 
 "Early Nars, Gen.," pages 61-77; Davis, "Gen. and 
 Semit. Tradit.,"' pages 85-89 ; Worcester, " Gen. in 
 Light Mod. KnowL," ch. xiii.; "Bib. World," April, 
 1894, pages 266-271. 
 
 § 14. The Two Lists of Antediluvians. Gene- 
 sis, 41*^ -5 
 
 1. Comparison of the Lists. 
 
 Write, in parallel columns, the generations of chaps. 
 4 and 5, be2:inning the second column two lines above 
 the first, so that Kenan of ch. 5 will come on the line 
 with Cain of ch. 4. Draw lines connecting Enoch of 
 the first column with Enoch of the second, and Mehujael 
 of the first with Mahalalel of the second. Compare the 
 two lists when thus placed and consider whether they 
 are really two different lists, or one is based on the other. 
 
 2. Tlie Long Lives of Chapter 5. 
 
 The ancient Samaritan version of the Pentateuch and 
 the Greek translation made in the third century b. c. 
 differ greatly from our text of the Hebrew in the total 
 number of years assigned to the lives of the antedilu- 
 vians. The Samaritan version makes the total 1307 
 years, the Greek 2262 years, while our version makes 
 the total 1656 years. Adopting either text, the diffi- 
 culties with the list are manifest. Various forced
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 37 
 
 explanations have been offered to relieve the physical 
 difficulties, for it is generally recognized that the hu- 
 man body is not so constituted as naturally to live 
 through the long periods here mentioned. It has been 
 thought that, in the early days of humanity, powers 
 were fresher and stronger, so that the human mech- 
 anism could longer resist atrophy and decay. In this 
 connection we may note that the length of normal 
 human life does not seem to have varied materially 
 since Psalm 90 was written, unless it be to lengthen 
 slightly. Another purely arbitrary explanation offered 
 is that, until the time of Abraham, three months were 
 called a year, from Abraham to Joseph, eight months, 
 and since, twelve months. A more plausible theory is 
 that the names represent tribes or dynasties. While 
 the extreme lengths of individual lives involve physical 
 ditticulties that make a literal interpretation impossible, 
 the total number of years from the origin of man to 
 Abraham, on the other hand, is far too short to meet 
 the requirements of present knowledge. We have 
 already seen a highly developed civilization existing in 
 Babylonia at a date earlier than this list would seem to 
 imply for Adam's creation, while the geologist and 
 autliropologist find evidence of man's existence tens, if 
 not hundreds, of thousands of years before the dawn of 
 history in Babylonia. Even very conservative scholars 
 have recognized the difficulty and explained it by main- 
 taining that the line may not be complete. See Green, 
 " Unity Book of Genesis," pages 49-50. 
 
 3. Purpose of the Lists. 
 
 The list of chap. 4 is apparently designed to carry 
 forward the story of the earliest civilization, interrupted
 
 38 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 by the account of the first murder. Chap 5., on the 
 other hand, carries us back by its heading, " the book 
 of the generations of Adam," as well as by its rigid, 
 repetitious style with constantly recurring phrases, 
 to the first creation account, terminating at 2*\ It 
 seems clearly designed to bridge the gap between this 
 and the narrative of the deluge. The first creation 
 account contains the covenant with Adam, wherein he 
 is given the vegetable world for food, and is allowed 
 dominion over the beasts, and culminates in the insti- 
 tution of the Sabbath. The narrative of tlie flood simi- 
 larly contains the covenant with Noah and the giving 
 of flesh to eat. Both lists close at the same point. 
 
 For further discussion of the lists, see : Driver, 
 " Gen.," pages 68, 72-74 ; Mitchell, " World before 
 Abraham," pages 168-90 ; Ryle, " Early Nars. Gen.," 
 pages 78-95 ; Davis, " Gen. and Semit. Tradit.," pages 
 90-100; "Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 620-628; Worcester, 
 " Gen. in Light Mod. Knowl.," cli. xiv. ; " Biblical 
 World," April, 1894, pages 265-266, 271-274, May, 
 pages 326-335. 
 
 § 15. The Deluge Narrative in Genesis and in 
 Babylonian Literature. Genesis 6-9^^. 
 
 1. Structure of the Grenesis Narrative. 
 
 In reading the narrative, note carefully all the chron- 
 ological statements and try to make out a chronology 
 of the flood story. Next, put together, in one column, 
 all the statements that give dates by year, month, and 
 day of month, e. g. 7^'^^ 8*, and consider whether, 
 from these alone, a more self-consistent chronology is 
 obtained than before. Then place, in another column, 
 all the statements that give the time by periods of
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 39 
 
 seven and forty, and consider the account of the dura- 
 tion of events thus obtained. These various data will 
 be reconsidered later on. Note also the different 
 statements as to the number of animals and the appar- 
 ent discrepancy between 8° and 8^, 
 
 2. Teacliings of the Genesis Narrative. 
 
 (1) Note: (1) the culmination of the story of sin 
 begun in ch. 3 ; (2) the character of God as exhibited in 
 this judgment ; (3) the ground of the deliverance ; (4) 
 the new start for humanity. Note also the permission 
 to eat flesh without the blood, and the terms of the 
 covenant, 
 
 3. Tlie Assyro-Bahylonian Deluge Narrative. 
 
 In the eleventh tablet of the Babylonian epic of 
 Gilgamesh is the narrative of a deluge, showing many 
 striking resemblances to the Biblical account. The 
 hero of the story was directed to build a vessel of pre- 
 scribed dimensions and to stock it with provisions. 
 Into this he gathered " seed of life of every kind." 
 The flood came and destroyed all men and animals, 
 except those saved in this single vessel. At length the 
 ship grounded on a mountain and birds were sent forth 
 to test the subsidence of the waters. On coming out 
 of the ship the hero of the story offered sacrifice. The 
 Babylonian account gives the occupants of the vessel 
 as including servants, workmen, and a pilot, in addi- 
 tion to the hero and his wife. In this narrative, too, 
 the storm lasted only seven days and drained off in 
 another seven. The birds sent out were a dove, swal- 
 low, and raven. Such differences are no greater than 
 one would expect to arise in the transmission of the
 
 40 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 same original story through different nations, and the 
 resemblances are such as to force the conclusion that 
 the accounts were originally one. The greatest differ- 
 ence lies in the strong ethical turn given to the story 
 in its Hebrew form. In the Babylonian story the 
 gods appear acting capriciously, and the idea of pun- 
 ishment barely comes to the surface. In strongest 
 contrast is the ethical and religious use made of the 
 narrative in Genesis. The wide prevalence of flood 
 traditions in the legends of many peoples and differ- 
 ent continents has often been emphasized and urged 
 as an argument for the historical verity of a universal 
 flood, within the memory of man. 
 
 For a translation of tlie Babylonian flood story, more 
 or less complete, see : Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," 
 pages 373-378; Mitchell, "World before Abraham," 
 pages 111-113 ; Price, " Mens, and 0. T.," pages 90-93 ; 
 Worcester, " Gen. in Light Mod. Knowl.," ch. xviii. ; 
 "Bib. World," Feb., 1891, pages 110-118. 
 
 4. Genesis 6-9^^ and Modern Science. 
 
 Certain difficulties with the narrative of Gen. 6-9^^ 
 are obvious. The practicability of including all forms 
 of animal life in a single vessel some 450 feet long and 
 75 feet broad, together with food for their maintenance 
 during the period of the deluge, hardly needs discus- 
 sion. If, however, such difficulties seem surmount- 
 able, modern geology and anthropology are perfectly 
 decisive in negativing any literal understanding of 
 a world-wide flood within human memory and a re- 
 peopling of the entire earth from one centre. For 
 discussion of these questions, see: Driver, "Gen.," 
 pages 82, 83, 99; Ryle, "Early Nars, Gen.," pages
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 41 
 
 112-113 ; Davis, " Gen. and Scmit. Tradit.," pages 
 130, 131. 
 
 For general discussion of the entire narrative, see : 
 Driver," Gen.," pages 82, 83, 85, 86, 99-108 ; Hastings, 
 " Diet. Bib.," II., pages 16-23 ; Mitchell, " World before 
 Abraham," pages 190-227 ; Ryle, " Early Nars. Gen.," 
 pages 96-118 ; Davis, " Gen and Semit. Tradit.," pages 
 110-131; Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 89-96; 
 " Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 1055-1066 ; Worcester, " Gen. in 
 Light Mod. KnowL," ch. xviii. ; " Bib. World," 1894, 
 July, pages 20-31, Aug., pages 114-123. 
 
 § 16. Noah, the fikst Vineyard Keeper, and his 
 Sons. Genesis 920-28. 
 
 Tliis brief section is of interest chiefly because of the 
 relation of the races it pictured in Noah's curse, and 
 because of its emphasis on filial respect. 
 
 It seems not improbable that it belongs, chronologi- 
 cally, before, rather than after, the deluge narrative, at 
 a time when Noah's sons were comparatively young. 
 For further discussion, see : Driver, " Gen.," pages 111, 
 112; Mitchell, "World before Abraham," pages 228- 
 233; Ryle, "Early Nars. Gen.," pages 119-123. 
 
 § 17. Table of the Nations. Genesis 10. 
 
 1. Structure of the Table. 
 
 Arrange the names of the chapter in a genealogical 
 taljle, so as to show distinctly just how far each line is 
 carried. Note that though the form is genealogical the 
 list includes names with which we are familiar as 
 names of cities, districts, and peoples. St. Augustine 
 observed that we had here " nations, not men." When 
 the narrative states that Canaan begat Sidon and lletli,
 
 42 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 it seems natural to interpret this as meaning that the 
 city of Sidon and the Hittites were to be found in the 
 land called Canaan. An examination of the table 
 shows that the principle of classification cannot have 
 been entirely racial, but rather that geographical loca- 
 tion is determinative, though political, commercial, and, 
 perhaps to some extent, racial relations may have 
 modified the grouping. The table covers southwestern 
 Asia, a little of Africa, and, possibly, a bit of Europe. 
 An attempt to represent the geographical picture of the 
 chapter may be found on the map, page 58, of MacCoun, 
 " Holy Land in History." 
 
 2. Sigyiificance of the Table. 
 
 What has already been said has indicated that the 
 table apparently violates a fundamental requirement of 
 scientific classification. The division does not seem to 
 be based entirely on any one principle. That principle 
 which is most prominent, namely, geographical loca- 
 tion, is one that cannot be relied upon for classification 
 of races. We have here a rough picture of the distri- 
 bution of the peoples known to the ancient writer, the 
 chief significance of which is to be found in its contri- 
 bution to the Hebrew conception of humanity as being 
 of one kindred. 
 
 For general discussion of this chapter, see: Driver, 
 " Gen.," pages 112-114 ; Mitchell, '' World before Abra- 
 ham," pages 233-265 ; Ryle, " Early Nars. Gen.," pages 
 123-127 ; Davis, " Gen. and Semit. Tradit.," pages 
 185-139; Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 97-99; 
 Wade, " O. T. Hist.," pages 63-74.
 
 TRADITIONS REGxVRDING HUMAN HISTORY 43 
 
 § 18. Tower of Babel. Genesis IV'^. 
 
 1. Probable Origin of the Narrative. 
 
 No such close parallel has been found in the Assyro- 
 Babylonian tablets for the story of Babel as for the 
 Creation and Flood traditions, yet there are somewhat 
 similar Babylonian traditions, and the coloring through- 
 out bears unmistakable witness of strong Babylonian 
 influence. The scene, Shinar, is Babylonia ; the building 
 materials, bricks and bitumen, are those of Babylonia ; 
 while the erection of great towers is highly characteristic 
 of that region. 
 
 2. Signifieance of the Narrative. 
 
 The story is evidently an effort to explain the scat- 
 tering of humanity and the differences of languages, and 
 has been plausibly held to represent a more primitive 
 theory than that lying behind the preceding table of 
 nations.^ That it is a satisfactory theory woidd hardly 
 be maintained by any one who recognizes the results 
 of etlinology and pliilology as of value. The only 
 way to meet this difficulty and maintain the historical 
 character of the narrative is to deny that it is intended 
 to explain the differences of language the world over, 
 or even the characteristic differences which distinguish 
 the great families. 
 
 While tlie settiug of the narrative is so strongly 
 Babylonian, its present form is as markedly Hebrew. 
 The building of the huge towers of Babylonia was 
 a religious act, Avhilc the narrator here counts it as an 
 example of man's wicked vainglory. The destruction 
 of the tower and the inconvenient babel of human 
 
 1 MitelioU, " World before Abraham," page 265.
 
 44 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 languages is given the characteristic Hebrew interpre- 
 tation of a divine judgment. This story, Hke those of 
 the fall, the first murder, the flood, is used to furnish 
 an example of human will asserting itself and meeting 
 the judgment of Jehovah. 
 
 For further discussion, see : Driver, " Genesis," 
 pages 132-134, 136, 137; Mitchell, "World before 
 Abraham," pages 265-271; Ryle, " Early Nars, Gen.," 
 pages 127-133 ; Davis," Gen. and Semit. Tradit.," pages 
 141-150; Worcester, "Gen. in Light Mod. Know!.," 
 ch. xxii.; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," lY., pages 7'J0-793; 
 " Enc. Bib.," L, cols. 410-413. 
 
 § 19. The Postdiluvians. Genesis IV^'^. 
 
 Compare : (1) the line with that of Shem in ch. 
 10; (2) the length of the lives with those of ch. 5. 
 For discussion of tlie list consult Driver, " Genesis," 
 pages 137,138; Mitchell, "World before Abraham," 
 pages 271-280; Ryle, " Early Nars. Gen.," pages 
 133-135. 
 
 § 20. General Yiew of Genesis 1-11-6. 
 1. Structure. 
 
 (1) Documentary Analysis. 
 
 The question of the composite authorship of Genesis 
 1-11 has been largely ignored in the studies up to this 
 point ; but many facts have been noted which, when 
 considered together, bear clear evidence to the fact that 
 there are two distinct strands of narrative interwoven 
 in the chapters. One of these is represented in the 
 minute genealogies of chapters 5 and 11, with their 
 rigid, repetitious style, and in the first creation account, 
 which shows the same characteristics of style. The
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 45 
 
 Other is represented in the picturesque narratives of the 
 creation of man, the garden, fall, first murder, and 
 tower of Babel. In the greater part of the section, the 
 two kinds of material are not closely interwoven and 
 are easily separated. In the deluge narrative, however, 
 the two strands appear much more closely interlaced, 
 yet to recognize their presence relieves, at once, the 
 difficulties in the chronology of the section. If the 
 verses which give the dates with minute attention to 
 year, month, and day are recognized as belonging to 
 the strand that contains the statistical genealogies, 
 while those which give the time in the round numbers 
 forty and seven are attributed to the source which 
 gives the broadly sketched stories, each part will be 
 found self-consistent. The proof of this will be appar- 
 ent to one who reads each narrative continuously in 
 such a book as Kent's, " Beginnings Heb. Hist," pages 
 51-70. 
 
 Such facts as these persist throughout the first six 
 books of the Old Testament. In order to give them 
 adequate explanation, modern scholars have come to 
 agree, in substance, upon a theory of the literary origin 
 of these books, the reasonableness of which can only be 
 ajjparcnt to one who has worked his way through the 
 books in question, but which may be briefly explained 
 at this point. 
 
 It recognizes the fact that the Ilexateuch has gone 
 through a long literary history, beginning as soon as 
 there was a literary class and opportunity in Israel. It 
 was not the work of one mind, but of many master 
 minds. The rigidity and the picturesqueness of nar- 
 rative already noticed point back respectively to priestly 
 and projihetical authorship. Other indications support
 
 46 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 this distinction, and justify a belief in the gradual 
 combination into one unified composition of several 
 earlier, strongly individualized narratives. 
 
 The theory assumes that, in the centuries following 
 Solomon, two prophets, eager to establish their fellow- 
 countrymen in loyalty to God, made use of the abun- 
 dance of traditions and records, inherited from their 
 fathers, in the composition of histories of their nation, 
 each of which was complete for its own purpose. One 
 was, possibly, a century earlier than the other. The 
 earlier, a prophet of Judah, conveniently styled J, 
 began his history with the creation of mankind and 
 traced the origin and development of the " chosen 
 people " from the divine selection of Abraham to the 
 organization of the kingdom. His central thought was 
 the continuous guidance of God in all Israel's affairs. 
 The other prophet, belonging to the northern or 
 Ephraimite kingdom and conveniently styled E, was 
 chiefly interested in the dominant personalities through 
 whom God exercised this guidance and in the m.ethods 
 by which they kept in touch with God. So distinct 
 were the resulting histories, and yet so parallel, making 
 use as they did of the same materials, that it became 
 possible for some editor, not far from Josiah's time, to 
 unite the two into one prophetic history, styled JE, 
 more comprehensive than either by itself. Not earlier 
 than the exile a priest (P), who may have felt that, 
 while these prophetical histories of Israel were of great 
 value, they failed to do justice to much regarded by 
 him as essential, prepared a history which traced the 
 origins of the religious institutions of Israel. During 
 and after the exile, a movement toward the editing and 
 collecting of the religious writings of the nation arose,
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 47 
 
 ■which resulted in the combining of these histories 
 and of the laws which they had recorded into one 
 great whole, the work of the priest being taken as a 
 basis. 
 
 The argument for this theory is a cumulative one, 
 based upon the combination of several distinct lines of 
 evidence. It cannot be weighed as a whole until one 
 has studied, at least, the entire Pentateuch. Some of 
 the lines of evidence, however, appear distinctly in 
 connection with Genesis 1-11. Read one or more of 
 the following references and note the different kinds of 
 facts on which the analvsis is based : Bennett and 
 Adeney, " Bib Int.," pages 26-32, 60, 61 ; Driver, " Int. 
 Lit. 0. T.," pages 8-15 ; Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.,'' 
 page 21; McFadyen, "Int., 0. T.," pages 7-15; 
 "Messages Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 7-17; 
 Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," II., pages 863, 364. A detailed 
 argument against the analysis of this section may be 
 found in Green, " Unity of Book of Genesis," pages 
 1-147. 
 
 (2) Unity of Plan and Purpose. 
 
 a. Note the repeated use of the phrase " These are 
 the generations." What is the significance of the 
 repetition ? 
 
 b. Note : (1) the narratives illustrating the progress 
 of institutional religion — Sabbath, sacrifice, covenants ; 
 (2) those illustrating the course of human sin in its 
 origin, growth, and outcome. Observe in which strand 
 of the composite narrative each of those two lines of 
 development is given. For a discussion of the unity 
 of Genesis, see : McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 3-7 ; 
 " Messages of Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 27, 28 ; 
 Driver, "Int. Lit. O. T.," pages 6-8; Ilazard-Fowlcr,
 
 48 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 "Bks. of Bible," pages 6, 7; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," 
 II., page 143, col. a, 
 
 2. Genesis 1-11^^ as a Historical Source. 
 
 (1) Argument from Science. 
 
 Review the ten narratives into which the section has 
 been divided, considering the points intwhich they seem 
 to be in agreement or disagreement with the views of 
 modern geology, biology, ethnology, philology, and an- 
 thropology. Formulate a statement of your tentative 
 conclusions as to the possibility of maintaining their 
 literal accuracy. 
 
 (2) Argument from Comparison with Traditions of 
 other Ancient Peoples. 
 
 Review the narratives in comparison with traditions 
 of other early peoples and formulate a statement of 
 your tentative conclusions as to the way in which the 
 narratives of Genesis 1-11 came into existence. For 
 brief general discussion of Genesis 1-11 as an histori- 
 cal source, consult : Driver, " Genesis," pages xxxi- 
 xlii.; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," II., page 146, col. b. 
 
 3. The Relifjious Philosophj of Genesis 1-11^^. 
 
 (1) Conception of God. 
 
 Consider the idea of God embodied in these narra- 
 tives : (1) in his relation to the material universe ; 
 (2) in his relation to his sentient creatures. Do all 
 the narratives give an equally satisfying conception of 
 God ? Compare the Hebrew conceptions of God with 
 those seen in the parallel traditions of other ancient 
 peoples, noting resemblances and differences.
 
 TRADITIONS REGARDING HUMAN HISTORY 49 
 
 (2) Conception of j\ran. 
 
 Consider the idea of man in relation to the material 
 universe, animal life, other human beings, and God, 
 embodied in these narratives. 
 
 (8) Conception of Sin. 
 
 Formulate the conception of sin and its consequences 
 emphasized in these narratives. 
 
 4. Tentative Conclusions concerning Genesis 1-11^^. 
 
 In view of the facts noted under 2 and 3, formulate 
 a preliminary statement of your conclusions as to the 
 real nature and value of this portion of the book of 
 Genesis. Try to keep your mind open for a free and 
 fair revision of present conclusions, as further study of 
 the Old Testament may throw some additional light 
 upon this particular portion. 
 
 Discussions of this part of Genesis, treating the 
 section from various points of view, may be found in 
 Ryle, " Early Nars. Gen.," pages viii-x, 135-138 ; 
 Driver, " Genesis," pages xli-lxxiv, and page 1 ; Kent, 
 " Grig, and Perm. Val. O. T.," pages 225-236 ; Harper, 
 "Bib. World," 1894, pages 184-201, 266-278,349-358.
 
 Ill 
 
 FOKMATI\^ AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 
 GENESIS 11^^ TO FIRST SAMUEL 7 
 
 § 21. Period of the Patriarchs. Genesis 112"-50. 
 
 1. Stories Associated with the Name of Abram-Ahraham. 
 Genesis lV^'-2b^\ 
 
 (1) Composite Character and Contents of the Narra- 
 tives. 
 
 The prophetic and priestly strands of material recog- 
 nized in chapters 1-11 (§ 20, 1, (1)) are clearly dis- 
 tinguishable throughout the Abraham narratives. The 
 criteria for differentiating them are, in general, the 
 same as in the preceding chapters. In chapter 15 
 the third source (E) begins to be distinguishable, and 
 appears quite clearly from chapter 20 onward. In 
 many respects, it resembles the Judean prophetic 
 narratives, but is frequently plainly separable from 
 them. 
 
 The material may be analyzed as follows : 
 
 Judean Proph. (J) ll^s-so 12i-4» 126-20 131-5 
 
 Ephriamite Proph. (E) 
 
 Late Priestly (P) 124^.5 
 
 J. 136b-na 1312b-18 151b,2a 153b,4 156-12a 
 
 E. 151^ 152^3'^ 155 
 
 P. 136a 1311b,12a
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 51 
 
 J. 15120 1517 21 161b,2 164 14 18,191-28 
 
 E. 1512b. 1513-16 
 
 P. 161^ 163 1615 1*5, 17 
 
 J. 1930-38 21 1--^ 212^ 217 2125.26 
 
 E. 20 211'' 21^ 218-24 2127 
 
 P. 1929 212^-5 
 
 J. 212^-30 2132-34 2220-21 24,2510 2511^ 2518 
 
 E. 2131 221-19 
 
 P. 23 257-11=^ 2512 17 
 
 Chapter 14 is from some independent source. In 
 reading this portion of Genesis as analyzed, note : 
 (1) the representation of the J narratives ; (2) of the 
 E narratives ; (3) the differences and points of agree- 
 ment between the two ; (4) the P material in comparison 
 with JE. 
 
 The Biblical material is printed as divided among the 
 sources in : Kent, "Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 74 ff. ; 
 Carpenter and Battersby, " Hexateuch," II., pages 18 ff. ; 
 Bacon, " Genesis of Gen.," pages 119 ff. The analysis 
 is presented, in Kent : " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 
 xiv, XV ; Carp, and Bat., "Hex." I., pages 272,278; 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 61, 62 ; Driver, 
 " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 16, 159 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 I., pages 13, 14. Slight differences may be observed in 
 the analysis as made by different critics, but general 
 agreement will be found. 
 
 (2) Origin and Historical Basis of the Traditions. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Has- 
 tings, " Diet. Bib.," art. " Abraham," also II., page 147 ; 
 "Enc. Bib.," art. "Abraliam"; Paton, "Early Hist. 
 Syr. and Pal.," pages 31-46, 123, 124; Kent," Begin-
 
 52 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 nings Heb. Hist," pages 8-12, 22 ; Driver, " Genesis," 
 pages xliii-lxi, 141, 142, 191-193, 203, 230 ; Coniill, 
 "Hist. Peop. Isr.," pages 27-35; Kittel, "Hist. Isr.," 
 I., pages 172-183; H. P. Smith, "0. T. Hist," cli. 
 iii. ; Wade, " 0. T. Hist," pages 81-83. In reading, 
 try to secure definite impressions regarding the follow- 
 ing points : (1) difficulties in accepting all the narra- 
 tives as strictly historical ; (2) significance of the two 
 names, Abram and Abraham ; (3) historical value of 
 Gen. 14 ; (4) whether Abraham represents an indi- 
 vidual, tribal history, or both ; (5) original home of 
 the Hebrews ; (6) migrations reflected in the stories ; 
 (7) tribal relationships indicated ; (8) facts underlying 
 stories of Abraham in Egypt and Philistia ; (9) faith in 
 Jehovah's cai^e and guidance implied in the stories. 
 
 (3) The Leading Ideas of the Narratives. 
 
 Try to formulate what the prophetic narrators sought 
 to convey to their readers concerning : (1) the charac- 
 ter and ways of God as exhibited in his relations with 
 Abraham ; (2) the character of Abraham as an ideal 
 human personality ; (3) the tests of Abraham's loy- 
 alty to God ; (4) tiie gradual growth of Abraham's 
 importance. 
 
 Notice the vivid and accurate nomadic setting of the 
 narratives, bringing out Oriental hospitality, home life, 
 modes of travel, betrothal customs, and business 
 transactions. 
 
 Notice the very full priestly account of the covenant 
 of circumcision. 
 
 What was the attitude of the prophetical writers 
 regarding those actions of Abraham which we must 
 condemn ?
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 53 
 
 2. Stoi'ies Associated with the Name of Jacoh-Israel. 
 G-enesis 25^°-3G. 
 
 (1) Composite Character and Contents of the Narra- 
 tives. 
 
 The JE material appears very closely interwoven 
 throughout a large part of this section of Genesis. The 
 division between the prophetic and priestly sources is 
 as follows : 
 
 JE. 25-1-2633 27i-*5 28i0-31i8» 3119-355 
 
 P. 251^0 265^-5 27^6-289 3118b 356a 
 
 JE. 356b-8 35" 35i6-22a 3615-19 3631-39 
 
 p. 359-1^ 3515 35221^-361^ 3620 30 3610-43 
 
 The two great strands should be read separately, 
 noting: (1) details of Jacob's career as recounted in 
 JE, in P ; (2) points on which there is agreement 
 between the prophetic and priestly records. 
 
 The material is printed as divided among the sources 
 in : Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 95, 96, 102 ff., 
 379—381; Carpenter and Battersby, " Hexateucli," II., 
 pages 37 ff. ; Bacon, " Genesis of Gen.," pages 152 ff. 
 The analysis is presented in : Kent, " Beginnings Heb. 
 Hist.," pages xv-xvii ; Carp, and Bat., " Hex.," 11., pages 
 273, 274 ; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 62, 
 63 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 15, 16 ; Hastings, 
 ''Diet. Bib.," II., page 526, col. a. 
 
 (2) Origin and Historical Basis of the Traditions. 
 
 Read articles on Isaac, Jacob, Esau, Edom, in Has- 
 tings, " Diet. l^,ib." or " Enc. Bib.," also Hastings, II., 
 page 147 ; Baton, "Early Hist. Syr. and Pal.," page 124 ;
 
 54 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 8-12, 22, 23 ; 
 Driver, "Genesis," pages xliii-Lxi ; Cornill, "Hist. 
 Peop. Isr.," pages 29-37 ; H. P. Smith, " 0. T. Hist.," 
 ch. iii. In reading, try to secure definite impressions 
 regarding: (1) significance of double names; (2) the 
 question whether Isaac, Jacob, Esau, and the twelve 
 sons of Jacob represent individuals or tribes ; (3) the 
 clan or tribal movements reflected in either case ; 
 (4) tribal relationships indicated ; (5) early history 
 implied, if tribal ; (6) later Hebrew history intermin- 
 gled ; (7) reflection of Israel's spiritual experiences in 
 the narratives. 
 
 (3) Leading Ideas of the Narratives. 
 
 Note : (1) the character ascribed to Isaac, to Esau ; 
 (2) defects and elements of strength in the Jacob of 
 earlier days ; (3) the years of discipline ; (4) turning- 
 point of Jacob's spiritual career, 32^-32 ; (5) his charac- 
 ter in later life ; (6) the representative character of his 
 portrait ; (7) some of the religious truths illustrated by 
 the stories. It is not always possible to determine just 
 how far those who pictured these characters approved 
 the conduct recorded, but it should be possible to form 
 an impression on this subject, fairly correct in its broad 
 outlines. 
 
 Notice the interesting data relating to (1) questions 
 of primogeniture and inheritance ; (2) religious cus- 
 toms, such as Jacob's commemoration of his religious 
 experience by erecting a pillar ; (3) customs of mar- 
 riage; (4) covenants between n)en or tribes.
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 55 
 
 3. Stories Associated ivitJi Joseph. Genesis, 37-50. 
 
 (1) Composite Character and Contents of the Narra- 
 tives. 
 
 The division between the prophetic and priestly 
 sources is as follows : 
 
 JE. 372-46'^ 462S-47* 47*^^ 4712-27* 
 
 p^ 371 46^~2" 475,6a 47'"11 472Tb,28 
 
 JE. 472^32 48"-22 49lb-28a 4933b_50ll 5014-26 
 
 p^ 48'5^'5 49 1''' 4928b-33a 5012-13 
 
 In readint^ this portion of Genesis, note how the story 
 is given in JE and supplemented by P. The Biblical 
 material is printed as divided among the sources in 
 Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 124 £f. ; Carpen- 
 ter and Battersby, "Hex.," II., pages 58 ff. ; Bacon, 
 "Genesis of Gen.," pages 185 ff. The analysis is pre- 
 sented in : Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages xvii, 
 xviii, Carp, and Bat., " Hex.," L, pages 274, 275 ; Ben- 
 nett and Adeney, " Bib. Int. ," page 63 ; Driver, " Int. 
 Lit.O. T.," pages 17, 159; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," II., 
 page 767, col. a. 
 
 (2) Origin and Historical Basis of the Traditions. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references: Has- 
 tings, " Diet. Bib.," article "Joseph," also II., page 147, 
 col. b. ; " Erie. Bib.," article " Joseph " ; Kent, " Begin- 
 nings Heb. Hist.," page 23 ; Driver, " Genesis," pages 
 xliii-lxi ; Kittel, " Hist Hebs.," L, pages 183-191 ; H. P. 
 Smith, " 0. T. Hist.," pages 52-56 ; Maspero, " Struggle 
 Nations," pages 69-72 ; Breasted, " Hist. Egypt," pages 
 229, 243, 244, 446, 447, 455. In reading, note : (1) (he 
 bearing of the archasological exactness of the story on
 
 56 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 its historical value ; (2) chronological indications given 
 by Egyptian names ; (3) the question whether the nar- 
 rative is a somewhat idealized story of a Hebrew vizier 
 in the time of the Hyksos or of Amenhotep lY., 
 whether it reflects the migration of a certain group of 
 tribes to Egypt, or both ; (4) the tribal history indicated, 
 especially in Genesis 49. 
 
 (3). The Leading Ideas of the Narratives. 
 
 Consider : (1) the character attributed to Joseph, in 
 personal relationships and as a man of affairs. Did he 
 represent an advance in ethical ideals ? (2) the better 
 side of the portrait of the brothers, as mirrored in the 
 generous plea of Judah, ch. 44 ; (3) the epitomization 
 of the character of each tribe in Gen. 49 (compare, 
 for a parallel, Deut. 33) ; (4) the clear recognition of 
 the Divine guidance of all this history. 
 
 Notice also the data relating to : (1) Egyptian relig- 
 ious customs ; (2) Egyptian social and political life. 
 
 4. Genesis as a Whole. 
 
 (1) Literary Analysis. 
 
 Formulate briefly the probable facts as to the com- 
 position of Genesis from three principal sources, noting 
 what characteristics of the book are due to the pro- 
 phetic and what to the priestly elements. Notice how 
 this theory of literary origin relieves the enormous 
 difficulties of Genesis, e. g. the curious mingling of the 
 most primitive with very highly developed conceptions 
 of God in his dealings with men, the frequent duplica- 
 tions of narrative, and the intermingling of varied lit- 
 erary styles in the same chapter. 
 
 An interesting analogy, wliich fully justifies the 
 methods of historical and literary growth assumed in
 
 FOIIRIATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 57 
 
 this theory, will be met when the study of the books 
 of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles is undertaken. 
 
 For general discussion of the analysis, reference may 
 be made to : Kent," Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 21- 
 23 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," H., pages 143-146 ; Driver, 
 " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 8-13, 19-21, " Genesis," pages 
 iii-xxv; McFadyen, •' Int. 0. T.," pages 8-16; "Mes- 
 sages Proph. and Priest Histns.," pages 5-20. 
 
 (2) Literary Synthesis. 
 
 Notice : (1) how the genealogies from the priestly 
 source form a framework for the whole, into which the 
 prophetic narratives are fitted (see 2**, 5^, 6^ 10^, ll^*^, 
 1127, 2512, 2519, 369, 372^) . (^2) how the lines of Ham and 
 Japheth are dropped after a few generations and that 
 of Shem is carried on, and then, how the line of Terali 
 is selected for especial record ; (3) how, also among 
 Abraham's descendants, the side lines are traced for a 
 short distance only, while the main interest is centred 
 in the line of Jacob. In view of these facts, consider 
 the compiler's purpose in relation to the national his- 
 tory of Israel. Recall the various religious institutions 
 whose traditional origin is recorded in the priestly sec- 
 tions of Genesis, and consider the purpose of the com- 
 piler in reference to the history of Israel's ritual. 
 Review the conceptions of Genesis as to God's relation 
 to human history and as to the moral ideals of human 
 life, and consider the significance of Genesis in its 
 moral and spiritual teachings. Select some passages 
 in the book notaljle : (1 ) as description ; (2) as charac- 
 ter sketching ; (3) for pathos, or eloquence. Try to 
 discover : (1) the epic element in the literature ; (2) the 
 real secret of the book's powerful hold on the human 
 mind and heart.
 
 58 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 For discussion of Genesis as a literary whole, from 
 various points of view, reference may be made to : 
 Driver, " Genesis," pages i-iii, Ixi-lxxiv, " Int. Lit. 
 
 0. T.," pages 6-8 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," II., pages 
 143, col. a, 147, col. b, 148 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," 
 pages 1-7, 17, " Messages Proph. and Priest. Histns.," 
 pages 27-32 ; Hazard-Fowler, " Bks. of Bib. and Their 
 Place in Hist.," pages 6-8 ; Moulton, " Int. to Lit. Bib.," 
 pages 23-30, " Lit. Study Bib.," page 446. 
 
 § 22. Period op the Exodus. 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) The Biblical Narrative. Exodus 1-192^ 
 Read the narrative as divided among the sources, 
 (1) making a brief outline of the contents of each 
 strand, and (2) noting striking resemblances and differ- 
 ences in the three. 
 The analysis is : 
 
 J^ ^6 I7b-12 jUa jaob 2ll~23» 
 
 J] llo-20a 121,22 2^~'^^ 2'^^^''^^ 
 
 P. 1^"^ 1'* 1^^ l^*** 
 
 J 32-4a 340 36 37,8 3I6-I8 ^1-16 419,20a 
 
 E 3^ 3*'' 3^** 3^ 39-15 319 22 417, 18 
 
 J. 
 
 422 
 
 -26 429 
 
 -31 53 56.gl 714 716,17a 
 
 E. 
 
 420b,21 
 
 427,25 
 
 51-2 54 7I6 717b 
 
 P. 
 
 
 
 62-713 
 
 J. 
 
 •jrlB 
 
 721a 
 
 724.34 8^"^^* 320-97 
 
 E. 
 
 
 720b 
 
 723 
 
 P. 
 
 719,203 
 
 
 721b, 22 §5-7 3l5b-19 98-12 
 
 J 913-^1 923b g24b 925b-30 933,34 lO^^^' 
 
 g 922,23a 924^ 925a 931,32 935 1012,13a 
 
 P.
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 59 
 
 J. lO^^** XO^^^'^^* IQlSc-W lQ2i-2S 102^'29 ll**^ 
 
 E. 10^^* IQl^b 1020-23 1027 111-3 
 
 P. 
 
 J. 1221-27 1229-34 1237b-39 133-I6 
 
 E. 1235^36 1317-19 
 
 P. 119-1220 1228 1237a 124051 131,2 
 
 J. 1321.22 145,6 147b 1410a 
 
 E. 143 14"'» 14"c 148b 1410b 
 
 P. 1320 141.2 144 148a 149 
 
 J. 1411-1* 1419b 1420b 1421b 
 
 JJ_ 1415a 1416a l419a 1420a 
 
 P 1415b 1416b-18 1421a 
 
 J^ 1424 a 1425 1427b 1428b 
 
 E. 1423a 1424b 
 
 p 1421c,22 1423b 2426.27a 1428a 1429 
 
 J 1430 1522-25a 1527 161a 
 
 E. I43I-I5I9 1525b,26 16!,5 1614b,15 
 
 p_ 1520,21 161b-3 166-14 1616-20 
 
 J. 171b 172b.3 177a 192a 
 
 E. 1621 162"-3o 1635^ 17i'='2* 171 '^ 17'''-182' 
 
 p. 1622 2ti 1631-34 1635b.l7la I9I 
 
 The chapters are printed as divided among the 
 sources in Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 151 
 ff. ; Carpenter and Battersby, " Hex.," H., pages 79 ff. ; 
 Bacon, " Triple Tradit. Ex.," pages 11 fe. The analy- 
 sis is presented in Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," 
 pages xviii-xx, xxii ; Carp, and But., " Hex.," I., pages 
 275, 276 ; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 64, 
 65 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I.', pages 806-808 ; Driver, 
 "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 22-30.
 
 60 HEBKEW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Frequent reference to the sojourn in Egy])t is made 
 in other books of the Bible, e. g. I. Sam. 2^", 6^, Am. 9^, 
 Hos. Ill, 1213, 134^ iga. 1024, Mic. 63-4, 71^ Jer. 2«, 7^5, 
 Ezek. 206.', Isa. 43 i6,i7, 519,10^ esu. 
 
 (2) Monumental References. 
 
 Stele of Merneptah referring to Israel as desolated. 
 See : Breasted, " Hist. Egypt," pages 470, 471 ; Hast- 
 ings, "Diet. Bib.," I., page 665; Paton, " Earlv Hist. 
 Syr. and Pal.," page 134. 
 
 Identification of Pithom. See : Hastings, " Diet. 
 Bib.," III., art. "Pithom"; " Enc. Bib.," III., art. 
 "Pithom;" Price, " Mons. and O. T.," pages 116- 
 119 ; Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," I., pages 253-255, 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 The background in Egyptian history was given under 
 § 9, 2. For the Hebrew history read, at least, one of 
 the following : Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," I., pages 183-197, 
 203-207, 215-217, 222-228, 256-262 ; Wade, " 0. T. 
 Hist.," pages 98-114 ; H. P. Smith, " 0. T. Hist.," 
 pages 57-67. Of these, Kittel and Wade seem to re- 
 gard the Hebrew traditions as containing a larger ker- 
 nel of historic fact tlian Smith ascribes to them. Kent, 
 " Hist. Heb. Peop., United Kgdm.," pages 36, 37 gives 
 a very brief account of this period of the history. In 
 reading, note : (1) arguments as to historical character 
 of the sojourn ; (2) views as to whether, if historical, 
 it involved all the tribes; (3) its probable duration; 
 
 (4) question as to which Egyptian ruler was the 
 Pharaoh of the oppression, and which of the exodus ; 
 
 (5) different views as to the reality and extent of our 
 historical knowledge of Moses ; (6) different views as 
 to location of Sinai and consequent route of Israel's 
 march thither.
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 61 
 
 0. The Religious Value of the Exodus Narrative. 
 
 Notice (1) the conception of Moses as providentially 
 made ready for the woi'k of deliverance ; (2) the part 
 played by God in the deliverance ; (3) the unrespon- 
 siveness of the people. 
 
 § 23. Period of the Wilderness Sojourn. 
 
 1. Sources. Exodus 192''-40, Numbers. 
 
 In the Biblical narrative from Genesis 1 to Exodus 
 19^ we have Israel's traditions regarding the beginnings 
 of human history and the wanderings of her tribal 
 ancestors, down to the arrival at Sinai. In the latter 
 part of this narrative a little strictly legal material has 
 been found, but from this point forward the tradition 
 embodies organized codes of law, treating them as 
 given at Sinai or just before the entrance into Canaan. 
 
 It is now almost universally recognized among his- 
 torians of Israel that these codes did not appear com- 
 plete within one generation, but that they, ratlier, 
 represent a development of centuries in Israel's politi- 
 cal and religious history. In the present course of 
 study, each of the great codes will be examined in 
 connection with that general period of the history in 
 which it is believed to have been codified. Leviticus 
 and Deuteronomy, together with the legal material of 
 Exodus, are accordingly omitted from the sources for 
 the period of the wilderness sojourn. In addition to 
 these legal sections, we omit from the sources of the 
 present period a considerable amount of matter in 
 Exodus and Numbers which concerns itself with long 
 and minute descriptions of Levitical arrangements, such 
 as were realized only centuries later. The remainder
 
 62 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 of the Biblical material should be read as assigned to 
 the several documents in the following analysis : 
 
 J. 19" '8 1911b-13a 1918 1920-25 
 
 ^ 192b-6 199-lla I9W-IT 1919 20^^^^"' ^^^' ^^^ 
 
 P. 
 
 J. 241. 2 249-11 
 
 E. 222^~^i 231^' 1^' i^*» 1^^' ^"-"^ 24^' ^*' ^^' ^'^ 
 
 P. 
 
 J. 3313* 3312-23 
 
 E^ 2412-15'^ 2418" 3118b 32 333b-ii 
 
 P. 24i^i''"i*^* 251-^ 29*^-^ 3118* 
 
 J 341-11*' 14a, 17, 18a, 19a, 20c, 21a, 22a, c, 25-28 
 
 E. 
 
 p^ 3429-35 354, 20-33 
 
 J. 
 E. 
 
 P. 4017-38 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 J 1029-33 1035,6 ll^-l^ 1118-24a 1131-35 
 
 E. 111-3 1116,17 1124b-30 
 
 P. 1011-28 103* 
 
 J 1216 1317b I3I8.I9 1322 1327a 
 
 E. 121-15 13i'« IS^o.si'^ 1323'21 132"»> 
 
 p_ 131-17a 1325,26a 
 
 J. 1328 1330.31 141c 143 148 1411-24 
 
 E. 1329 1333 IV^ 144 149'^ 1425 
 
 P. 1332 14>'' 142 145-7 149* 1410
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 63 
 
 J. 1431-33 l(31b, 2a 1612-15 1625,2G 
 
 E. 1439b-45 
 
 P. 1426-30 1434-39a 101a l^Sb-ll IQ^^'^i 
 
 J. 162"l^-31a,32a 1633,34 20^ 201*~1^ 
 
 E. 
 
 P. le^"-* lG32b 1635-18" 201'^. 2. 8b, 4 OQ^-IS 
 
 J 20^^'2^ 202'b 21^^^ 211^~20 212>*' 30 
 
 g 2021=* 2022* 21'"''"^' llli'lS 2121^24a 
 
 p. 20 22b-29 
 
 J. 21^2 223^'* 225"^'^* 22'^ 22^1 22i'^'i^ 
 
 E. 2131 222.3a 22^^ 22«»' 22*^"io 22i2-i6 
 
 P. 221 
 
 D. 2133-35 
 
 J. 2221'' 2222-36 223'1> 2239 232'-30 
 
 E. 2219^1* 222i« 2237a 2238 22^o,4i 23i"26 
 P. 
 
 J. 241-19 251^-2 253i'.4 3239-42 
 
 E. 2126 251* 253a 255 
 
 p. 25«-i8 26, 2712-2331^ 321-38 33^ 34 
 
 The chapters are printed as divided among the sources 
 in Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 177 If. and, 
 with the omitted portions all included, in Carpenter 
 and Battersby, "Hex.," H., pages 109 ff . ; Bacon, 
 " Triple Tradit. Ex.," pages 101 ff. The analysis is 
 presented in Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 
 xx-xxiv ; Car. and Bat., "Hex.," I., pages 276, 277; 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 65-71 ; Driver, 
 "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 30-32, 60-69; Hastings, 
 "Diet. Bib.," I., page 808, HI., pages 568-571.
 
 64 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically one of the following : Kittel, " Hist. 
 Hebs.," I., pages 197-203, 207-215, 217-222, 228-252 ; 
 Wade, "0. T. Hist.," pages 114-133; H. P. Smith, 
 " 0. T. Hist," pages 67-72 ; Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., 
 Un. Kgdm.," pages 38-45. In reading, note : (1) the 
 probable duration of the stay at Sinai and its signifi- 
 cance ; (2) the picture of the tent of meeting in the 
 earlier account, its simple arrangements and location 
 relative to the camp; (3) the journey from Sinai to 
 Kadesh ; (4) location of Kadesh ; (5) real significance 
 for Israel of the sojourn in the wilderness ; (6) pos- 
 sible attempt on Palestine from the south ; (7) the 
 route from Kadesh to the plains east of the Jordan ; 
 (8) conquest of the Amorite territory ; (9) the Balaam 
 incident; (10) war with Midian ; (11) settlement of 
 east Jordan tribes ; (12) real work of Moses for Israel. 
 
 3. The Religious Value of the Narratives of the Sojourn. 
 
 Notice: (1) the portrait of Moses the leader; (2) the 
 solemn covenant entered upon between Jehovah and 
 Israel ; (3) the great religious advance which this 
 covenant marked. 
 
 Reference may be made to : Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 III., art. " Moses " ; Kent, " Messages Isr's. Lawgvrs.," 
 pages 11-14 ; W. R. Smith, " 0. T. in Jewish Church," 
 pages 302-304, 311 £f. 
 
 § 24. Conquest of Canaan. 
 1. Geographical Background. 
 
 (1) Physical Features of the Land. 
 
 Read Kent, " Hist. Heb. People, Un. Kgdm.," pages 
 18-26 ; G. A. Smith, " Histor. Geog. Holy Land," pages 
 45-59.
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 65 
 
 While reading, refer constantly to map, Smith, p. 51. 
 Note : (1) the length and breadth of Palestine ; (2) 
 the six zones or sections of the land (Smith makes 
 seven by including the Ncgeb or " South") ; (3) four- 
 fold division of the regions inhabited by Israel ; (4) 
 mountains and rivers ; (5) variations of temperature ; 
 ((3) names used in 0. T. for peculiar features of the 
 land, Shephelah ("lowland"), Negeb ("South coun- 
 try "), the Mountain (" hill country "), the Arabah 
 (Jordan valley), cf. Jud. P, Deut. 1', Josh. 10^ 11^ 
 128, j^,jf} Q ^_ Smith, "Histor. Gcog. Holy Land," 
 pages 651, 652; (7) adaptation of Palestine as a 
 home for Israel. 
 
 (2) Political Division of the Land. 
 
 Near the close of § 9 the general political condition 
 of Palestine toward the end of the Egyptian dominance 
 was indicated. It is necessary now to note, in more 
 detail, the political division of Canaan just before Israel 
 entered the land. Read: Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," Ext. 
 Vol., pages 73 col. b to 78 col. b. ; Kent, " Hist. Heb. 
 Peop., Un. Kgdm.," pages 27-32. At the same time, 
 carefully note the division of the land as roughly rep- 
 resented on the map, Plate 11. An excellent sum- 
 mary of the political history of Canaan for a few 
 generations prior to the entrance of Israel will be found 
 in Paton, " Early Hist. Syr. and Pal.," pages 122-150. 
 Short accounts of the conditions in Palestine, favorable 
 to the entrance of Israel, are given in McCurdy," Hist. 
 Pi-oph., and Mons.," I., pages 221-227 ; Kent, " Hist. 
 Heb. Peop., Un. Kgdm.," § 39.
 
 66 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 2. Sources. Joshua., Judges 1-2^. 
 
 (1) Joshua 1-12. 
 
 Read Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Un. Kgdra.," latter 
 part of § 32 and § 33 ; then read the account of the 
 conquest of the land given in Joshua 1-12. This nar- 
 rative is predominantly JE with later prophetic addi- 
 tions. The following passages should be especially 
 noticed as coming from the priestly history : 3V,8,i3b,i5b, 
 i6a,i7a, 49,10,1217,19, 510-12^ The scctiou is printed as di- 
 vided among the sources (early Judean, later Judean, 
 early Ephraimite, late prophetic, late priestly) in Kent, 
 " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 255 ff., and, as ana- 
 lyzed somewhat differently, in Carpenter and Battersby, 
 " Hex.," H., pages 320 ff. 
 
 (2) Judges 1-25. 
 
 Read and compare with Joshua 1-12 the parallel 
 account in Judges 1-2^, assigned to the early Judean 
 prophetic narrative (J). 
 
 (3) Joshua 23-24. 
 
 Joshua 13-22 consists of an account of the ideal 
 allotment of the land, largely from the late priestly 
 source. Read chapters 23, 24. 23 is assigned to a 
 late prophetic writer, and 24 to the early Ephraimite 
 prophetic narrative (E). The analysis of the above 
 material is given in Kent, "Beginnings Heb. Hist.," 
 pages xxiv-xxvii ; Carpenter and Battersby, " Hex.," I., 
 page 279 (Joshua only) ; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. 
 Int.," pages 80-82. 86; Driver, "Int. Lit., 0. T.," 
 pages 105-113, 162, 163; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," II., 
 pages 780-783, 814, col. b.
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 67 
 
 3. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read criticallv one of the following accounts of the 
 period : Kent, " Hist. Ileb. Peop., Un. Kgdm.," pages 
 59-70; Kittel, " Hist. PJebs.," I., pages 254-312; H.P. 
 Smith, " 0. T. Hist.," ch. v. ; Wade, " 0. T. Hist.," ch. 
 vi. While reading, seek to secure a clear impression of 
 the various theories regarding the conquest of western 
 Palestine: (1) theory of the final editors of Joshua, 
 which dominates the book as a whole, that, under 
 Joshua's lead, all Israel subdued the whole land speed- 
 ily (I410), destroying the Canaanites ; (2) theory based 
 upon Judges 1 that the conquest was a very gradual 
 and relatively peaceful occupation of western Palestine 
 by settlement and only incidental warfare ; (3) a theory 
 based on the earlier sources, but not disregarding the 
 later, that united Israel under Joshua crossed the Jor- 
 dan, got a footing, and then proceeded by detachments 
 to conquer the land, but with somewhat meagre results. 
 For a graphic presentation of the results of the con- 
 quest, see map, Plate IT., and, for the general location 
 of each of the Hebrew tribes after the conquest, see 
 map in "Kent, " Un. Kgdm.," page 50. 
 
 A trenchant critique of (2) will be found in G. A- 
 Smith, " Hist. Geog. Holy Land," pages 659-662. 
 Paton's discussion in " Syr. and Pal.," pages 150-155, 
 is well worth studying. 
 
 4. The Religious Value of the Narratives of the Con- 
 
 quest. 
 
 Notice : (1) the conception that the land of Canaan 
 was Divinely granted to Israel. Was this ethically 
 sound ? (2) the concei)tion of the struggles with the
 
 68 HEBREV^ HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Canaanites as a holy war in which the Hebrews were 
 executing God's will ; (3) Joshua as a national hero. 
 
 The discussion of the Hexateuch as a whole is re- 
 served until § 38, when it can be considered with fullest 
 profit. 
 
 § 25. Period op the Judges. 
 1. Sources. Judges 2^-21 ; Ruth; First Samuel 1-7. 
 
 (1) Judges 20-21. 
 
 In connection with Kent, "Hist. Hob. Poop., Un. 
 Kgdm.," §§ 32, 31-37, read Judges 26-21, or read these 
 chapters as they are arranged in Kent, " beginnings 
 Heb. Hist.," pages 277, 300-310, 315-316. Discussion 
 of the structure and contents of Judges will also be 
 found in Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 26, 27 ; 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 82-87 ; Driver, 
 "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 160-172; McFadyen, "Int. 
 0. T.," pages 76-83 ; " Messages Proph. and Priest. 
 Histns.," pages 121-126; Hastings, "Diet. Bih," IL, 
 art. " Judges " ; " Enc. Bib.," II., art. " Judges " ; Moore, 
 " Judges," in " Internat. Grit. Com.," pages xiii-xxxv. 
 
 (2) Ruth. 
 
 Read the book of Ruth and note : (1) the idealized 
 picture of the age of the Judges given by it in contrast 
 to Jud. 17-21; (2) the Davidic genealogy given. For 
 late date, idealized character of the narrative, and other 
 aspects of this book, see : Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. 
 Int.," pages 87-89 ; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 453- 
 456; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 290-293, "Mes- 
 sages Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 335, 336. 
 
 (3) First Samuel 1-7. 
 
 In connection with Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop., Un. 
 Kgdm.," § 38, read First Samuel 1-7, or read these
 
 FORMATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 69 
 
 chapters as they are arranged in Kent, " Hist, and 
 Biog. Nars.," pages 51-62, Qo, 6G, 70-7-i. The sources 
 and contents of these chapters are discussed also in 
 Bennett and Adenej, " Bib. Int.," pages 89-91 ; Driver, 
 " Int. Lit., 0. T.," pages 172-174. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically one of the following accounts : Kent, 
 « Hist. Heb. Peop., Un. Kgdm.," pages 71-98 ; Kittel, 
 " Hist. Hebs.," II., pages 1-22, 60-111 ; Wade, " 0. T. 
 Hist.," ch. vii. ; H. P. Smith, " 0. T. Hist.," ch. vi. 
 In reading, seek to secure as clear an impression as 
 possible of: (1) the relation of Israel to the earlier in- 
 habitants of the land during this period ; (2) the local 
 character and real nature of a " Judge's " rule ; (3) 
 the first recorded attempt at an hereditary monarchy 
 in Israel ; (4) the indefiniteness of the data of the 
 chronology of the period ; (5) the straits to which 
 Israel was reduced by the Philistines at the close of the 
 period; (6) significance, from the sociological point of 
 view, of the change from nomadic to agricultural life ; 
 (7) the actual state of society during the period. 
 
 3. Religious Value of the Narratives of the Judges. 
 
 Notice : (1) the religious importance of the transition 
 from the nomadic to the agricultural type of civiliza- 
 tion. Read Smith, " Hist. Geog./' pages 88-90 ; (2) the 
 religious motives which gradually united the independ- 
 ent tribes ; (3) the various types of national heroes 
 commemorated ; (4) the elements of ethical soundness 
 and strength in the life of Israel in this period. 
 
 Was it, on the whole, a period of retrogression, as 
 one might, perhaps, infer from a cursory reading of
 
 70 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 the Judges narratives, or a period of advance and 
 upbuilding ? 
 
 § 26. Beginnings of Hebrew Literature. 
 1. Early Poetry. 
 
 We have no knowledge of any Hebrew book com- 
 posed before the monarchy. Reasons for this fact are 
 not far to seek. Neither the conditions of the earlier 
 nomad life, nor of the periods of the conquest and the 
 Judges, were favorable for formal literary activity. The 
 conditions were such as have produced in other nations 
 primitive song and story, written only on the tablets of 
 memory and transmitted orally. 
 
 Before the beginning of Saul's reign, possibly the 
 Song of the Well (Num. 21^'~i^), the nucleus of the 
 Song of Triumph (Ex. 15'^^^), and the Song of Deborah 
 (Jud. 5) had already been written ; certainly they had 
 been sung and repeated again and again. Jotham's 
 Fable (Jud. 98-^5) and Samson's Riddles (Jud. 14".i8 
 15^°) had also assumed fixed form. The words of those 
 that speak in proverbs (Num. 2P'^^*^) and the Song of 
 Lamech (Gen. 4^3,24^^ together with the passage concern- 
 ing the Ark (Num. 10^^-'^^'), should perhaps be included as 
 relics of ancient popular poetry, antedating the king- 
 dom. The only long poem coming, in anything like its 
 entirety, from this age is the Song of Deborah. The 
 others included in the narratives from Genesis to First 
 Samuel 7, such as Jacob's Blessing (Gen. 49), the 
 Balaam Oracles (Num. 23, 24), the Song of Miriam 
 (Exod. 15), as a whole, all give indications of com- 
 pletion at a later time. 
 
 Read (preferably from Kent, " Beginnings Heb. 
 Hist.") Num. 21i''i8, Ex. IS^-is, Jud. 5, Jud. 98-i5^
 
 FOR-MATIVE AGE OF HEBREW HISTORY 71 
 
 Jud. l-i"'i3, I516, Num. 212T-30^ Gen. 423.2S Num. lO^s-ss, 
 noting : (1) the parallelism of lines in Hebrew poetry ; 
 (2) subject and spirit of each poem or fragment ; (3) 
 dramatic qualities in the Song of Deborah. For brief 
 introductions to the study of Hebrew poetry, see : 
 Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," IK., art. " Poetry " ; "Enc. Bib.," 
 III., art. '"Poetical Lit."; McFadyen, "Messages of 
 Psalmists," pages 9-16; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 
 359-367. 
 
 2. Oral Traditions. 
 
 Aside from songs and other brief utterances that had 
 assumed fixed, perhaps written, form before the time of 
 Saul, the peo{)le of Israel inherited a large mass of 
 ancient lore in the form of traditions concerning the 
 arigin of the universe and of civilization, the relation- 
 ships of tribes, the selection of sacred sites, the rise of 
 religious customs, the wanderings of ancestral clans, 
 and the deeds of early heroes. Not improbably the 
 oldest of these traditions were once current in poetic 
 form. 
 
 3. Germs of Legal Literature. 
 
 In this early age there were also traditional customs 
 precepts, and legal decisions, some of which may have 
 been grouped ali'eady into primitive codes ; at least seven 
 of the commands in the decalogue of Ex. Sl^^'^e ^a^^ 
 easily have been formulated in this age. No definite 
 declaration can be made, on the basis of existing mate- 
 rial, concerning the legal usages of the days of Moses ; 
 all must be conjectural. 
 
 4. Absence of Connected Narratives. 
 
 The outlines of the Formative Age of Hebrew his- 
 tory in the i)rcscnt course of study are based upon the
 
 72 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 supposition that in much of the primitive material there 
 are recorded historic facts, but it should be remembered 
 that the compilation of these materials in any connected 
 form cannot be traced back to the age before the rise 
 of the kingdom. An analysis of the narrative from 
 Genesis to Judges carries us centuries nearer the 
 events than the times in which the Hexateuch and 
 Judges assumed their present form, but even the early 
 Judean history (J) was compiled after the period of 
 Solomon. 
 
 For furtlier discussion of the primitive literature, 
 consult : Kent, " Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 3-17 ; 
 Kautzsch, "Lit. 0. T.," pages 1-9; Peters, "Early 
 Heb. Story," pages 1-26. (The last reference deals 
 with the subject from the point of view of the age of 
 the kingdom, but contains much material pertinent to 
 the present section.)
 
 IV 
 
 AGE OF UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 § 27. Period op Saul. 
 1. Sources. First Samuel 8-31. 
 
 In connection with Kent, " Hist. Heb. Pcop., Un. 
 Kgdm.," §§ 73-79, read First Samuel 8-31, or read 
 these chapters, as arranged in Kent, " Hist, and Biog. 
 Nars.," pages 62-111, in connection with pages 5, 6, 
 10-14. 
 
 Discussion of the structure and contents of Samuel 
 will be found also in : Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," II., pages 
 22-45 ; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 89-93 ; 
 Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 172-181 ; McFadyen, 
 "Int. 0. T.," pages 84-90, "Messages Proph. and 
 Priest. Ilistns.," pages 139-143; Hastings, "Diet, 
 Bib.," IV., art. "Samuel I., II."; " Enc. Bib.," IV. 
 art. " Samuel, Books " ; II. P. Smith, " Samuel," in 
 "Internat. Crit. Com.," pages xii-xxvi. 
 
 The principal fact which the careful student must 
 grasp is the composite charactei' of the narrative, as 
 one reads it to-day. Its author drew upon groups of 
 traditions regarding Samuel, Saul, and David, probably 
 in written form, not always alike. Rather tlian reduce 
 them to uniformity he often set them side by side. 
 This habit of the prophet-historian we may thank for 
 our opportunity to enter discriminatingly upon the 
 study of early Hebrew history.
 
 74 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 In reading, note carefully the differences between the 
 older and later accounts of: (1) Samuel's position or 
 function in Israel and his attitude toward the establish- 
 ment of the kingdom ; (2) Saul's rejection ; (3) David's 
 introduction to Saul ; (4) origin of proverb concerning 
 Saul among the prophets ; (5) David's regard for Saul's 
 life ; (6) David's flight to Philistia. Note also the 
 method of the Septuagint in dealing with an inconsist- 
 ent narrative (see Kent, " Un. Kgdm.," page 105, and 
 Septuagint of 1 Sam. IS^ 30). 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically at least one of the following discus- 
 sions of Saul's reign : Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Un, 
 Kgdm.," pages 113-135; Kittel, "Hist. Hobs.," II., 
 pages 111-137 ; Wade, « 0. T. Hist.," ch. viii. ; H. P. 
 Smith, " 0. T. Hist.," ch. vii. 
 
 While reading, try to secure a clear impression of : 
 (1) the conditions and forces, within and without the 
 Hebrews, which led to the monarchy ; (2) Saul's fitness 
 for leadership ; (3) approximate date of beginning of 
 his reign ; (4) Saul's opportunity to prove himself, and 
 his first achievements ; (5) causes of Saul's failure ; 
 (6) David's early life ; (7) his experiences at the court ; 
 (8) his outlaw career : its impulse, experiences, and 
 value ; (9) history and significance of battle of Gilboa ; 
 (10) rudimentary character of royal government under 
 Saul ; (11) constructive results of Saul's reign. 
 
 3. Religious Significance of the History. 
 
 The First Book of Samuel is a remarkable example 
 of religious instruction through a review of history. 
 It describes a people coming to themselves, discovering
 
 AGE OF UNITED KINGDOM 75 
 
 their power when united under a great leader, gUxdly 
 obeying a leader who had heroic qualities, but discover- 
 ing finally that prowess in war was insufficient to make 
 a true ruler of men. Notice how skilfully tl>e author 
 adjusted his varied material so as to indicate : (1) the 
 share of God in the shaping of this growtli toward a 
 better political and social organization ; (2) the person- 
 alities of Samuel, Saul, and David ; (3) the remarkable 
 portrait of Jonathan ; (4) the growth of David into one 
 who was the people's natural choice as ruler. 
 
 Notice also (5) the beginnings of the prophetic order, 
 the nature of the religious exercises practised by 
 prophets, and of the religious influence exerted ; (6) 
 popular religious ideas and practices as indicated by 
 First Samuel 9i"-^S lO^.s, 205-6, 26i9. 
 
 § 28. Period op David. 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Second Samuel. 
 
 In connection with Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop., Un. 
 Kgdm.," §§ 80, 81, read Second Samuel, or read the 
 book as arranged in Kent, " Hist, and Biog. Nars.," 
 pages 112-164, in connection with pages 5, 6, 10-14. 
 
 The analysis of this material is also given in : 
 Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," H., pages 45-49 ; Bennett and 
 Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 89-95 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 
 0. T.," pages 172-184 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 
 84-93 ; " Messages Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 
 139-143 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," IV., art. " Samuel I., 
 II."; "Enc. Bib.," IV., art. "Samuel, Books" ; H. P. 
 Smith, " Samuel," in " Intcrnat. Crit. Com.," pages 
 xii-sxix.
 
 76 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 In reading, note : (1) threefold division of the book 
 marked by summaries in chs. 8 and 202^"^^, as well as 
 by the difference in the character of the material in 
 each part ; (2) the general plan of chs. 1-8 in com- 
 parison with First Samuel 8-14, especially 14 ^^^^^ ; (3) 
 subject of chs. 9-20 ; (4) epic quality and high liter- 
 ary value of this section of the book ; (5) way in which 
 the section 9-20 leads on to First Kings 1, 2 by re- 
 counting the failure of the older sons to secure the 
 throne ; (6) prophetic story in 11^-1225 ; (7) miscella- 
 neous character of contents of chs. 21-24 ; (8) relation 
 of eh, 22 to Ps. 18 ; (9) probable date of the poems 
 in chs. 22 and 23. 
 
 (2) First Chronicles 11-29. 
 
 For a paraphrase of the account of David's reign 
 given in Chronicles, see McFadyen, " Messages Proph. 
 and Priest. Histns.," pages 289-294. For general 
 characteristics of the Chronicler's history, see : Kent, 
 " Hist. Biog. Nars.," pages 22-28 ; McFadyen, " Mes- 
 sages Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 270-285 ; 
 "Int. 0. T.," pages 347-356; Bennett and Adeney, 
 " Bib. Int.," pages 107-116 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," 
 pages 516-535; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., art. " Chron- 
 icles " ; "Enc. Bib.," I, art. "Chronicles"; Bennett, 
 " Chronicles," in " Expositor's Bible," pages 3-25. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically at least one of the following accounts 
 of David's reign : Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Un. Kgdm.," 
 pages 136-168 ; Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," II., pages 136- 
 176 ; Wade, " 0. T. Hist," oh. ix.; H. P. Smith, " 0. T. 
 Hist,," ch. viii.
 
 AGE OF UNITED KINGDOM 77 
 
 While reading, try to gain a clear impression of: 
 (1) the diplomacy which David exliibited after the 
 death of Saul, and the successive steps by which he 
 secured rule over united Israel ; (2) the course of the 
 struggle between the North and South ; (3) relations 
 of David with the Philistines; (4) history and signifi- 
 cance (political and religious) of securing Jebus as the 
 national capital ; (5) the international situation that 
 gave Israel its oj^portunity for expansion ; (6) extent 
 of David's kingdom (see map, Plate II., or Kcntj 
 " Un. Kgdm.,'' page 148) ; (7) David's military organ- 
 ization ; (8) his wars ; (9) his foi-eign alliances ; (10) 
 development of political organization of nation; (11) 
 political significance of David's marriages ; (12) origin 
 and progress of family tragedy ; (13) indications that 
 North and South were not organically united ; (14) 
 David's place in history as an organizer and statesman. 
 For further estimates of David, reference may be made 
 to : Cornill, " Hist. Poop. Isr.," pages 83-85 ; " Enc. 
 Bib.," L, art. " David " ; G. A. Smith, " Modern Crit. 
 and Preaching 0. T.," pages 155-157. 
 
 3. Religinns and Ethical Value of the History. 
 
 Consider : (1) the religious advance of this period 
 and its causes ; (2) the extraordinary ethical sound- 
 ness of the main narrative and its keen int;er{)retation 
 of the succession of troidjles ; (3) the character sketches 
 of David's contemporaries ; (4) the personality of 
 David. Was he more than a man of his times ?
 
 T8 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 § 29. Period of Solomon. 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) First Kings 1-11. 
 
 In connection with Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peep., Un. 
 Kgclm.," §§ 83, 84, read First Kings 1-11, or read 
 these chaptei-s as they are arranged in Kent, " Hist, 
 and Biog. Nars.," pages 164-199, in connection with 
 pages 14-16. 
 
 The analysis of this material is also given in : Kittel, 
 " Hist. Hebs.," II., pages 49-59 ; }3ennctt and Adeney, 
 " Bib. Int.," pages 95-100 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," 
 pages 185-193; McFadyen, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 
 94-106, " Messages Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 
 177-185; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," IL, art. "Kings I., 
 IL"; "Enc. Bib.," IL, art. "Kings, Book." 
 
 In reading, note carefully : (1) indications of dif- 
 ferent sources and the material ascribed to each ; (2) 
 marks of a later editor's hand ; (3) connection between 
 First Kings 1, 2, and Second Sam. 9-20; (4) natural 
 division of the section into three parts, 1-2, 3-10, 11 ; 
 (5) grouping of 3-10 about 6, 7 as a centre; (6) 
 editor's estimate of Solomon, in ch. 11. 
 
 (2) Second Chronicles 1-9. 
 
 For a paraphrase of the Chronicler's account of Solo- 
 mon's reign, see McFadyen, " Messages of Proph. and 
 Priest. Histns.," pages 294-297. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Kead critically at least one of the following accounts 
 of Solomon's reign: Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop., Un. 
 Kgdm.," pages 169-206 ; Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," IL, 
 pages 177-204; Wade, "0. T. Hist.," ch. xi. ; H. P. 
 Smith, " 0. T. Hist." ch. ix.
 
 AGE OF UNITED KINGDOM 79 
 
 In reading, try to gain a clear impression of: 
 
 (1) the steps by which Solomon secm^ed the throne; 
 
 (2) the portions of David's domain wliich Solomon lost; 
 
 (3) steps talvon by Solomon, at home and abroad, to 
 strengthen his kingdom ; (4) weakness and dangers in 
 his policy ; (5) real natnre of his wisdom ; (6) extent 
 of his building operations ; (7) indications of despot- 
 ism in his rule; (8) situation, plan, and architectural 
 appearance of tlie temple ; (9) an estimate of the 
 actual character of the glory of his reign. Was it an 
 advance upon that of David ? (10) a summary view 
 of the political, social, and religious development of 
 Israel during the age of the United Kingdom. 
 
 3. Significance of the History. 
 
 Consider with care : (1) tlie character of King Solo- 
 mon. Was there any justification, on the one hand, 
 for tlie extravagant popular estimates or, on the other, 
 for the severe condemnation of the pro})hetic historians? 
 Wherein and why was he lacking in the qualities needed 
 by a leader of that day ? (2) the significance to Isi'ael 
 of the building of the temple. How far was this sig- 
 nificance realized at the outset ? (3) the Biblical esti- 
 mate of the age of the United Kingdom. Was it a 
 period of real advance, and in what respects ? AVas 
 tiiere, in any respect, a decline ? How did the writers 
 explain the history ? 
 
 § 30. Literature in the Age of the United 
 Kingdom, 
 
 1. Historical Narrative, Court and Temple Annals. 
 
 The constructive work of David's reign left Israel a 
 nation living under conditions not unfavorable to the
 
 80 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 development of literature. With this accords well the 
 fact that in the story of the Jounding of David's king- 
 dom, given with so little of later addition in Second 
 Samuel, and in the earlj' Judean David and Saul stories 
 of First Samuel, we have the first examples, in Hebrew 
 literature, of connected narrative revealing the charac- 
 teristics of a contemporaneous record. Whether we are 
 to ascribe the actual writing of these narratives to the 
 century of the United Kingdom or to a slightly later 
 time, we cannot determine with certainty. As one goes 
 back from the time of David and Saul to the age of the 
 Judges, and tlien of the Conquest, and then of the Pa- 
 triarchs, he finds clear indications that the events lie 
 farther and farther back of the written records. 
 
 Solomon evidently caused state annals to be kept, in 
 which significant, and, often, detailed events were re- 
 corded. In these, or in separate temple annals, data re- 
 garding the construction and dedication of the temple 
 were, no doubt, preserved. From such sources the Book 
 of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kgs. 11^^) was compiled at a 
 subsequent date. 
 
 For discussion of the narrative writing of the early 
 kingdom, see : Kent, " Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 
 3-7, 10-12, 14, 15; Kautzsch, "Lit. 0. T.," pages 25- 
 29 ; Peters, " Early Heb. Story," pages 3, 4, 8, 9. 
 
 2. Poetry. 
 
 (1) David's Elegies. Second Samuel l^^-^T^ 333,34. 
 
 Read the elegies, preferably from Kent, " Hist, and 
 Biog. Nars.," noting : (1) their picturesque qualities ; 
 (2) secular character ; (3) form and structure ; (4) depth 
 of feeling.
 
 AGE OF UNITED KINHDOM 81 
 
 (2) Blessing of Jacob. Genesis 49^'^', 
 
 Read the poem, consulting for aid in interpretation, 
 Driver, " Genesis," pages 379, 380, and for details, notes 
 on pages 381-393. 
 
 (3) Balaam Oracles. Numbers 23'-i0'i8 24^ 24s-9.i5-i7. 
 Read tlie oracles, preferably from Kent, " Beginnings 
 
 Heb. Hist.," consulting Gray, " Numbers," in " Internat. 
 Grit. Com.," pages 313, 314, 345-348, 350-357, 360- 
 367, 368-371. 
 
 (4) Books of Poems. 
 
 Such collections of poems as the Book of Jashar 
 (" the righteous one ") and the Book of the Wars of 
 Jehovah were made either during this century or 
 shortly afterward (see Josh. IQi^, 2 Sam. V^, Num. 2V^). 
 Of these books, we know only what may be inferred 
 from their titles and the material assigned to them. 
 For brief discussions, see : Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," H., 
 IV., arts. "Jashar, Book of," "Wars of the Lord, 
 Book of"; "Enc. Bib.," H., art. "Jashar, Book of"; 
 Peters, " Early Heb. Story," pages 5, 6. 
 
 3. Early Legal Writings. 
 
 In First Samuel SO^*''-^^ (David's decision concerning 
 the sharing of the spoil) we get a glimpse of the 
 way in which statute law developed in Israel's history. 
 In the decalogue of Exodus 34^*26 (^j^^^ j; 26) there is 
 preserved an early code of ritual law, which, however, 
 could not have assumed its present form before Israel 
 had attained a settled agricultural life ; at least three 
 of the laws, the 6tli, 7th, and 9th, would be inapplicable 
 to nomad conditions. For further discussion, sec : 
 Kent, " Messnges Isr's. Lawgvrs.," pages 21-24, " Laws 
 and Tradit. Preceds." (in preparation), Intro. 
 
 6
 
 V 
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION" AND DESTRUCTION 
 
 (c. 937-58G B. c.) 
 
 § 81. Pre-Assyrian Period (c. 937-842 b. c.) 
 
 1. Limits of the Period. 
 
 The age of political division and destruction begins 
 with the death of Solomon and the refusal of the north- 
 ern tribes to accept the rule of Rehoboam. The first 
 period of this age terminates with Jehu's payment of 
 tribute to Shalmaneser II. of Assyria. From that time 
 forward for two hundred years the Assyrian power was 
 the dominant factor in Palestine. The chronological 
 chart at the opening of Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. 
 Kgdm.," should be carefully examined for the period 
 from 937 to 842, the general political relations between 
 Judah and Israel and between these kingdoms and their 
 neighbors being noted. 
 
 2. Sources. 
 
 (1) Biblical. First King's 12 to Second Kings 3. 
 
 a. First Kings 12-16. Read Kent, "Hist. Heb. 
 Peop., Div. Kgdm.," §§ 1-3. In connection with § 4, 
 read First Kings 12-16, or read these chapters as 
 arranged in Kent, " Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 203- 
 212, in connection with pages 7, 16-18. 
 
 The analysis of this material is also given in Bennett 
 and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," page 100 ; Driver, " Int. Lit.
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 83 
 
 O. T.," pages 193, 194 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," II., art. 
 " Kings L, IL," § 6. 
 
 b. First Kin^s 17 to Seeond Kings 3. In conneetion 
 with Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 5, read 
 First Kings 17 to Second Kings 3, or read these chap- 
 ters in Kent, " Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 212-229, 
 234-236, in connection with ])ages 7, 16-18. 
 
 The analysis is also given in Bennett and Adeney, 
 "Bib. Int.," pages 100, 101; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. 
 T.," pages 194-196; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," II., art. 
 "Kings I., II.," § 6. 
 
 Note the discussion of the historical value of Kings 
 in Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 6, or 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 94-100. 
 
 In reading this portion of Kings, notice especially : 
 (1) the change in the structure of the narrative be- 
 ginning at ch. 12; (2) the compiler's point of view; 
 (3) sources used in coni{)ilation ; (4) the chapters which 
 belong to the Elijah narratives. 
 
 c. Second Chronicles 10-22^. For a paraphrase of 
 these chapters of Chronicles, see McFadyen, " Messages 
 Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 297-304. For 
 general characteristics of Chronicles, consult references 
 under IV., § 28,1, (2). 
 
 (2) Monumental. 
 
 a. Inscription of Sheshonk. In connection with First 
 Kings 14-^-28, note inscription of Sheshonk (Shishak) 
 on walls of temple at Karnak (near Thebes). See : 
 Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 141, 142 ; Kent, " Hist, 
 and Biog. Nars.," page 494. For information as to 
 Sheshonk, consult : Breasted, " Hist, of Egypt," pages 
 627-531; Newberry and Garstang, "Hist, of Egypt,"
 
 84 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 pages 172,173; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," lY., page 506 ; 
 " Enc. Bib.," IV., cols. 4485-4487 ; McCurdy, " Hist. 
 Proph. and Mons.," L, § 210. 
 
 A brief summary of Egyptian history from the point 
 where it last touched Hebrew history, about 1200 b. c, 
 to the time of Sheshonk may be read in " Enc. Bib.," 
 II., col. 1242 ; or Newberry and Garstang, " Hist. 
 Egypt," pages 168-173. Fuller accounts will be found 
 in Breasted, "Hist. Egyptns." (in preparation), and 
 "Hist. Egypt.," pages 505-531. 
 
 b. Moabite Stone. In connection with Second Kings 
 V, S*-'-^', read the inscription from the Moabite Stone. 
 See : Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 142-147 ; Kent, 
 "Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 494-496; Hastings, 
 " Diet. Bib.," III., pages 406-408. Note : (1) points in 
 which the inscription supplements the Biblical narra- 
 tive ; (2) religious point of view of the Moabite king ; 
 (3) style of the inscription in comparison with the 
 narrative of Kings. 
 
 c. Inscription of Shalmaneser II. In connection 
 with Ahab's reign, note the inscription of Shalmaneser 
 II. given in Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 150-153 ; 
 Kent, "Hist, and Biog. Nars.," page 496; McCurdy, 
 " Hist. Proph. and Mons.," 1., §§ 228, 229. 
 
 3. Chronology. 
 
 Read at least one of the following discussions : Kent, 
 "Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," pages 12-15; Hast- 
 ings, " Diet. Bib.," I, pages 399-403 ; McCurdy, " Hist. 
 Proph. and Mons.," I, page 409, Note 6; Kittel, "Hist. 
 Hebs.," II., pages 234-240 ; Wade, " 0. T. Hist.," pages 
 317-321. Note : (1) difficulties in the chronology of 
 Kings ; (2) sources of the chronology ; (3) earliest
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 85 
 
 indications of a recjnlar system of datins:; amonu: the 
 Hebrews; (4) method of dating in Amos 1^, of. Zcch. 
 14^ ; (5) value of Ussher's chronology, now printed in 
 the King James version of English Bible ; (6) reasons 
 for reliance on Assyrian chronology ; (7) points of 
 absolute synchronism in the history of Judah and 
 Israel ; (8) importance of 842 b. c. for Hebrew chron- 
 ology ; (9) partial confirmation from Egyptian history 
 of the date for division of kingdom obtained by com- 
 paring Assyrian inscriptions with Kings. 
 
 4. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically at least one of the following refer- 
 ences : Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," pages 
 16-45; Kittel, "Hist. Hebs.," H., pages 241-277; 
 Wade, " O. T. Hist.," pages 312-347 ; H. P. Smith, 
 " 0. T. Hist.," ch. X. 
 
 In reading, seek to secure a clear impression of: 
 (1) the immediate occasion and deeper causes of the 
 division ; (2) differences in the resources, organization, 
 and character of the two kingdoms ; (3) ability and 
 significance of the house of Omri ; (4) periods of hos- 
 tility and peace between northern and southern Israel ; 
 (5) general course of tiic relations of Israel and 
 Damascus. 
 
 5. The Prophet Elijah. 
 
 During the reign of Ahab there appeared in Hebrew 
 history a great original personality whose creative 
 impress may be noted in Israel's succession of prophets 
 through centuries following. For discussions of Elijah, 
 read one or more of the following references: Kent, 
 "Hist. Ilcb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," pages 46-54 ; Hastings, 
 "Diet. Bib.," I., pages 687-692; " Enc. Bib.," H., cols.
 
 86 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 1270-1274; Stanley, "Jewish Church," II., Lecture 
 30 ; Fowler, " Proplis. as Statesmen and Preachers," 
 pages 13, 14. 
 
 6. Religious Progress of the Period. 
 
 Consider carefully (1) to what degree the estimates 
 of the Deuteronomic editor of Kings concerning these 
 kings were justified. That the condemnation was in 
 part formal is indicated by First Kings IG^^'^o^ Yl^di it 
 only a technical basis ? (2) the introduction, fostering, 
 and championship of Baalism, and its check by Elijah ; 
 (3) the prophetic guilds, their influence and numbers, 
 the false prophets, the genuine ones, examples of each 
 kind ; (4) the simplicity of Elijah's creed. 
 
 7. Literature of the Period. 
 
 We have already seen that it is impossible to dis- 
 criminate accurately between the century under con- 
 sideration and the preceding age, in dating the literary 
 materials that have been preserved. For discussion of 
 the literature that arose in these two centuries, see § 30, 
 1 and 3. No poetry can with certainty be ascribed to 
 the period between Solomon and Jehu, though the com- 
 pletion of the Book of Jashar and of the Wars of 
 Jehovah may belong to this century (see § 30, 2, (4)). 
 No book of prose or poetry now extant had been com- 
 piled when the house of Omri fell, about 842 b. c. 
 
 § 32. Assyrian Period of Israel's History. (842- 
 722/1 B. c.) 
 
 1. Introductory : Assyro-Bahylonian History from the 
 Twelfth Century to 842 b. c. 
 
 With the close of § 8 we left the Assyro-Babylonian 
 history at the end of the Kassitc dynasty, a time not
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 87 
 
 far from that of the Hebrew entrance into Palestine. 
 At that date the more ancient centre of government in 
 Babylonia had for several centuries been struggling 
 with the lusty young power of Assyria. Tlie contest 
 had been carried on with varying success, and at the 
 close of the Kassite power in Babylonia neither king- 
 dom had much advantage in the struggle. The three 
 centuries intervening between that point and the age 
 when Assyria became the most important factor in 
 Israel's political life should be rapidly reviewed. 
 See: " Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 447-449, 366-370 ; Goodspeed, 
 " Hist. Babs. and Assyrs.," pages 155-215 ; Kogers, 
 " Hist. Bab. and Assyr.," I., pages 425-429," H., pages 
 21-82, noting especially, in the Babylonian history : 
 (1) the reign of Nebuchadrezzar I., including the ex- 
 tent of his sway ; (2) gap of nearly one hundred years 
 in the history, practically contemporary with the cen- 
 tury of the United Kingdom ; and in the Assyrian his- 
 tory : (1) the reign of Tiglath Pileser I., including his 
 conquests and humbling of Babylon ; (2) gap of one 
 hundred years in the history, almost contemporary with 
 the century of the United Kingdom ; (3) completeness 
 of Assyrian records for three hundred years, beginning 
 at about 930 b. c. ; (4) successful reigns of Ashurna- 
 sirpal and Shalmaneser II. (for territory see maj).^ 
 Plate III.) ; (5) Assyria's first recorded contact with 
 Israel in 854 b. c. (see inscription of Shalmaneser II., 
 § 31, 2, (2), c). 
 
 2. Sources. 
 
 (1) Biblical. Second Kings 4-17, Amos, Hosea. 
 a. Second Kings 4-17. In connection with Kent, 
 "Hist. Ileb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 55, read Second
 
 88 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Kings 4-17, omitting passages which concern Judah 
 exckisively (11, 12, 14^^^, 15^'') or read these chapters 
 as arranged in Kent, " Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 
 229-253, in connection with pages 16, 17, 18-20. The 
 analysis of the material is also presented in Bennett 
 and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 101, 102 ; Driver, " Int. 
 Lit. 0. T.," pages 195-197 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," II., 
 art. " Kings, I, II.," § 6. 
 
 b. Amos. In connection with Kent, " Hist. Heb. 
 Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 56 (earlier part), read rapidly 
 Amos, noting : (1) allusions which indicate that Amos 
 prophesied in the time of Jeroboam II.; (2) conditions 
 of society which the prophet reveals. Read over the 
 account of Jeroboam's reign, Second Kings 14 23-2^. 
 
 c. Hosca. In connection with Kent, " Hist. Heb. 
 Peop., Div. Kgdm., § 56 (latter part), read rapidly 
 Hosea, noting the allusions indicating that chapters 
 1-3 belong to the reign of Jeroboam II. and that 4-14 
 belong, at least in the main, to the period of anarchy 
 following the death of this prosperous monarch. Read 
 over the account of this time of confusion. Second 
 Kings 15^^2'\ Note also the conditions of society re- 
 vealed in Hosea's sermons. 
 
 (2) Monumental. 
 
 Read Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 57. 
 
 a. In connection with the reign of Jehu (2 Kings 
 9^'"10^i),note the inscriptions of Shalmaneser II. on the 
 pavement slab of Calah and the black obelisk ; Price, 
 " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 154-156 ; Kent, " Hist, and 
 Biog. Nars.," page 497. 
 
 b. As, perhaps, throwing some light on Second 
 Kings 13^, note inscription of Ramman-nirari III., 
 Price, "Mons. and 0. T./' pages 157, 158.
 
 AGE OF rOLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 89 
 
 c. With Second Kings 15'^ compare annals of Tiglath 
 Pileser III., Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," § 148 ; McCurdy, 
 "Hist. Proph. and Mons.," I., § 310. 
 
 d. In connection with Second Kings IS^^"^^, 16'"^, 
 note Tiglath Pileser's account of h.is western campaign 
 of 734 B. c, Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," §§ 151-15i ; 
 Kent, " Hist, and Biog. Nars.," page 498. 
 
 e. With Second Kings IT*^ compare the records of 
 Sargon, Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," § 159 ; Kent, " Hist. 
 and Biog. Nars.," pages 498, 499. 
 
 No records of Shalmaneser I\^., who began the siege 
 of Samaria, have as yet beeu discovered. 
 
 3. Clironology. 
 
 Study at least one of the following discussions : 
 Kent," Hist. Heb. Peop.,Div. Kgdm.," § 58 ; Hastings, 
 " Diet. Bib.," I., pages 399-403 ; Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," 
 II., pages 234-240. In reading, note carefully : (1) 
 limits of the period ; (2) correction of the chronology 
 of Kings ; (3) important dates of the period fixed l)y 
 contemporary inscriptions. Study chart, frontispiece, 
 Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm." 
 
 4. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically at least one of the following refer- 
 ences : Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," pages 
 Gl-77, 98-108; Kittel, "Hist. Hebs.," !!.,§§ 61, 63, 
 67-69; Wade, "0. T. Hist.," pages 347-364; H. P. 
 Smith, "0. T. Hist.," chs. xi., xii. 
 
 While reading, note : (1) the relation of prophets to 
 Jehu's revolution ; (2) The fate of the line of Omri ; 
 (3) effect for the revolution on Judah ; (4) disastrous 
 effects for Israel ; (5) favorable results for Israel.
 
 90 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 5. Religious Progress of the Period. 
 
 Consider with discrimination : (1) the character and 
 worlc of Elisha : wherein he differed from his great 
 predecessor, the meaning of Second Kings 13^*, the 
 extent to which he estabhshed Elijah's ideals, the new 
 type of prophetic activity which he illustrated ; (2) the 
 religious usages of the day, as described in the narra- 
 tives ; (3) its religious limitations, as evidenced in such 
 passages as Second Kings 5^^^^^, 3^^ ; (4) the overthrow 
 of Baalism and unquestioned establishment of national 
 loyalty to Jehovah. 
 
 6. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Ephraimite Prophetic History (E). 
 
 We have now reached the period in which the early 
 Ephraimite prophetic narratives had been completed. 
 In sections II. and III. we have already become familiar 
 with the general characteristics of this document, which^ 
 at a still later period, having been enlarged by later 
 narratives, was combined with the Judean Prophetic 
 History and, centuries later still, came to form a strand 
 of the completed Hexateuch. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Kent. 
 "Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 37-40; Driver, "Int. 
 Lit. 0. T.," pages 116-126; McFadyen, "Messages 
 Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 21-26 ; Carpenter 
 and Battersby, " Hex.," I., ch. xii. ; Kittel, " Hist. 
 Hebs.," I., § 8, noting: (1) probable date of composi- 
 tion ; (2) features that indicate a northern origin ; (3) 
 dcA^elopment of ethical and theological ideas character- 
 istic of this document.
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 91 
 
 (2) Close of the Creative Age of Poetic Composition 
 and Prophetic Narration. 
 
 The composition of the early Ephraimitc Prophetic 
 narratives marks the close of the first great productive 
 age in the history of Hebrew literature. The earlier 
 prophetic histories of north and south had now attained 
 much of the form in which they were finally combined. 
 The primitive law codes of Exodus were formulated, the 
 early poems of the nation were collected into antholo- 
 gies, of which the names of two have been preserved. 
 The three hundred years from Samuel to 750 b. c. 
 have appropriately been styled the "creative age of 
 poetic composition and prophetic narration," in dis- 
 tinction from the preceding " primitive age of song and 
 story " when little had been committed to writing by 
 the people of Israel. 
 
 (3) Beginning of the Classical Age of Prophetic, 
 Priestly, and Wisdom Literature. 
 
 All Hebrew writings before about 750 b. c. ai'C known 
 only through their embodiment in later works. The 
 epoch-making writings of Amos and Hosca inaugurated 
 a new literary age. It is hardly possible to over- 
 estimate the importance of these two little books as 
 landmarks in any historical survey of the literature 
 and religion of ancient Israel, Standing on the com- 
 paratively firm ground wliich they give, one looks back 
 over the invaluable, though rather fragmentary, remains 
 of Israel's earlier literary activity and is able to form 
 some general conception of the creative centuries that 
 preceded the com])Osition of the completed books of our 
 Old Testament.
 
 92 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 (4) Book of Amos. 
 
 a. Structure. (1) Read the book in the following 
 sections: chs. 1-2, 3-6, 7-9; (2) find a title for each 
 section ; (3) note whether the book seems an orderly 
 and unitary composition or a mere collection of discon- 
 nected fragments. 
 
 b. Style. Reread, noting : (1) the figures and illus- 
 trations used ; (2) examples of parallelism, balanced 
 sentences, climax. 
 
 c. Thought. Recalling the political and social con- 
 ditions to which Amos addressed liimsclf (2, (1), b), 
 formulate in writing the principal teachings of this 
 prophet upon: (1) the character of Jehovah; (2) the 
 standards of business and social procedure demanded 
 by him ; (3) his attitude to Israel and other nations ; 
 (4) the danger impending over Israel ; (5) the char- 
 acteristics of real religion. 
 
 d. Author. Note the facts about Amos's life that 
 may be gathered from 7^*^^^S and consider the mental 
 and moral characteristics of this preacher of ancient 
 Israel. Was his appeal such as might be expected 
 from an observant, thoughtful farmer ? 
 
 e. Reference Literature: The student should make 
 the above study of Amos directly from the book itself. 
 If, however, it is desired to read on any special points, 
 the following books are suggested for reference : 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int. " ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 
 0. T."; McFadycn, "Int. 0. T. " ; Hastings, "Diet. 
 Bib.," art. "Amos"; "Enc. Bib.," art. "Amos"; 
 Sanders and Kent, " Messages Earlier Prophs. " ; G. 
 A. Smith, "Bk. of Twelve," in "Expositor's Bible"; 
 Harper, " Amos and Hosea," in " Internat. Grit.
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 93 
 
 Com." ; Kent, " Hist. EEcb. Pcop., Div. Kgdm.," pages 
 78-97 ; Fowler, " Prophs. as Statesmen and Preacliers." 
 
 (5) Book of Hosea. 
 
 a. Structure. Read the book of Hosea in the follow- 
 ing sections : chapters 1-3, 4-14, and note the general 
 theme and character of each section. 
 
 h. Style. Reread, comparing Hosea with Amos in 
 orderliness and connection of parts and, at the same 
 time, noting the effective figures and illustrations used. 
 
 c. Thought, (1) Note Hosea's conception of Israel's 
 attitude toward God, marking especially the various 
 classes of the people who are condemned by the prophet, 
 and his despair of popular reform. (2) Formulate the 
 thought of Hosea concerning God's relation to Israel, 
 especially as it is presented in chapters 1-3 and 11. 
 By what terms is Israel named ? (3) Note the supreme 
 demand of God as given by this prophet. (4) Compare 
 the thought of Amos with that of Hosea concerning 
 God's character, Israel's failure to respond to his de- 
 mands, the assurance of a speedy judgment, the nature 
 of it, the real purpose of God. 
 
 d. Author. It seems clear from this prophet's in- 
 terest and allusions that his message was, like that of 
 Amos, addressed to northern Israel ; but, unlike Amos, 
 Ilosea was himself evidently a native of the north (see 
 for example, 7^ " our king " or 4^'^^ " my people "). If 
 chapters 1-3 reflect the actual experience through 
 ■which Ilosea was educated to an apprehension of divine 
 love, we have considerable knowledge concerning the 
 prophet's private lil'e. If, on the other hand, they are 
 rigiit who regard these chapters ns a ])arablc, we have 
 very little knowledge (see for discussion of this mooted
 
 94 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 question, Harper, " Amos and Hos.," in " Internat, Grit. 
 Com.," pages cxlii-cxlv, 208-210 ; G. A. Smith, " Bk. 
 of Twelve," in " Expositor's Bible," I., pages 236-240 ; 
 Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," H., pages 421, 422; "Enc. 
 Bib.," n., cols. 2122, 2123). From Hosea's writings 
 themselves, try to form a conception of the prophet's 
 personal traits. 
 
 e. Reference Literature. The following will be fonnd 
 helpful for further study of Hosea : Bennett and 
 Adeney, "Bib. Int."; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T." ; 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T." ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," art. 
 "Hosea"; " Enc. Bib.," art. "Hosea"; Sanders and 
 Kent, " Messages Earlier Prophs." ; G. A. Smith, " Bk. 
 of Twelve," in " Expositor's Bible " ; Harper, " Amos 
 and Hos.," in "Internat. Grit. Gom. ; " Kent, "Hist. 
 Hob. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," pages 78-97 ; Fowler, 
 " Prophs. as Statesmen and Preachers." 
 
 (6) Deuteronomy 33. 
 
 The " Blessing of Moses," Dcut. 33, is generally as- 
 signed to the Assyrian period of Israel's history, but 
 whether it should be placed before or after the proph- 
 ecy of Amos is not clear. Its buoyant tone and other 
 indications of its political background suggest the later 
 years of Jeroboam II. as the probable time of its 
 composition. 
 
 Read the poem, noting : (1) the characterization of 
 each tribe (cf. " Blessing of Moses," Gen. 49) ; (2) the 
 prominence of the Joseph tribes ; (3) separation of 
 Judah and comparative indifference of the poet toward 
 her ; (4) honor and respect accorded Levi ; (5) neglect 
 of Simeon. For discussion of the poem, see : Driver, 
 " Deuteronomy," in " Internat. Crit. Com.," pages
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 95 
 
 385-417, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 97, 98 ; Kaiitzsch, 
 " Lit. 0. T.,"' pages 40, 41 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," 
 page 50. 
 
 (7) Our Literary Heritage from Nortliern Israel. 
 
 Read Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," §§ 107, 
 108, noting: (1) reason why we have no more litera- 
 ture preserved from northern Israel ; (2) literature 
 which bears marks of northern origin ; (3) primacy 
 of the north, but note that Amos was himself a Judean. 
 (In connection with § 107, it should be noticed that 
 Kent now dates the Song of Songs many centuries 
 after the fall of northern Israel, in accordance with 
 the advancement of knowledge concerning that puz- 
 zling little book which has come since his history was 
 written.) 
 
 § 33. Assyrian Period of Judah's History (842- 
 639). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Biblical. Second Kings 11-21, Isaiah 1-39, 
 Micah. 
 
 a. Second Kings 11-21, Isaiah 36-39. In connec- 
 tion with Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 109, 
 read Second Kgs. 11, 12, I41-22, 151-7,32 38^ iGi-20^ 18-21, 
 Isa. 36-39, or read these passages as arranged in Kent, 
 " Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 274-305, together with 
 pages 6, 7, 20. The analysis of the material is also 
 given in Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 101, 
 102, 184, 185; Driver, "Int. Lit. O. T.," pages 196, 
 197, 226, 227; Hastings," Diet. Bib.," II., art. "Kings, 
 I., II.," § 6, art. "Isaiah," § viii.
 
 96 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 b. Isaiah 1-35. In connection with Kent, " Hist, 
 Hcb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 110, read the portions of 
 Isaiah 1-35 there enumerated, in their chronological 
 order (6, 2^-41, 51^25^ 98.1 94, 520-30^ 71.97^ 171-11^ 1^ 28i-6, 
 20, 1429-32, 28'-2924, 30-32, 2215-25, lO^-lls, 1424-27, 
 1712-14, 18, 221-1*), QY read these passages as arranged 
 in Kent, " Prophetic Serms., Epists. and Apocalypses " 
 (in preparation). While reading, note the way they fit 
 into their historical connection and throw light upon 
 the national history. 
 
 For further discussion of the historical connection of 
 these chapters, reference may be made to : Bennett 
 and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," pages 172-184 ; Driver, "Int. 
 Lit. 0. T.," pages 206-227 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," 
 pages 107-127. 
 
 c. Micah. In connection with Kent, " Hist. Heb. 
 Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 111, read Micah, or read the book 
 as arranged in Kent, " Prophet. Serms., Epists. and 
 Apocs." (in preparation). While reading, note : (1) the 
 sections into which the book naturally falls ; (2) any 
 indications of date of each section ( with 312 cf. Jer. 
 261*^) ; (3) social conditions in Judah as seen by this 
 prophet. 
 
 (2) Monumental. 
 
 a. General Statement. Read Kent, " Hist. Heb. 
 Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 112. 
 
 b. Sargon's Annals. In connection with Isaiah 20i, 
 read from Sargon's annals : Price, " Mons. and 0. T.," 
 §§ 163, 164; McCurdy, "Hist., Proph. and Mons./' 
 pages 417-419. 
 
 c. Sennacherib's Inscriptions. In connection with 
 Isa. lO^'^-lli, 1524 27, 1712 14^ 18, 221-14, 36^ 37^ 2 Kgs.
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 97 
 
 18^^-19, see Sennacherib's records ; Price, " Mons. and 
 0. T.," pages 181-193 ; Kent, "Hist, and Biog. Nars.," 
 pages 499-502 ; McCurdy, '• Hist., Propii. and Mons.," 
 §§ 675, 676. 
 
 d. Esarhaddon's and Asliurbanipal's Lists. In con- 
 nection with Manasseh's reign (2 Kings 21^"^^), see 
 Esarhaddon's list of western subjects. Price, " Mons. 
 and 0. T.," § 185, and Ashurbanipal's list, Price, " Mons. 
 and 0. T.," § 191. 
 
 2. Clironology. 
 
 Study carefully one of the following: Kent, "Hist. 
 Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," §§ 113-115 ; Kittel, " Hist. 
 Hebs.," II., pages 238-210 ; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., 
 pages 899-403. On the per)>lexing question of the 
 date of Hezekiah's accession, Kittel inclines to 715 b. c, 
 apparently because of agreement with chapter 18, but 
 feels that we cannot come to a positive decision on 
 the point (Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," II., pages 238, 239). 
 McCurdy (Hist, Proph. and Mons.," II., pages 248- 
 250) accepts sixteen years for the reign of Ahaz, 
 and readies 720 or 719 as the date of Hezekiah's 
 accession, finding this in accord with Merodach Bala- 
 dan's mission at the opening of Sennacherib's reign. 
 H. P. Smith (" 0. T. Hist.," pages 238, 239) seems to 
 agree substantially witli McCurdy, for he speaks of 
 Ahaz as reigning in 720 and adds that Hczekiah came 
 to the throne about this time. 
 
 3. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically at least one of the following refer- 
 ences: Kent, "Hist, Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," pages 
 120-133, 141-150, 159-1G4 ; Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," II., 
 
 7
 
 98 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 §§ 62, 67, 68, 70-72; Wade, "0. T. Hist.," pages 347- 
 375; H. P. Smith, "0. T. Hist.," pages 232-259. 
 "While reading, note: (1) the priestly revolution and 
 downfall of the daughter of Ahab; (2) reforms under 
 influence of Jehoiada ; (3) relations of Judali with 
 Syria, Israel, and Assyria from Joash to Jotham; (4) 
 tlie marked prosperity and. peaceful ness of the long- 
 reign of Uzziah ; (5) crisis of 734 b. c, its causes and 
 consequences; (6) relations of Assyria and Judah in 
 the reign of Hezekiah, terminating in the great deliver- 
 ance of Jerusalem ; (7) causes and general character 
 of religious reaction in Manasseh's reign ; (8) Man- 
 asseh's relations with Assyria ; (9) secret activity of 
 prophets during his reign. 
 
 4. Religious Sicpiificance of tlie History. 
 
 Notice : (1) indications of the rapidly growing domi- 
 nance of the temple at Jerusalem as a religious centre ; 
 
 (2) the growing independence of the priesthood. See 
 Second Chronicles 261^"^*^, but compare the freedom with 
 which each sovereign still acted (2 Kings 16^*^"^^, 21*''^) ; 
 
 (3) the independence of the prophets as shown in their 
 attitude toward kings and priests alike ; (4) the des- 
 perate struggle by the propliets to promote a sincere 
 and lofty popular loyalty to Jehovah ; (5) the reasons 
 for the quick reaction in the days of jManasseh. 
 
 5. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Judean Prophetic History (J). 
 
 The early Judean prophetic nai-ratives are clearly 
 somewhat earlier than the Ephraimite narratives, 
 already discussed (§ 32, 5) in connection with the 
 Assyrian period of northern Israel. Both these docu-
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 99 
 
 ments have been examined as historical sources in 
 Sections II. and III. We must now view the Judean 
 narrative as a literarj- product of the people and period 
 in which it was shaped. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Kent, 
 "Beginnings Heb. Hist.." pages 31-37; Driver, "Int. 
 Lit. 0. T.," pages 116-126; McFadycn, "Messages 
 Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 21-26; Carpenter 
 and Battersby, " Hex." I., ch. xi. ; Kittel, " Hist. 
 Hebs.," I., § 8, noting : (1) probable date of composition ; 
 (2) features that indicate a Judean origin ; (3) the great 
 idea which it seeks to illustrate ; (4) the ethical and 
 tlieological ideas characteristic of this document. 
 
 This most picturesque and significant collection of 
 the early traditions of Israel belongs, it should be 
 remembered, within the " creative age of poetic compo- 
 sition and prophetic narration," whereas the books of 
 Isaiah and ^Nlicah fall within the early years of the 
 " classical age " inaugurated by Amos and Hosea. 
 
 (2) Isaiah 1-39. 
 
 a. Structure. This liook divides itself broadlv into 
 two parts : (1) a collection of prophecies, 1-35 ; (2) an 
 historical appendix concerning certain public events in 
 which Isaiah appears prominently, 36-39. The second 
 section is almost identical with Second Kings 18i2~20^^. 
 It is possible to distinguish some smaller groups of 
 prophecies within the lai'ge group, and cliai)tcr 1 may 
 easily have been placed first as forming a fitting intro- 
 duction to Isaiali's message, but no general principle 
 of orderly arrangement is discoverable throughout the 
 thirty-five chapters. There are, besides, in this sec- 
 tion intermingled witli the words of Isaiah the son of
 
 100 HEBREVv^ HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Amoz, a number of prophecies which bear clear in- 
 ternal evidence of other authorship and date. The 
 principal of these are IV^-U^^, 2V-^^, 24-27, 34, 35. 
 On the whole it seems higiily probable that we have 
 in Isaiah 1-39 a compilation made by the prophet's 
 followers, in which some writings by later prophets 
 were at one time or another incorporated, and to which 
 chapters 36-39 were added as an appropriate conclu- 
 sion. At a later point in our study it will \ye seen that 
 the wonderful groups of prophecies found in Isaiah 
 40-66 were eventually appended to the earlier book 
 completed at chapter 39. 
 
 b. Style. Read over the following passages of 
 Isaiah 1-35, noting in writing : (1) the variety of liter- 
 ary forms represented, e. g. song, narrative, address ; 
 (2) the wealtli of figurative language employed — 1, 
 2-5, 6, 7-9", 98-10*, I71-", 28 (probably belonging to 
 earlier years of ministry) ; lO^-ll^- 1424-27, 28 32/1712-14, 
 18, 19, 20, 2111-17, 221-14' 15-25, 23, 29-32, 33 (probably 
 belonging to later years of ministry). Note also ex- 
 amples of compact and forcible utterances combined 
 with splendidly rounded periods, and of the effective 
 use of antithesis. 
 
 c. Thought. Compare carefully the thought of 
 Isaiah Avith that of Amos and Hosea upon : (1) the 
 nature of Jehovah, noting especially in chapter 6 and 
 elsewhere the great attribute of God which Isaiah is 
 the first to emphasize, and its meaning to him and to 
 his contemporaries ; (2) social and religious conditions 
 in Judah ; (3) the certainty that such conditions would 
 force God to act in punishment. 
 
 Note further: (1) the prophet's attitude toward
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 101 
 
 foreign alliances, 20^"^' dO^~''> ^^'^'^ 31^"^; cf. interview 
 with Ahaz and the principle of action then formu- 
 lated, 7; (2) faith in the inviolability of Zion, 102^-34, 
 1424-27,32^ 291-8, 314'5; (3) pictures of an ideal prince 
 and a future of peace ll^'^, 32i-«, ^^ ^S; (4) the re- 
 demptive purpose of God and its result in a righteous 
 " remnant," 42"S 6^3^ T^, 17^^^ 28^ ; (5) catholicity of 
 hope, 1923-251 
 
 d. Author. Note : (1) the length of Isaiah's ministry 
 as indicated by the interval between the inaugural 
 vision (chapter 6) and the prophecies associated with the 
 year 701 ; (2) indications as to the prophet's family, 73, 
 8^-"^ ; (3) stages of the prophet's inner experience as 
 revealed in chapter 6 ; (4) his advantageous relations 
 with the rulers of Judah, 73 9, 371-*, etc. ; (5) his re- 
 sources as a teacher indicated by wealth of figurative 
 language and variety of literary form at command, and 
 also in such passages as 20, 1^*^-^", i^, 5^. 
 
 e. Reference Literature. The following will be found 
 helpful in further study of Isaiah : Bennett and Adency, 
 "Bib. Int."; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T."; McFadyen, 
 " Int. 0. T." ; G. A. Smith, " Isaiah," in " Expositor's 
 Bible ; " Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," IL, art. " Isaiah ; " " Enc. 
 Bib.," art. " Isaiah, Bk." ; Sanders and Kent, " Mes- 
 sages Earlier Prophs." ; Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. 
 Kgdm.," pages 151-158, 134-140 ; Fowler, " Prophs. as 
 Statesmen and Preachers." 
 
 (3) Book of Micah. 
 
 a. Structure. Read the book in the following sec- 
 tions and give a title to each section : 1-3, 4-5, 6-7. 
 
 ^ The last three jnjrc^iips of nifercinfs iire treated as iioii-Isaianic by 
 some. See Cheyue, " Isuiali," in " Sac. Jiks. uf (). ami N. Tests.," in 
 loco.
 
 102 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 b. Style. Reread the book, noting examples of : 
 (1) terse vigor; (2) beautiful visions and dramatic dia- 
 logue. The remarkable series of paranoraasia in l^'^*'^- is 
 not obvious in the English, but an attempt to represent 
 it may be found in Farrar, " Minor Prophs.," page 130 ; 
 Sanders and Kent, " Messages Earlier Prophs.," pages 
 117,118. 
 
 c. Thought. (1) In chapters 1-3, note the emphasis 
 on certain social evils and their explanation. Compare 
 with Amos and Hosea. (2) In chapters 4, 5, note the 
 characteristics of the ideal future, especially Israel's 
 future work and her character. (3) In G^-T*", note esti- 
 mate of ritual in comparison with a right heart and 
 moral conduct, also the prophet's attitude toward exist- 
 ing moral conditions. 
 
 d. Author. Note: (1) the date of Micah's ministry 
 as compared with that of Isaiah ((2),d) ; (2) probable 
 home of the prophet, 1^'^* ; cf. Bennett and Adeney, 
 "Bib. Int.," page 247, Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," page 
 326 ; (3) the prophet's public influence as remembered 
 in the time of Jeremiah ( Jer. 26^'^). 
 
 e. Reference Literature. The following will be found 
 helpful in further study of Micah : Bennett and Adeney, 
 "Bib. Int."; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T. " ; Hastings, 
 " Diet. Bib.," III. page 359, art. " Micah," § 3 ; " Enc. 
 Bib.," art. " Micah " ; Sanders and Kent, " Messages 
 Earlier Prophs. " ; G. A. Smith, " Bk. of Twelve," in 
 "Expositor's Bible"; Kent, "Hist. Heb. Poop., Div. 
 Kgdm.," pages 134-140 ; Fowler, " Prophs. as States- 
 men and Preachers."
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 103 
 
 (4) Legal Literature. 
 
 a. Early Laws in Exodus 13. Read Ex. 13, ^.lo-is and 
 note the relation of these laws to the third and fourth 
 commandments af the decalogue in Ex. Sl^^^^e^ 
 
 b. Laws of Exodus 202^^23^^. Read this group of 
 laws, noting: (1) incorporation of laws from Ex. S4^^~ 
 '^^^ ; (2) subjects dealt with in the laws ; (3) conditions 
 of society presupposed. 
 
 c. Prophetic Decalogue of Exodus 201"^". Read this 
 group of laws, comparing in detail with Deut. 5^'^^ 
 Note: (1) nature of the duties here enjoined in com- 
 parison with the earlier code of Ex. 31 ; (2) nature of 
 the duties in comparison with those emphasized by 
 Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah ; (3) attitude of Hosea in 
 comparison with second commandment ; (1) conditions 
 of civilization implied in this code. 
 
 For discussion of the nature and growth of these 
 codes, see : Kent, " Laws and Tradit, Frees.," Intro- 
 duction ill., " Messages Isrs'. Lawgivers," pages 24-27. 
 For analysis of the laws according to subject, see : 
 Kent, " Laws and Tradit. Frees.,"' §§ 1-25, 36, 45, 
 46, 49, 53, 57, 59, 60, 62, 65, 66-68, 70, 74, 80, 82-90, 
 93, 94, 104, 106, 107, 111, 117, 119, 124, 125, 128, 
 131, 148, 174, 176, 187-189, 192, 197, 198, 210-215. 
 In the above references a few primitive laws not 
 referred to under a, b, c are included. 
 
 d. Deuteronomy 5-26, 28. It is highly probable 
 that the codes of Deutcronomv were formulated during 
 the latter half of the Assyrian period of Judah's history, 
 but their discussion is deferred till the time when the 
 book was published, in the eighteenth year of the next 
 period.
 
 104 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 § 34. Babylonian Period op Jddah's History. 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Biblical. Second Kings 22-25, Deuteronomy, 
 Zephaniah, Nalium, Habakkuk, Jeremiah. 
 
 a. Second Kings 22-25. In connection with Kent, 
 " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 170, read Second 
 Kgs. 22-25, or read this section together with certain 
 chapters of Jeremiah as arranged in Kent, " Hist, and 
 Biog. Nars.," pages 306-335. The structure of the 
 section from Kings is also presented in Bennett and 
 Adeney, " Bib. Int.," page 103 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," 
 page 198 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," II. page 870 col. a. 
 
 b. Deuteronomy. Read Kent, " Hist. Heb. Peop., 
 Div. Kgdm." §§ 171, 168, 169. 
 
 c. Jeremiah. In connection with Kent, " Hist. Heb. 
 Peop., Div. Kgdm.," §§ 173, 174, read the passages of 
 Jeremiah there named, noting how they throw light 
 upon the period of history. 
 
 d. Ezekiel 1-24, (25-32). Read Kent, " Hist. Heb. 
 Peop.," § 175. 
 
 (2) Monumental. 
 
 Read Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop.," § 176; Price, 
 " Mons. and 0. T.," § 204. 
 
 2. Creneral Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically at least one of the following refer- 
 ences : Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," pages 
 172-204; Kittel, " Hist. Hebs.," pages 379-395 ; Wade, 
 " O. T. Hist.," pages 375-394 ; H. P. Smith, " 0. T. 
 Hist.," ch. xiv. While reading, note : (1) advance 
 of the Scythians ; (2) revival of prophetic activity ; (3) 
 causes and course of Josiah's reform ; (4) great inter-
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 105 
 
 national movements of the period ; (5) rapidly shifting 
 political conditions for Judah ; (6) effect of Josiah's 
 death upon religion ; (7) revolt against Babylon and its 
 outcome ; (8) Jeremiah's political activity ; (9) expe- 
 riences of the remnant left in the land. 
 
 3. Religious Value of the History. 
 
 Consider : (1) how it illustrates the futility of reform 
 measures imposed from without ; (2) how, as before, 
 tlie greatness of a crisis only gave added constructive- 
 ness to prophetic opinion. 
 
 4. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Combined Judean and Ephraimite History (JE). 
 
 To the close of the previous period or, more probably, 
 the early years of this period is to be ascribed the 
 combination of the northern group of narratives with 
 tiic Judean. \\\ reference to this important literary 
 work, read one or more of the following references : 
 Kent, " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 40, 41 ; Car- 
 penter and Battcrsby, "Hex.," I., pages 171-174; 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 47, 48, not- 
 ing: (1) circumstances wliicli led to the compilation ; 
 <^2) the way in which the two narratives were com- 
 bined ; (3) reasons for supposing that the combined JE 
 history was compiled before the exile. 
 
 (2) Book of Zej)haniah. 
 
 a. Structure, Read Zcj)haniah in the following sec- 
 tions, giving a title to each section: 1, 2^-3^, 3^"^^, 
 
 1314-20. 
 
 b. Style. (1) Note cxam])lcs of vivid and pictur- 
 esque expression. (2) Consider whether the ])rophccy 
 possesses the full strengtli and beauty of style found
 
 106 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 in the prophets of the eighth century. (3) Note the 
 beauty of the song of triumphant faith near the end. 
 (Perhaps a post-exilic addition. Certainly in strong 
 contrast to that which precedes.) 
 
 c. Thought. Note the thought of Zephaniah con- 
 cerning: (1) the civil and religious conditions of 
 Judah; (2) the nature of the "day of Jehovah"; 
 (3j the gathering of the nations for destruction, 3*;! 
 (4) hope for a remnant, 3^2,13^ 
 
 d. Author. Note the genealogy in l^. Very pos- 
 sibly it is King Hezekiah from whom the prophet is 
 descended. The number of generations intervening 
 would accord very well with the relative dates of the 
 two, and it is customary to name only the prophet's 
 father ; hence carrying the ancestry back for four 
 generations would seem to indicate some especial in- 
 terest in the line. If this is the correct explanation, 
 the prophet must have been a young prince, not far 
 from the age of his royal relative. The intensity of his 
 message harmonizes with this inference as to his age. 
 
 e. Reference Literature. The following will be found 
 helpful for further study of Zephaniah : Bennett and 
 Adeney, "Bib. Int."; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T." ; 
 McFadyen, " Introd. 0. T. " ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 art. "Zephaniah"; " Enc. Bib., " art. "Zephaniah"; 
 Sanders and Kent, " Messages Earlier Prophs. " ; G. A. 
 Smith, " Bk. of Twelve," in " Expositor's Bible " ; Kent, 
 " Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 179 ; Fowler, 
 "Prophs. as Statesmen and Preachers." 
 
 1 111 this " we have the germ of the apocalyptic visions of later 
 prophets,"
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION lOT 
 
 (3) Deuteronomy 5-26,28. 
 
 a Thoudit. Read the hortatory introduction to the 
 law proper, Deuteronomy 5-11, noting in writing the 
 leading ideas, with definite references to chapter and 
 verse. 
 
 With the aid of an analysis of the codes (see Ben- 
 nett and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," pages 72-74; Driver, 
 "Int. Lit., 0. T.," pages 73-75, '^ Deuteronomy," in 
 " Internat. Crit. Cora.," pages iv-vii ; Hastings, " Diet. 
 Bib.," I., pages 600, 601 ; Kent, " Messages Isr's. Law- 
 gvrs.," pages xiii-xxxiii ; -'Laws and Tradit. Frees.," 
 Contents and Classification) look over the laws of 
 Deut. 12-26, 28, noting: (1) how fully earlier codes are 
 embodied in these laws ; (2) whether laws concerning 
 ritual or concerning social relations and moral conduct 
 are the more prominent. Reviewing the laws, observe 
 indications of a spirit of devotion to God and thought- 
 ful consideration for humanity permeating tliom. 
 Compare the spirit of the book with that of the eighth 
 century prophets. 
 
 For discussion of the origin, development, and char- 
 acter of the Deuteronomy codes, see : Kent, " Laws 
 and Tradit. Frees.," Introduction, iv., " Messages Isr's. 
 Lawgvrs.," pages 28-34 ; Driver, " Deuteronomy " in 
 " Internat. Crit. Com.," pages i-x, xix-xxxiv, " Int. 
 Lit. 0. T.," pages 70-82. 
 
 b. Writing and Fuljlication. The general order of 
 development of Old Testament literature which has 
 been ascertained by the methods of historical criticism 
 rests upon arguments that are cumulative. No one 
 element serves as a keystone the removal of which 
 will cause the whole to fall. Yet, if one were called
 
 108 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 upon to select the central point of the entire discussion, 
 Deuteronomy would probably be cliosen. It is impor- 
 tant, therefore, to study with care two or three of the 
 following summaries of arguments concerning the date 
 of this book : Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 82-99 ; 
 " Deuteronomy," in " Internat. Crit. Com.," pages 
 xxxiv-lxvii; Kent, " Laws and Tradit. Precs.," Intro- 
 duction, ii., iv. ; McFadyen, "Int. 0. T.," pages 51-61 ; 
 Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," art. " Deuteronomy," § vii. ; 
 "Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 1079-1087; Carpenter and 
 Battersby, "Hex.," I., ch. x. An attempt to refute 
 the view presented in such works as the above may be 
 found in MciUer, " Are the Critics Right ? " pages 1-53 ; 
 Orr, " Problem of 0. T.," ch. viii. 
 
 (4) Jeremiah (First Period : Josiah's Reign). 
 
 a. Structure. Read the prophecies that may, with 
 probability, be assigned to the first eighteen years of 
 Jeremiah's ministry, 626-608 b. c, in the following sec- 
 tions, and note the subject of each : 1, 2, 3i-5, 36-i8, 3i9_42^ 
 43-6, 111 8. 
 
 b. Thought. Note: (1) the prophet's idea of his 
 commission and message lio-i^-ie ; ^^2) his view of 
 Judah's attitude toward God 2^, 3^ ^-^ (cf. Hosea) ; (3) 
 descriptions of the prevalent idolatry 2^^^^^'-^, 6^^ ; (4) 
 ethical demands 2^\ 526-28, qis . (5) expectations as to 
 the nearer and more remote future 4'^'iS 6i'22'23^ 312-13, 
 
 22-25 41,2^ 
 
 c. Author. Note: (1) Jeremiah's family home 1^, 
 r.t First Kings 226, Joshua 211^, Jeremiah ll^i, 37^2 . (2) 
 date of beginning ministry V' ; (3) age at call 1^, cf l-"^ ; 
 (4) earliest record of a prophet's committing his own 
 message to writing 36i'2.27.28,32 . ^5) activity of Jeremiah
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 109 
 
 in preaching, perliaps, the Denteronomic covenant, soon 
 after 621 b. c, IV'^ 
 
 d. Reference Literature. The following will be found 
 helpful for further study of Jeremiah's prophecies : 
 Bennett and Adeney, "Bib, Int."; Driver, "Int. Lit. 
 0. T." ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T." ; Hastings, " Diet. 
 Bib.," art. "Jeremiah"; " Enc. Bib.," art. "Jeremiah, 
 Bk." ; Sanders and Kent, "Messages Earlier Prophs."; 
 Cheyne, "Jeremiah: Life and Times," in "Men of 
 Bible Series"; Kent, "Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," 
 §§ 180, 181 ; Fowler, " Prophs. as Statesmen and 
 Preachers." 
 
 (5) Book of Nahum. 
 
 a. Style. (1) Note the general hymn of faith in 
 chapter 1, followed by the more definite development of 
 the prophecy in 2 and 3. (2) Consider Nahum as a 
 word painter. 
 
 b. Thought. Note the chief thoughts of the opening 
 poem, and the application of some of its principles to 
 Nineveh in chapters 2 and 8. 
 
 c. Author. Tiie heading of the book indicates the 
 name of the prophet's home, but three widely separated 
 places vie in tradition as the spot named. One of these 
 is near Nineveh, one in Galilee, and the third in the 
 south of Judea. The date of Nahum's ministry can be 
 placed with certainty between the fall of No-amon 
 (Egyptian Thebes) about 661 b. c, and the destruction 
 of Nineveh, about 607 b. c, see 3^, 
 
 d. Reference Literature. The following will be found 
 helpful for further study of Nahiun : Bennett and 
 Adeney, " Bib. Int." ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T." ; Mc-
 
 110 HEBREW mSTORV AND LITERATURE 
 
 Fadyen, "Int. 0. T. " ; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," art. 
 "Nahum"; " Enc. Bib." art. "Nahum"; Sanders and 
 Kent, " Messages of Earlier Prophs. " ; G. A. Smith, 
 "Bk. of Twelve," in "Expositor's Bible"; Fowler, 
 " Prophs. as Statesmen and Preachers." 
 
 (6) Jeremiah (Second Period : Jehoiakim's Reign). 
 
 a. Structure. Read, in the following sections, the 
 prophecies that may with probability be assigned to the 
 years between the death of Josiah and the capture of 
 Jerusalem in 597 b. c. : T^-^o, 721-822, 9, lO^^-^s, lis-n^ 
 lli8-12«, 12'-i7, 1.31-17, 1318.19, 1320-27^ I4I-I718, 18-20, 
 2210-288, 25, 26, 35, 3G, 45, noting the subject of each 
 section. 
 
 b. Thought. Note Jeremiah's thought during this 
 period as to possible hope for Jerusalem, 71-^°, 9, lOi^'^s^ 
 19, 2210-23S 25, 26; his picture of the religious con- 
 dition of his time, ll^'i" ; his teaching as to the condi- 
 tional character of prophecy, 18i-i^ 
 
 c. Autlior. Note the places where Jeremiah preached, 
 72, 116, 19214^ 262; plots and persecution, 11^1,1818,202; 
 the prophet's isolation 162-8 ; his inner struggles, II20, 
 121-6, 1410-13^ 1819-23, 20'-i8 ; his methods of teaching, 
 131-9, 181-6, 1910'", 351-11, 36. 
 
 d. Reference Literature. See under (4), d, substitut- 
 ing §§ 193-200 for §§ 180, 181 in Kent, "Hist. Heb. 
 Peop., Hiv. Kgdm." 
 
 (7) Habakkuk. 
 
 a. Structure. Read Habakkuk in the following sec- 
 tions, giving a title to each section : 1-2^, 2'^-20, 3. 
 Note whether chapter 3 has any close connection with 
 1 and 2.
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 111 
 
 b. Style. (1) Note the elements of bold imagination 
 in Habakkitk 3, (There is a strong possibility that this 
 poem may have been taken from some collection of 
 hymns, and may not be the writing of Ilabakkuk. See 
 " Reference Literature " for discussion.) (2) Compare 
 the stvle of Habakkuk 1 and 2 with that of Nahum 2 
 and 3. 
 
 c. Thought. Note Habakkuk's picture of his times, 
 14 ; his problem, p-^, i-is^ 91 ; his answer, 2^^-^-^ 
 
 d. Author. Observe the personal note in the proph- 
 ecy, revealing the period of doubt through which the 
 prophet passed in attaining his faith. 
 
 6. Reference Literature. The following will be 
 found helpful for further study of Habakkuk : Bennett 
 and Adeney, "Bib. Int."; Driver, " Int. Lit. T."; 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T. " ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," art. 
 " Habakkuk " ; " Enc. Bib." art. " Habakkuk " ; Sanders 
 and Kent, " ]\Iessagcs Earlier Prophs. " ; G. A. Smith, 
 " Bk. of Twelve," in " Expositor's Bible " ; Kent, " Hist. 
 Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm.," § 196 ; Fowler, " Prophs. as 
 Statesmen and Preachers." 
 
 (8) Jeremiah (Third Period : Zedekiah's Reign). 
 
 a. Structure. Read the prophecies of Jeremiah that 
 may with probability be assigned to the years from 597 
 B. c. to the close of his ministry after 586 b. c, giving a 
 title to each section : 2li-io, 21ii-229, 239-^0, 24, 27-29, 
 30-33, 34, 37-39, 40-44, 52. (Chapters 46-49, which 
 belong to different periods of the ministry, should be 
 glanced through at this time and their substance noted.) 
 
 b. Thought. Note: (1) Jeremiah's attitude toward 
 the exiles of 597 B.C., 24^ '\ 291-^ 10 ; (2) liis policy for
 
 112 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 those remaining, 21^~^^ oS^''^*^ ; (3) his principles of 
 government, 22^"^'^^'^^, Sl^"^^'^' ; (4) his declarations 
 regarding the ultimate future, 32-33 ; (5) his last 
 teaching, 44. 
 
 c. Author. Rereading the passages belonging to this 
 period, note the experiences of Jeremiah from 597-586 
 B. c. in his relations with : (1) king and nobles ; (2) the 
 captives of 597 b. c. ; (3) false prophets. Note also his 
 fate after 586 b. c. 
 
 d. Reference Literature. See under (4), d, substitut- 
 ing §§ 201-206, 210-212 for §§ 193-200 in Kent, 
 ^'Hist. Heb. Peop., Div. Kgdm." 
 
 (9) Ezelviel (First Period : Until Jerusalem's De- 
 struction). 
 
 a. Structure. Read the prophecies of Ezekiel that 
 fall within the first period of his ministry (592-586) in 
 the following groups, and note, in writing, the general 
 subject of each group : 1-3, 4-5, 6-7, 8-11, 12-19, 20- 
 23, '24, 29i-i«, 30, 31. 
 
 b. Style. (1) Compare the elaborate symbolism of 
 Ezekiel {e.g., l^'^s^ 41-3.4-8, 82,3, 121-^) with Isaiah's 
 abundant figurative language (see § 33, 5, (2), b), noting 
 the difference in literary quality. (2) Note Ezekiel's 
 painstaking accuracy in dates and details. 
 
 c. Thought. Note : (1) the principal theme of 
 Ezekiel's message during the first period of his min- 
 istry ; (2) the prophet's conception of Jehovah's pres- 
 ence in Babylon : 1^8, 3^3, lli^-ie ; (3) teaching that 
 Jehovah has left Jerusalem, 10^^,19 j Q^~y picture of 
 religious conditions in Jerusalem that justified leaving, 
 89-16 . ^5-^ teaching as to relation of God and individual, 
 
 ]^8*'5-9,10-13,20,21,24^
 
 AGE OF POLITICAL DIVISION AND DESTRUCTION 113 
 
 d. Author. Note : (1) place and time of Ezekiel's 
 repeated call, 1^"^ 322-23 . ^^2) dates of prophecies before 
 the fall of Jerusalem ; (3) the prophet's life in Baby- 
 lonia V'^ 3153, 8\ 141, 201, 2415,16. 
 
 e. Reference Literature. The following arc sug- 
 gested for aid in further study of Ezekiel : Bennett 
 and Adeney, " Bib. Int." ; Driver, " Int. Lit. O. T." ; 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T." ; A. B. Davidson, " Ezekiel," 
 in "Camb. Bib."; Skinner, "Ezekiel," in "Expos. 
 Bib." ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," art. " Ezekiel " ; " Enc. 
 Bib.," art. " Ezekiel " ; Sanders and Kent, " Messages 
 Later Prophs." ; Toy, "Ezekiel," in "Sac. Bks. 0. 
 and N. Ts." ; Fowler, " Prophs. as Statesmen and 
 Preachers." 
 
 (10) Poetry of the Age of the Monarchy. 
 
 One of the most difficult problems in Old Testament 
 criticism is confronted, when an effort is made to as- 
 sign the separate Psalms to the times in which they 
 were written. The consideration of the growth and 
 structure of the Psalter as a whole must be taken up 
 near the close of Old Testament history, when the col- 
 lection was completed. At the end of the history of 
 the monarchy, however, we should consider some psalms 
 which seem by their allusions to presuppose, more or 
 less clearly, the existence of the pre-exilic kingdom. 
 Such are 2, 18, 20, 21, 28, 45, 61, 72, 76, 89, 101, 110. 
 In reading these, note : (1) the subject of each poem ; 
 (2) its prevailing spirit ; (3) elements of imaginative 
 power ; (4) any allusions that tend to fix the dates. 
 
 Reference Literature. The following will be found 
 helpful for further study of the above psalms: Bennett
 
 114 HEBREW HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 and Adeney, " Bib. Int."; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T." ; 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," " Messages of the Psalm- 
 ists " ; Kirkpatrick, " Book of Pss." ; Perowne, " The 
 Psahns " ; Cheyne, " Psalms " ; Skinner, " Psalms," in 
 « Camb. Bib." 
 
 (11) Wisdom Literatnre of the Age of the Monarchy. 
 
 The book of Proverbs, like that of Psalms, is a 
 collection made up of earlier collections, and completed 
 at a very late date in the history of Israel. Tiie por- 
 tions generally considered to be earliest are 10-22^^ 
 and, possibly, 25-29. Means for determining the exact 
 place in the history of these groups of proverbs are not 
 available. Frequent references to the king, however, 
 suggest a pre-exilic origin for many of the proverbs, 
 if not for the completed collections. A few chapters 
 of each section should be read, noting : (1) the form 
 of the proverbs included (i. 6., wdiether distichs, tris- 
 tichs) ; (2) nature of the questions dealt with; (3) re- 
 ligious and moral tone of the proverbs. 
 
 Reference Literature. The following will be found 
 helpful for further study of the above collections of prov- 
 erbs : Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int." ; Driver, " Int. 
 Lit. 0. T. " ; McFadyen, "^" Int. 0. T. " ; Toy, " Prov- 
 erbs," in " Internat. Crit. Com. " ; Kent, " Wise Men 
 of Anc. Isr. and Their Proverbs."
 
 PART II 
 
 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND 
 LITERATURE
 
 VI 
 
 AGE OF THE BABYLONIAN EXILE 
 (586-538 B. c.) 
 
 § 35. Period op Earlier Years of Exile (586- 
 561 B.C.). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) BiblicaL 
 
 a. Lack of Connected Narratives. Notice : (1) tlie 
 conclusion of the series of historical narratives, Gene- 
 sis to Second Kings ; (2) omission of the exile in the 
 Chronicler's narrative, First Chron. to Neh. ; (3) Kent, 
 "Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 1. 
 
 b. Prophetic and Poetic Literature. 
 
 (a) Jeremiah 24, 29, 44. Read these chapters in 
 connection with Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 2, noting 
 the light that they throw upon the history. The his- 
 torical connection of the passages is noted also in : 
 Driver, " Int. Lit. O. T.," pages 260, 261, 264 ; Bennett 
 and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 204-207. 
 
 (^) Ezekiel 25-48. Look over these chapters in 
 connection with Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 3, 
 noting : (1) dates of the prophecies ; (2) light that 
 they throw upon the history of their times. The his- 
 torical connection of the chapters is noted in : Driver, 
 " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 286-294 ; Bennett and Adeney, 
 "Bib. Int.," pages 218-221.
 
 118 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 (c) Obadiah. Read the prophecy in connection with 
 Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 9, noting the picture of 
 conditions in Judea at the time of Jerusalem's fall. 
 The historical connection of the prophecy is discussed 
 also in Bennett and Adcney, " Bib. Int.," pages 243, 
 241; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 318-321; 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 193-195 ; Sanders and 
 Kent, " Messages Later Prophs.," pages 67-69 ; G. A. 
 Smith, " Bk. of Twelve," IL, in " Expos. Bib.," pages 
 163-172. 
 
 (f?) Lamentations. In connection with Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 10 (first part) read these dirges, 
 noting the picture they give of Jerusalem after her 
 fall. The historical background of these poems is 
 discussed also in Bennett and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," 
 pages 210-212; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 
 461-465 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 295-297 ; 
 Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," art. " Lamentations ; " " Enc. 
 Bib. " art. " Lamentations," III., cols. 2700-2705. In 
 the last reference, Cheyne advocates a post-exilic date 
 for the poems. 
 
 (e) Psalms 42, 43. Read this poem (it is a single 
 poem), noting the picture it gives of one going into 
 exile. The actual date of writing is doubtful ; see 
 Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 10 (latter part) ; Per- 
 ow-ne, "Psalms," I., pages 361, 362; Kirkpatrick, 
 " Psalms," pages 226, 227 (dates before Babylonian 
 exile). 
 
 (2) Extra Biblical. 
 
 a. Jewish, Greek, and Babylonian Writers. Read 
 Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 12.
 
 AGE OF BABYLONIAN EXILE 119 
 
 b. Inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar's Reign. See 
 Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 13 (drst part) ; Price, 
 " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 215-218. Note the char- 
 acter of Nebuchadrezzar's inscriptions thus far dis- 
 covered, 
 
 2. Greneral Discussion of the History. 
 
 (1) General Outline of Period and Significance of the 
 Age. 
 
 a. Note on the chart, frontispiece, in Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop. " : (1) the Babylonian and Egyptian rul- 
 ers of the period ; (2) signiiicance of year 561. 
 
 b. Read Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," Preface. 
 
 (2) Detailed Discussion. 
 
 Read both of the following : Kent, " Hist. Jewish 
 Peop." pages 17-44; H. P. Smith, " 0. T. Hist.," pages 
 301-327. While reading, note : (1) the three centres 
 of Jewish population after 586 ; (2) condition of the 
 people remaining in Judea; (3) condition and ultimate 
 fate of the Jewish refugees in Egypt ; (4) character of 
 the exiles in Babylon as compared witli the remainder 
 of their countrymen ; (5) conditions of life for the Jews 
 in Babylonia under Nebuchadrezzar ; (6) religious con- 
 dition of Babylonian exiles. 
 
 For the Babylonian history of the time, see Good- 
 speed, "Hist. Babs. and Assyrs. ," pages 333-348; 
 Rogers, " Hist. Bab. and Assyr.," II. pages 316-353. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Ezekiel 25-48 (Second Period: After Jerusa- 
 lem's Destruction). 
 
 a. Chapters 25-32 : Against the Nations. From this 
 section of Ezekiel, read 25, 27^ ^g^ 32^" 32^ noting;
 
 120 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 (1) attitude of Judah's neighbors at her fall ; (2) the 
 elaborate figure used in describing Tyre ; (3) quaint 
 and complex form of the dirge over Egypt. 
 
 b. Chapters 33-39 : Prophecies of Comfort. Read 
 at least the following passages from this important 
 section of Ezekiel, 33, 36, 37, 38, noting: (1) the sub- 
 ject of each prophecy ; (2) the prophet's conception of 
 the basis of divine action ; (3) promises for the future 
 of Israel ; (4) general theme of the section ; (5) con- 
 trast with subject of prophecies before 586 (account for 
 Ezekiel's change in tone). 
 
 c. Chapters 40-48 : The New Temple. Read at least 
 the following, 40, 43, 44, 45^-46, noting that the 
 prophet really sketches a readjustment of the Israelitish 
 state, making religious interests supreme. A compre- 
 hension of chs. 40-43, 46 will be aided by the plans on 
 pages 294 and 299 of Davidson's " Ezekiel." 
 
 d. Personality and Work of the Prophet. Read one 
 or more of the following references: Kent, " Hist. Jew- 
 ish Peop.," pages 45-58; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., 
 pages 814-817; " Enc. Bib.," XL, cols. 1456-1459; 
 A. B. Davidson, " Ezekiel " in " Camb. Bib.," pages xvii- 
 xxxi. In readmg, note : (1) the prophet's education 
 and character ; (2) his new methods of teaching ; 
 (3) The significance of his assertion that henceforth 
 God would deal with the individual Israelite, (4) the 
 revolutionary character of his ideals for the restored 
 community, and their influence in shaping the thinking 
 of its leaders. 
 
 e. Reference Literature. For general discussion of 
 Ezekiel's prophecies, reference may be made to : Ben- 
 nett and Adeney, " Bib. Int. " ; Driver, " Int. Lit.
 
 AGE OF BABYLONIAN EXILE 121 
 
 0. T. " ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T. " ; Sanders and Kent, 
 "• Messages Later Prophs." ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., 
 pages 817-820; " Enc. Bib.," art. " Ezekiel, Bk. " ; 
 A. B. Davidson, "Ezekiel" in "Camb. Bib." ; Skinner, 
 " Ezekiel " in " Expos. Bib." For discnssion of the in- 
 fluence of Ezekiel's ideal code upon Jewish law, see : 
 Kent, " Messages Isr's. Lawgvrs.," pages 34, 35 ; 
 " Laws and Tradit. Frees.," Litroduction. 
 
 (2) Obadiah. 
 
 Read the prophecy in the following sections : vv. 
 1-16, 17-21, noting: (1) the theme of each part; 
 (2) Obadiah's picture of the day of judgment upon the 
 nations ; (3) hope of a restored remnant ; (4) similarity 
 between vv. 1-9 and Jer. 49'"^^. There are differences 
 of opinion regarding the actual date of composition. 
 For discussion of the book, reference may be made to : 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int. " ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 
 O. T." ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T. " ; Sanders and Kent, 
 " Messages Later Prophs. " ; G. A. Smith, " Bk. of 
 Twelve " in " Expos. Bib." ; Fowler, " Prophs. as States- 
 men and Preachers"; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," art. 
 " Obadiali, Bk. of " ; " Enc. Bib.," art. " Obadiah, Bk." 
 
 (3) Lamentations. 
 
 Read the five poems, noting: (1) theme of each; 
 (2) characteristic rhythm of the first four — a long 
 vei'se member, divided by a natural pause into a longer 
 and shorter part ; (3) poetic imagery and feeling in the 
 elegies. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references concern- 
 ing this book: Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 
 210-213 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. O. T.," pages 456-405 ; 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 294-297 ; Hastings,
 
 122 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 "Diet. Bib.," art. " Lamentations"; " Ene. Bib.," art. 
 " Lamentations." In reading, note especially descrip- 
 tion of the alphabetic form and metrical structure of 
 the poems. 
 
 (4) Song of Moses, Deut. 32i"43. 
 
 Read the poem, noting: (1) its theme ; (2) bold and 
 striking passages. For discussion of date and other 
 questions see: Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 96, 97, 
 " Deuteronomy," in "Internat. Crit. Com.," pages 344- 
 348; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," page 50. For a vivid 
 interpretation see : George Adam Smith, " Hist. Geog. 
 Holy Land," pages 85-90. 
 
 (5) Holiness Code, Leviticus 11, 17-26. 
 
 (1) Look over the chapters, noticing the subjects 
 emphasized in this code. (2) Observe the large num- 
 ber of parallels between this code and the laws of 
 Deuteronomy ; see table of Driver in " Int. Lit. O. T.," 
 pages 73, 74, " Deuteronomy " in " Internat. Crit. Com.," 
 pages iv-vii, Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., pages 600,601, 
 or of Kent, in " Messages Isr's. Lawgvrs.," pages xiii- 
 xxxiii, " Laws and Tradit. Frees.," Contents and Classifi- 
 cation. (3) Read one or more of the following discus- 
 sions : Kent, " Messages Isr's. Lawgvrs.," pages 36-41 ; 
 " Laws and Tradit. Frees.," Introduction, v. ; Driver, 
 "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 47-59; H. F. Smith, "0. T. 
 Hist.," pages 332-338 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 
 31-34. In reading, note: (1) influences which gave 
 rise to the codification of these priestly laws ; (2) evi- 
 dence for the late date of these codes ; (3) origin of 
 name " Holiness Code " ; (4) relations of these laws 
 to Ezekiel ; (5) probable date of completed code ; (6) 
 indications of earlier date of material included.
 
 AGE OF BABYLONIAN EXILE 123 
 
 4. Tlie Results of the Period. 
 
 This first half of the exile has been exhibited as a 
 time of much constructive as well as consolatory think- 
 ing. The dominant thought in the minds of the leaders 
 of the Jewish community in Babylonia was an avoid- 
 ance for the future of the errors and sins which liad 
 compelled Jehovah to permit his people to be brought 
 to their senses by the severe discipline of exile. In 
 order to grasp the real significance of this quarter- 
 century, consider : (1) the apathy of the people at its 
 beginning (Ezek. 37^^) ; (2) the leader who assumed 
 the task of encouraging and assuring them ; (3) his 
 bold but effective method of procedure, — sketcliing the 
 future community and indicating its guiding principles ; 
 (4) the co-ordinate activity of the priesthood ; (5) the 
 scheme of well ordered community life which they de- 
 sired to bring about ; (6) the incidental proof that the 
 people did follow Jeremiah's advice (Jer. 29*"'). 
 
 § 36. Period of Later Years of Exile (501-538 
 B. c). 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Biblical. 
 
 a. Isaiah 13-14''^''. Read this passage in connection 
 with Kent, "Hist. Jewish l*eop.," §§ 4, 5, noting: 
 (1) its historical background ; (2) probable date. The 
 passage is put in its historical connection also in : 
 Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 211, 212; McFadyen, 
 " Int. 0. T.," pages 117, 118 ; G. A. Smith, '^ Isaiah " 
 in " Expos. Bib.," I., pages 405-415. 
 
 b. Isaiah 21^"^*^. Read the passage, noting itsliistor- 
 ical background. For discussion of the date of the
 
 124 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 prophecy, see: Driver, "Int. Lit. O. T.," page 216; 
 McFadyeu, " Int. 0. T.," pages 120, 121. 
 
 c. Jeremiah 50-51. Read the chapters in connec- 
 tion with Kent, "Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 2, noting: 
 (1) difference in point of view from genuine prophe- 
 cies of Jeremiah ; (2) historical background implied ; 
 (3) probable date. The passage is discussed in con- 
 nection with the later years of exile in Driver, " Int. 
 Lit. 0. T.," pages 266-268. The view tliat it is a 
 post-exilic prophecy is presented in McFadyen, " Int. 
 0. T.," pages 154-156. 
 
 d. Isaiah 40-55. In connection with Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," §§ 6-8, read Isa. 40-55, noting: (1) all 
 statements in 40-48 concerning a deliverer, Babylon, 
 idolatry ; (2) attitude of the Jews in exile ; (3) change 
 in point of view in chs. 49-55. 
 
 (2) Extra Biblical. 
 
 a. Jewish, Greek, and Babylonian writers. Read 
 Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 12. 
 
 b. Inscriptions of Neriglissar and Nabonidus. Read 
 Kent," Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 13 (latter part) ; Price, 
 " Mons. and O. T.," pages 220-225, noting: (1) char- 
 acter of Neriglissar's inscriptions ; (2) contents and 
 importance of Nabonidus's inscriptions. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History/. 
 
 Read one or both of the following : Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop., " pages 66-78, 93-98 ; H. P. Smith, pages 
 327-343. In reading, note : (1) fate of Nebuchadrez- 
 zar's dynasty ; (2) character of his three successors ; 
 (3) history of Cyrus's career from 549-539 ; (4) effects 
 of Cyrus's successes upon the Jewish exiles ; (5) politi-
 
 AGE OF BABYLONIAN EXILE 125 
 
 cal consequences of the exile for the Judeans; 
 (6) religious effects of the exile. 
 
 For further account of the Babylonian history of 
 this period, see : Goodspeed, " Hist. Babs. and Assyrs.," 
 pages 349, 350, 367-373; Rogers, "Hist. Bab. and 
 Assyr.," II., pages 354-376. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Work of the Late Prophetic Deuteronomic 
 Editors. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Kent, 
 " Beginnings licb. Hist.," pages 42, 43 ; II. P. Smith, 
 " 0. T. Hist.," pages 332, 333 ; Carpenter and Bat- 
 tersby, " Hexateuch," I., pages 174-176 ; Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," §§50-53. In reading, note: (1) ex- 
 pansion of earlier book of Deuteronomy ; (2) editing of 
 JE. and combination of Deuteronomy with it; (3) com- 
 position of Judges, Samuel, and Kings in substantially 
 their present form. 
 
 (2) Exilic Prophecies in Isaiah and Jeremiah. 
 
 a. Isaiah 132-14^^ 21i-io, Jeremiah 50, 51. See 1, 
 (1), a, b, c. 
 
 ]j. Isaiah 40—48. Read the chapters in the follow- 
 ing sections : 40-41, 42i-9, 42i0-48, noting: (1) subject 
 of each section ; 2) poetic imagery and illustrations ; 
 (3) dramatic qualities ; (4) declarations regarding the 
 character and power of God ; (5) circumstances which 
 called forth- this group of prophecies and purpose of 
 the whole. 
 
 c. Isaiah 49-55. Read the chapters in the fol- 
 lowing sections: 49^1^ 49i*-503, 50*^^^"), 51-5212, 
 5213-53, 54, 55, noting: (1) subject of each section; 
 (2) portrait of the Servant ; (3) picture of Israel's
 
 126 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND, LITERATURE 
 
 future ; (4) poetic imagery, personification, and dra- 
 matic tendency. 
 
 Read one or more of the following discussions of 
 Isaiah 40-55 : Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop., pages 79- 
 92; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int., pages 185-193; 
 Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 230-246 ; McFadyen, 
 "Int. 0. T.," pages 129-135; Sanders and Kent, 
 "Messages Later Props.," pages 149-160; G. A. Smith, 
 "Isaiah," II., in "Expos. Bib."; Hastings, IL, pages 
 493-497 ; Skinner, " Isaiah 40-66," in "Camb. Bib. ; " 
 " Enc. Bib.," art. " Isaiah, Bk." ; Fowler, " Prophs. as 
 Statesmen and Preachers." Of the foregoing all except 
 Driver, G. A. Smith, and Skinner regard Isa. 56-66 as 
 post-exilic in date and quite distinct from 40-55. 
 G. A. Smith is inclined to date at least part of the 
 prophecies of the group 56-66 after the exile ; Skinner 
 seems to regard the date as an open question, while 
 Driver treats 40-66 as one group of prophecies. 
 
 4. Results of tlie Period. 
 
 Note : (1) how the attempt of the prophetic writer to 
 encourage the Jews to expect deliverance from the grip 
 of Babylonia resulted in a wonderfully comprehensive 
 description of God ; (2) how the resistless Persian is 
 welcomed but strictly classed as God's tool ; (3) how 
 the promises to the people take for granted a regene- 
 rated, repentant Israel ; (4) how the experiences of 
 exile eliminated idolatry as a serious danger; (5) how 
 the thought of Israel's serviceableness to the world and 
 of her sufferings as redemptive and enlightening be- 
 comes prominent : (6) how these ideas of holy service 
 and Ezekiel's ideals of holy seclusion represent two 
 opposed, though equally sincere theories of human 
 redemption.
 
 VII 
 
 THE PERSIAN AGE 
 
 § 37. Period of Partial Restoration (538-c. 450 
 B. c). 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Biblical. 
 
 a. Ezra 1-6. In connection with Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," §§ 88-93, read Ezra 1-6, or read these 
 chapters as arranged in Kent, "Isr's. Hist, and Biog. 
 Nars.," pages 339-348, together with pages 29, 30. The 
 general characteristics of Ezra-Nehemiah as an his- 
 torical sonrce, with the analysis of Ezra 1-6 are also 
 given in Driver, "Int. Lit. O. T.," pages 540, 541, 
 544-549; Bennett and Adcney, "Bib. Int.," pages 
 117-119; McFadycn, "Int. O. T.," pages 332, 333, 
 336, 338-343. 
 
 b. Ilaggai. Read the prophecies, noting : (1) dates 
 of Haggai's prophecies (for interpretation of his dates, 
 cf. chronological chart, frontisi)iece, in Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.") ; (2) conditions existing in Jerusalem in 
 Haggai's time ; (3) the sole purpose of his prophecies ; 
 (4) measure of success in accomplishing purpose. Note 
 the references to Haggai in Ezra 5^ 6^^. 
 
 For discussion concerning the historical connection 
 of Haggai's proj)hecics, reference may be made to : 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int."; Driver, " Int. Lit.
 
 128 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 O. T. " ; Sanders and Kent, " Messages Later Prophs." ; 
 G. A. Smith, " Bk. of Twelve " ; Fowler, " Prophs. as 
 Statesmen and Preachers." 
 
 c. Zechariah 1-8. Read these prophecies, noting: 
 (1) their chronological relation with those of Haggai 
 (Recall the relation of the prophets indicated in Ezra 
 5^, 6^*) ; (2) moral and spiritual preparation for Israel's 
 glorious future pictured in the vision ; (3) future antici- 
 pated for Jerusalem in this prophecy. 
 
 d. Isaiah 56-62. Read the chapters in connection 
 with Kent, "Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 101, noting: 
 (1) allusions tending to fix their date within the half- 
 century before Nehemiah ; (2) unworthy character of 
 leaders and of worship at this time ; (3) discourage- 
 ment of the period. These chapters are presented in 
 connection with their post-exilic historical setting also 
 in Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 193,194; 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T./' pages 135-137, 138 ; Sanders 
 and Kent, " Messages Later Prophs.," pages 252-255. 
 Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 234-236, outlines the 
 contents of these chapters, but does not treat them in 
 post-exilic setting (see § 36, 3, (2), c). 
 
 (2) Extra Biblical. 
 
 a. Jewish and Greek Histories. Read Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 107. Note on the chart, frontispiece, 
 Kent, " H. J. P.," the relations of Greeks and Persians 
 in this period. 
 
 b. Inscriptions of Nabonidus, Cyrus, and Darius. 
 Read Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 13 (latter part), 
 " Isr's. Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 503-505 ; Price, 
 " Mons. and 0. T.," pages 225-231 ; Maspero, " Pass- 
 ing of Empires," page 683 ; Sayce, " Records of Past,"
 
 THE PERSIAN AGE 129 
 
 I., pages 107-130 (Rawlinson's translation of Bchistun 
 Inscription). While reading, note : (1) the general 
 agreement of the two accounts of Babylon's fall; (2) 
 policy of Cyrus toward religion of conquered peoples; 
 (3) revolts in early years of Darius's reign. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Kent, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," pages 120-166 ; H. P. Smith, 
 " 0. T. Hist.," ch. xvi. ; Wade, " 0. T. Hist.," pages 
 464-473. Kent and H. P. Smith present the view, 
 now widely held, that tlie early restoration of Jerusa- 
 lem and the rebuilding of the temple were accomplished 
 largely by the Jews who had remained in Palestine, 
 and that there was no considerable return of exiles 
 from Babylon within the years immediately after 538. 
 AVade gives a brief account of the period, following the 
 traditional view on this question. G. A. Smith ably 
 maintains the older view in " Bk. of Twelve," II., pages 
 204-221. In reading concerning the period, note : 
 (1) the true history of the fall of Babylon; (2) policy 
 of Cyrus toward conquered peoples ; (3) application 
 of his policy to the Jews ; (4) arguments as to the 
 pro])ability or improbability of a general return of 
 exiles from Babylon soon after its fall ; (5) history 
 and general state of the Judean community from 538 
 to 520 ; (6) course of events in the Persian empire 
 from 538-520 ; (7) influences leading to the rebuild- 
 ing of the temple ; (8) history of rebuilding ; (9) the 
 political condition of Judea as a sub-province of the 
 Persian Empire ; (10) Judali's relations wnth her 
 neighbors from 516 to 450; (11) moral and religious 
 conditions of the Judean community from 516 to 450. 
 
 9
 
 130 EAllLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Haggai. 
 
 a. Structure and Thought. Read the book in the 
 followhig sections : li"", l^^-is, 2^-\ 2io-i9, 220-22^ noting : 
 (1) the order of the prophecies ; (2) motives to which 
 Haggai appeals ; (3) his interpretation of the commu- 
 nity's misfortunes ; (4) his hope for the future. 
 
 b. Author and style. Note : (1) characteristics of 
 Haggai as a man ; (2) possibility that he may have 
 been, at this time, an old man who had seen the former 
 temple (2"^) ; (3) literary style of Haggai's message in 
 contrast to the prophecies previously studied. 
 
 c. Reference Literature. For discussion of various 
 aspects of this prophecy, see : Bennett and Adeney, 
 "Bib. Int."; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T." ; McFadyen, 
 " Int. 0. T." ; Sanders and Kent, " Messages Later 
 Prophs." ; Fowler, " Frophs. as Statesmen and Preach- 
 ers " ; G. A. Smith, " Bli. of Twelve," 11. 
 
 (2) Zechariah 1-8. 
 
 a. Structure. Read the chapters in the following 
 sections : l^-^ 17-17, 118-21, 21-^, 2^ -i3, 3, 4, S^"*, b^'^\ 
 gi-8^ g9-i5, 7, g Note how the prophecies in V-Q^ 
 naturally group themselves together. Treating this 
 group as one section, give a title to each of the five 
 sections into which the book is then divided. 
 
 b. Thought. Note : (1) the apparent meaning of 
 each symbolic vision and act in V-Q^. (For help in 
 interpreting, see Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," 
 pages 256, 257 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 345, 
 346 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 222-224 ; Sanders 
 and Kent, " Messages Later Prophs.," pages 212-227 ;
 
 THE PERSIAN AGE 131 
 
 Fowler, " Proplis. as Statesmen and Preachers," pages 
 113-115 ; G. A. Smith, " Bk. of Twelve," IL, pages 
 217-319); (2) the prophet's conception of the moral 
 requirements of Jehovah; (3) hope for Jerusalem's 
 future. 
 
 (3) Priestly Teachings. Leviticus 1-3, 5-7, 11-15, 
 Numbers 5, 6, 15, 1914-22, 
 
 Read these passages, noting : (1) the frequently 
 recurring formulas that suggest connection among tliem ; 
 (2) subjects treated. For discussion of the date and 
 character of these teachings and ordinances, see Kent, 
 '' Messages Isr's. Lawgvrs.," page 41, " Laws and 
 Tradit. Precs.," Introduction, vi. 
 
 (4) Isaiah 56-62. 
 
 a. Thought. Read the chapters in the following 
 sections : 56^~\ 569-57, 58i-i2, SS^^.w, 59, 60-62, notmg: 
 (1) the subject of each prophecy; (2) teaching as to 
 the ground of union with Jehovali's people, as to sacri- 
 fice, as to the Sabbath ; (3) pictures of the future. 
 
 b. Reference Literature. For discussion of these 
 chapters reference may be made to Bennett and Ade- 
 ney, " Bib. Int." ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T." ; McFadyen, 
 " Int. 0. T." ; Sanders and Kent, " Messages Later 
 Prophs." ; Fowler, " Prophs. as Statesmen and Preach- 
 ers " ; G. A. Smith, " Isaiah," II., in " Expos. Bib." ; 
 Skinner, " Isaiah 40-66 " in " Camb. Bib." 
 
 4. Conclusions regarding the Period. 
 
 Consider : (1) the significance of the fact that so 
 small a section of the exiled Jews took advantage of 
 the permission of Cyrus to go back to Palestine. Did 
 it argue disloyalty? (2) the consequences of their re- 
 maining in such niiinljcrs in other countries ; (3) the
 
 132 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 political standing of the Jews in Palestine ; (4) the 
 direction given to their hopes ; (5) was the rebuilding 
 of the temple as significant as Haggai supposed ? (6) is 
 it strange that the great leaders of this and the pre- 
 ceding periods are almost wholly unknown ? 
 
 § 38. Period of Restoration of the City Walls 
 AND Establishment of the Priestly Law (c. 450- 
 332 B. c). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 (1) Biblical. 
 
 a. Ezra 7-10, Nehemiah. Read these narratives in 
 connection with Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§ 94-98, 
 or read them as arranged in Kent, " Isr.'s Hist, and Biog. 
 Nars.," pages 349-384 together with pages 30-34. In 
 reading, note : (1) proposed rearrangement of the nar- 
 ratives ; (2) earlier sources used by the Chronicler; 
 (3) elements due to his own hand. Analysis of the 
 narratives is given also in Driver, " Int. Lit, 0. T.," 
 pages 541-545, 549-552 ; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. 
 Int.," pages 117-121 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 
 333-346 ; " Messages Proph. and Priest. Histns.," pages 
 314-318. 
 
 b. Malachi. Read the book in connection with 
 Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 100, noting : (1) grounds 
 for dating Malachi shortly before the Nehemiah-Ezra 
 reform ; (2) social and religious conditions pictured in 
 the book. The book is discussed in connection 
 with its historical background also in Bennett and 
 Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 264-266 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 
 0. T.," pages 355-358 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 
 234-237 ; Sanders and Kent, " Messages Later Prophs.,"
 
 THE PERSIAN AGE 133 
 
 pages 240-244 ; Fowler, " Prophs. as Statesmen and 
 Preachers," pages 118-121; G. A. Smith, " Bk. of 
 Twelve," II., in " Expos. Bib.," pages 331-340. 
 
 c. Isaiah 63-66, 34, 35, 24-27. Read the prophecies 
 in connection with Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§ 102, 
 103, noting the light that they seem to throw upon the 
 closing century of Persian rule. These chapters are 
 presented in connection with a post-exilic historical 
 setting also in Sanders and Kent, " Messages Later 
 Prophs.," pages 308, 309, 310-312, 272-274, 279-285, 
 313-319 ; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 194, 
 195, 181, 182, 183, 184. 
 
 d. Joel. Read the book in connection with Kent, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 104, noting : (1) apparently 
 peaceful political background ; (2) dominance of 
 priestly ritual ; (3) allusion to the Greeks. This 
 prophecy is treated in connection with the closing 
 century of the Persian age also in Bennett and Adeney, 
 " Bib. Int.," pages 337-340 ; Sanders and Kent, " Mes- 
 sages Later Prophs.," pages 289-293 ; G. A. Smith, " Bk. 
 of Twelve," IL, in "Expos. Bib.," 381-397; Fowler, 
 "Prophs. as Statesmen and Preachers." Driver (" Int.," 
 pages 307-312) and McFadyen (" Int.," pages 183-187) 
 favor the post-exilic origin of the book, but do not date 
 it definitely within the century under consideration. 
 
 (2) Extra Biblical. ' 
 
 Jewish and Greek histories. See Kent, " Hist. Jew- 
 ish Peop.," §§ 107, 219, 220. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically one or more of the following refer- 
 ences ; Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," pages 167-238 ; H.
 
 134 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 P. Smith, "0. T. Hist.," ch. xvii. ; Wade, "0. T. Hist.," 
 pages 473-490. As indicated by his rearrangement 
 of the sources, ah-eady noticed (1, (1), a), Kent holds 
 tlie view that the work of Nehemiah preceded that of 
 Ezra. H. P. Smith regards Nehemiah as the leader of 
 the great reform movement, and considers Ezra as 
 chiefly the impersonation of the tendencies of the cen- 
 tury following him. He says, however, that there may 
 have been a scribe named Ezra to whom tradition 
 attached itself. Wade presents the traditional view 
 that Ezra and his company came to Jerusalem before 
 Nehemiah. 
 
 In reading concerning this period of history, note : 
 (1) the course of events that led up to Nehemiah's visit 
 to Jerusalem as governor ; (2) date of his first visit ; 
 (3) great difficulties in the way of rebuilding Jerusa- 
 lem's walls ; (4) Nehemiah's conspicuous ability in 
 overcoming obstacles ; (5) duration of his stay in Jerusa- 
 lem ; (6) specific achievements which he carried 
 through ; (7) their historical significance ; (8) argu- 
 ments as to the date of Ezra's expedition ; (9) reform 
 of heathen marriages ; (10) circumstances and influ- 
 ences that led to the establishment of Judaism; (11) 
 events leading to the establishment of the Samaritan 
 temple on Mount Gerizim ; (12) date and consequences 
 of its establishment ; (13) prosperity and growth of the 
 community after the work of Nehemiah and Ezra ; (14) 
 evidence as to persecution under Artaxerxes Ochus ; 
 (15) extent and influence of Jewish misfortunes at 
 this time.
 
 THE PERSIAN AGE 135 
 
 S. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Malachi, 
 
 a. Structure and Thought. Read the book in the 
 following sections : V'^ l«-29, 2^^^\ 2i'-36, 3^-12, S^s-is^ 
 316-17^ 4. In reading, note : (1) the subject of each 
 section ; (2) Malachi's catholicity ; (3) his insistence 
 on Jehovah's love for Israel ; (4) teaching as to un- 
 worthy offerings ; (5) teaching as to divorce ; (6) 
 teaching as to judgment yet to come; (7) emj)hasis on 
 keeping law; (8) prophetic warning before the great 
 and terrible day. 
 
 b. Author and Style. Note: (1) probability that 
 title Malachi (my messenger) may have been suggested 
 by 3^ ; (2) the proi)het's hope in evil times ; (:^)) di- 
 dactic style in contrast to earlier prophets. 
 
 For discussion of various aspects of this prophecy, 
 see references above, under 1, (1), b. 
 
 (2) Isaiah 63-66, 34, 35. 
 See above, under 1, (1), c. 
 
 (3) The Priestly Code and Narratives. 
 
 a. Contents. Look over the contents of Leviticus 
 1-10, 12-16, 27 with the aid of the page headings in 
 Rev. Vers. (Amcr.) or the summaries in Driver, "Int. 
 Lit. O. T.," pages 43-47,59, noting the kind of subjects 
 treated in these laws. 
 
 b. History. Read two or more of the following: 
 Kent, " iMcssages Lawgvrs.," pages 36-43, " Beginnings 
 Heb. Hist.," pages 43-47; "Origin and Perm. VaL 
 0. T.," pages 148-156; "Laws and Tradit. Precs.," Intro- 
 duction, vi. ; "Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§ 199-201 ; Driver,
 
 136 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 126-159 ; Carpenter and Bat- 
 tersby, " Hexateuch," ch. xiii. ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 IL, pages 368-371 ; McFadyen, " Messages Proph. and 
 Priest. Histns.," pages 239-247. In reading note: (1) 
 evidence as to late date of priestly codes ; (2) codes 
 previously considered (see §§ 36, 37); (3) latest code ; 
 (4) incorporation of priestly laws in narratives ; (5) 
 extent of priestly document ; (6) characteristic features 
 of style of this document. 
 
 (4) Ruth. 
 
 The book of Ruth, which we have already considered 
 in connection with the period of the Judges, may very 
 possibly have been written in the present period as a 
 protest against the rigid exclusion of foreign marriages. 
 For discussion of the book, see references under § 25, 
 
 1, (1). 
 
 (5) Aramaic Documents in Ezra 4-6. 
 
 These writings have been considered under § 37, 1, 
 (1), a. 
 
 (6) Memoirs of Nehemiah. Nehemiah 1-7^, 13. 
 
 These writings have been considered under 1, (1), a, 
 of the present section. 
 
 (7) Joel. 
 
 a. Structure and Thought. Read the book in the 
 following sections: 1-2", 2^2-17^ £18-=^', 22832^ 3i-"% 
 3iGb-2i_ Note: (1) the subject of each section; (2) 
 consecutive character and orderly arrangement of the 
 book ; (3) Joel's first interpretation of the devastation ; 
 (4) his views of the pi-opcr means of averting the 
 plague ; (5) his expectation of an outpouring of the
 
 THE PERSIAN AGE 137 
 
 Spirit; (G) warning to be given before great and ter- 
 rible day; (7) future of tbc nations; (8) future of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 b. Author and Style. Note : (1) Joel's familiarity 
 with prophetic literature (cf. Z^^ with Amos 1'-^ ; 3^^ 
 with Isa. 24 and Mic. 4^ ; 22 with Zeph. l^^; l^s with 
 Isa. 18^) ; (2) the contrast between the priestly religion 
 of Joel and the ethical religion of the eighth-century 
 prophets ; (3) vivid character of Joel's word pictures. 
 For discussion of various aspects of this prophecy, see 
 references under 1, (1) d, and also pages 397-436 in 
 G. A. Smith's " Bk. of Twelve." 
 
 (8) Isaiah 24-27. 
 
 This prophecy has been considered under 1, (1), c, 
 where references to various discussions were given. 
 
 (9) Compilation of the Hcxateuch. 
 
 Read two or more of the following references : Kent, 
 " Beginnings Heb. Hist.," pages 47, 48 ; Bennett and 
 Adeney, " Bib. Int., " pages 56-59 ; Hastings, " Diet. 
 Bib.," IT., page 375 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 
 71-75. 
 
 (10) Book of Psalms 3-41. 
 
 While many Psalms may have been written in prc- 
 exilic and exilic times, it is probable that the collection 
 of hymns now numbered 3-41 in the Psalter was com- 
 piled in the post-exilic age and constituted the temple 
 hymnal used in the reformed worship of Nehemiah and 
 Ezra (see Bennett and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," page 139, 
 last paragraph). The gradual growth of the Psalter 
 as a whole will be considered under § 42,
 
 138 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 (11) Job. 
 
 a. General Outline. Read the book, noting its natural 
 division into the following sections : (1) Prologue, 1, 2 ; 
 (2) Curse or Lament, 3 ; (3) Debate, 4-31 (First cycle, 
 4-14, Second cycle, 15-21, Third cycle, 22-31); 
 
 (4) Speeches of Elihu, 32-37 ; (5) Jehovah and Job, 
 38-426 . ^Qy Epilogue, 42"-i'. 
 
 b. Thought. Reread the debate, noting : (1) the 
 order of speakers in each cycle ; (2) tlie theory of Job's 
 friends as to the cause of misfortunes ; (3) their appli- 
 cation of the theory to Job's situation ; (4) the argu- 
 ment by which each of the three supports the theory ; 
 
 (5) the influences which led Job to question the ortho- 
 dox doctrine held by his friends ; (6) the real object of 
 Job's quest through the long discussion. Review the 
 speeches of Elihu, noting whether they add anything to 
 the debate. Reread the words of Jehovah and the re- 
 ply of Job, noting: (1) the attributes of the divine 
 nature manifested to Job ; (2) the ground of Job's final 
 satisfaction. Notice in the Epilogue the writer's esti- 
 mate of the attitude of the three friends and of Job. 
 How many solutions of the problem of suffering does 
 the whole book suggest ? 
 
 c. Reference Literature. For discussion of the lit- 
 erary form, history, and interpretation of the book of 
 Job, consult : Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 
 123-134; Driver, "Int. Lit. O. T.," pages 408-435; 
 McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 264-281 ; Hastings, 
 "Diet. Bib.," art. "Job"; " Enc. Bib.," art. "Job"; 
 Kent, " Orig. and Perm. Yal. O. T.," pages 179-185 ; 
 A. B. Davidson, " Job," in " Camb. Bib." ; Cheyne, " Job 
 and Solomon" ; Genung, " Epic of the Inner Life."
 
 THE PERSIAN AGE 139 
 
 4. Significance of the Period. 
 
 Consider: (1) Nehemiah and Ezra as types of tlie 
 Jew of that day in his possible dignity and inllucnce, 
 his devotion to his religious beliefs, his adaptability ; 
 (2) the triumph of the infltiences which Ezekiel had set 
 in motion, when Judaism was established; (3) tlie 
 drawback and values in Judaism; (4) the kind of a 
 Messiah which it naturally looked for ; (5) the growing 
 importance and rapidly increasing extent of the Juda- 
 ism outside of Palestine ; (6) the effect upon Judaism 
 of Persian influence.
 
 VIII 
 
 THE GREEK AGE (332-168 b. c.) 
 
 § 39. Period of Alexander and of the Struggle 
 OF HIS Successors (332-198). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 (1) Biblical. 
 
 The Old Testament offers no connected narrative of 
 this age, and the literature of the age gives but little of 
 definite allusion to contemporary events. It does, how- 
 ever, reveal much of the spirit and atmosphere of the 
 times. 
 
 a. Compilation of Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah. Read 
 two or more of the following references : Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 255, " Isr's. Hist, and Biog. Xars.," 
 page 22, " Origin and Perm. Yal. O. T.," pages 156- 
 160 ; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 108- 
 109 ; Driver, « Int. Lit. O. T.," page 518 ; McFadjen, 
 "Int. O. T.," pages 339, 317, 348; "Messages Proph. 
 and Priest. Histns.," pages 270, 271 ; Hastings, " Diet. 
 Bib.," I., page 392, col. a ; " Enc. Bib.," I, col. 764, 
 noting : (1) indications of the date of compilation ; 
 (2) the reasons which would have impelled a priest to 
 undertake so huge a task. 
 
 b. Zechariah 9-14. Read the chapters in connection 
 with Kent, " Hist, Jewish Peop.," § 256, noting : 
 (1) allusions which seem to place them within the 
 present period ; (2) the spirit of the prophecies. For
 
 THE GREEK AGE 141 
 
 further discussion of date and circumstances, see : 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 259-261 ; 
 Driver, "Int. Lit. O.T.," pages 346-355; McPadyen, 
 " Int. 0. T.," pages 227-233 ; G. A. Smith, " Bk. of 
 Twelve," II., in "Expos. Bib.," pages 449-462. 
 
 c. Jonah. Read the book in connection with Kent, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 105, noting : (1) indications of 
 late date ; (2) author's protest against narrow Judaism. 
 For further discussion of the date and spirit of the 
 book, see : Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 
 244-246 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. O. T.," pages 321-325 ; 
 McFadyen, "Int. 0. T.," pages 196-199 ; Sanders and 
 Kent, " Messages Later Prophs.," pages 339-348. 
 
 d. Ecclesiastes. Read the book in connection with 
 Kent, "Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§ 258, 298, noting: 
 (1) indications of late date ; (2) influence of Greek 
 philosophy on the original writer ; (3) absence of strong 
 faith and enthusiasm ; (4) social and political condi- 
 tions revealed. For further discussion of the date and 
 spirit of the book, consult : Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. 
 Int.," pages 160-164 ; Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 
 470-477 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 298-303, 309. 
 Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," art. "Ecclesiastes," §§2, 4; 
 "Enc. Bib.," Art. "Ecclesiastes," § 2,11-13 ; Pluraptre, 
 "Ecclesiastes," " Camb. Bib.," pages 19-34. 
 
 (2) Jewish and Greek Writers. Read Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 264. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read one or two of the following : Kent, " Hist. Jew- 
 ish Peop.," pages 284-295, 299-305; H. P. Smith, 
 « 0. T. Hist.," pages 411-427 ; Guthc, in " Enc. Bib." 
 III., cols. 2259-2261. In reading, try to secure a clear
 
 142 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 impression of: (1) the government and struggle for 
 control of Palestine in the years b. c. 332-323, 323- 
 301, 301-218, 218-198 ; (2) immediate effects of Alex- 
 ander's conquest and rule ; (3) attitude of the Ptolemies 
 toward the Jews ; (1) the Judaism of Egypt in contrast 
 to that of Palestine ; (5) literary activity of the 
 Egyptian Jews. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah. 
 
 References to discussions of the general characteris- 
 tics of this writing were given under § 28, 1 (2), 
 
 (2) Zechariah 9-14. 
 
 Read the chapters, noting: (1) symbolic imagery 
 (cf. Ezekiel) ; (2) picture of the nations gathering to- 
 gether against Jerusalem and overthrown ; (3) expec- 
 tation of a king coming in meekness. For aid in 
 interpreting, see references under 1, (1), b, and G. A. 
 Smitli, " Bk. of Twelve," II., pages 463-490 ; Sanders 
 and Kent, " Messages Later Prophs.," pages 326-336. 
 
 (3) Jonah, 
 
 For discussion of the literary form and interpreta- 
 tion of the book, read two or more of the following : 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," page 246 ; Driver, 
 " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 324, 325 ; McFadyen, " Int. 
 0. T.," pages 196-199 ; Sanders and Kent, " Messages 
 Later Prophs.," pages 341-354 ; Fowler, " Prophs. as 
 Statesmen and Preachers," pages 134-137; Cornill, 
 "Prophs. of Isr.," pages 170-173. 
 
 (4) Proverbs. 
 
 a. Structure. Note the composition of the book as 
 indicated by the differences between the sections, 1-9, 
 10-2216, 22i"-2422, 2423 »i, 25-29, 30, 31i-9, 2>V^-^\
 
 THE GllEEK AGE 143 
 
 b. Thought. (1) Read chs. 1-9, noting the kinds 
 of sin to which the hearers seem especially tempted ; 
 {■2} the general character of the original collection of 
 Proverbs, 10-221*^, was considered under § 34 ; (3) glance 
 through the section 22i'-2422, noting the very practical 
 and homely questions treated ; (4) note the appendix 
 to the previous section in 24:^^'^, observing especially 
 the apologue on the slothful man, vv. 30-34 ; (5) note 
 the character of subjects treated in 25-29, an appendix 
 to the original collection, observing especially the little 
 poem on industry, 2"!^^'^' ; (6) in ch. 30, notice the 
 title and the numerical form of the proverbs (cf. Amos, 
 introductory address) ; (7) in 31^"^, notice the title 
 and the homely character of the maxims ; (8) read 
 3110-31^ in the Hebrew an alphabetical poem (see § 35, 
 3, (3)). 
 
 c. Date. Read one or more of the following discus- 
 sions : Toy, " Proverbs," in " Internat. Crit. Com.," 
 pages xix-xxxi, '' Enc. Bib.," III., cols. 3911-3918 ; 
 Bennett and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," pages 152-157; 
 Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 404-407; McFadyen, 
 " Int. O. T.," pages 259-261 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 IV., pages 141-143. 
 
 A popular discussion of the Hebrew sages and their 
 proverbs will be found in Kent, " Orig. and Perm. Val. 
 of 0. T.," pages 163-175. 
 
 (5) Song of Songs. 
 
 a. Literary Form and Quality. Road the poem in 
 connection with one of the following discussions: 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 168-170 ; 
 McFadyen, "Int. (). T.," pages 282-287; Driver, "int. 
 Lit. 0. T.;' pages 436-448, 452. 453 ; Hastings, " Diet.
 
 144 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Bib.," art. " Song of Songs," § ii.; "Enc. Bib.," T., cols. 
 684-691 ; A. Harper, " Song of Solomon," in " Camb. 
 Bib.," pages xi-xxiii, xxxi-li. (1) Consider whether 
 the book is a drama with three princij)al characters 
 (so Driver), a dramatic lyric (so Rothstein in Hastings 
 and Harper in " Camb. Bib."), or a collection of wed- 
 ding songs (so Bennett and Adeney, McFadyen, Cheyne 
 in Enc. Bib.). (2) Note the delight in the beauties of 
 nature revealed in the poem. (3) Select the most ele- 
 vated expressions of human love in the book. 
 
 b. Date and Author. Read one or more of the fol- 
 lowing: Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 167, 
 168 ; McFadyen, " Int. 0. T. ," pages 287-289 ; Driver, 
 "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 448-450; Hastings, "Diet. 
 Bib.," art. "Song of Songs," § iii. ; "Enc. Bib.," I., 
 cols. 92-94; A. Harper, "Song of Sol.," in "Camb. 
 Bib.," pages xxi-xxxi. 
 
 (6) Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Form and Thought. Read the book in connection 
 with one of the following discussions of its contents and 
 character: Bennett and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," pages 
 164-167; Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 466-473; 
 McFadyen, "Int. 0. T.," pages 303-309; Hastings, "Diet. 
 Bib.," I., pages 639-642 ; " Enc. Bib.," art. " Ecclesi- 
 astes " ; Haupt, " Bk. of Eccl.," pages 1-9 ; Plumptre, 
 " Eccl.," in " Camb. Bib.," pages 35-101 ; Cox, " Eccl.," 
 in " Expos. Bib.," pages 3-32. In reading, note : 
 (1) whether the book presents a consistent and orderly 
 discussion ; (2) parts probably due to later editing ; (3) 
 conception of writer as to a future life ; (4) general tone 
 of what was probably the original book ; (5) tone and 
 purpose of the later elements. For an effort to inter-
 
 THE GREEK AGE 145 
 
 pret the book as a literary unit}-, see Geuung, " Tlic 
 Words of Kolielcth." For a critical reconstruction and 
 metrical translation of the text, see Ilaupt, " Bk. of 
 Ecclesiastes." 
 
 4. Significance of the Age. 
 
 Consider: (1) the deadening effect npon Israel of 
 control for a half-century preceding Alexander by a 
 fading dynasty and a passing civilization ; (2) the 
 stirring personality of Alexander the Great ; (3) the 
 remarkable success of Hellenism in moulding tlie civ- 
 ilizations, literatures, and religions that it touched ; (4) 
 the serious danger which through Hellenism's insidious 
 influence surrounded Judaism. 
 
 § 40. Period of Seleucid Rule (198-168 b, c). 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Biblical. 
 
 Esther. Read Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop,," § 57 or 
 " Isr's. Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 39, 40, noting : 
 
 (1) grounds for dating this book in the Greek age; 
 
 (2) the intense nationalistic spirit revealed. For 
 further discussion of date and spirit of the book, see : 
 " Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 484-487; McFadyen, 
 " Int. 0. T., " pages 310-315 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 art. " Esther, Bk.," § iii. ; " Enc. Bib.," art. " Esther," 
 §§ 4, 5. Of the above, McFadyen dates the book in 
 the Maccabean age and Niildeke, in " Enc. Bib.," leaves 
 the question whether it should be assigned to the Greek 
 or Maccabean age an open one. The others assign it 
 to the present period. 
 
 10
 
 146 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 (2) Old Testament Apocrypha. 
 
 We have now reached a time when nearly all the 
 books which were ultimately included in the Palestinian 
 canon were already written, although the limits of the 
 collection were not fixed as yet. Indeed, they were 
 not fully determined until about 100 a. d. The trans- 
 lation of Jewish literature into Greek had already 
 begun, in Alexandria, and there was growing up 
 among the Egyptian Jews a collection of writings 
 rather more inclusive than that which was taking 
 shape in Judea. Thus it came about that the Septu- 
 agint, the Greek translation of the Bible, contained a 
 number of books which the Palestinian rabbis excluded 
 from their sacred collection. These additional books 
 are styled among Euglish-speaking Protestants the 
 Old Testament Apocrypha. For further discussion of 
 this group of books, see : Hastings, " Diet, Bib.," art. 
 "Apocrypha; " " Enc. Bib.," art. "Apocrypha," §§3-8. 
 
 a. Ecclesiasticus, or The Wisdom of Ben Sirach. 
 Read Kent, "Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§259, 288-291, 
 291-296, noting: (1) date of Ecclus. ; (2) the way in 
 which the book throws direct light upon the social and 
 moral conditions of the times. Further discussion of 
 the date and history of the book is given in Hastings, 
 " Diet. Bib.," IV., art. " Sirach, Bk. of," §§ i.-iv. ; 
 "Enc. Bib.," art. "Ecclus.," §§ 7-9. 
 
 b. First Maccabees 1, Second Maccabees 3-7. In 
 connection with Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 263, or 
 Schlirer, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Jesus Christ," Div. 
 I., Vol. I., § 3, a, read from "0. T. Apocrypha," (Rev. 
 Vers., British) the history of the years 175-168 as 
 given in First Mace. 1 and Second Mace. 3-7, noting
 
 THE GREEK AGE 147 
 
 carefully the course of events that led up to the Macca- 
 beaii revolt in 168. 
 
 (3) Greek Histories. Read Kent, "Hist. Jewish 
 Peop.," § 264 (latter part) and Schlirer, " Jewish Peop. 
 in Time of Christ," Div. I. , Vol. I., pages 111, 112. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically one or both of the following : Kent, 
 « Hist. Jewish Peop.," pages 295-298, 305-330 ; H. P. 
 Smith, "0. T. Hist.," pages 427-447. A valuable 
 account of the influence of Hellenism on Judea is given 
 in Mahaffv, " Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's 
 Emp.," Lect. lY. In reading, note : (1) how Palestine 
 became a part of the Seleucid empire ; (2) the begin- 
 ning of serious trouble for the Jews under the Seleucid 
 rule ; (3) general characteristics of Jewish life and 
 thought in the Greek period ; (4) first effects of Hel- 
 lenism upon Judaism ; (5) the inevitable conflict 
 between the two different, intense, and persistent 
 civilizations ; (6) steps leading up to the great per- 
 secution under Antiochus Epiphanes ; (7) measures 
 taken completely to stamp out Judaism; (8) their 
 immediate effect. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 
 a. Esther. Read the story, noting : (1) its dramatic 
 qualities ; (2) the elements which gave it value. 
 
 b. Ecclesiasticus. Read from 0. T. Apocrypha 
 (Rev. Vers., Brit.) at least chs. 1-6 and a portion of the 
 section in praise of famous men, beginning at ch. 44. 
 While reading: (1) Compare the form and thought 
 with Proverbs. (2) Note the difference in tone between 
 Ecclus. and Eccles. For a summary of the contents
 
 148 EARLY JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 and thought of the book, see : Hasthigs, " Diet. Bib.," 
 art. " Sirach, Bk. of," § x. ; " Enc. Bib.," art. " Ecchis.," 
 §§ 11-24. 
 
 c. Enoch 1-36. From the latter years of the Greek 
 age there has been preserved in the Ethiopic book of 
 Enoch, chs. 1-36, an apocalyptic writing which was 
 included neither in the Palestinian nor Alexandrian 
 canon of the Bible. See Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," 
 § 262, especially last sentence. Read Enoch 1-36 from 
 R. H. Charles, " Bk. of Enoch," pages 57-105, in con- 
 nection with discussion of date and thought, pages 56, 
 57. Short discussions of the book of Enoch are given 
 in Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., pages 705-708 and " Jew- 
 ish Enc," v., art. "Enoch, Bks. of," § 1.
 
 PART III 
 
 LATER JEWISH HISTORY AND 
 LITERATURE
 
 IX 
 
 MACCABEAN AGE (168-63 b.c) 
 
 § 41. Period of Struggle for Independence (168- 
 142). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Jewish Historical Narratives. 
 
 a. First Maccabees 1-13. Read Riggs, " Hist. Jew- 
 ish Peop.," §§ 1, 2, noting especially the limits of the 
 age. In connection with Riggs, "Hist. J. P.," § 3, read 
 from the Apocrypha (Rev. Vers., Brit.) First Macca- 
 bees 1-13, or read First and Second Maccabees as 
 arranged in Kent, " Isr.'s Hist, and Biog. Nars.," pages 
 387-467, together with pages 35-39. The chapters are 
 discussed also in Kent, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 263; 
 Schiirer, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. I., 
 Vol. I., Intro., § 3 A, Div. II., Vol. III., pages 6-9; 
 Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," art. "Maccabees, Bks. of"; 
 "Enc. Bib.," art. "Maccabees, First Bk." While 
 reading, note : (1) the period of history included in 
 First Maccabees; (2) merits of the book as a history; 
 (3) indications as to the time of its writing ; (4) con- 
 trast with spirit of Second Maccabees. 
 
 b. Second Maccabees. In connection with Riggs, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 4, read from tlie Apocrypha, 
 Second ^Maccabees, unless read in connection with First 
 Maccabees from Kent, " His*;, and Biog. Nars.," j)agcs
 
 152 LATER JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 387-467. The book is discussed also in Kent, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 263; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," art. 
 " Mace., Bks. of " ; " Enc. Bib.," art. " Mace., First Bk." 
 While reading, note the principal source of Second 
 Maccabees ; (2) characteristics of the writing which 
 weaken confidence in its accuracy ; (3) probable date 
 of writing; (4) points at which it is of value as a 
 source. 
 
 c. Josephus. In connection with Riggs, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop,," § 5, read Josephus, " Jewish War," 
 Bk. I., ch. 1-22, « Antiquities," Bk. XH., ch. 5 — Bk. 
 XIH., ch, 6. While reading, note : (1) relation of 
 Josephus to First Maccabees for period 175-135 b. c. ; 
 (2) other sources used by this writer; (3) tendency 
 in Josephus against which one must guard. For bio- 
 graphical information as to Josephus, see " Enc. Brit.," 
 art. " Josephus." 
 
 (2) Apocalyptic Writings, 
 
 a. Daniel. In connection with Riggs, " Hist. Jew- 
 ish Peop.," § 6, read Daniel, chs. 7-11. For further 
 aid in general interpretation reference may be made to 
 Kent, "Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§ 260, 261, 308-310; 
 Bennett and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," pages 220-232; 
 Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 492-497 ; and, for the 
 meaning of particular passages, to Driver, " Daniel," in 
 " Camb. Bib.," or C. M. Cobern, " Ezek. and Daniel," in 
 " Whedon's Com." For detailed arguments as to the 
 date of the book, see : Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," 
 pages 224-226 ; Driver, " Int. Lit, 0, T,," pages 497- 
 510, "Daniel," " Camb. Bib.," pages xlvii-lxxvi; Hast- 
 ings, " Diet. Bib.," art. " Daniel, Bk." ; " Enc. Bib., " art. 
 " Daniel, Bk." ; Farrar, " Daniel," in " Expos. Bib. " ;
 
 MACCABEAN AGE 153 
 
 Cobern, "Ezek. and Daniel," in " Whedon's Com.," 
 pages 265-270. Margoliouth, " Lines of Defence of Bib. 
 Revelation," pages 177-181, 304, 305, argues in favor of 
 an earlier date. While reading, note : (1) arguments 
 as to date ; (2) historical interpretation of the visions ; 
 (3) purpose of the visions. 
 
 b. Enoch 83-90. In connection with Riggs, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," §§ 7, 40, read Charles's translation of 
 the Bk. of Enoch, chs. 83-90. For aid in interpreta- 
 tation, reference may be made to Kent, " Hist. Jewish 
 Peop.," § 262 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," art. " Enoch 
 (Ethiopic), Bk. of " ; " Jewish Enc." V., art. " Enoch, 
 Bks. of," § i. ; for particular passages, to notes on text 
 in Charles. For discussion of the date of writing, see 
 also : R. H. Charles, " Bk. of Enoch," pages 221, 222 ; 
 Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., p. 707. Notice especially 
 how this section of Enoch fits into the history of the 
 Maccabean revolt and throws light upon the spirit of 
 the times. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 One who has mastered the facts to be gathered from 
 an examination of the principal sources is prepared to 
 read a history of the period and to form an independ- 
 ent judgment as to its reliability and value. 
 
 Read critically at least one of the following narra- 
 tives : Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," pages 14-71 ; H. 
 P. Smith^ " 0. T. Hist.," oh. XIX. ; Schiirer, " Jewish 
 Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. I., Vol. I., pages 169- 
 177, 18G-2G2. Other references arc: Kent, "Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," pages 322-340 (for events down to 165 
 B. c.) ; Ewald, " Hist. Isrl.,^' V., pages 293-335 ; Stanley, 
 "Hist. Jewish Church, Lcct. XLYIU." and pari of
 
 154 LATER JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 XLIX. ; Cornill, "Hist. Peop. Isr.," ch. vii. ; Guthe, 
 article " Israel" in "Enc. Bib." II., cols. 2261-2266 ; E. 
 Bevan, " Jerusalem under High Priests," pages 69-108. 
 In reading, seek to secure a clear view of: (1) the 
 causes that led to the uprising ; (2) the general course 
 of events from 168-165, 165-162 (securing religious 
 liberty), 162-142 B.C. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 (1) Daniel. 
 
 a. Contents. Read the book of Daniel in the follow- 
 ing sections: 1-6, 7-12, giving a title to each section 
 and to each chapter or larger division within the 
 section. 
 
 b. Interpretation. In the interpretation of the book, 
 two great questions arise which have occasioned much 
 difference of opinion. The first of these concerns the 
 literary character of the narratives in chapters 1-6. 
 Are these to be accepted as literal biography and his- 
 tory, or are they, in whole or part, the work of the 
 imagination ? The second concerns chiefly the inter- 
 pretation of the dream in chapter 2, and the visions of 
 chapters 7 and 9 (the four beasts and the seventy 
 weeks). The general conclusion of nearly all Biblical 
 scholars of to-day is that these visions all terminate, so 
 far as their definite outline of history is concerned, 
 with the Greek kingdom and the rule of Antiochus 
 Epiphanes, his death being anticipated, to be followed 
 by the glories of the Messianic age. Older interpre- 
 ters very commonly regarded the last kingdom named 
 as the Roman, rather than the Greek. In regard to the 
 former question, scholars who date the writing of 
 Daniel during the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes,
 
 MACCABEAN AGE 155 
 
 differ as to the amount of actual history in the nar- 
 ratives of chapters 1-6. All admit, however, certain 
 points of variance between Daniel and contemporary 
 historical records. 
 
 c. Reference Literature. For the discussion of ques- 
 tions concerning interpretation, see : Bennett and 
 Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 227-233 ; Driver, " Int. 
 Lit. 0. T.," pages 488-497, 510-613 ; " Daniel," " Camb. 
 Bib.," ix-xcviii ; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," art. " Daniel, 
 Bk." ; Cobern, " Ezek. and Daniel," " Whedon's Com.," 
 pages 254-297 ; Farrar," Daniel," " Expos. Bib.," Pt. I., 
 pages 3-119; Fowler, " Prophs. as Statesmen and 
 Preachers," pages 139-149. The view of the book of 
 Daniel formerly prevalent may be found in such works 
 as E. P. Pusey's " Commentary on Daniel" and Stuart's 
 " Commentary on Daniel." 
 
 (2) Enoch 83-90. 
 
 a. Contents. Read the two visions chs. 83-84, and 
 85-90 from R. H. Charles, " Bk. of Enoch," pages 
 223-259. 
 
 b. Interpretation. Read one or more of the follow- 
 ing references : Charles, " Bk. of Enoch," pages 222, 223 ; 
 Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," L, page 707 ; Riggs, "Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 40; Kent, "Hist. Jewish Peop.," 
 § 311. For interpretation of details, see notes accom- 
 panying text in Charles's translation. ]\Iake a sum- 
 mary of the principal elements in the cschatological 
 picture in 90^4-42 (•^jth the aid of the notes on the pas- 
 sage) and compare with Dan. 12. 
 
 4. Siynijicance of the Period. 
 
 The JMaccabean revolt had important consequences. 
 Not alone was indepcndcucc achieved, l)ut a religious
 
 156 LATER JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 renaissance took place. Notice : (1) the noble personal 
 types represented by the principal Jewish actors ; (2) 
 the definitely religious motives for the revolt ; (3) the 
 remarkable sacrifices cheerfully borne by all ; (4) the 
 re-emphasis upon religious life. 
 
 § 42. Period of Independence (142-63 b. c). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Jewish Historical Narratives. 
 
 a. First Maccabees 14-16. In connection with 
 Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 3, read First Mace. 
 14-16. The chapters are discussed also in Kent, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 263 ; Schiirer, " Jewish Peop. in 
 Time of Christ," Div. I., Vol. I., Intro., § 3, A, Div. II., 
 Vol. III., pages 6-9 ; Hastings, " Dict.Bib.," art. " Mace, 
 Bks. of ; " " Enc. Bib." art. " Mace, First Bk." 
 
 b. Josephus. In connection with Biggs, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," §5, read Josephus, "Jewish War," Bk. I., 
 chs. 22-7 ; " Antiquities," Bk. XIII., ch. 7-Bk. XIV., 
 ch. 4, Josephus as a source for the period is also dis- 
 cussed in Schiirer, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," 
 Intro., § 3, C. 
 
 (2) Greek Historians. 
 
 Read Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 2 ; Schiirer, 
 " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. I., Vol. I., 
 Intro., § 3, B.D.E. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History, 
 
 Read critically at least one of the following refer- 
 ences : Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," pages 87-136 ; H. 
 P. Smith, " 0. T. Hist.," ch. xx. to page 493 ; Schiirer,
 
 MACCABEAN AGE 157 
 
 " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. I., Vol. I., pages 
 176-185, 263-325. Other references for the history 
 of the period are : " Ewald, Hist. Isr,," V., pages 335- 
 401 ; Stanley, " Hist. Jewish Church," Lect. XLIX. and 
 part of L. ; Cornill, " Hist. Peop. Isr.," pages 207-225 ; 
 E. Bevan, " Jerus. under High Priests," pages 100-138. 
 In reading, seek to secure : (1) a general outline of the 
 Maccabcan rule after 145 b. c. ; (2) a clear impression 
 of the rise of parties and of their distinctive tenets ; 
 (3) a grasp of the causes of the Maccabcan downfall. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 (1) Completion of the Psalter. 
 
 a. Gradual Growth. Note: (1) the division of the 
 Psalter into books in the Hebrew Bible, represented in 
 the Revised Version ; (2) smaller collections within 
 the books, indicated by the titles ; (3) principal reasons 
 for regarding the Psalter as a gradual growth and for 
 holding that Pss. 44, 74, 79, 83, and, perhaps, others 
 were written as late as the Maccabcan age. 
 
 For general discussion of the gradual growth of the 
 Psalter, consult at least one of the following : Driver, 
 " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 371-380 ; Bennett and Adeney, 
 " Bib. Int.," pages 137-142 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 IV., pages 146-149 ; Kent, " Orig. and Perm. Val. of 
 O.T.," pages 191-202 ; McFadyen," Int. 0. T.," ])ages 
 242-254, "Messages Psalmists," pages 16-30; Kirk- 
 patrick, " Psalms," pages liii-lix. 
 
 For a discussion of the question of Maccabcan psalms, 
 read one or more of the following zcfercnces : Bennett 
 and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 145, 146 ; Schiirer, 
 " Jewi.sh Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. H., Vol. HI., 
 pages 15-17; " Enc. Bib.," HI., cols. 3037, 3038;
 
 158 LATER JEWISPI HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Driver, "Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 387, 388; Hastings, 
 " Diet. Bib.," IV. page 152, col. b ; Perowne, " Pss.," 
 I., pages 18, 19, and special inti'oductions to Pss. 44, 
 74, 79 ; Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Pcop.," App. Y. Of the 
 above, the first tlii-ec argue in favor of Maccabean 
 psalms, the next three consider them very possible, 
 while Kiggs is doubtful whether any of the psalms 
 come from so late a time. 
 
 b. The Completed Psalter as Israel's Hymn Book. 
 Read one or more of the following discussions of the 
 Psalter as a whole : McFadyen, " Int. 0. T.," pages 
 238-241,254,255, "Messages Psalmists," pages 3-8; 
 Driver, " Int. Lit. 0. T.," pages 368, 369; Kirkpatrick, 
 " Psalms," pages ix-xiii ; Kent, " Orig. and Perm. Val. 
 0. T.," pages 191, 201, 202. 
 
 (2) Judith. 
 
 a. Contents. Read from the Apocrypha the book 
 of Judith. 
 
 b. Character, Date, Purpose. On these topics, read 
 one of the following references : Schiirer, " Jewish 
 Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. II., Vol. IIL, pages 32- 
 35 ; " Enc. Bib.," II., cols. 2644, 2645 ; Hastings, " Diet. 
 Bib.," IL, pages 823, 824. 
 
 (3) Tobit. 
 
 a. Contents. Read from the Apocrypha the book 
 of Tobit. 
 
 b. Character, Date, Purpose. On these topics read 
 one of the following references: Schiirer, "Jewish 
 Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. IL, Vol. III., pages 37- 
 41; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," IV., page 788; "Enc. 
 Bib.," IV., cols. 5110-5128.
 
 MACCABEAN AGE 159 
 
 (4) Enoch 91-104 (except 91", 93"-i^ 962). 
 
 a. Contents. Read the chapters from Charles, " Bk. 
 of Enoch," pages 265-300. 
 
 b. Date and Author. For discussion of these topics, 
 see: Charles, " Bk. of Enoch," pages 263, 261; Hast- 
 mgs, " Diet. Bib.," L, page 707, col. b ; " Enc. Bib," 1., 
 col. 223. 
 
 c. Interpretation. For aid in interpreting the section, 
 consult Charles, " Bk. of Enoch," pages 262, 263, 264, 
 265; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., page 707, col. b; 
 " Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 223, 224, with notes accompany- 
 ins: the text in Charles's edition for details. 
 
 (5) Enoch 37-70 (except 39^' 2a, 41^ \ 43, 44, 50, 
 54"-552, 565-573% 59, 60, 65-692'')- 
 
 a. Contents. Read the chapters from Chailes, " Bk. 
 of Enoch," pages 110-182. 
 
 b. Date. For discussion of the date of this section 
 of Enoch consult one or more of the following : Riggs, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 7 ; Charles, " Bk. of Enocli," 
 pages 107, 108 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., page 707, 
 col. b; "Enc. Bib.," I., col. 224; "Jewish Enc," V., 
 page 181, col. b. 
 
 c. Interpretation. For aid in interpreting this sec- 
 tion of Enoch, consult Charles, " Bk. of Enoch," i)agcs 
 106, 107, 108, 109 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., pages 
 707, 708; Schiircr, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," 
 Div. XL, Vol. in., pages 66-69; "Enc. Bib./' I., cols. 
 224, 225, with notes accompanying the text in Charles's 
 edition for details. 
 
 For the influence of Enoch on the New Testament, 
 see Hastings, I., page 708, col. b.
 
 160 LATER JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 (6) Literature of Judaism in Egypt. 
 For historical background, read Riggs, " Hist. Jewish 
 Peop.," §§ 72-81. 
 
 a. Wisdom of Solomon. 
 
 (a) Contents. Read from the Apocrypha the Wis- 
 dom of Solomon, in the following sections: 1-5, 6-9, 
 10-19, (13-15), giving a title to each section. 
 
 (?)) Date. For discussion of the date of the book 
 consult one or more of the following : Riggs, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 9 ; Schiirer, "Jewish Peop. in Time of 
 Christ," Div. II., Vol. III., page 234 ; Hastings, " Diet. 
 Bib.," IV., pages 980, 931 ; " Enc. Bib.," IV., cols. 5345, 
 5347. 
 
 (e) Thought. Note the writer's conception of: 
 (1) wisdom, both human and diviue ; (2) the future 
 life ; (3) nature of God. The thought of the book is 
 considered in Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§ 82-86 ; 
 Schiirer, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. II., 
 Vol. III., pages 230-234; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," IV., 
 pages 928-930 ; " Enc. Bib.," IV., cols 5339-5347. 
 
 b. Book in. of Jewish Sibylline Oracles. 
 
 Read : Schiirer, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," 
 Div. II., Vol. III., pages 270-282; Riggs, "Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," §§ 10, 87, 88, noting: (1) general 
 facts as to Sibylline oracles and as to the Jewish Sibyl- 
 line oracles ; (2) the date of Book III. ; (3) its place 
 of writing ; (4) its substance. 
 
 4. Significance of the Age. 
 
 From the standpoint of permanent religion this 
 period is surpassed by no other in importance. Note : 
 (1) its share in the completion of the Old Testament ;
 
 MACCABEAN AGE 161 
 
 (2) its drawing of clear-cut lines in religious faith and 
 practice ; (3) the appearance of the Sanhedrim as 
 a ruling body ; (4) the recognition of the official im- 
 portance of the scribes ; (5) the gradual development 
 of the organized religious life of the first Christian 
 century. 
 
 11
 
 X 
 
 THE ROMAN AGE (63 B. C.-135 A. D.) 
 
 § 43. Period of the Last Hasmoneans and op 
 Herod I. (63—4 b. c). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Jewish Historical Narratives. 
 
 In connection with Riggs, " Hist, Jewish Peop.," 
 §§ 148, 149 (to bottom page 144), read Josephus, 
 " Jewish War," Bk. 1., chs. 8-33 ; " Antiquities," Bk. 
 XIV., ch. 5 to Bk. XYII., ch. 8. For the sources of 
 Josephus's record of this period compare with Riggs, 
 § 149, Schiirer, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," 
 biv. I, Vol. II., pages 58-62, 112. While reading, 
 note : (1) the coloi-ing given to the histories of Jose- 
 phus by his purpose in writing ; (2) variation in fulness 
 of detail in different parts of his narrative ; (3)] his 
 sources for the different portions of the period. 
 
 (2) Greek and Roman Histories and Biographies. 
 See: Riggs, "Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 154; Schiirer, 
 
 "Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. I., Vol. I., 
 pages 112-117. Note the way in which these writings 
 throw light upon the Jewish history of the period. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read critically one or more of the following : Riggs, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 147 and pages 154-214 ; Schii- 
 rer, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. I., Vol. I.,
 
 THE ROMAN AGE 1C3 
 
 pages 328-351, 371-467. Other references for the 
 history of the period are: Matthews, "Hist. N. T. 
 Times in Pal.," pages 95-129; Ewald, " Hist. Isr.," Y., 
 pages 401-449 ; Stanley, " Hist. Jewish Church," Lect. 
 L.; Cornill, "Hist. Peop. Isr.," pages 225-237 ; Guthe, 
 " Israel," in " Enc. Bib.," H., cols. 2270-2274. In read- 
 ing, aim to secure a clear impression of: (1) the relation 
 of the Jewish to the Roman history of the times ; (2) 
 steps by which Antipater and Herod advanced in power ; 
 
 (3) strong and weak elements in Herod's rule. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 (1) Psalms of Solomon. 
 
 a. Contents. Read the psalms from Ryle and James, 
 " Ps. of Sol.," pages 3-151, noting the theme of each. 
 
 b. Date and Author. For discussion on these points, 
 consult one or more of the following : Riggs, " Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 156 ; Ryle and James, " Ps. of Sol.," 
 pages xxvii-xliv, Iviii-lxii ; Schlirer, "Jewish Peop. in 
 Time of Christ," Div. II., Vol. III., pages 18-21 ; Hast- 
 ings, " Diet. Bib.," IV. pages 162, 163 ; " Enc. Bib.," 
 L, col. 243 ; " Jewish Enc," X., page 250. 
 
 c. Thought. Reread the psalms, noting : (1) inter- 
 pretation given of Pompey's conquest ; (2) persons upon 
 whom judgment is expected; (3) hope of immortality; 
 
 (4) Messianic hope. Reference may be made to : Riggs, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 156 ; Ryle and James, " Ps. of 
 Sol.," pages xliv-lviii ; Schiirer, " Jewish Peop. in Time 
 of Christ," Div. II., Vol. HI., pages 21, 22 ; Hastings, 
 "Diet. liib.," IV., page 163 ; "Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 243- 
 245; "Jewish Enc," X., pages 250, 251.
 
 164 LATER JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 4. Significayicc of the Period. 
 
 Consider : (1) the good results that always followed 
 for a land which fell under the domination of Rome; 
 (2) the attitude of the Jewish loyalists toward Rome, 
 whatever her policy ; (3) the purely pagan, though 
 splendid ideals of Herod ; (4) his attitude toward for- 
 mal religion in Judea ; (5) his promotion of the inter- 
 national interests of his country ; (6) how did he 
 promote the era of the Christ? 
 
 § 44. Period of the House of Herod and the 
 Roman Governors (4 b. c.-70 a, d.). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Jewish Historical Narratives. 
 
 In connection with Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," 
 §§ 148, 149 (latter half), read Josephus, " Antiquities," 
 Bk. XVH., ch. 9 to Bk. XX., ch. 11 ; " Jewish War," 
 Bks. H-VIL 
 
 (2) Jewish Literature of the Period. 
 
 Read Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§ 157, 158, not- 
 ing the different trends of thought and feeling evidenced 
 in the literature of the times. 
 
 (3) New Testament Writings. 
 
 Read Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 150, noting the 
 inter-relation of the New Testament and Jewish writ- 
 ings as sources for the history of the period. 
 
 (4) Rabbinical Literature. 
 
 Read Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," §§ 151-153, not- 
 ing : (1) the technical names, general character, and 
 date of each class of rabbinical writings ; (2) the light 
 they throw upon the history of this period.
 
 THE KOMAN AGE 165 
 
 (5) Greek and Latin Histories and Biographies. 
 
 Read Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.,'' § 154, or Schiirer, 
 "Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. I., Vol. I., pages 
 112-117. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Riggs, 
 " Hist. Jewish Peop.," pages 232-277 ; Schiirer, " Jew- 
 ish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. I., Vol. I., pages 351- 
 370, Vol. IT., pages 1-256. Other references for the 
 history of the period are : Matthews, " Hist. N. T. 
 Times' in Pal.," pages 130-158 ; Ewald, " Hist. Isr.," 
 v., pages 449-457, Vl., pages 1-94, VH., pages 235- 
 275, 402-426, 486-616; Cornill, "Hist. Peop. Isr.," 
 pages 238-301; Guthe, " Israel," in "Enc. Bib.," II., 
 cols. 2274-2285. In reading concerning this period, 
 aim to secure a clear impression of : (1) the division of 
 Herod's Kingdom and of the political history of each 
 part through the reign of Agrippa I. (For graphic rep- 
 resentation of the division, see map, Plate VI.); (2) 
 circumstances that led to the outbreak of the great re- 
 bellion ; (3) principal steps in the progress of the war ; 
 (4) the concluding calamity. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 
 (1) Assumption of Moses. 
 
 a. Contents. Read the translation from Charles, 
 " Assumption of Moses," pages 3-51. 
 
 b. Date and Author. For discussion of these topics, 
 consult Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 157 ; Charles, 
 " Assumption of Moses," pages li-lviii (xxi-xxviii) ; 
 Schiirer, " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. II., 
 Vol. HI., pages 78-80.
 
 166 LATER JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 c. Thought. Note the writer's attitude toward : 
 (1) the spirit of unrest among his people ; (2) the Mes- 
 sianic hope. Eeference may be made to Riggs, "Hist. 
 Jewish Peop.," § 157 ; Charles, " Assumption of 
 Moses," pages Iviii-lxi ; Schlirer, " Jewish Peop. in 
 Time of Christ," Div. II., Vol. III., pages 74-78. 
 
 (2) Book of Jubilees, 
 
 Read at least two of the following references : Riggs, 
 "Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 158 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 II., page 791 ; "Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 230-233 ; Schlirer, 
 " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. IL, Vol. HI., 
 pages 134-139. While reading, notice : (1) the nature 
 of the work ; (2) point of view and aim of the author ; 
 (3) illustrations of haggadic comment ; (4) value to 
 student of later Judaism. 
 
 (3) Apocalypse of Baruch, chs. 27-301, 36-40, 53-74. 
 See Charles, " Apocalypse of Baruch," pages liii-lix, 
 
 48-56, 61-66, 86-116. The material is discussed also 
 in Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., pages 249-251; "Enc. 
 Bib.," I., cols. 215-220; Schlirer, "Jewish Peop. in 
 Time of Christ," Div. II., Vol. III., pages 83-91. 
 
 (4) Alexandrian Jewish Literature. 
 
 The limits of the course permit only a glance at this 
 group of writings. 
 
 a. Book of the Secrets of Enoch. 
 
 Read Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," I., pages 707-711, or 
 " Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 225-228, noting : (1) the place of 
 writing and date of the book ; (2) its relation to Jew- 
 ish and Christian literature ; (3) light that it throws 
 upon contemporary and subsequent thought, especially 
 upon the origin of the idea of the millennium and the 
 conception of the seven heavens.
 
 THE ROMAN AGE 167 
 
 b. Writings of Philo. 
 
 See Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," § 327 ; Hastings, 
 "Diet. Bib.," Ext. Vol., pages 197-208; Schiircr, 
 " Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. IL, Vol. III., 
 pages 322-381 ; " Enc. Brit.," XVIH., pages 759-764. 
 In reading, note : (1) general facts of Philo's life ; (2) 
 combination of Jewish and Hellenic thought seen in 
 his writings; (3) his extravagant allegorizing of the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 4. Slijnificanee of the Period. 
 
 Note : (1) the impossibility of long continued peace, 
 considering such widely separated factors in the nation 
 as Pbarisees, decrying any human means of establisbing 
 Israel's independence and supremacy, Sadducees, ready 
 for anv arrangement which would leave them undis- 
 turbed, procurators, who despised the people they were 
 set to rule, zealots, continually demanding a struggle, 
 and the people, who hardly knew their real minds ; 
 (2) the remarkable endurance of their wrongs by the 
 people ; (3) the series of unfit procurators ; (4) the 
 bitterness of the struggle at the capital. 
 
 That the downfall and destruction of Jerusalem, the 
 temple, and the great council, did not wreck Judaism is 
 one of the marvels of history. 
 
 § 45. Period from the Close op the Jewish War 
 TO THE Overthrow of Bar-Cochba (70 or 73-135 a. d.) 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 With the close of the " Jewish War " of Josejihus, 
 Jewish historical narratives, for the time, cease, making 
 it quite impossible to frame a connected account of this 
 period of Jewish history. Glimpses of the history may
 
 168 LATEJl JEWISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 be gained from classical and Christian writers, and a 
 little testimony may be gotten from coins. Contem- 
 porary Jewish literature and traditions preserved in the 
 later rabbinical writings give some picture of the inner 
 life of the Jews who remained in Palestine. An atten- 
 tive reading of Schurer's narrative will reveal the 
 careful use of all these sources. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Eead Schiirer, "Jewish Peop. in Time of Christ," Div. 
 I.,Vol. II., pages 257-321. Riggs, " Hist. Jewish Peop.," 
 §§ 818-323, gives a very brief account of the period. 
 Other references are Ewald, " Hist. Isr.," VIII., pages 
 1-98, 259-311 ; Graetz, " Hist. Jews," II., chs. xiii-sv ; 
 Guthe, "Israel," in "Enc. Bib.," II., cols. 2285-2288. 
 While reading, note : (1) effect of the fall of Jerusalem 
 upon Judaism; (2) importance assumed by Jamnia ; 
 (3) Rome's treatment of Palestine ; (4) events leading 
 to the rebellion of 132 a. d. ; (5) the outcome of the 
 rebellion ; (6) the Jews of the dispersion in the Roman 
 empire.
 
 PART IV 
 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY 
 AND LITERATURE
 
 XI 
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 
 
 § 46. Introduction to the Life op Jesus. 
 
 1. Historical Backgroimd. 
 
 Those who have studied the later Jewish history and 
 literature, as outlined in Part III., are familiar with 
 the political background for the history of Jesus's life, 
 and also with the current beliefs and hopes of the 
 Judaism into which he was born. A brief summary of 
 the general situation may be found in Rhees, " Life of 
 Jesus," §§ 1-19, and a much fuller treatment in Hast- 
 ings, " Diet. Bib.," II., pages 604-609 or, the same 
 matter, in Sanday, " Outlines Life of Christ," ch. 11. 
 Another article may be found in Hastings, Extra Vol., 
 pages 45-57. 
 
 2. Sources. 
 
 (1) Pauline Epistles. 
 
 Paul's epistles, antedating, as they do, the composi- 
 tion of all four Gospels, furnish our earliest written 
 statements as to the life of Jesus. 
 
 Read the following references, and note, in writing, 
 all facts as to the life and teaching of Jesus that may 
 be gathered therefrom : 1 Cor. 2\ 7^^ 9^.14, 1^3 26^ 
 153-8, 2 Cor. 41*, 521, 89, 101, Qal. 1^ 4*, 6^, Rom. 
 r, 519, 83, 9^ 15a'«, 1 I'hcss. 4'■*-l^ Eph. 3'9, 4^0, 52,
 
 172 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Pliil, 2''"^\ Col. 3^^. Reference may be made to 
 Rhees, " Life Jesus," § 20 ; Anthony, " Intro, to Life 
 Jesus," ch. X. ; Gilbert, " Student's Life Jesus," pages 
 402-406. For questions as to date and genuineness of 
 the various epistles, reference may be made to the 
 articles on each epistle in Hastings, "Diet. Bib."; the 
 Introductions of Bennett and Adeney, Bacon, Salmon, 
 Weiss, Jiilicher; von Soden, "Hist. Early Chstn. Lit."; 
 Moffatt, " Historical N. T." 
 
 (2) Other Extra-Gospel New Testament Writings. 
 A reference which is probably comparatively early is 
 
 to be found in First Peter '^^^^. The following refer- 
 ences are, on the whole, as late as or later than the writ- 
 ing of the first three Gospels. Acts 13,4,9,i3,i6 22, 222,2.3^ 
 313,14, 427, 1038-41, 1.324-31, 2035, 1 Tim. 2^.6, 316, 1 Jno. 
 15, 38, 49-21, 56, 2 Peter V-^^\ Heb. 2i0'i8, 3i'2, 41^, b'-\ V\ 
 122f, 1312, Rev. 15, 55, 2216. ■ 
 
 (3) Extra-Biblical Christian Writings. 
 
 a. Sayings of Jesus. Scattered through writings of 
 the Christian Fathers or gathered together in brief col- 
 lections, various reputed words of Jesus have come 
 down to us, some of which may be genuine. A general 
 view of these will be found in Holtzmann, " Life 
 Jesus," pages 54-61 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," Ext. 
 Vol., pages 343-352 ; Anthony, " Int. to Life Jesus," 
 ch. vii. (written before the publication of the recently 
 discovered" Sayings of Our Lord," Grenfell and Hunt. 
 For discussion of these, see " Bib. World," Vol. XXIV., 
 pages 261-277.); Rhees, "Life Jesus," § 35 (brief 
 reference). 
 
 b. Facts of Life in Church Fathers. Allusions and 
 references in the Church Fathers add little of historical
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 173 
 
 value to the gospel narratives, aside from the possibly 
 authentic sayings considered above. A few data, 
 however, from Justin Martyr (died between 163 and 
 167) are given in Holtzmann, " Life of Jesus," pages 
 17-20. 
 
 c. Apocryphal Gospels, Of the various non-canoni- 
 cal gospels, now known in larger or smaller part, the 
 only one which any number of scholars regard as a 
 valuable historical source is the Gospel according to 
 the Hebrews. Brief fragments only of this book are 
 known to-day. For a presentation of the contents of 
 these and of theories as to the origin and character of 
 the book, see Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," Ext. Vol., pages 
 338-342. A short discussion, unfavorable to historical 
 value, will be found in Anthony, "Int. to Life Jesus," 
 pages 84-86. Holtzmann, "Life Jesus," pages 46- 
 52, presents the contents more fully and accords the 
 writing high value as a source. 
 
 (4) Boman and Greek Writings. 
 
 References to Jesus in Roman and Greek writers of 
 the century following his life arc, as one might expect, 
 very few. The following would, however, be sufficient 
 to attest his existence and the early spread of his in- 
 fluence, if the Christian writings were all lacking. 
 Note carefully the facts to bo gathered from these : 
 Tacitus, "Annals," XV., 44; Pliny the Younger, "Ei)is- 
 tles," X., 96 (07). The obscure allusion to Chrestus 
 (probably Christ, Christiis') in Suetonius, "Life of 
 Claudius," 25, and the somewhat later account of the 
 Ciiristians given by Lucian, "Death of Peregrinus," 
 sliould also be noted. For a discussion of these refer- 
 ences, consult Rhecs, " Life Jesus," § 21 (earlier part) ;
 
 174 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Anthony, " Int. to Life Jesus," eh. ii. ; Holtzmann, 
 "Life Jesus," page 13 (Tacitus only). 
 
 (5) Jewish Writings. 
 
 The allusion in Josephus, " Antiquities," Bk. XX., 
 ch. 9, § 1, is the only clear i-eference to Jesus in Jewish 
 writers of the first century after his life. Such a ref- 
 erence as that in Josephus, " Bk. XVIIL," ch. 3, § 3, 
 would be most important, if it could be regarded as 
 genuine. That it is entirely spurious, or, at least, con- 
 tains large interpolations is, however, generally recog- 
 nized. For a discussion of the passages in Josephus, 
 reference may be made to Rhees, " Life Jesus," § 21 
 (latter part) ; Anthony, " Int. to Life Jesus," pages 
 49-59 ; Holtzmann, " Life Jesus," pages 13-16 ; " Enc. 
 Brit.," XIII., page 742, col. b. 
 
 (6) The Synoptic Gospels. 
 
 a. Mark. Read Mark and make an outline of its 
 contents in, perhaps, four main divisions, with a few 
 subordinate headings. While reading, note, in writing, 
 any chronological data, e. g.^ l^* (after John was im- 
 prisoned), 2^3 (time of ripe grain). 
 
 In this and the remaining gospels, these outlines 
 and chronological references should be carefully pre- 
 served for use in connection with subsequent topics. 
 
 b. Matthew. Read Matthew and make an outline 
 of its contents, similar to that for Mark, noting chron- 
 ological data while reading. Compare the outline of 
 Matthew with Mark, noting general resemblances and 
 differences, and observing especially what kind of 
 material Matthew has in much greater fulness than 
 Mark, and how it is handled.
 
 LIFE OF JESDS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 175 
 
 c. Luke. Read Luke and make an outline of its 
 contents similar to that for the other Synoptists, noting 
 chronological data while reading. Compare the out- 
 line of Luke with Mark and Matthew, noting general 
 resemblances and differences in the three, and observ- 
 ing especially what period of the ministry, and what 
 sort of material Luke has in much greater fulness 
 than the others. 
 
 d. Historical Relation of the Three : The Synoptic 
 Problem. Willi the first-hand knowledge of the Syn- 
 optic gospels, now acquired, read one or more discus- 
 sions of the Synoptic problem. See Rhees, "Life 
 Jesus," §§ 22-30; Bennett and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," 
 pages 316-327 ; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," H., pages 235- 
 213 ; " Enc. Brit.," X., pages 789-818 ; Bacon, " Lit. 
 N. T.," pages 175-225; Jiilicher, "Int. N. T.," pages 
 338-383; Holtzmann, "Life Jesus," pages 16-32; 
 ]\Ioffatt, " Hist. N. T.," pages 258-274. Note : (1) how 
 these account for the resemblances ; (2) how these 
 account for the differences ; (3) the relation of each 
 gospel to the common material and the " Sayings " ; 
 (4) the historical advantage of this theory of the 
 common origin of these gospels. 
 
 (7) The Fourth Gospel. 
 
 (1) Read John and make an outline of its contents. 
 While reading, note in writing any chronological data. 
 
 (2) Compare the contents of John with the Synojjtic 
 gospels, noting general resemblances and differences. 
 
 (3) With the first-hand knowledge of the Fourth Gos- 
 pel as compared with the Synoptics now acquired, read 
 one or more Ijrief discussions of the Johannine j)robl(;ni. 
 Of the following, the lirst seven favor the general re-
 
 176 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 liability of this gospel for the chronological outline of 
 the ministry. Holtzmann and Jiilicher do not regard 
 it as furnishing such an outline. Moffatt's note does 
 not directly discuss this particular question. Rhees, 
 "Life Jesus," §§ 31-34; Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. 
 Int.," pages 328-337 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 11., pages 
 242-249, 694-721 ; Anthony, " Int. to Life Jesus," ch. 
 XV.; Bacon, "Int. N. T.," pages 250-279; Sanday, 
 " Criticism Fourth Gosp." ; Stanton, " Gospels as Hist. 
 Docs.," Part I., ch. v. ; Holtzmann, " Life Jesus," 
 pages 40-46; Jiilicher, "Int. N. T.," pages 383-429; 
 Moffatt, " Hist. N. T.," pages 491-497. 
 
 (8) Harmony of the Gospels. 
 
 a. Common Outline of Ministry in Synoptic Gospels. 
 If the widely accepted view that Mark gave Matthew 
 and Luke their general framework for the order of 
 events be adopted, it will be seen, immediately, that 
 these three gospels furnish but one independent source 
 for the general course of the ministry of Jesus. 
 
 b. Variation in Order and Historical Setting of the 
 teachings. The effort to arrange the teachings, as 
 given by the Synoptists, in their true order within the 
 common framework, involves many difficulties, some 
 of which seem insuperable. 
 
 c. A Second Outline in John. The Gospel of John 
 furnishes another outline of the ministry. Those who 
 regard this as a real source for chronological order 
 must fit the Synoptic material into the, more or less 
 obvious, framework furnished by the feasts mentioned 
 in John. A glance at the contents of any life of Jesus 
 will reveal the general attitude which the author takes 
 toward these two principal sources. Modern Lives of
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 177 
 
 Jesus might be divided roughly into two classes, ac- 
 cording as they adopt John's general framework and 
 hold to a ministry of more than two years, or reject, in 
 whole or part, the authority of the Fourth Gospel on 
 this subject and regard the ministry as comprehended 
 "within less than two years. The problem of the length 
 of the ministry will be considered, in detail, under 
 §47. 
 
 d. Gospel Harmony and Outline of Life of Jesus. 
 The close connection between the effort to arrange the 
 matter of the Gospels with reference to parallelisms 
 and chronological order and the forming of an histori- 
 cal outline of the life of Jesus is clearly brought out 
 in Stevens and Burton, " Harmony of the Gospels," 
 pages 3-14 and Preface. 
 
 § 47. General Discussion of the Life of Jesus. 
 1. Chronology. 
 
 (1) Important Dates. 
 
 Several interesting problems arise when one seeks to 
 mark out the life of Jesus with exact dates. One of 
 these, the length of the public ministry, was suggested 
 when considering the possibility of harmonizing John 
 and the Synoptists. The dates which it is desirable 
 to determine, as accurately as possible, are those of: 
 (1) the beginning of the public ministry ; (2) the 
 birth ; (3) the crucifixion. 
 
 (2) Discussion of Chronology. 
 
 First gather together the chronological data noted 
 under § 46, 2, (6), a,b, c, and (7). With these in mind, 
 read one or more of the followhig discussions: Rhccs, 
 « Life Jesus," §^ 45-57 ; Gilbert, " Student's Life Jesus," 
 
 12
 
 178 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 pages 14-24, 67-78 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," L, pages 
 403-415, II., pages 645-647; '^ Enc. Bib.," L, eols. 799- 
 809 ; Holtzmann, " Life Jesus," pages 86-90, 109-111 ; 
 Ramsay, " Was Christ Born at Bethlehem ? " In read- 
 ing, weigh critically the arguments, on the basis of the 
 data personally noted. Which seems more satisfying, 
 the longer or shorter period ? 
 
 2. Period of Preparation. 
 
 Road critically the discussion of this period in one or 
 more of the following Lives: Rhees," Life Jesus," §§ 58- 
 105 ; Gilbert, " Student's Life Jesus," chs. ii.-v., vii. ; 
 Sanday, " Outlines Life Christ," ch. vii. and ch. iii. to 
 page 46; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," IL, pages 610-613; 
 Holtzmann, "• Life Jesus," pages 81-154. For the apoc- 
 ryphal stories of the birth and childhood, reference may 
 be made to J. Q. Donehoo, " Apocryphal and Legendary 
 Life of Christ." While reading, divide the material 
 into : (1) the early years ; (2) the immediate prepar- 
 ation for the ministry, beginning with the work of John 
 the Baptist, and note the following points : (1) amount 
 and nature of information as to the birth, childhood, and 
 youth of Jesus in the New Test. ; (2) what may prop- 
 erly be inferred as to the education and religious train- 
 ing of Jesus ; (3) facts as to the life and work of John 
 the Baptist; (4) his relation to the various Jewish 
 parties and religious tendencies of his day ; (5) his 
 relation to the Old Test, prophets ; (6) origin of his 
 rite of baptism; (7) his personality; (8) facts as to 
 the baptism and call of Jesus; (9) real nature and 
 significance of the temptation; (10) call of first 
 disciples; (11) events at Cana; (12) removal to 
 Capernaum.
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 179 
 
 Consider: (1) at what part of this preparation 
 should the deliberate self-consecration of Jesus to his 
 work be placed ? (2) tlie real value to Jesus of John's 
 ministry, (3) the extent to which Jesus was educated 
 for his career. 
 
 3. Period of Ministi'y. 
 
 (1) General Survey. 
 
 Compare the outlines of the four Gospels made 
 under § 46, 2, (6), (7), noting the general course of 
 the ministry as given in the Synoptists and in John. 
 (2) Make a comparison of two or three of the outlines 
 of the ministry given in the following references : 
 Rhees, "Life Jesus," §§ 106-112; Gilbert, "Student's 
 Life Jesus," ch. vi. ; Sanday, " Outlines Life Christ," 
 pages 32, 33 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," IL, pages 610- 
 613; Holtzmann, "Life Jesus," ch. iii,, noting the 
 attitude of each writer toward the Synoptic and the 
 Johannine outlines. 
 
 (2) Early Judean Ministry. 
 
 Only those who accept the Fourth Gospel as a chron- 
 ological authority recognize a beginning of the public 
 ministry in Jerusalem. For a presentation of the brief 
 material concerning this period see : Rlices, " Life 
 Jesus," §§ 113-121; Gilbert, "Student's Life Jesus," 
 ch. viii. ; Sanday, " Outlines Life Christ," pages 47- 
 50 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 11., page 613. While 
 reading, note : (1) probable length of period; (2) (jues- 
 tion as to true ])lacc in tlie ministry of cleansing 
 temple; (3) results of early ministry in Jerusalem; 
 (4) ministry in Judea outside of Jerusalem; (5) arrest 
 of John ; (6) journey through Samaria.
 
 180 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Consider thoughtfully : (1) the logical reason which 
 would justify Jesus in taking his first opportunity to 
 present himself and press his claims at Jerusalem ; (2) 
 the reason why his ministry at the capital was a failure ; 
 (3) the character of much of his work with individuals, 
 as illustrated in the interview with Nicodemus. 
 
 (3) Galilean Ministry. 
 
 a. Period of Public Activity. Read one or more of 
 the following accounts : Rhees, " Life Jesus," pages 
 115-137 ; Gilbert, " Student's Life Jesus," pages 110- 
 178; Sanday, "Outlines Life Christ," pages 50-63, 
 (pages 65-117, concerning teaching of Jesus, include 
 teachings of later ministry with those of this period), 
 119-124 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," IL, pages 613-616, 
 (616-628 concerning teaching), 628, 629, col. a; 
 Holtzraann, " Life Jesus," chs. ix., x. While reading, 
 seek to gain a clear impression of : (1) the long con- 
 tinued (under the three-year theory, for a whole year) 
 and varied activity in the villages and synagogues of 
 Galilee ; (2) dominant theme of this public ministry ; 
 (3) geographical extent of it ; (4) enthusiastic attitude 
 of the populace ; (5) grounds of opposition on the part 
 of the religious leaders ; (6) result of that opposition 
 in forcing a change of policy on his part; (7) choice of 
 the Twelve ; (8) the process, by instruction, demonstra- 
 tion, and association, of bringing the Twelve to a recog- 
 nition of his messiahship; (9) leading themes of his 
 discourses during this period ; (10) his mighty works ; 
 (11) his parables of encouragement ; (12) the mission 
 of the Twelve and their instructions ; (13) events which 
 brought this period of public activity in Galilee to an 
 end.
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 181 
 
 Consider thoughtfully : (1) the justification for those 
 first months of rapid evangelization ; (2) greater wis- 
 dom of the policy of associating a few picked men 
 with himself; (3) what Jesus meant to do with and for 
 them ; (4) the light thrown upon the events following 
 the choice of the Twelve by the supposition that Jesus 
 intended to enable the Twelve to decide for themselves 
 regarding him. 
 
 b. Period of Withdrawal with Immediate Followers, 
 Read one or more of the following accounts : Rhees 
 " Life Jesus," pages 138-152 ; Gilbert, " Student's Life 
 Jesus," pages 178-215 ; Sanday, " Outlines Life Christ," 
 pages 124-129 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," XL, pages 629- 
 630, col. a; Holtzmann, "Life Jesus," ch. xi. While 
 reading, note: (1) immediate occasion of the first with- 
 drawal from Galilee ; (2) extent of the wandering ; (3) 
 cause of the second withdrawal to Caesarea Philippi ; 
 (4) significance of the confession of Peter, from the 
 point of view of the plans of Jesus and of the growth of 
 the Twelve ; (5) significance of the transfiguration ; (6) 
 themes of the conversations of the next few weeks; (7) 
 teaching at the Feast of Tabernacles; (8) close of the 
 Galilean ministry, — before or after Tabernacles? (9) 
 length of the period. 
 
 Consider thoughtfully: (1) the scene at Caesarea 
 Philippi as the turning-point in the active ministry of 
 Jesus ; (2) necessity of independent conviction on part 
 of the Twelve regarding his messiahship, before a real 
 training could be begun; (3) the enormous difficulties 
 still to be overcome with disciples educated in the 
 current ideas and hopes of Judaism ; (4) necessity of 
 linking the old idea of glory with the now idea of 
 serviccableness.
 
 182 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 (4) Pereaii Ministry. 
 
 Read one or more of the following accounts : Rhces, 
 " Life Jesus," pages 153-165 ; Gilbert, " Student's Life 
 Jesus," chs. xiv., xv. ; Sanday, "Outlines Life Christ," 
 pages 129-137, Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," IL, pages 630- 
 632; Holtzmann, "Life Jesus," ch. xii. While read- 
 ing, note carefully : (1) just what the sources for the 
 period are and the difficulties of harmonizing them; 
 (2) the impression given in the third Gospel of a long 
 wandering here and there with the goal in mind ; (3) 
 the two journeys to the capital implied by the fourth 
 Gospel ; (4) the remarkable teachings of this period, 
 and their themes ; (5) the mission of the Seventy (by 
 some regarded as a duplicate of the mission of the 
 Twelve). 
 
 Consider thoughtfully : (1) the advance in the char- 
 acter of the teachings of Jesus ; (2) the significance 
 of the period as a time for the quiet training of the 
 Twelve ; (3) the deliberate resolve of the religious 
 leaders to make way with Jesus at the first opportunity. 
 
 (5) The Last Days. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Rhees, 
 "Life Jesus," pages 166-200 ; Gilbert, " Student's Life 
 Jesus," ch. xvi.; Sanday, "Outlines Life Christ," 
 pages 139-169; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," H., pages 632- 
 638 ; Holtzmann, " Life Jesus," ch. xiii. While read- 
 ing, seek to gain a clear impression of : (1) the order 
 of events during the last days, considering especially the 
 questions as to the day of seclusion and the date of the 
 supper; (2) any considerations, additional to those 
 noted under 3, (2) bearing upon the question of the 
 time of cleansing the temple; (3) Jesus's deliberate
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 183 
 
 assertion of himself as Messiah, during the first days of 
 the week ; (4) his unsparing and deliberate setting of a 
 gulf between his character and methods and those of 
 the religious leaders of Judaism ; (5) elimination of the 
 traitor from the gathering at the supper ; (6) Jesus's 
 unreserved self -disclosure to his chosen followers dur- 
 ing that last evening together ; (7) the great themes of 
 •that discourse ; (8) the arrest, trials, crucifixion, and 
 burial. 
 
 Consider carefully : (1) the impression of over- 
 whelming power held in check, made by these narra- 
 tives of the last week ; (2) the easy dominance of the 
 personality of Jesus over disciples, enemies, soldiers, 
 and rulers ; (3) the complete injustice of tiic pro- 
 cedure against him ; (4) the necessary conclusion that 
 the sacrifice of Christ was voluntary. 
 
 (6) The Resurrection. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : 
 Riiees, "Life Jesus," pages 201-216; Gilbert, "Stu- 
 dent's Life Jesus," ch. xvii. ; Sanday, " Outlines Life 
 Christ," pages 170-190; Hastings, "Diet, irib.," IL, 
 pages 638-043, col. a ; Holtzmann, " Life Jesus," 
 pages 492-506. While reading, seek to secure : (1) a 
 clear impression of the liistorical influence of the be- 
 lief in the resurrection ; (2) definite knowledge of the 
 amount and character of the evidence for the resur- 
 rection ; (3) various theories as to the real explana- 
 tion of the resurrection belief, with the grounds of 
 each ; (4) different conclusions as to the nature of tlie 
 resurrection, physical or spiritual, with the grounds 
 of each.
 
 184 early christian history and literature 
 
 § 48. The Gospels as Literature. 
 
 In treating the Gospels as sources for history, it is 
 necessary to analyze them into their component parts 
 and to trace, as far as possible, their genesis. In this 
 process, their beauty and power as books, each growing 
 out of different conditions and each presenting the 
 personality of Jesus from a different view-point, may 
 become obscured. It is well, therefore, at this stage 
 in the course, to consider each of these books as a lit- 
 erary unit, although as literature they belong to the 
 time of their writing, the Apostolic Age. 
 
 1. Mark. 
 
 Read the Gospel of Mark, if possible at a single sit- 
 ing, and let the book make its own complete impression. 
 Test this impression by another rapid survey of the 
 book as a whole. Try then to formulate in writing 
 the characteristic features of the Gospel as a literary 
 product. Consider, for instance : (1) the conception 
 of Jesus which the writer aimed to set forth, and the 
 aspects of our Lord's active ministry which he desired 
 to emphasize ; (2) the method by which this picture 
 of Jesus and his ministry is given expression by the 
 use of little more than the common Gospel material; 
 (3) the details of the Gospel story found only or 
 predominantly in Mark, and their value ; (4) the type 
 of mind to which the Gospel of Mark would naturally 
 have appealed in the first century. 
 
 Form an opinion regarding the distinctive and per- 
 manently valuable characteristics of Mark's Gospel. 
 Aside from its usefulness as a record of the most im-
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 185 
 
 portaiit details of tlie active life of Jesus, what docs it 
 contribute to the religious thought of to-day ? 
 
 For a discussion of any questions that may arise as 
 to the history or literary characteristics of the book, 
 reference should be made to the articles on Mark in 
 Hastings, "Diet. Bib."; "Enc. Bib."; the Introduc- 
 tions of Bennett and Adeney, Bacon, Salmon, B. Weiss, 
 and Jiilicher ; Gould, " Mark," in " Internat. Crit. 
 Com."; Bruce, Int. to "Mark," in " Expositor's Gk, 
 Test.," I. ; Swete, " Gospel according to Mark " ; Men- 
 zies, " The Earliest Gospel." 
 
 2. Matthew. 
 
 Read the Gospel of Matthew, like that of Mark, 
 repeatedly, so as to gain a fair impression of it as a 
 whole. Try then to formulate in writing its character- 
 istic features. Consider : (1) the importance of the 
 material which this Gospel introduces in addition to 
 and in enlargement of that which is found in Mark, in 
 determining the conception of Jesus which the author 
 desired to set forth ; (2) the value of the author's 
 habit of grouping his material ; (3) the data which he 
 included in greatest detail ; (4) the theme or themes 
 of the Gospel. 
 
 Compare the first Gospel with that of Mark : (1) in 
 the general method of presentation ; (2) in literary 
 values ; (3) in the portraiture of Jesus ; (4) in its 
 contribution to our grasp of motives, methods, and 
 results of the active ministry of Jesus. 
 
 For a discussion of questions conccrniug the book, 
 reference should be made to Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," 
 art. "Mt., Cos."; the "Introductions" noted above; 
 Bruce, " Matt.," Intro., in " Expos. Gk, Test,," I.
 
 18G ExVRLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 3. Luke. 
 
 Read the Gospel of Luke, repeatedly, as a whole. 
 The great critic Renan termed it " the most beautiful 
 book in the world." An effort to realize this literary 
 perfection for one's self is well worth while. Luke is 
 worthy of careful study, not alone as fine literature, 
 but as a noble portrayal of Christ among men. Bruce 
 declares that Luke's Gospel is only to be fully appre- 
 ciated by mature Christians with a ripened Christian 
 experience. Luke had in mind, he says, not the active 
 Jesus so much as the Lord Jesus Christ, the risen 
 Saviour. Read the Gospel, determining to get at the 
 secret of its power over men, noting carefully : (1) how 
 the material which this Gospel introduces, in addition 
 to that found elsewhere regarding Jesus, helps us to 
 determine the motive of the author and his conception 
 of Jesus ; (2) why Luke should give two-fifths of his 
 Gospel to the story of a period which the other Synop- 
 tists span with a chapter or two (Mark Q-^^-lO^^ ; 
 Matthew 1722-203* ; Luke 951-192") ; (3) what material 
 Luke's Gospel alone gives ; (4) the literary character- 
 istics which justify Renan's encomium ; (5) the theme 
 or themes of the Gospel. 
 
 Compare the third Gospel with those of Mark and 
 Matthew, noting : (1) its difference in plan of presen- 
 tation ; (2) the varying methods of embellishment ; 
 (3) the distinctive emphasis of each one on a certain 
 view-point of Jesus ; (4) Luke's fresh survey of the 
 active ministry, and large additions to our knowledge 
 concerning it. 
 
 Select passages in each Gospel which embody the
 
 LIFE OF JESUS AND THE FOUR GOSPELS 187 
 
 peculiar values of each, aud best represent the author's 
 skill as a writer. 
 
 For a discussion of the book, reference should be 
 made to: Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," art. "Luke, Gosp. 
 of"; the "Introductions" above noted; Plummcr, 
 "Luke," Intro., in "Internat. Grit. Gom." ; Bruce, 
 " Luke," Intro., in " Expos. Gk. Test," I. 
 
 4. John. 
 
 Read the Gospel of John, at one sitting, and, if pos- 
 sible, more than once, so as to gain a vivid, but 
 general, impression of what it contains. Then consider 
 carefully and formulate in writing: (1) the dominant 
 theme of the Gospel ; (2) the motive of the author in 
 preparing it ; (3) the peculiar method used by the 
 author in chronicling the active ministrv of Jesus, 
 and its justification ; (4) the most distinctive addition 
 made to our knowledge of the life of Jesus by this 
 Gospel ; (5) the reason why the Fourth Gospel takes 
 five long chapters (13-17) to record what the Synop- 
 tists cover (Luke 22^^-^, Matthew 2620-29, Mark 14''-25) 
 in a few verses ; (6) the value of the Gospel as 
 literature. 
 
 Compare the Fourth Gospel with the Synoptic 
 Gospels : (1) in the style of spcccli attributed to 
 Jesus ; (2) in the general locality, trend, and culmina- 
 tion of his ministry ; (3) in the announcement of 
 Jesus as the Messiah; (4) in the motive back of the 
 nortraval of Christ. Account for these differences, 
 proceeding, as they did, from one who was an eye- 
 witness and a loyal discii)lo. Do they invalidate cither 
 the Fourth Gospel or the Synoptic Gospels 'i
 
 188 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 For a discussion of questions, reference may be made 
 to : Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," art. " John, Gosp. of " ; the 
 "Introductions" already mentioned; Sanday, "Criti- 
 cism Fourth Gosp." ; Dods, " John," in " Expos. Gk. 
 Test.,"
 
 XII 
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE (c. 30-100 a. d.) 
 
 § 49. Period of the Rise of the Church and its 
 Spread in Syria (c. 30-44 a. d.). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 For the history of Christianity in the first period of 
 the Apostolic Age we are dependent upon the book of 
 Acts, except as occasional references in Paul's epistles 
 throw light upon that portion of his life which falls 
 within the period. 
 
 (1) Acts 1-12, 223-21, 262-23. 
 
 (1) Read chapters 1-12 and make a brief outline of 
 their contents. (2) Compare the three accounts of 
 Paul's conversion (O^-^, 223-21, 262-23), noting the facts 
 in common and the differences. 
 
 In preparation for considering the sources and relia- 
 bility of Acts 1-12, the following details should receive 
 careful attention : (1) the speeches ascribed to Peter, 
 Stephen, Gamaliel. Summarize the thought of each. 
 Note Thucydides's practice as to speeches, " Hist, of 
 Peloponncsian War," I., 22i. Note, in connection with 
 Gamaliel's speech, Josophus's account of uju-isings 
 under Judas and Theudas, "Antiq.," XVIli., l''--«, cf. 
 XX., 52 and "Jewish War," II., 81, " Antiq.," XX., b\ ob- 
 serving the apparent anachronism. (2) Paul's account
 
 190 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 of his visits to Jerusalem (Gal. lii-2i^) in comparison 
 with the accounts in Acts ; (3) Paul's conception of 
 the gift of tongues (1 Cor. 12-14) in comparison witli 
 the account in Acts 2. (4) Joseplius's account of the 
 death of Agrippa in comparison with the account in 
 Acts 12, "Antiq.," Bk. XIX., 8^. For a discussion of the 
 sources and reliability of Acts 1-12, rcfe/ence should 
 be made to two or more of the following : Bennett and 
 Adeney, "Bib. Int.," pages 343-345, 376, 377 (fine 
 print); B. Weiss, "Int. N. T.," II., pages 326-340, 
 353-355 ; Hast., " Diet. Bib.," I., pages 29-35 ; Ram- 
 say, " St. Paul the Traveller," pages 1-23, 367-372 ; 
 Chase, " Credibility of Acts of Apostles," Lects. I-III. ; 
 Votaw, " Apost. Age," ch. 13 ; Bacon, " Int. N. T.," 
 pages 225-229 ; Jiilicher, " Int. N. T.," pages 433-451 ; 
 Von Soden, " Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.," pages 245-247 ; 
 " Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 45-49. Of the foregoing the first 
 six maintain more of historical accuracy for this por- 
 tion of Acts than the remaining four. In reading, it is 
 well to select references, one from each group. 
 
 (2) Pauline Epistles. Note the facts concerning the 
 early life of Paul that may be gathered from Gal. 11^-2^^, 
 
 2 Cor. 1121-2T. 32, 33^ 121^4^ ^q^^[ 77-n 
 
 2. Greneral Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Bart- 
 let, " Apost. Age," pages 1-63 ; Votaw, " Apost. Age ; " 
 clis. i-v. ; McGiffert, " Hist, of Chsty. in Apost, Age," 
 pages 36-124, 151-172; "Weizsacker, "Apost. Age of 
 Chstn. Churcli," I., pages 1-110. While reading, note : 
 (1) influences which resulted in the establishment 
 of the Ciiristian community in Jerusalem; (2) char- 
 acter of the organization of the community ; (3) early
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 191 
 
 relations with the leaders of Judaism ; (4) influences 
 which led to the spread of the church in Palestine and 
 Syria ; (5) causes of Paul's conversion ; (6) differences 
 in the accounts of Paul's conversion and probabilities 
 as to the actual course of events ; (7) early years of 
 Paul's Christian life; (8) problems arising in connec- 
 tion with the narrative of Peter's experiences at Jop[)a 
 and Cacsarea; (9) founding and character of the church 
 at Antioch ; (10) true significance of this church ; 
 (11) the Jerusalem famine, its probable date and the 
 relation of Paul's famine visit to his Jerusalem visits 
 recorded in Galatians ; (12) facts of Agrippa's persecu- 
 tion; (13) date of the persecution. 
 
 Consider carefully : (1) the acknowledged leadership 
 of Peter in the Jerusalem church, and its explanation; 
 (2) speedy prominence of forcign-bo^n Jews in the 
 brotherhood ; (3) far-reaching effect of the martyrdom 
 of Stephen ; (4) rapid spread of the Christian church 
 on all sides ; (5) the new forces at work in the world. 
 
 3. Literature of the Period. 
 
 It is possible that the epistle of James was written 
 at the close of this period. Its background seems, in 
 some details, that of this early time. If this is the case, 
 it is the earliest Christian writing that has come down 
 to us. On the other hand, there are indications in the 
 book pointing strongly to a time after Jewisli Christi- 
 anity had lost its first vision and enthusiasm, and Paul's 
 letters had long been written. In the present course 
 of study, the epistle will be considered in connection 
 with the later period. Aside from, possibly, Jnmos, 
 we have no literature from the first period of the 
 Apostolic Age.
 
 192 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 § 50. Period op Gentile Missions (c. 44-64 a. d.). 
 
 In dealing with the comparatively abundant material 
 of this period we divide the section into three parts, 
 considering, in turn, the sources, history, and literature 
 of each part. 
 
 A. Spread of the Church in Asia Minor, Macedonia, 
 and Greece (Paul's " first and second missionary 
 journeys "). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Acts 13-1822. 
 
 Read the section and make an outline of its con- 
 tents, noting : (1) the course of each journey ; (2) the 
 portion of the narrative written in the first person. 
 Summarize, in writing, the speeches ascribed to Paul, 
 Peter, and James. 
 
 (2) First and Second Thessalonians and Galatians. 
 Read the epistles rapidly, noting: (1) any references 
 
 that help to connect them with the history as given in 
 Acts ; (2) any light that they throw upon the move- 
 ments of Paul in this period, and upon the circum- 
 stances, experiences, and character of the Christian 
 communities in Thessalonica and Galatia. 
 
 (3) Philippians l^ 4i5.i6. 
 
 Note facts about the early history of the Church at 
 Philippi, in this late epistle. 
 
 (4) First Corinthians, 2^"^ 
 
 Note, in this epistle, afterward written to Corinth, 
 the nature of Paul's early work there. 
 
 For discussion of First and Second Thessalonians,
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 193 
 
 see Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 353-355, 
 357-359 ; B. Weiss, " Int. N. T.," I., pages 218-220, 
 22-1-234 ; Burton, " Records and Letters of Apos. 
 Age," pages 210, 211; Hastings, "Diet. Bib.," IV., 
 pages 743^ 744, 745, 746, 747-749 ; Bacon, " Int. N. T.," 
 pages 71, 73-79 ; Julicher, " Int. N. T.," pages 55-60, 
 61-68; von Soden, "Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.," pages 
 27-35, 324-333; " Enc. Bib.," IV., cols. 5036-5045; 
 G. G. Findlay, "1,2 Thess.," in "Camb. Gk. Test." 
 Of the foregoing, all hold to the Pauline authorship of 
 First Thess. ; von Soden rejects the Pauline authorship 
 of Second Thess., and McGiffert, in Hastings, considers 
 it doubtful ; the remainder regard this epistle, like the 
 first, as a genuine writing of Paul. For a brief presen- 
 tation of the view that there are no genuine epistles of 
 Paul, reference may be made to the article by Professor 
 van Manen, of Leyden, in " Enc. Bib.," III., cols. 3625- 
 3630. An elaborate and effective refutation of van 
 Manen's position may be found in Knowling, " Testi- 
 mony of St. Paul to Christ," especially chs. ii.-iv. 
 
 For the authorship and occasion of Galatians, consult 
 Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 372-375 ; B. 
 Weiss, "Int. N. T.," L, pages 234-241, 248-250; 
 Burton, " Records and Letters of Apost. Age," pages 
 212-216 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," II., pages 93-97 ; 
 Bacon, " Int. N. T.," pages 54-60 ; Julicher, " Int. 
 N. T.," pages 70-78 ; von Soden, " Hist. Early Chstn. 
 Lit.," pages 56-71 ; " Euc. liib.," II., cols. 1617-1626. 
 Of the foregoing, Bennett and Adeney, Julicher, and 
 Schmiedel, in " Enc. Bib.," regard Galatians as written 
 during the third missionary journey ; Bacon and Bur- 
 ton, as also Bartlet, McGiffert, and Ramsay, place it, 
 as in the present course, before the third journey ; 
 
 13
 
 194 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 while Dods, in Hastings, and von Soden leave the 
 question open. 
 
 2. Genei'ol Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Bart- 
 let, "Apost. Age.," pages 64-119; Votaw, " Apost. 
 Age," chs. 6, 7 ; McGiffert, " Hist, of Chstj. in Apost. 
 Age," pages 172-274; Weizsacker, "Apost. Age of 
 Chstn. Church," pages 110-122 (123-174), 175-317; 
 Ramsay, " St. Paul the Traveller," pages 64-265. 
 While reading, note : (1) the brief account of work in 
 Cyprus; was it the first Christian work on the island? 
 (2) significance of the change in Acts from the use of 
 the name Saul to Paul; (3) arguments for the view 
 that Paul's Galatian churches were those founded on 
 the " first missionary journey " (South-Galatian 
 theory); (4) different theories as to what constituted 
 Paul's two visits to Galatia antedating the epistle ; (5) 
 early history of the Galatian churches; (6) coming of 
 the Judaizers and the significance of the issue which 
 Paul met in the Galatian churches ; (7) the issue in 
 the Apostolic Council at Jerusalem ; (8) relations of 
 the narratives of Gal. '2^~^^ and Acts 15 ; (9) difficulties 
 concerning the decree of the Council ; (10) portion of 
 Paul's " second missionary journey " recorded in the 
 "travel-diary"; (11) founding and inner history of 
 the churches at Thessalonica and Philippi ; (12) Paul's 
 work in Beroea ; (13) possibility of wider circuit, ex- 
 tending to Illyricum, at this time ; (14) known facts of 
 Paul's Athenian labors ; (15) place of the Areopagus 
 discourse; (16) Paul's work in Corinth, its duration, 
 nature, and results ; (17) route and events of tlie return 
 journey to Antioch ; (18) question as to a Jerusalem 
 visit at this time.
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 195 
 
 3. Literature of the Time. 
 
 (1) First Tliessalonians. 
 
 a. Contents and Characteristics. Make an outline 
 of the epistle, following tlie paragi'aph divisions of the 
 Revised Version, expressing in a sentence the essential 
 idea of each paragraph. Note carefully : (1) words or 
 phrases so often repeated as to seem distinctive; (2) 
 Paul's reasons for writing to the church at Thessa- 
 lonica ; (3) his practical advice to the church ; (4) his 
 affirmations regarding the Second Coming of Christ, 
 
 b. The Writer. Consider: (1) what light the letter 
 throws upon the personality of Paul ; (2) what seemed 
 to be his predominant motive for writing the letter. 
 
 c. Value as Literature. Determine the elements that 
 gave permanence to the epistle. 
 
 (2) Second Thessalonians. 
 
 a. Contents. Make an outline of the epistle, guided 
 by the paragraph divisions of the Revised Version, 
 writing down the essential thought of each paragraph. 
 Note : (1) Paul's special reason for writing the second 
 letter; (2) his added declarations regarding the Second 
 Coming; (3) liis practical advice. 
 
 For aid in interpreting or understanding these ei)is- 
 tles, reference may be made to Findlay, " The Epistles 
 to the Thessalonians," in the " Cambridge Grk. Testa- 
 ment," and to the excellent articles by Lock in Hast., 
 " Diet. Bib.," IV. 
 
 (3) Galatians. 
 
 a. Contents and Characteristics. JMake a careful 
 outline of th*; epistle, guided by the paragraphing of 
 the Revised Version, expressing in a sentence the
 
 196 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 essential thought of each paragraph. Consider: (1) 
 the sharp variation from First Thess. in tone and in 
 the method of introduction, and the explanation ; (2) 
 the outline of Paul's argument for freedom from obli- 
 gation to obey the Mosaic Law ; (3) Paul's description 
 of this Christian freedom; (4) his use of allegory 
 ^421-31^ Did he need it to validate his argument ? 
 
 b. Personality of the Author. Consider: (1) What 
 criticisms, directed against him by the Judaizers, lie 
 was aiming to answer ; (2) the liistorical data regard- 
 ing him set forth in the letter ; (3) the traits of char- 
 acter revealed. 
 
 c. Value. The argument of Galatians is largely 
 antiquated. What gives such real and abiding value 
 to the epistle ? 
 
 As an aid to the interpretation of Galatians, refer- 
 ence may be made to Lightfoot, " St. Paul's Epistle to 
 Galatians," or to Kendall " Epistle to the Galatians," 
 in " Expos. Grk. Test,," or to the paraphrase by Stevens 
 in " Messages of Paul." 
 
 B. Further Development of the Church in Asia 
 Minor and Greece (Paul's " third missionary journey"). 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Acts 1823-2116. 
 
 Read the section and make an outline of its contents, 
 noting carefully the rather fragmentary outline of travels 
 and also the portions written in the first person. 
 
 Some references to the sources and reliability of 
 Acts as a whole were included in the discussions 
 named under § 49, 1, (1). For discussion bearing 
 more particularly upon Acts 13-21, reference may be
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 197 
 
 made to : B. Weiss, " Int. N. T," IL, 343-353 ; Hast., 
 " Diet. Bib.," I., pages 31 col. b, 32 col. a, 33 col. b to 
 35 ; Ramsay, " St. Paul the Traveller," pages 383-386 ; 
 Chase, " Credibility of Acts," Lect. lY. ; Bacon, " Int. 
 N. T.," pages 228, 229 ; Jlilicher, " Int. N. T.," pages 
 443, 445-451 ; von Soden, " Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.," 
 pages 237-245 ; '' Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 37-44. In this 
 portion of Acts all of the foregoing find parts which 
 indicate an eye-witness and arc of the highest liis- 
 torical value. Many who ascribe great liistorical trust- 
 worthiness to the earlier chapters recognize that, in tlie 
 accounts of Paul's travels, there is fuller and, some- 
 times, more accurate information than in the earlier 
 chapters of the book. 
 
 (2) First and Second Corinthians, Romans. 
 
 Read the epistles rapidly, noting : (1) any references 
 that help to connect them with the narrative of Acts; 
 (2) any light that they tlirow upon the movements of 
 Paul in this period ; (3) indications as to the circum- 
 stances, experiences, and character of the Christian com- 
 munities in Corinth, Rome, and Ephesus. 
 
 For a discussion of the authorship and occasion of 
 First and Second Corinthians, see : Bennett and 
 Adeney, "Bib. Int.," pages 360-365, 367-370; B. 
 Weiss, " Int. N. T.," I., pages 251-269, 278-282 ; Bur- 
 ton, "Records and Letters of Apos. Age," pages 216- 
 221 ; Hast., " Diet. Bib.." I., pages 483-487, 491-497 ; 
 Bacon, " Int. N. T.," pages 80-84, 87-95 ; Jliliclicr, 
 " int. N. T., " pages 78-102 ; von Soden, "Hist. Early 
 Chstn. Lit.," pages 35-56 ; " Enc. Bib.," I., cols. 899- 
 907. All of the a])ove treat First and Second Corin- 
 thians as genuine writings of Paul.
 
 198 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 It is generally held that First Corinthians, 6^, refers 
 to a letter otherwise unknown, written by the apostle 
 in regard to the matter of immorality, and antedating 
 our first epistle. 
 
 Bennett and Adeney, Bacon, and von Soden advo- 
 cate the view, now widely held, that in Second Corin- 
 thians 10^-13^0 we have a letter written between First 
 Corinthians and Second Corinthians 1-9, referred to in 
 Second Corinthians 2^. Robertson, in Hastings, does 
 not incline to this view, while Sanday, in " Enc. Bib.," 
 and Jiilicher oppose it. Burton speaks of an interme- 
 diate letter as lost, and Weiss argues that there never 
 was such a letter. Probably, however, Paul wrote on 
 four different occasions, at this period, to the Corin- 
 thian church. 
 
 For authorship and occasion of Romans, see : Ben- 
 nett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 378-882 ; B. Weiss, 
 " Int. N. T.," pages 293-307 ; Burton, " Records and 
 Letters of Apost. Age," pages 221, 222 ; Hast., " Diet. 
 Bib.," pages 295-299, 804, § vii. ; Bacon, " Int. N. T.," 
 pages 95-97, 98-105 ; Jiilicher, '' Int. N. T.," pages 
 106-118; von Soden, "Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.," 
 pages 71-97; "Enc. Bib.," IV., cols. 4127-4145. Of 
 the foregoing, all except Robertson, in Hastings, Bur- 
 ton, and van Manen, in " Enc. Bib.," treat 16^"^*^ as 
 not properljr a part of the Roman epistle, but as, either 
 an independent letter of commendation, or a part of the 
 Epistle to the Ephesians. Robertson opposes these 
 views.^ Burton does not discuss the question, and the 
 subject does not concern the discussion of van Manen, 
 who denies the Pauline authorship of the entire book. 
 
 1 For fuller presentation of opposinc; arguments, see Sanday, 
 "Romans," in "Inter. Crit. Com.," pages xciii-xcv, 418-431.
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 199 
 
 Aside from this last article all of the foregoing discus- 
 sions treat the epistle as the writing of Paul. 
 
 2. G-eneral Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : Bart- 
 let, " Apost. Age," pages 120-159; Votaw, "Apost. 
 Age," chs. viii., ix. ; McGiffert, "Hist, of Chsty. in 
 Apost. Age," pages 275-340 ; Weizsacker, " Apost. Age 
 of Chstn. Church," I., pages 318-405, II., p. 13 ; Ramsay, 
 " St. Paul the Traveller," pages 265-303. While read- 
 ing, note : (1) the revisiting of Galatia ; (2) Paul's work 
 in Ephesus, its nature and the extent of its influence in 
 the province of Asia ; (3) Paul's perils and sufferings 
 in Ephesus ; (4) evil developments in the Corinthian 
 church ; (5) Paul's relations with the church of Corinth 
 during the Asian mission ; (6) later favorable develop- 
 ments in Corinth ; (7) the revisiting of Macedonia ; 
 (8) the revisiting of Greece ; (9) the great collection for 
 the Jerusalem church ; (10) events and route of PauTs 
 journey to Jerusalem ; (11) companions of Paul at this 
 time. 
 
 3. Literature of the Time. 
 
 (1) First Corinthians. 
 
 a. Form and Thought. jNIake an outline of the 
 epistle, guided by the paragraph divisions, expressing in 
 writing the idea of each paragraph. Notice the dis- 
 continuous character of the letter, and determine its 
 main divisions. Consider in detail: (1) the need of 
 such a letter of counsel in view of church difliculties 
 and problems at Corinth; (2) the themes which the 
 apostle discussed; (3) the case which needed discii)l'n- 
 ary action ; (4) the method l)y which Paul solved (lie 
 problems.
 
 200 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 b. Personality of the Writer. What does the letter 
 teach us about Paul ? 
 
 c. Literary Value. Notice the passages of unusual 
 forcefulness or beauty. 
 
 (2) Second Corinthians. 
 
 a. Form and Thought. (1) Make an outline of the 
 epistle indicating the thought of each paragraph, and 
 showing the principal divisions into which it naturally 
 falls. (2) Consider whether the sections Q^'^-7^ and 
 10^-131'^ could have been in the original epistle, in view 
 of the disconnection of thought and change of tone. 
 
 b. Personality of the Writer. Note : (1) Paul's view 
 of the work of the ministry, as shown in this letter ; 
 (2) the criticisms under wiiich he smarted; (3) bis 
 impassioned self-defence. 
 
 c. Value as Literature. Note the great passages 
 and their force. 
 
 For aid in interpreting specific passages in these 
 epistles, reference may be made to : Edwards, " First 
 Cors." ; Massie, in " Corinthians," " New-Century Bib." ; 
 Findlay and Bernard, in " Expos. Gk. Test. ," Vols. II. 
 and III. 
 
 (3) Romans. 
 
 a. Contents and Classification. Make an outline of 
 the epistle, guided in the main by the paragraphs 
 of the Revised Version, putting the thought of each 
 paragraph into a sentence. Then classify the mate- 
 rial, giving a general heading to each of the divisions : 
 V-'i, 1^-1', 118-511, 512-8^9, 9-11 of the doctrinal sec- 
 tion, chs. 1-11 and to the corresponding divisions : 12, 
 13, 14l-15l^ 151^^-33^ 16 of the practical section, chs. 
 12-16.
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 201 
 
 b. General Features. Consider: (1) the close rela- 
 tionship between Galatians and Romans. Which argu- 
 ment seems more final ? (2) the orderly development 
 of thought in Romans. Is it properly termed a " let- 
 ter" ? (3) the striking analogies and figures of speech 
 used by Paul. Are they as forceful to-day as they 
 were when used ? (4) the end accomplished by the 
 epistle. 
 
 c. Personality of the Writer. Note : (1) the range 
 of Paul's missionary purpose ; (2) his deep and tender 
 love for historic Judaism ; (3) practical good sense in 
 dealing with Christian needs ; (4) his proper rank as a 
 constructive thinker. 
 
 For aid in interpreting this epistle, reference may be 
 made to Sanday and Hcadlam, " Romans " in " Internat. 
 Crit. Com." 
 
 (4) The Four Epistles of the Anti-Judaizing Conflict 
 and the Inner Life of Christianity. 
 
 (1) What contributions did each epistle make to the 
 doctrinal development of Christian thinking? (2) Con- 
 sider as factors in Paul's preparation for leadership: 
 (a) his early training and experience ; (b) the ele- 
 ments of his conversion experience ; (c) the conditions 
 met in the newly founded churches ; (d) the condi- 
 tions created by the Judaizers. (3) Consider what it 
 meant for a Jew to ally himself with Christianity ; for 
 a pagan to do so, as the facts may be gathered from 
 these epistles. (4) In the fierce struggle which the 
 epistles reveal, wliat permanent results were attained ? 
 
 C. Tlic Church in Rome (Paul in Jerusalem, Caesa- 
 rea, and Rome ; Peter in Rome).
 
 202 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 1. Sources. 
 
 (1) Acts 21i"-28. (1) Read the section and make an 
 outline of its contents, noting carefully the geographical 
 background of the narrative. (2) Summarize in writ- 
 ing Paul's speeches. 
 
 Arguments bearing upon the sources and reliability 
 of this portion of Acts, as well as chapters l-21i'^, were 
 included in the discussions named under §§ 49, 1, (1) 
 and 50, B, 1, (1). 
 
 (2) The Book of Acts as an History. 
 
 a. Plan and Purpose. Review summaries of the 
 Acts made under §§ 49, 1, (1), 50, A, 1, (1), B, 1, (1), 
 C, 1, (1), and try to define the general plan and purpose 
 of the historian who shaped the whole. 
 
 b. Literary Character of Speeches. Compare sum- 
 maries of speeches of Peter, Stephen, and Paul, made 
 under the same sections, and consider whether these 
 speeches show enough differences in thought for us to 
 account them as the substance of what the three men 
 really said. 
 
 c. Sources. Review what was noted as to the 
 probable sources of Acts under the sections named 
 above, (2), a. 
 
 d. Authorship and Date. Reference should be made 
 to two or more of the following discussions, one of 
 which should be from the first four and one from the 
 last four : Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 
 341, 342 ; B. Weiss, " Int. N. T.," II., pages 332-355 ; 
 Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., pages 29, 30 ; Ramsay, " St. 
 Paul the Traveller," pages 383-390 ; Bacon, " Int. N. 
 T.," pages 211-220, 225-229 ; Jiilicher, " Int. N. T.," 
 pages 433-436 ; von Soden, " Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.,"
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 203 
 
 pages 211, 226-237; " Eiic. Bib.," I., cols. 48, 49. 
 All agree that the author of the Third Gospel and 
 the author of Acts are the same. The first four 
 maintain that this is Luke, and date the book not far 
 from 80 a. d. The last four admit the Lucan author- 
 ship of only the travel-diary document and assign the 
 book as a whole to the very close of the first or open- 
 ing of the second century. The close connection of 
 one's decision as to the date and authorship of the book 
 with one's estimate of the historical trustworthiness of 
 the entire work may be noticed in a comparison of the 
 foregoing references with the similar list under § 49, 
 1, (1). For discussion of specific passages in Acts, 
 reference may be made to Knowling, " Acts," in " Expos. 
 Gk. Test.," Vol. II. ; Bartlet, " The Acts," in " New- 
 Century Bib. " ; Page, " The Acts of the Apostles." 
 
 (3) The Epistles of the Imprisonment. Philemon, 
 Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians. 
 
 Note the following data : in Philemon, (1) Paul's 
 situation and companions, vv. 1, 9, 23 ; (2) occasion 
 of letter, vv. 12, 15, 16; (3) Paul's plans, v. 22; in 
 Colossians, (1) reference to Onesimus, 4^ ; (2) Paul's 
 situation and companions, 1^ 4^^^'^''^^ ; (3) Paul's mes- 
 sengers to the Colossians, 4"~^ ; (4) Epaphras had been 
 among the Colossians, 1" ; (5) former condition of the 
 people, 1^1 ; (6) indication as to whether Paul had ever 
 visited them, 2^ ; (7) the letter to Laodiceans, 4^*^ ; in 
 Ephesians, (1) the letter sent in connection with Col- 
 ossians, 6^1 ; (2) Paul's situation, 3^, 6^0. (3) indica- 
 tions that Paul had not preached among the readers, 
 32,3^ 421. ^4) absence of greetings from Timothy and 
 Aristarchus who were with Paul at the time of writing
 
 204 EAIILY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 and had been at Ephesus, Col. l^, 4^0, Acts 1922.9 . j^ 
 Philippians, (1) Paul's situation I'.i3,i4,i7, 418 • (2) Paul's 
 companions and helpers, 1^ 2^^^^^^^^, 4''^2 ^ ^3^ Paul's re- 
 lations with the Philippian Christians, l^-^ 2i2>i9,24,25,^ 
 
 41,15,16,18_ 
 
 For discussion of the authorship and occasion of 
 these epistles, sec : Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," 
 pages 387-405 ; B. Weiss, " N. T. Int.,""^!., pages 323- 
 830, 335-342, 352-355, 360-363, 365-369; Burton, 
 " Records and Letters Apost. Age," pages 222-224 ; 
 Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," I., arts. " Colossians " and 
 "Ephesians," HI., arts. "Philemon" and "Philip- 
 pians" ; Bacon, "Int. N. T.," pages 107, 113-115, 122, 
 123 ; Jlilicher, " Int. N. T.," pages 118-127, 130-147 ; 
 " Enc. Bib.," I., art. "Colossians and Ephesians"; 
 " Enc. Bib.," III., arts. " Philemon " and " Philippi- 
 ans " ; von Soden, " Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.," pages 
 97-100, 106-109, 114-120, 290-305. Of the foregoing, 
 the first five regard all these epistles as genuine writ- 
 ings of Paul, Jlilicher, in " Intro." and " Enc. Bib.," 
 leaves Pauline authorship of Ephesians, and, perhaps, 
 Colossians, an open question, while van Manen, in " Enc. 
 Bib.," denies the Pauline authorship of Philemon and 
 Philippians, as he does of all the epistles. Von Soden 
 counts all but Ephesians as genuine writings of Paul. 
 Most of those who acknowledge the Pauline author- 
 ship of the epistles of this group favor Rome as the 
 place of writing. B. Weiss, however, assigns Colos- 
 sians, Philemon, and Ephesians to the Caesarean im- 
 prisonment. Those who accept the Pauline authorship 
 of Ephesians usually regard it as a circular letter, rather 
 than one destined for a particular church.
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 205 
 
 (4) The Pastoral Epistles. First and Second Tim- 
 othy, Titus. 
 
 Note the following points : in First Tim., Paul seems 
 to have gone from Ephesus to Macedonia leaving Tim- 
 othy in Ephesus, l^, cf. Acts IS^^ 21^1922^ 2 Cor. l,i Acts 
 20* ; in Second Tim., (1) places which Paul has re- 
 cently visited, 4^3'^° ; (2) Paul's present situation, 1^", 
 41c, 18-1^ 2^-^, 4'^'9-i3,2i; in Titus, Paul's movements, 1^, 
 3^. Can these epistles be fitted into the course of 
 Paul's journeys as gathered from Acts and the other 
 epistles ? 
 
 For references concerning the men Timothy and 
 Titus, see : Acts IG^-s, 1 Thess. li, 2 Thess. V, Rom. 
 1621, 2 Cor. 11, Philip. 11, Col. 11, Philemon li. Gal. 
 21-*, 2 Cor. 212-13, 1% S% 12i». 
 
 For discussion as to the authorship and occasion of 
 these epistles, see: Bennett and Adeney, " Bib. Int.," 
 pages 406-415, 17, 18, 19 ; B. Weiss, " Int. N. T.," I., 
 pages 376-378, 382-389, 409-420; Burton, "Records 
 and Letters Apost. Age," pages 224-226 ; Hastings, 
 " Diet. Bib.," IV., arts., " 1 Timothy," " 2 Timothy," 
 "Titus" ; Bacon, "Int. N. T.," pages 127, 128,132- 
 140 ; JUlicher, " Int. N. T.," pages 174-200 ; " Enc. 
 Bib.," IV., art. " Timotliy and Titus, Epists. of"; 
 von Soden, " Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.," pages 310-323. 
 Of the foregoing, the first four favor the Pauline au- 
 thorship of these epistles, though admitting grave dilli- 
 culties in maintaining this position. They place the 
 writing of First Timothy and Titus after a supposed 
 release of Paul from the Roman imprisonment, and of 
 Second Timothy after a reimprisonment. The last four 
 deny the Pauline authorship, though, in some cases,
 
 206 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 holding that the epistles contain genuine Pauline 
 fragments. 
 
 (5) The First Epistle of Peter. 
 
 Note the following data in First Peter : (1) the author, 
 11, 51 ; (2) his associates, S^^^is : (3) place of writing, 
 513; (4) the persons addressed P, Jews or Gentiles? 
 114.18, 29,w 36^ 43^ their condition, 3i*'is 412-19, 5W 
 
 For discussion of the authorship and occasion of 
 First Peter, see : Bennett and Adeney, "Bib. Int.," pages 
 440-445 ; B. Weiss, " Int. N. T.," II., pages 137-144, 
 146-154 ; Bacon, " Int. N. T.," pages 153-158 ; Hast- 
 ings, "Diet. Bib.," III., art. "Peter, First Epist. of"; 
 Jiilicher, "Int. N. T.," pages 207-215; von Soden, 
 "Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.," pages 275-284; " Enc. 
 Bib.," III., art. " Peter, Epists. of." Of the foregoing, 
 the first four favor the view that this is a genuine 
 epistle of Peter. B. Weiss would place its writing 
 before Paul's work in Ephesus ; Chase, in Hastings, 
 regards it as written from Rome, shortly after Paul's 
 supposed release. Bennett and Adeney place it after 
 Paul's death. Jiilicher, von Soden, and Cone, in " Enc. 
 Bib.," reject the Petrine authorship and place these 
 epistles at least as late as the persecution of Domitian, 
 92-96 A. D. 
 
 (6) Traditions concerning Paul and Peter in Rome. 
 For a summary presentation and discussion of the 
 
 various early traditions concerning Paul and Peter 
 in Rome and their martyrdom there, see McGiffert, 
 "Apost. Age," pages 416, 421, 591, 592. 
 
 2. General Discussion of the History. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references: 
 Bartlet, "Apost. Age," pages 160-202, 297-308;
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 207 
 
 Votaw, " Apost. Age," chs. x-xii ; McGiffert, "Hist. 
 Chsty. in Apost. Age," pages 338-439, 588-60G ; 
 Weizsacker, " Apost. Age," II., pages 115-155. While 
 reading, note : (1) causes of Paul's arrest in Jerusa- 
 lem ; (2) circumstances leading to his removal to 
 Caesarea ; (3) problem as to the date of Caesarean 
 imprisonment and its bearing upon the chronology of 
 Paul's entire career; (4) the visit of Agrippa ; who 
 was he ? (5) circumstances leading to Paul's removal 
 to Rome ; (6) route and events of the journey to 
 Rome ; (7) conditions of Paul's life in Rome ; (S) ar- 
 guments for and against the theory of a release and 
 reimprisonment ; (9) probable date and immediate 
 occasion of Paul's death ; (10) evidence that the close 
 of Peter's life was spent in Rome ; (11) date of Peter's 
 coming to Rome, in relation to that of Paul's death ; 
 (12) any knowledge of Peter's life between the glimpse 
 of him at Antioch, given in Galatians, and his coming 
 to Rome ; (13) relation of Peter to the churches of 
 Asia Minor; (14) probable time and occasion of 
 Peter's death. 
 
 Review the principal steps in the spread of Chris- 
 tianity through the Graeco-Roman world, during the 
 period of Gentile missions, from about 44-64 a. d. 
 
 3. Literature of the Time. 
 
 (1) Epistles of the Imprisonment. 
 
 a. Philemon. Read the epistle, noting : (1) its reg- 
 ular epistolary form ; (2) its subject; (3) view that it 
 gives of the personality of Paul in his intercourse 
 with a friend ; (4) Paul's cure for slavery. 
 
 b, Ephesians and Colossians. Make an outline of 
 these epistles, guided by the paragraphing of the
 
 208 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Revised Version, and stating the thought of each 
 paragraph in a sentence. Then note : (1) their great 
 similarity in outline, thought, and phraseology ; (2) the 
 development of Paul's interpretation of the significance 
 of Christ ; (3) the false teaching against which Paul 
 contends in Colossians ; (4) the practical helpfulness of 
 each epistle. 
 
 c. Philippians. Make a similar outline, noting : (1) 
 warning against Jewish influences; (2) emphasis on 
 growth in Christian character ; (3) impression of Paul's 
 personal traits given by this epistle. 
 
 For aid in interpreting specific passages in these 
 epistles, reference may he made to : Vincent, " Phi- 
 lippians and Philemon," in " Internat. Crit. Com. " ; 
 Lightfoot, " St. Paul's Epistles to the Colossians and 
 to Philemon," " St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians " ; 
 Abbott, " Ephesians and Colossians," in " Internat. Crit. 
 Com." ; Robinson, " St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephe- 
 sians ; Salmond, " Ephesians," in " Expos. Gk. Test.," 
 Vol. III.; Kennedy, "Philippians," in "Expos. Gk. 
 Test.," Vol. III. ; Peake, " Colossians," in '• Expos. Gk. 
 Test.," Vol. III. 
 
 (2) The Pastoral Epistles. 
 
 Make outlines of First Timothy, Titus, and Second 
 Timothy, as for other epistles. Note : (1) the evident pur- 
 pose of each ; (2) the remarkable sayings included. 
 
 For aid in interpreting specific passages, reference 
 may be made to Bernard, " Pastoral Epistles," in 
 "Camb. Gk. Test." 
 
 (3) First Peter. 
 
 a. Form and Thought. Make, as usual, an outline 
 of First Peter, and note : (1) its general structure in
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 209 
 
 comparison with that of the Pauline epistles; (2) 
 thoughts chietiy emphasized ; (3) similarities and 
 differences between the thought of tliis epistle and 
 the thought of Paul. 
 
 b. Personality of the "Writer. Revievy the epistle, 
 noting : (1) any passages that seem to reflect Peter's 
 early experiences ; (2) impression given of the aged 
 apostle, in contrast to the portrait of Peter given in the 
 Gospels and Acts. 
 
 (4) Matthew's Logia. See § 46, 2, (b). 
 
 § 51. Later Apostolic Age (c. 64-100 a. d.) 
 
 1 . Sources, 
 
 In the absence of any early connected account of the 
 later apostolic age, we must form our picture of the 
 times largely from incidental references in the writings 
 of the period, allusions much less numerous and defi- 
 nite than those in the Pauline epistles. When studying 
 the Jewish history too (§ 45), we were unable to obtain 
 any connected view of events for a large part of this 
 period. Thus there arc few chronological landmarks 
 by which to assign the literature of the times to any 
 exact dates. The destruction of Jerusalem (70 a. d.) 
 and the persecution of the Christians in the reign of 
 Domitian (died 96 a. d.) are the principal points from 
 which to reckon. Such light as the contem[)orary 
 literature does throw upon the period will bo noticed, 
 while reading the books with special reference to their 
 literary form and thought. 
 
 2. Later lUatory of the Jerusalem Chureh. 
 
 Read one or moi-e of the following references : Mc- 
 Giffert, " Hist. Chsty. in Apost. Age," pages 557-568 ; 
 
 14
 
 210 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Weizsacker, " Apo^>.^ „ ^Age," IL, pages 15-32; Ropes, 
 "Apost. Age," pc,geo 90-98. While reading, note: (1) 
 absence of fu,ll separation of the Jerusalem church from 
 Judaism : (2) the apparently peaceful relations between 
 the Jerusalem Jews and Jewish Christians from 44 to 
 62 A. D.; (3) martyrdom of James, the brother of Jesus ; 
 (4) migration of the Christians from Jerusalem, daring 
 the war; (5) their subsequent return to Judca ; (6) 
 ultimate fate of Jewish Christianity. 
 
 3. The Epistle to the HehrPAVS. 
 
 Outline the epistle as usual, briefly summarizing its 
 contents under the following headings : 
 
 Christ Supreme 1-4 
 
 Christ the Great High Priest 5-7 
 
 Superiority of His Worship 8-10 
 
 Faith and Perse ve^-ance 11, 12 
 
 Conclusion 13. 
 
 In reading, note: (1) the aim of the book; (2) the 
 coherency of its argument ; (3) its rhetorical merits ; 
 (4) Pauline thoughts ; (5) resemblances to the Wisdom 
 of Solomon and other Alexandrian writino's. 
 
 For discussion of date, authorship, destination, and 
 purpose, reference may be made to : Bennett and 
 Adeney, " Bib. Int.," pages 421-433 ; B. Weiss, " Int. 
 N. T.," II., pages 1-44 ; Burton, " Records and Letters 
 of Apost. Age," page 228 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib." IL, 
 art. " Hebrews, Epist. to " ; Bacon, " Int. N. T.," pages 
 141-149 ; Moffatt, " Historical N. T.," pages 344-351 ; 
 von Soden, " Hist. Early Clistn. Lit.," pages 248-272; 
 " Enc. Bib.," IL, art. " Hebrews " ; Jlilicher, pages 148- 
 174. Of the foregoing, the first four incline to the
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 211 
 
 widely held view that the epistle ^ .vritten before the 
 year 70, either shortly before or duiing the Jewish 
 War. The others favor a date considerably later, but 
 all place it not later than 95 a. d., before the Epistle of 
 Clement of Rome. 
 
 For aid in interpreting specific passages, reference 
 may be made to : Westcott, " The Epist. to Hebs. " ; 
 Peake, "Hebrews," in "New-Century Bib." 
 
 4. Tlie jSi/noptic Grospels and Acts. 
 
 See §§46 and 49. 
 
 5. The Apocalypse. 
 
 Read the book of Revelation under the following 
 outline : 
 
 Introduction 1-3 
 
 Address and salutation 1^"^ 
 
 The prophet's call 1^-20 
 
 The letters to the seven churches 2-3 
 Vision of the Book of Destiny 4-11 
 
 The seven seals 4-8^ 
 
 The seven trumpets 8--11 
 
 Vision of the War against the 
 
 Dragon ' 12-18 
 
 Woman and dragon, beasts, lamb, 
 
 and redeemed 12-14 
 
 The seven bowls (vials) 15-18 
 
 Vision of the Heavenly Jerusa- 
 lem 19-226 
 Coming of bridegroom and destruc- 
 tion of enemies 19-20 
 The Heavenly Jerusalem 21-22^ 
 Epilogue 22« 21
 
 212 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 In reading, note : (1) the geographical situation of 
 the seven churches ; (2) the allusions in 11^'''^, 17^*^, which 
 are often thought to indicate a date prior to the destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem for the composition of the book, con- 
 trary to tradition as old as Irenaeus, which dates the 
 book in the reign of Domitian ; (3) form and spirit of 
 the book in comparison with the apocalypses read in 
 Part III., noting resemblances, and also any elements 
 that differentiate this Christian apocalypse from those 
 Jewish ones. 
 
 For discussion of the occasion, authorship, character, 
 and purpose of the book, see : Porter, " Messages of the 
 Apoc. Writers," pages 169-194 ; Scott, " Revelation," in 
 " New-Century Bib.," pages 1-76 ; Bennett and Adeney, 
 " Bib. Int.," pages 460-468 ; B. Weiss, " Int. N. T.," II., 
 pages 59-88 ; Burton, " Records and Letters Apost. 
 Age," page 229; Hastings, "Diet. Bib,," IV., art. 
 " Revelation, Bk. of " ; Bacon, " Int. N. T.," pages 230- 
 244 ; Moffatt, " Hist. N. T.," pages 469-475 ; Jiilicher, 
 " Int. N. T.," pages 261-291 ; von Soden, " Hist. Early 
 Chstn. Lit.," pages 338-374; " Enc. Bib.," I., art. 
 "Apocalypse." Of the foregoing. Burton and Weiss 
 would place the composition of the book between the 
 death of Nero (a. d. 68) and the fall of Jerusalem (a. d. 
 70), on the ground of the allusions which almost indis- 
 putably imply this period. All the others find much 
 evidence supporting the traditional date (the latter part 
 of Domitian's reign) and so hold that, though the book 
 embodies material dating from before the year 70, it 
 was not composed in its entirety till the later date. 
 For the composite character of other apocalyptic litera- 
 ture, cf. Enoch or Baruch,
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 213 
 
 6. John and the Church of Asia. 
 
 Read one or more of the following references : ^[c- 
 Giffert, " Hist, of Chsty. in Apost. Age," pages 606- 
 627; Weizsacker, " Apost. Age.," IL, pages 161-245; 
 Bartlet, " Apost. Age," pages 418-441 ; Votaw, 
 " Apost. Age." ch. xii. While reading, note espe- 
 cially : (1) silence concerning John from the time of 
 Paul's second visit to Jerusalem (Gal. 2^) until the latter 
 part of the first century ; (2) strength of the evidence 
 for John's presence and influence in Ephesus ; (3) 
 approximate time of John's death. 
 
 7. Tlie Johannine Epistles. 
 
 (1) First John. 
 
 Make a written outline of the epistle, noting also : (1) 
 any references that give information about the author 
 or recipients : (2) errors which threaten the church ; 
 (3) general spirit and thought of the epistle, especially 
 in comparison with the Fourth Gospel. 
 
 (2) Second John. 
 
 Make a written outline of the epistle, noting also : (1) 
 indications as to the author ; (2) errors which threaten 
 the church ; (3) object of the letter. 
 
 (3) Third John. 
 
 Make a written outline of the epistle, noting also : (1) 
 indications as to the author ; (2) purpose of writing. 
 
 For discussion of the occasion, authorship, purpose, 
 and character of these epistles, see : Bennett and 
 Adcney, "Bib. Int.," pages 452-459; B. Weiss, "Int. 
 N. T.," II., pages 174-202 ; Hastings, "Diet. Bib,," IL, 
 art. " John, Eps. of" ; Bacon, " Int. N. T.," pages 244-
 
 214 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 250 ; Moffatt, « Hist. N. T.," pages 534-539, 546, 548 ; 
 Jiilicher, "Int. N. T.," pages 241-255; von Soden, 
 " Hist. Early Clistn. Lit," pages 374-389 ; " Enc. Bib.," 
 II., cols. 2556-2562, All of the above discussions 
 recognize the kinship of these epistles with one another 
 and with the Fourth Gospel, but they differ as to the 
 assignment of all four to absolutely the same hand. 
 So far as an attempt at dating these epistles is made, 
 none of the foregoing put them earlier than the year 
 90, and nearly all favor a date after the Domitian per- 
 secution. Moffatt, Jiilicher, and Schmiedel, in " Enc. 
 Bib.," advocate a date after the close of the first cen- 
 tury. The epistles are usually regarded as antedating 
 the Gospel, but indications on this point are very slight 
 and MofFatt puts the Gospel first. 
 
 For aid in interpreting specific passages, reference 
 may be made to Plummer, " Epists. of St. John," in 
 " Camb. Gk. Test." or Wescott, " Epistle of John." 
 
 8. The Grospel of John. 
 
 This book was read and discussed as an historical 
 source for the life of Jesus under § 46, and as a piece 
 of literature, under § 48. 
 
 9. The Epistle of James. 
 
 Make an outline of the epistle, following the para- 
 graph divisions and putting into a sentence the thought 
 of each paragraph. Note also : (1) any indications of 
 the circumstances and conditions which lie behind it ; 
 (2) leading thoughts and the spirit of the writer ; (3) 
 relation of thought to that of Paul. 
 
 For discussion of the occasion, authorship, purpose, 
 and character of the epistle, see : Bennett and Adeney
 
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE 215 
 
 "Bib. Int.," pages 434-440; B. Weiss, "Int. N. T.," 
 IL, pages 100-118 ; Burton, " Records and Letters 
 Apost. Age," page 208 ; Hastings, " Diet. Bib.," II., 
 art. " James, Ep. of" ; Bacon, " Int. N. T.," pages 158- 
 165 ; Moffatt, " Hist. N. T.," pages 576-583 ; Jlilicher, 
 "Int. N. T.," pages 215-229; von Soden, "Hist. 
 Early Chstn. Lit.," pages 463-470 ; " Enc. Bib.," II., 
 art. " James, Ep." 
 
 It is usually held that, either (1) the Epistle of 
 James was written by James the brother of Jesus, not 
 later than the year 50, or (2) it is one of the latest 
 New Testament books. Of the above, the first four 
 favor the former view, the last five oppose. Of these. 
 Bacon dates the book about the year 00, the others 
 assign it to the second century. For aid in interpret- 
 ing specific passages in this epistle, reference may be 
 made to Knowling, " Epist. of St. James," in " West- 
 minster Com." ; Mayor, " Epist. of St. James " ; Carr, 
 " General Epist. of St. James." 
 
 10. The Epistles of Jude and Second Peter. 
 
 Outline the epistles, noting, in Jude : (1) the writer's 
 designation of himself; (2) his allusion to the Apostles 
 as former teachers ; (3) false teachings that have 
 arisen ; (4) the relation of v. 6 with Enoch 18^^^^, 
 212-6, of vv. 14, 15 with Enoch 1^, 5^,272; in Second 
 Peter (1) the writer's designation of himself ; (2) 
 reference to Paul's epistl(;s ; (3) relation to Jude. 
 
 For discussion of the authorship and occasion of Jude 
 and Second Peter, see: Bennett and Adcncy, "Bib. 
 Int.," pages 447-452; B. Weiss, "Int. N. T.," IL, 
 pages 118-128, 154-174; Burton, "Records and 
 Letters Apost. Age," page 227; Hastings," Diet.
 
 216 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Bib.," II., art. " Jude, Epist. of," III., art. " Peter, Sec. 
 Epist. of"; Bacon, "Int. N. T.," pages 166-173; 
 Moffatt, "Hist. N. T.," pages 589-593, 596-599; 
 Jlilicher, " Int. N. T.," pages 229-241 ; von Soden, 
 "Hist. Early Chstn. Lit.," pages 470-476; " Enc. 
 Bib.," II., art. "Jude, Epist. of,"llL, cols. 3682-3684. 
 Of these, Bennett and Adeney, Weiss, Chase, in 
 Hast, regard Jude as written by a brother of James 
 the brother of Jesus, and date it well within the first 
 century, Burton speaks doubtfully on the subject, the 
 others oppose. Bacon dates about 90, while Moffatt, 
 Jlilicher, von Soden, and Cone, in " Enc. Bib.," ascribe 
 it to the second century. All, except Weiss and Bur- 
 ton, consider Second Peter a pseudonymous writing of 
 the second century. Burton and Weiss regard the book 
 as possibly a genuine writing of Peter the Apostle.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The following list contains only books to wliicli refer- 
 ence is made iu the present volume. Classified bibliog- 
 raphies of books of reference for Old Testament study 
 are appended to Kent's "Beginnings of Hebrew History," 
 " Israel's Historical and Biographical Narratives " and the 
 other volumes of the " Student's Old Testament." Brief 
 critical bibliographies are appended to the several volumes 
 of the present series. Many other of the works named 
 below give valuable lists of references for the subjects 
 with which they deal. In the '' Biblical World " of October, 
 1905, Professor Votaw has given an invaluable classified 
 and critical list of " Books for New Testament Study." 
 
 Abuott, T. K. : " Ephesiaus and Colossians," "International 
 
 Critical Commentary." New York : Charles Scribner's 
 
 Sons. 32.50. 
 Anthony, A. W. : "An Introduction to the Life of Jesus." 
 
 Boston, New York, Chicago: Silver, liurdett and Co. -fl. 
 "Apocrypha," "Old Testament" (Revised Version, Hritisli). 
 
 New York: Thos. Nelson and Sons. Oxford and Cambridge: 
 
 University Presses. ^.7b. 
 Bacon, B. W. : "An Introduction to the New Testament." 
 
 New York and London : Macmillau and Co. $.7~). 
 Bautlet, Vkunon : " The Acts,'' " (New-) Centnry Bible." New 
 
 York and London : Henry Frowde. $.90. 
 Baktlkt, Vkunon : " The Apostolic Age." New York: Charles 
 
 Scribner's Sons. $2. 
 Bauton, G. a. : "A Sketch of Semitic Origins." New Vuik 
 
 and London : Macmillan and Co. $3. 
 B f.nnkix -AK.il, and Adknkv, W. F. : "A Biblical Intro- 
 duction." New York : Tlios. Whittaker. $2.
 
 220 APPENDIX 
 
 Bennett, W. H. : "Chronicles," "Expositor's Bible." New 
 
 York: A. C. Armstrong and Son. $1.50. 
 Bernard, J. H. : "2 Corinthians," "Expositor's Greek Testa- 
 ment," Vol. III. New York : Dodd, Mead and Co. $7.50 
 per vol. 
 Bernard, J. H. : " The Pastoral Epistles," " Cambridge Greek 
 Testament." New York and London: Macmillan and 
 Co. 1.90. 
 Be VAN, E. : "Jerusalem under the High Priests." London: 
 
 Edward Arnold. 7s. 6d. 
 Bible: "The American Standard Edition of the Revised Ver- 
 sion." New York: Thos. Nelson and Sons. Entire Bible 
 from $.35 up ; Bourgeois type, 5^ by 8 in., cloth, $1 ; leather, 
 $1.75 up. New Testament, $.08 up. 
 Bible: " British Edition of the Revised Version." Oxford and 
 Cambridge: University Presses. New York: Thos. Nelson 
 and Sons. 
 
 Prices similar to those for American edition. 
 "Biblical World." Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
 
 $2. per annum. 
 Bigg, Charles: "Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude," "Inter- 
 national Critical Commentary." New York : Charles Scrib- 
 ner's Sons. $2.50. 
 Breasted, J. H. : "A History of Egypt." New York : Charles 
 
 Scribner's Sons. $5. 
 Breasted, J. H. : " History of the Egyptians " (in preparation). 
 
 New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.25. 
 Bruce, A. B. : "Matthew, Mark, Luke," "Expositor's Greek 
 Testament," Vol. I. New York : Dodd, Mead and Co. $7.50 
 per vol. 
 Burton, E. D. : " Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age." 
 
 New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.50. 
 Carpenter, J. E., and Battersby, G. H. : "The Hexateuch 
 accordintr to the Revised Version." London and New York : 
 Longmans, Green and Co. 2 vols. $12. 
 Carr, Arthur: "The General Epistle of St. James," "Cam- 
 bridge Greek Testament." New York and London : Mac- 
 millan and Co. $.65. 
 Charles, R. H. : " The Apocalypse of Baruch." London: A. 
 
 and C. Black. $2.75. 
 Charles, R. H. : "The Assumption of Moses." London: A. 
 and C. Black. $2.25.
 
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 221 
 
 Charles, R. H. : "The Book of Enoch." New York: Henry 
 Frowde. Oxford : Clarendon Press. §4. 
 
 Chase, F. H. : " The Credibility of the Book of the Acts of the 
 Apostles." New York and London: Macmillan and Co. 
 81.75. 
 
 Cheyxe, T. K. : "Jeremiah, His Life and Times," " Men of the 
 Bible Series." New York : A. D. F. Randolph and Co. ^1. 
 
 Cheyme, T. K. : "Job and Solomon, or the Wisdom of the Old 
 Te.stament." New York: Thos. Whittaker. London: 
 Kegan Paul, Trench and Co. ^2.50, 12.s. 6d. 
 
 Cheyxe, T. K. : "Isaiah," " The Sacred Books of the Old and 
 New Testaments." New Y^ork : Dodd, Mead and Co. Lon- 
 don: J. Clarke and Co. $2.50. 
 
 Cheyxe, T. K. : " The Book of Psalms." New York : Thos. 
 Whittaker. 88.20. 
 
 Coberx, C. i\I. : "Ezekiel and Daniel," "Whedon's Commen- 
 tary." New York : Eaton and Mains. $2. 
 
 CoRxiLL, C. H. : " History of the People of Israel." Chicago : 
 Open Court Publishing Co. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, 
 Truebner and Co. §L50. 
 
 CoRxiLL, C. H. : "Prophets of Israel." Chicago: Open Court 
 Publishing Co. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Truebner, 
 and Co. §1. 
 
 Cox, S. : "The Book of Ecclesiastes," "Expositor's Bible." 
 New York: A. C. Armstrong and Son. 8L50. 
 
 Davidson, A. B. : "Book of Ezekiel," "Cambridge Bible." 
 Cambridge: University Press. 5s. 
 
 Davidson, A. B. : " Book of Job," " Cambridge Bible." Cam- 
 bridge : University Pi-ess. 5s. 
 
 Davis, J. D. " Genesis and Semitic Tradition." New York: 
 Charles Scribner's Sons. |1.,50. 
 
 Delitzsch, Friedrich: " liabcl and Bible." Chicago: Open 
 Court Publishing Co. ij.""). 
 
 Doxehoo, J. De Q. : " Apocryphal and Legendary Life of 
 Christ." New York and Loudon: Macmillan and Co. 
 82.50. 
 
 Driver, S. R. : " Daniel," " Cambridge Bible." Cambridge : Uni- 
 versity Press. 2s. Gd. 
 Driver, S. R. : "Deuteronomy," "International Critical Com- 
 mentary." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $;}. 
 Driver, S. R. : " Genesis," " Westminster Commentaries," 
 New York: Edwin S. Gorham. London: Methucu and 
 Co. 84.
 
 222 APPENDIX 
 
 Driver, S. R. : " An Introduction to the Literature of the Old 
 Testament." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $2.50. 
 
 Edwards, T. C. : " Commentary on the First Epistle to the 
 Corinthians." New York : A. C. Armstrong and Son. 
 $2.50. 
 
 '* Encyclopaedia Biblica." New York and London : Macmillan 
 and Co. 4 vols. $5 each. 
 
 EwALD, IL: "The History of Israel." London: Longmans, 
 Green and Co. 8 vols. $39.50. 
 
 Farrar, F. W. : "Book of Daniel," "Expositor's Bible." 
 New York : A. C. Armstrong and Son. 1.50. 
 
 Farrar, F. W. : " Minor Prophets," " Men of the Bible Series." 
 New York: A. D. F. Randolph and Co. $1. 
 
 FiNDLAY, G. G. : "First Corinthians," "Expositor's Greek 
 Testament," Vol. II. New York : Dodd, Mead and Co. 
 $7.. 50 per vol. 
 
 FiNDLAY, G. G. "First and Second Thessalonians," "Cam- 
 bridge Greek Testament." New York and London : Mac- 
 millan and Co. -fl. 
 
 Fowler, H. T. : "The Prophets as Statesmen and Preachers." 
 Boston, New York, and Chicago : The Pilgrim Press. $.40. 
 
 Genung, J. F. : " The Epic of tlie Inner Life." Boston and 
 New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. $L25. 
 
 Genung, J. F. : " The Words of Koheleth." Boston and New 
 York : Houghton, Mifflin and Co. $L25. 
 
 Geikie, Cuningham. "Hours with the Bible." New York: 
 James Pott and Co. 6 vols. $12. Bound as three, $7..50. 
 
 Gilbert, G. H. : "The Student's Life of Jesus." New York 
 and London : Macmillan and Co. $1.25. 
 
 GooDSPEED, G. S. : " A History of the Babylonians and Assy- 
 rians." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.25. 
 
 Gould, E. P.: " ]\Iark," "International Critical Commentary." 
 New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $2.50. 
 
 Graetz, H. : "History of the Jews." Philadelphia: Jewish 
 Publication Society. 6 vols. $9. 
 
 Green, W. H. : "The Unity of the Book of Genesis." New 
 York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $3. 
 
 Gray, G. B. : " Numbers," "International Critical Commentary." 
 New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $3. 
 
 Grenfell, B. p., and Hunt, A. S. " Logia : Sayings of our 
 Lord." Oxford : University Press. $.50. 
 
 Harper, A.: "Song of Solomon," "Cambridge Bible." Cam- 
 bridge : University Press. Is. Gd.
 
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 223 
 
 Harper, R. F. : "The Code of Hammurabi." Chicago: Uui- 
 versity of Chicago Press. London : Luzac and Co. ^i. 
 
 Harper, W. R. : " Amos and Hosea," " International Critical 
 Commentary." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. §3. 
 
 Hastings, J.: "A Dictionary of the Bible." New York: 
 Charles Scribner's Sons. Edinbm-gh : T. and T. Clarlv. 
 5 vols. $6 each. 
 
 Haupt, Paul: "Book of Ecclesiastes." Baltimore: Johns 
 Hopkins Press. ^.50. 
 
 Hazard, M. C, and Fowler, H. T. : " The Books of the Bible 
 with relation to their Place in History." Boston, New York, 
 Chicago : The Pilgrim Press. $.50. 
 
 HiLPRECHT, H. v.: "Explorations in Bible Lands." Phila- 
 delphia : A. J. Holman and Co. $-3. 
 
 Holtzmaxn, Oscar: "The Life of Jesus," New Y'ork : ]\Iac- 
 millan and Co. $4. 
 
 Jastrow, Morris : " Religion of Babylonia and Assyria." 
 Boston : Ginn and Co. $3.2.5. 
 
 Jewish P^xcyclop.edia : New York and London : Funk and 
 Wagnalls Company. 12 vols. §72. 
 
 Johns, C. II. W. : " Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, 
 and Letters." NewY'ork: Charles Scribner'.s Sons. $3.80. 
 
 JosEPHUS, Flavius : English translation of works by Shilleto. 
 New York and London : Macmillan and Co. 5 vols. $5. 
 
 Julicher, Adolf : " Introduction to the New Testament." 
 New Y^ork : G. P. Putnam's Sons. $4.50. 
 
 Kautzsch, E. : " The Literature of the Old Testament." New 
 York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. London: Williams and 
 Norgate. $2. 
 
 Keane, a. H, : " Ethnology." Cambridge : University Press. 
 $2.60. 
 
 Kennedy, H. A. A. : " Philippians," " Expositor's Greek Testa- 
 ment," Vol. HI. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co. $7.50 
 per vol. 
 
 Kent, C. F. : " A History of the Hebrew People." Vol. L, 
 " United Kingdom," Vol. II., " Divided Kingdom." New 
 Y''ork : Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.50 per vol. 
 
 Kent, C. F. : "A History of the Jewish People, Babylonian, 
 Persian, and Greek Periods." New York: Charles Scrib- 
 ner's Sons. $1.25. 
 
 Kent, C. F. : " Beginnings of Hebrew History." New York : 
 Charles Scribner's Sons. $2.75.
 
 224 APPENDIX 
 
 Kent, C. F. : "Israel's Historical and Biographical Narratives." 
 New York : Charles Scribiier's Sons. 32Jb. 
 
 Kent, C. F. : " Israel's Laws and Traditional Precedents." 
 New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. .12.75. 
 
 Kent, C. F.: "Messages of Israel's Lawgivers." New York: 
 Charles Scribner's Sons. .^1.25. 
 
 Kent, C. F.: "Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testa- 
 ment." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. ^1. 
 
 Kent, C. F. : "The Wise Men of Ancient Israel and their 
 Proverbs." Boston : Silver, Burdett and Co. .^1.25. 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, A. F.: "Book of Psalms." Cambiidge : Univer- 
 sity Press. $2. 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, A. F. : "Psalms," " Cambridge Bible." Cam- 
 bridge : University Press. Book I. 3^. 6d., Books II. III. 
 2s., Books IV. V. 2s. 
 
 KiTTEL, R.: " History of the Hebrews." London: Williams and 
 Norgate. 2 vols. 10s. M. each. 
 
 Knowling, R. J.: "Acts," "Expositor's Greek Testament," 
 Vol. II. New York : Dodd, Mead, and Co. $7.50 per vol. 
 
 Knowling, R. J.: " Commentary on the Epistle of St. James," 
 " AVestminster Commentaries." London : Methuen and Co. 
 $2.50. 
 
 Knowling, R. J.: "Testimony of St. Paul to Christ." New 
 York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $3. 
 
 LiGHTFOOT, J. B.: "St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians." New 
 York and London : Macmillan and Co. $3.25. 
 
 LiGHTFOOT, J. B.: " St. Paul's Epistles to the Colossians and to 
 Philemon." New York and London: Macmillan and Co. 
 $3.25. 
 
 LiGHTFOOT, J. B.: " St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians." New 
 York and London : Macmillan and Co. $3.25. 
 
 MacCoun, G. a.: "The Holy Land in History." New York: 
 F. H. Revell and Co. $1. 
 
 Mahaffy, J. P.: " Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Em- 
 pire." Chicago: University of Chicago Press. $1. 
 
 McCuRDY, J. F.: " History, Prophecy, and the Monuments." 
 New York and London : Macmillan and Co. 3 vols. $3 each. 
 
 McFadyen, J. E.: "Introduction to the Old Testament." New 
 York: A. C. Armstrong and Son. London: Hodder and 
 Stoughton. $1.75. 
 
 McFadyen, J. E.: " INIessages of the Prophetic and Priestly His- 
 torians." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.25.
 
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 225 
 
 McGiKFERT, A. C: "A History of Christianity in the Apostolic 
 
 Age." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. S2.50. 
 Margolioutii, D. S.: "Lines of Defence of Biblical Revelation." 
 
 Loudou : Hodder and Stoughton. $1.50. 
 Maspero, G.: "The Passing of Empires." New Y'ork : D. 
 
 Appleton and Co. $7.50. 
 Maspero, G.: "The Struggle of the Nations." New Y'ork: 
 
 D. Appleton and Co. S7.50. 
 Massie, Johx : "Corinthians," "New-Century Bible." New 
 
 Y'ork and London: Henry Frowde. $.90. 
 Mathews, Shailer : " A History of New Testament Times in 
 
 Palestine." New York and London : Macmillan and Co. 
 
 $.75. 
 Mayor, J. B.: "The Epistle of St. James." New Y'ork and 
 
 London : Macmillan and Co. i^S-SO. 
 Menzies, Allan: "The Earliest Gospel." New Y''ork and 
 
 London : Macmillan and Co. $2.75. 
 Mitchell, H. G.: "The World before Abraham." Boston, 
 
 New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. $1.75. 
 Moffatt, James: "The Historical New Testament." New 
 
 York: Charles Scribner's Sons. $4.50. 
 Moller, Wilhelm : "Are the Critics Eight?" New Y'ork, 
 
 Chicago, Toronto: F. H. Revell Co. $1. 
 Moore, G. F.: "Judges," "International Critical Commentary." 
 
 New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $3. 
 Moultox, R. G.: "A Short Introduction to the Literature of the 
 
 Bible." Boston: D. C. Heath and Co. $1. 
 Moulton, K,. G. : " The Literary Study of the Bible." Boston: 
 
 D. C. Heath and Co. $2. 
 Newberry and Gakstaxg : " Short History of Ancient Egypt." 
 
 Boston: Dana, Estes and Co.; London: Archibald Con- 
 stable and Co. $1.20. 
 Orr, James: "The Problem of the Old Testament." New 
 
 York: Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.50. 
 Page, T. E.: " Tiie Acts of the Apostles." New York and 
 
 London: Macmillan and Co. $1.10. 
 Patox, L. B.: "Early History of Syria and Palestine." New 
 
 York: Charles Scribner's Sous. $1.25. 
 Peake, a. S.: " Colossians," " Expo.sitor's Greek Testament." 
 
 Vol. HI. S7.5() ].er vol. 
 Peake, A. S.: " Helnvws " "New-Century Bible." New Y'ork 
 
 and London : Henry Frowde. $.00. 
 
 15
 
 226 APPENDIX 
 
 Perowne, J. J. S.: "The Book of Psalms." New York and 
 
 Loudon : Macnnllan and Co. 2 vols. ^5. 
 Peters, J. P.: "Early Hebrew Story." New York: G. P. 
 
 Putnam's Sons. London : Williams and Norgate. $1.25. 
 Plummer, Alfred : " Epistles of St. John," " Cambridge Greek 
 
 Testament." New York and Loudon : Macmillan and Co. §il. 
 Plummer, Alfred: "Luke," "International Critical Commen- 
 tary." New York : Chai-les Scribner's Sons. S3. 
 Plumptre, E. H. : " Book of Ecclesiastes," " Cambridge Bible." 
 
 Cambridge : L^niversity Press. 5s. 
 Plumptre, E. H. : "Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude, " 
 
 "Cambridge Bible." New York and London: Macmillan 
 
 and Co. S.60. 
 Porter, F. C. : "Messages of the Apocalyptical Writers." 
 
 New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ^1.25. 
 Price, I. M. : "The Monuments and the Old Testament." 
 
 Chicago: The Christian Culture Press. $1.50. 
 Ramsay, AV. M. : " Historical Commentary on St. Paul's 
 
 Epistle to the Galatians." New York : G. P. Putnam's 
 
 Sons. $3. 
 Ramsay, W. M. : " St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen." 
 
 New York : G. P. Putnam's Sons. $3. 
 Ramsay, W. M. : " AVas Christ born at Bethlehem? " New 
 
 York : G. P. Putnam's Sons. Loudon : Hodder and 
 
 Stoughton. $1.75. 
 Rhees, Rush : " The Life of Jesus of Nazareth." New York : 
 
 Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.25. 
 RiGGS, J. S. : "A History of the Jewish People, Maccabean 
 
 and Roman Periods." New York: Charles Scribner's 
 
 Sons. $r.25. 
 RoBixsox, J. A. : " St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians." New 
 
 York and London : Macmillan and Co. $3. 
 Rogers, R. W. : " History of Babylonia and Assyria." New 
 
 York : Eaton and Mains. Cincinnati : Jennings and Pye. 
 
 2 vols. S5. 
 Ropes, J. H. : " The Apostolic Age in the Light of Modern 
 
 Criticism." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.50. 
 Ryle, PL E. : " Early Narratives of Genesis." New York and 
 
 London: Macmillan and Co. $1. 
 Ryle, H. E., and James, M. R. : "Psalms of the Pharisees, or 
 
 Psalms of Solomon." Cambridge: University Press. New 
 
 York: Macmillan and Co. §3.75.
 
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAl'IIY 22 
 
 
 Salmon, George : " Historical Introduction to the Study of the 
 Books of the New Testament." London : John Murray. 
 New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $3.r)0. 
 
 Salmond, S. D. F. : "Ephesians," "Expositor's Greek Testa- 
 ment,'' Vol. TIL New York : Dodd, Mead and Co. 
 ^7.5U per vol. 
 
 Sanday, William: "Outlines of the Life of Christ." New 
 York : Charles Scribner's Sons, f 1.25. 
 
 Sanday, William: " Tlie Criticism of the Fourth Gospel," 
 New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.75. 
 
 Sanday, W., and Headlam, A. C. : " Romans," " International 
 Critical Commentary." New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 
 
 Sanders, F. K. : "The Teacher's Life of Christ." Boston: 
 
 Bible Study Publishing Co. |1. 
 Sanders, F. K., and Kent, C. F. : "Messages of the Earlier 
 
 Prophets." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.25. 
 Sanders, F. K., and Kent, C. F. : " Messages of the Later 
 
 Prophets." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $1.25. 
 Sayce, a. 11. ; "Babylonians and Assyrians." New York: 
 
 Charles Scribner's Sons. $L25. 
 Sayce, A. H. : " Records of Past." New York : James Pott and 
 
 Co. 6 vols. $L50 each. 
 SchI'rer, E. : "Jewish People in Time of Jesus Christ." New 
 
 York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 5 vols. $8. 
 Scott, C. A. : " The Book of Revelation," "New-Century Bible." 
 
 New York and London: Henry Frowdc. $.90. 
 Skinner, J.: " Ezekiel," "Expositor's Bible." New York: 
 
 A. C. Armstrong and Son. .|1..50. 
 Skinner, J. : " Isaiah XL-LXVf," " Cambridge Bible." Cam- 
 bridge : L'^niversity Press. Is. 
 Smith, G. A.: " Book of Isaiah," " Expositor's Bible." New 
 
 York: A. C. Armstrong and Son. 2 vols. $1.50 each. 
 Smith, G. A.: "Book of the Twelve Prophets," " Expositor's 
 
 Bible." New York : A. C. Armstrong and Son. 2 vols. 
 
 $1.50 each. 
 Smith, G. A. " Historical Geography of tlie Holy Land." 
 
 New York: A. C. Armstrong and Son. $1.50. 
 Smith, G. A.: " INIodern Criticism and Preaching of the Old 
 
 Testament." Now York : A. C. Armstrong and Son. 
 
 $1.50. 
 Smith, H. P.: " Old Testament History." New York : Charles 
 
 Scribner's Sons. $2.50.
 
 228 APPENDIX 
 
 Smith, H. P.: "Samuel," "International Critical Commen- 
 tary," New York: Charles Scribuer's Sons. ^3. 
 
 Smith, W. R. : " Old Testament in the Jewish Church." Lon- 
 don and Edinburgh : A. and C. Black. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Stevens, G. B. : " The Messages of Paul." New York: Charles 
 Scribner's Sons. |1.25. 
 
 Stevens, W. A., and Burton, E. D. : "A Harmony of the 
 Gospels." New York : Charles iScribner's Sons. SI. 
 
 SwETE, H. B. : " The Gospel according to St. Mark." New 
 York : Macmillan and Co. $3.75. 
 
 Toy, C. H. : " Ezekiel " in " The Sacred Books of the Old and 
 New Testaments." New York : Dodd, Mead and Co. $2.50. 
 
 Toy, C. II. : "Proverbs," "International Critical Commen- 
 tary." New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. $3. 
 
 Vincent, M. R. : " Philippians and Philemon," "International 
 Critical Commentary." New York: Charles Scribner's 
 Sons. $2. 
 
 Von Soden, Hermann: " History Early Christian Literature." 
 New York : G. P. Putnam's Sons. London : Williams and 
 Norgate. $1.50. 
 
 Votaw, C. W. : " The Apostolic Age." New York aiad Lon- 
 don : Macmillan and Co. $.75. 
 
 Wade, G. W. : "Old Testament History." New York: E. P. 
 Button and Co. London: Methuen and Co. $1.50. 
 
 Weiss, Bernhard : " A Manual of Introduction to the New 
 Testament. " New York : The Funk and Wagnalls Co. 
 2 vols. $4. 
 
 Weizsacker, Carl : " The Apostolic Age of the Christian 
 Church." New York: G. P. Putman's Sons. London: 
 Williams and Norgate. 2 vols. $7. 
 
 Westcott, B. F. : "The Epistle to the Hebrews." New York 
 and London : Macmillan and Co. SI. 
 
 Westcott, B. F. : "The Epistles of St. John." New York 
 and London : Macmillan and Co. $3.50, r2.s'. 6d. 
 
 Worcester, E. : " The Book of Genesis in the Light of Modern 
 Knowledge." New York : McClure, Phillips and Co. $3.
 
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL BOOKS AND 
 PASSAGES 
 
 Genesis. 
 
 Page 
 
 i-1 56 
 
 i-xi, 26 48 
 
 i-ii, 4a 30 
 
 ii, 4b-25 32 
 
 ii, 8-17 33 
 
 iii, 1-24 33 
 
 iv, 1-lGa 35 
 
 iv, 16b-v 3G 
 
 iv, 23, 24 70 
 
 vi-ix, 19 39 
 
 ix, 20-28 41 
 
 X 41 
 
 xi, 1-9 43 
 
 xi, 10-26 44 
 
 xi, 27-xxv, 18 50 
 
 XXV, 19-xxxvi 53 
 
 xxxvii-1 55 
 
 xlix 70 
 
 xlix, 1-27 81 
 
 Exodus. 
 
 i-xix, 2a . . 
 xiii, 6, 10-13 . 
 XV, 1-18 . . . 
 xix, 2b-xl . . 
 XX, 1-17 . . 
 XX, 23-xxiii, 19 
 
 58 
 
 103 
 
 70 
 
 61 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 xxxiv, 14-26 71, 81 
 
 Leviticus. 
 
 i-x 
 i-iii 
 v-vii 
 xi-xv 
 
 135 
 131 
 131 
 131 
 
 Page 
 
 xi 122 
 
 xii-xvi 135 
 
 xvii-xxvi 122 
 
 xxvii 135 
 
 NusiBEKS. 
 
 V, vi 
 
 
 131 
 
 X, 11-xxxiv .... 
 
 
 62 
 
 X, 35, .36 
 
 
 70 
 
 XV, xix, 14-22 . . . 
 
 
 131 
 
 xxi, 14 
 
 
 81 
 
 xxi, 17, 18 
 
 
 70 
 
 xxi, 27-30 
 
 
 70 
 
 xxni, xxiv 
 
 
 70 
 
 xxiii, 7-10, 18-24, xxiv, 3-9, 
 
 
 15-17 
 
 . 81 
 
 Deuteronomy. 
 
 i-xxxiv 104, 125 
 
 v-xxvi, xxviii . . . . 103, 107 
 
 xxxii, 1-43 122 
 
 xxxiii 94 
 
 JosnuA. 
 
 i-xii 66 
 
 X, 13 81 
 
 xiii-.\xii 66 
 
 xxiii, xxiv 
 
 Judges. 
 
 i-ii, 5 . . . . . 
 ii, 6-xxi . . . . 
 
 v 
 
 ix, 8-15 . . . . 
 xiv, 14, 18, XV, 10 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 68 
 70 
 70 
 70
 
 230 
 
 I-IV 
 
 Ruth. 
 
 1 Samuel. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 I Esther. 
 i-x 145, 147 
 
 Job. 
 
 Page 
 68, 136 
 
 l-VU . . 
 
 viii-xxxi 
 XXX, 24, 25 
 
 2 Samuel. 
 
 i-xxiv .... 
 
 i, 17 
 
 i, 19-27, iii, 33, 34 
 
 68 
 73 
 81 
 
 74 
 81 
 80 
 
 1 Kings. 
 
 i-xi 
 
 . 78 
 
 Xll-XVl 
 
 82 
 
 xvii-2 Kings iii . . . . 
 
 . 83 
 
 2 Kings. 
 
 
 i-iii 
 
 . 83 
 
 iv-xvii 
 
 87 
 
 xi-xxi 
 
 . 95 
 
 xxii-xxv 
 
 . 104 
 
 1 Chronicles. 
 
 i-xxix 
 xi-xxix 
 
 140, 142 
 
 , . 76 
 
 2 Chronicles. 
 
 i-xxvi 140, 142 
 
 i-ix 78 
 
 x-xxii, 9 83 
 
 Ezra. 
 
 i-x ....... 140, 142 
 
 i-vi 127 
 
 iv-vi 136 
 
 vii-x 132 
 
 Page 
 
 i-xlil 
 
 138 
 
 Psalms. 
 
 i-cl 
 
 157 
 
 ii, xviii, XX, xxi, xxviii . . 113 
 
 iii-xli 137 
 
 xlii, xliii 118 
 
 xlv, Ixi, Ixxii, Ixxvi, Ixxxix, 
 
 ci, ex 113 
 
 Proverbs. 
 
 i-xxxi 142 
 
 x-xxii, 16, xxv-xxix ... 114 
 
 Ecclesiastes. 
 
 141, 144 
 
 Song of Solomon, 
 
 l-Vlll 
 
 Isaiah 
 
 i-xxxix . . 
 i-xxxv . . 
 xiii, 2-xiv, 23 
 xxi, 1-10 
 xxiv-xxvii . 
 xxxiv, XXXV 
 xxxvi-xxxix 
 xl-lv . . . 
 xl-xlviii . . 
 xlix-lv . . 
 Ivi-lxii . . 
 Ixiii-lxvi 
 
 143 
 
 . . 99 
 
 . . 96 
 
 123, 125 
 
 123, 125 
 
 133, 137 
 
 133, 135 
 
 . . 95 
 
 . . ] 24 
 
 . . 125 
 
 . . 125 
 
 128, 131 
 
 133. 135 
 
 Jeremiah, 
 
 Nehemiah. 
 
 I-XIU . . 
 
 i-vii, 5, xiii 
 
 140, 142 
 . . 136 
 
 i-lii 
 
 104 
 
 i, ii, iii, 1-5, 6-18, iii, 19-iv, 
 
 2, iv, 3-vi, xi, 1-8 ... 108 
 
 vii, 1-20, vii, 21-viii, 22, ix,x, 
 17-25, xi, 9-17, xi, 18-
 
 BIBLICAL BOOKS AND PASSAGES 
 
 231 
 
 Page 
 xii, 6, xii, 7-17, xiii, 1-17, 
 xiii, 18, 19, xiii, 20-27, xiv, 
 1-xvii, IS, xviii-xx . . . 110 
 xxi, 1-10, xxi, U-xxii, 9 . . Ill 
 
 xxii, 10-xxiii, 8 110 
 
 xxiii, 9-40 Ill 
 
 xxiv 111,117 
 
 XXV, xxvi 110 
 
 xxvii-xxix Ill 
 
 xxix 11" 
 
 xxx-xxxiii, xxxiv . . . . Ill 
 
 XXXV, xxxvi 110 
 
 xxxvii-xxxix, xl-xliv . . . Ill 
 
 xliv 117 
 
 xlv 110 
 
 xlvi-xlix Ill 
 
 1, li 124,125 
 
 lii Ill 
 
 Lasientations. 
 
 1-V 
 
 118, 121 
 
 Page 
 
 Obauiau. 
 1-21 118, 121 
 
 Jonah. 
 
 141, 142 
 
 MlCAII. 
 
 i-vii 96, 101 
 
 Naiiim. 
 
 i-m 
 
 1-111 
 
 i-iu 
 
 Habakkuk. 
 
 Zephaniah, 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 105 
 
 Haggai. 
 
 EZEKIEL. 
 
 i-xxiv 104,112 
 
 xxv-xlviii 117 
 
 xxv-xxxii 119 
 
 xxix, 1-16, XXX, xxxi . . . 112 
 
 xxxiii-xxxix 120 
 
 xl-xlviii 120 
 
 Daniel, 
 
 l-Vl, VU-Xll 
 
 vii-xi . 
 
 154 
 
 152 
 
 1, 11 . 
 
 Zechariah. 
 
 127, 130 
 
 i-viii . 
 
 
 128, 130 
 
 ix-xiv 
 
 
 140, 142 
 
 Malachi. 
 -iv 132, 135 
 
 Matthew. 
 
 IIOSEA. 
 
 i-xiv 88,93 
 
 Joel. 
 i-iii 133, 136 
 
 Amo8. 
 i-ix 88, 92 
 
 I-XXVIU 
 
 174. 185 
 
 Mark. 
 i-xvi 174, 184 
 
 Luke. 
 i-xxiv 175, 186 
 
 ■John. 
 i-xxi 175, 187,214
 
 232 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Acts. 
 
 Page 
 
 i-xxviii 202 
 
 i-xii 189 
 
 i, 3, 4, 9, 13, 16, 22, ii, 22, 23, 
 
 iii, 13, 14, iv, 27, x. 38-41 . 172 
 
 xiii-xviii, 22 192 
 
 xiii, 24-31 172 
 
 xviii, 23-xxi, 16 196 
 
 XX, 35 172 
 
 xxi, 17-xxviii 202 
 
 xxii, 3-21, XX vi, 2-23 ... 189 
 
 Romans. 
 
 i-xvi 197, 200 
 
 i, 3, V, 19 171 
 
 vii, 7-11 190 
 
 viii, 3, ix, 5, xv, 3, 8 . . . 171 
 
 1 Corinthians. 
 
 i-xvi 197, 199 
 
 ii, 1-5 192 
 
 ii, 2, vii, 10, 11, ix, 5, 14, xi, 
 
 23-26, XV, 3-8 171 
 
 2 Corinthians. 
 
 i-xiii 197, 200 
 
 iv, 14, V, 21 171 
 
 vi, 14-vii, 1 200 
 
 viii, 9, X, 1 171 
 
 X, 1-xiii, 10 200 
 
 xi. 21-27, 32, 33, xii, 1-4 . . 190 
 
 Galatians. 
 
 i-vi 192, 195 
 
 i, 11-ii, 10 190 
 
 i, 19, iv, 4, vi, 2 171 
 
 Ephesians. 
 
 i-vi .... 
 iii, 19, iv, 10, V, 2 
 
 . 203, 207 
 . . . 171 
 
 Philippians. 
 
 i-iv 
 1,5 
 
 203, 208 
 , . 192 
 
 Page 
 
 ii, 5-11 172 
 
 iv, 15, 16 192 
 
 COLOSSIANS. 
 
 i-iv 203, 207 
 
 iii, 16 172 
 
 1 Thessalonians. 
 
 i-v 192, 195 
 
 iv, 14, 15 171 
 
 2 Thessalonians. 
 
 i-iii 192, 195 
 
 1 Timothy. 
 
 i-vi 205, 208 
 
 ii, 5, 6, iii, 16 172 
 
 2 Timothy. 
 
 i-iv 205, 208 
 
 Titus. 
 i-iii 205, 208 
 
 Philemon. 
 1-25 203, 207 
 
 Hebrews. 
 
 i-xiii 210 
 
 ii, 10, 18, iv, 15, v, 7-9, vii, 
 14, xii, 2, 3, xiii, 12 . . . 172 
 
 James. 
 i-v 191, 214 
 
 1 Peter. 
 
 i-v 206, 208 
 
 ii, 22, 23 172
 
 BIBLICAL BOOKS AND PASSAGES 
 
 
 2 Petkr. 
 
 i-m 
 
 i, 16, 18 
 
 1 John. 
 
 i-v 
 
 i, 5, iii, 8, iv, 9, 21, v, 6 
 
 2 John. 
 
 1-12 
 
 215 
 172 
 
 213 
 172 
 
 213 
 
 3 Joiix. 
 
 1-13 
 
 1-24 
 
 Juni:. 
 
 Revelation. 
 
 i-xxu 
 
 i, 5, V, 5, xxii, IG 
 
 Page 
 213 
 
 215 
 
 211 
 172
 
 PLATE
 
 PALESTINE at the time of the COJiQCEST 
 
 PLATE II 
 
 PALESTIXE after the COXQl EST 
 
 I jAiTiuiitfK 
 ■f-T'^ ] | Auialekilf.«' 
 
 I lEUiiniilca 
 
 i lAninionitt-s 
 I IPhlli.stiucn. 
 ] iCunHHiiiies' 
 
 / Damaecua 
 
 I lAliiali'klU' 
 C^MoHblU'i. 
 I IKJuliilH'B 
 I lAnnnollUt^^ 
 
 I IPlllli-.lllK-s 
 
 I I C.iiiiiiiiillei- 
 I I Hebrt-WD 
 
 Daiuhhciik 
 
 Phlir^thu- 
 
 CD 
 
 Bvbrewe 
 
 PALESTINE uiid.r DAVIU 
 
 Tin: on ii»i:i» ki.vuuum
 
 PLATE III
 
 PLATE IV
 
 PLATE V 
 
 Western Aaia iu the time of ANTIOCIIDS EPirUANES, 176-164 B.C. 
 
 ' DaiiiUKcuu 
 
 Jl'l>KA under Jt'UAMuiid JONATHAN 
 ini-lVi It.C. 
 
 JL'UEA under ALICX AM>I':Jt JANNAEIH 
 104-78 U.V.
 
 KINGDOM of IIEROU THE CnEAT. 
 SO-i IJ. C. 
 
 PLATE VI 
 
 PALESTINE under SON'S of IIEROU, 
 
 4 IJ. f..« A. D. 
 
 M,-ft WOflKS 
 
 I'ALEhTINE In Hit- lluic utCllKlisT 
 
 I'ALtsTiM; ui.iiii Hilton AiiUirrA, 
 
 1 I A. I».
 
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