onal 
 ity 
 
 
 
 H-
 
 MANUAL 
 
 HOME-MADE APPARATUS 
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO 
 
 CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 JOHN F. WOODHULL, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE IN TEACHERS' COLLEGE, 
 
 NEW YORK CITY J AUTHOR OF "SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS FOR THE 
 
 SCHOOLROOM," AND "FIRST COURSE IN SCIENCE." 
 
 NEW tORK AND CHICAGO: 
 
 E. L. KELLOGG & CO.
 
 THE FIRST EDITION OF THIS BOOK, PRINTED UPON THE 
 CYCLOSTYLE, WAS PUBLISHED IN 1888, COPIES OF WHICH 
 WERE SOLD IN NEARLY EVERY STATE OF THE UNION AND 
 IN ABOUT TEN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Copyright, 1895, by 
 
 E. L. KELLOGG & CO., 
 
 NEW YORK.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 COURSE IN GLASS-WORKING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Bending glass tubing. 5 
 
 2. Drawing and closing glass tubing 6 
 
 3. Blowing bulbs 8 
 
 4. Cutting glass tubing, bottle, etc 8 
 
 5. To bore holes in glass 10 
 
 PART II. 
 CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 
 
 7. Oxygen apparatus 12 
 
 8-10. Glass generators 13 
 
 11. Gas generator with condensing chamber 15 
 
 12. Apparatus for showing that a portion of the air is con- 
 
 sumed in combustion 16 
 
 13. Apparatus for determining the proportion of oxygen in the 
 
 air 16 
 
 14. Miner's safety lamp 17 
 
 15-16. Test-tube, rack, and tongs 18 
 
 17. Blowpipe 19 
 
 18. Distilling apparatus 19 
 
 19. Apparatus to show that water may be produced by passing 
 
 hydrogen over hot copper oxide 20 
 
 iii
 
 iv Table of Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 20. Apparatus to show that hydrogen may be produced by pass- 
 
 ing steam over hot iron filings 21 
 
 21. Apparatus to show that oxygen or chlorine will burn in hy- 
 
 drogen 22 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PHYSICAL APPARA TUS. 
 
 22. Apparatus io show that air occupies space to the exclusion 
 
 of other things 24 
 
 23. Apparatus to show that invisible substances may have 
 
 weight 24 
 
 24. Receiver for experiments in rarefied and condensed air... . 25 
 25-27. Apparatus to show that the volume of air varies as the 
 
 pressure upon it increases or decreases , 26 
 
 28. Apparatus to demonstrate that the volume of a gas varies 
 
 inversely as the pressure upon it 28 
 
 29. Apparatus to show a fountain caused by atmospheric press- 
 
 ure and a fountain caused by compressed air 29 
 
 30. Barometer 30 
 
 31. Apparatus to show that liquid pressure increases with the 
 
 depth 33 
 
 32. Apparatus to show that the increase of liquid pressure is 
 
 proportional to the depth 33 
 
 33. Apparatus to show that at any given depth in a liquid the 
 
 pressure is the same in all directions 35 
 
 34. Apparatus for illustrating buoyancy and the transmission of 
 
 pressure through liquids 36 
 
 35. Apparatus to show the transmission of water pressure by 
 
 an air column 36 
 
 37a. Apparatus to illustrate total fluid pressure in a closed 
 
 vessel 37 
 
 38. Apparatus to illustrate the reaction of a jet of water 38 
 
 39. Student's lamp 39 
 
 40. Fountain sponge-cup 39
 
 Table of Contents. v 
 
 PAGE 
 
 41. Lifting-pump 40 
 
 42. Force pump 41 
 
 43. Apparatus to illustrate the moment of a force 41 
 
 44. Apparatus illustrating the second law of motion 42 
 
 45. Centre of gravity disk 43 
 
 46. Apparatus to show the specific gravity of liquids when 
 
 measured by their buoyant force 43 
 
 47. Apparatus to show the specific gravity of liquids when bal- 
 
 anced against atmospheric pressure 43 
 
 49. Apparatus to illustrate osmose 44 
 
 51. Apparatus for illustrating the formation of ice crystal in a 
 
 snowstorm 45 
 
 53. Apparatus to illustrate the unequal expansion of different 
 
 metals when heated 46 
 
 54. Apparatus to illustrate the expansion of liquids by heat 
 
 Thermometer 46 
 
 55 and 553. Apparatus to illustrate the expansion of air by 
 
 heat Air thermometer 47 
 
 56 and 57. Apparatus to show how air-currents are produced 
 
 by heat 47 
 
 58. Apparatus to show that water and air are poor conductors 
 
 of heat 49 
 
 59. Funnel for hot filtration 49 
 
 60. Illustration of bunsen burner 50 
 
 6r. Illustration of blastlamp, blowpipe, etc 50 
 
 62. " Fish-tail " burner 51 
 
 63-65. Tumbler and plunger batteries 51 
 
 66. Telegraph sounder 53 
 
 68. Apparatus for decomposing liquids by an electric current... 54 
 
 69. Electric motor 55 
 
 70. Annunciator and electric bell . 56 
 
 71. Burglar-alarm v . 58 
 
 72. Primary and secondary coils 58 
 
 73. Telephone 59 
 
 75. Electroscope 59
 
 vi Table QJ' Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 76. Electrophorus. . , . 59 
 
 77. Leyden jar 60 
 
 79. Apparatus to illustrate that air or some medium is neces- 
 sary to transmit sound. : 60 
 
 80-91. Apparatus to illustrate the subject of light 60 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL APPARA TUS. 
 
 92. Apparatus to illustrate the action of muscles , . 61 
 
 93. Apparatus to show the action of the intercostal muscles to 
 
 enlarge the chest cavity 62 
 
 94. Apparatus to show how inhalation and exhalation result 
 
 from the expansion and contraction of the chest cavity. . 63 
 
 95. Apparatus to illustrate the circulation of the blood and the 
 
 lymph 66 
 
 96. Apparatus to show how muscular action assists the circula- 
 
 tion of the blood in the veins and the flow of the lymph 
 in the lymphatics 69 
 
 97. Apparatus to illustrate how the tension of the air in the in- 
 
 terior of the ear is adjusted to changes of atmospheric 
 pressure.
 
 HOME-MADE APPARATUS. 
 
 PART I. COURSE IN GLASS-WORKING. 
 
 i. Bending Glass Tubing. Small glass tubing may 
 be bent in an ordinary gas or kerosene-lamp flame, but an 
 alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner is preferred. The glass 
 should be well softened, by heating it in the flame, before 
 attempting to bend it. If, for 
 example, the end a (figure i) is 
 one and one-half inches from 
 the flame, the tube' ought to be 
 softened enough so that it will 
 bend down of its own weight. FlG - r - 
 
 At first keep the tube constantly rolling, so as to 
 heat it on all sides, but when it begins to bend cease 
 rolling, and move it a little to the right and left, to 
 heat the adjacent parts. Do not let it bend rapidly, 
 By moving it to the right and left occasionally you 
 may keep it bending slowly in as gradual a curve as 
 you may desire. Figure 2 represents a tube bent 
 thus. It is well to remember that the hot part of the 
 flame is at the outer edges, where the combustible vapors 
 come in contact with the air. A tube, therefore, if kept 
 perfectly still in a flame, would be liable to bend as 
 
 5
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 represented in figure 3, because it would be softened 
 chiefly at the points c and d. In this matter perfection 
 can be reached only by much practice. Patience rather 
 than skill is the requisite capital. Hence there is no 
 reason why any one may not bend glass tubing sufficiently 
 well for all practical purposes. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 Only small tubing, whose inside diameter does not 
 exceed three-sixteenths of an inch, can be readily bent 
 in an alcohol flame; and for this purpose the wick must 
 be drawn up half or three-quarters of an inch and the 
 tube must be held in the hottest part of the flame, which 
 is the upper third. Glass tubing is quite inexpensive. 
 It should not cost over fifty cents a pound, and a pound 
 of the size mentioned above contains about twenty-five 
 feet. 
 
 2. Drawing and Closing Glass Tubing Hold one 
 end in each hand and keep the tube rolling continually 
 while holding it in the flame, so as to soften it all around.
 
 Course in Glass-working 7 
 
 When it has become quite soft remove it from the flame 
 
 and pull. You will 
 
 readily draw it out, as 
 
 represented in figure 5. 
 
 Make a very slight 
 
 scratch at a with a three- 
 cornered file and break 
 
 the tube at that point. Finish the broken ends by hold- 
 ing them for an instant 
 
 .. ^^ in the flame. With care 
 
 FlG you will be able to melt 
 
 the ends so as to make 
 
 them smooth, without bending or closing them. The end 
 
 ac will serve many useful purposes as a "dropper-tube," if 
 
 a small rubber bulb called a x -^ 
 
 " dropper-bulb" is put upon the 
 
 end c. The end ab may be used FlG - 6 - 
 
 for throwing jets of water, as illustrated in figure 40, p. 29. 
 One is always obliged to proceed according to the 
 
 above directions in order to close large tubing; and 
 by this method I have even drawn apart an argand- 
 lamp chimney. It was necessary to smoke the 
 chimney all around first and then to heat gradually 
 with constant rolling. 
 
 A very much better way, however, to deal with 
 small tubing is as follows : Hold the tube so that 
 the end projects not more than an eighth of an 
 inch into the flame, and keep it rolling slowly, so as 
 to heat it uniformly on all sides. It will soon close 
 
 FIG.?, up entirely; or, if you want a tube for throwing 
 
 jets of water, arrest the process just before the tube is
 
 8 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 quite closed, leaving a little hole in the end. This 
 method has two advantages over the other, 
 
 described on p. . First, this will throw 
 
 a straight stream, while in most cases the 
 other will not ; and, secondly, this will be 
 FIG. 8. thick and strong at the end, while the 
 
 other will be very thin and quite liable to get broken. 
 
 3. Blowing Bulbs. In order to blow a bulb at the 
 end of a glass tube, hold the end of the tube, as shown 
 in figure 8, so as to project a slight distance into the 
 flame. Roll it slowly until it is entirely closed and raised 
 to a red-heat. Close the lips air-tight over the other end, 
 remove it from the flame, and quickly force air into it, 
 taking great care to stop blowing before the bulb bursts. 
 
 4. Cutting Glass Tubing, Bottles, etc. For tubing 
 under half an inch in diameter use a three-cornered file 
 and give it a sharp, quick push across the tube so as to leave 
 a scratch, or, if the tube is over a quarter of an inch in 
 diameter, file a rather deep gash, then place your thumbs 
 on the opposite side of the tube and pull suddenly as 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 if to bend the tube. It will break exactly where you 
 intended and leave an even, smooth surface at the end, 
 having, however, sharp cutting edges. These should be
 
 Course in Glass-working. 
 
 trimmed a little with a file or held in a flame until they 
 
 are nicely rounded. 
 
 For tubing over half an inch in diameter pursue the 
 
 same plan as for cutting glass bottles. To cut glass 
 
 bottles : Thrust the stove poker into the fire and, while 
 
 it is heating, cut quite a deep gash 
 
 in one side of the bottle with a wet 
 
 file. This will give the right direc 
 
 tion to the crack which you are about 
 
 to make. Touch the hot poker to the 
 
 glass at one end of this gash, and 
 
 a short crack will start in the direc- 
 tion required. Now place the poker 
 
 so that it will touch the glass about 
 
 one-eighth of an inch from the end 
 
 of the crack and it will slowly creep 
 
 up to the poker. Thus one may 
 
 lead it at will. The bottom of this 
 
 bottle will make a glass jar and the top will have a great 
 
 many uses. See Fig. 12. 
 
 For very thick bottles one needs a red-hot iron, but 
 
 for thin glass it should not be red-hot, because the crack 
 
 will sometimes run faster than one can control it. With 
 proper care we may cut glass by 
 this method into any shape which 
 we may desire. It is often desir- 
 able to mark out the course on the 
 glass with the sharp point of a wet 
 black-board crayon to help the eye 
 in leading the crack. By this 
 method I have cut from a pane of 
 
 FIG. ii. 
 
 FIG. 12.
 
 10 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 glass scale-pans for home-made balances. In this case 
 it is necessary to file a gash at the edge and start the 
 crack there. See Fig. 13. 
 
 One may lead a crack around a moderately thin bottle 
 or lamp chimney by a glass rod or 
 tube heated in an alcohol or Bun- 
 sen burner flame. This is the 
 most convenient way to do it in 
 the laboratory. The glass rod, 
 being a poor conductor of heat, 
 does not cool off as rapidly as an 
 iron rod, and does not conduct 
 F 16 - T 3- heat to the hand. 
 
 5. To Bore Holes in Glass. Break off the tip end of a 
 round file, sometimes called a " rat-tail " file. With this 
 we may readily bore holes in glass. Hold the file as 
 represented in Fig. 14, 
 bearing on heavily with 
 the thumb. Swing the 
 file back and forth hor- 
 izontally, as indicated 
 by the arrows, at the 
 same time giving it a 
 twisting motion. The 
 file should be fre- 
 quently dipped into FlG - I4 ' 
 water. A paste made of camphor-gum and turpentine 
 has been widely recommended to assist the file in cutting 
 glass, and many persons have paid heavily for the secret, 
 but it would seem that water answers the purpose quite 
 as well. Indeed, it is probable that anything is equally
 
 Course in Glass-working. 
 
 good which will retain the little particles of glass that 
 have been clipped off and make them cling to the file so 
 that they may be made to assist in the work. It requires 
 between five and ten minutes of patient work to make a 
 hole through the side of an ordinary bottle. After the 
 hole has been put through the glass it may be trimmed 
 out with a wet, round file to any -.;ize desired. Here, 
 however, great care must be exercised to avoid cracking 
 the bottle. 
 
 Glass tubing may be made to fit in such a hole water- 
 tight by making the hole a little larger 
 than the tube, then by drawing a small 
 piece of soft rubber tubing over the end 
 of the glass tube and crowding it firmly 
 into the hole. (See figure 15.) 
 
 A cap which will answer the purpose 
 of a stop-cock in many instances may 
 be constructed as follows : Take a short 
 piece of rubber tubing and plug one 
 end with a very short piece of glass rod 
 
 ill 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 or tubing closed at one end in the flame. 
 
 It is evident thai: when one can bend, draw, and close 
 glass tubing, cut glass as he chooses, bore holes in bottles 
 and fit tubes in them water-tight, the way is open to con- 
 struct an endless variety of apparatus.
 
 12 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 PART II. CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 
 
 No. 7.* The Oxygen Apparatus In the test-tube, 
 figure 1 6, which suffices for a retort, is put about a table- 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 spoonful of the usual mixture of potassium chlorate and 
 manganese dioxide. This will yield six or eight bottles- 
 ful of oxygen, and is the only gas holder that is necessary. 
 The bottle is the only bell-far needed, and the tin basin 
 answers every purpose of a pneumatic trough. To hold 
 the apparatus in the hands, moving the test-tube back 
 and forth through the flame, is preferable to the use of 
 a retort-stand. The test-tube is 6 X f inches. The stop- 
 per is a No. i rubber stopper, with one hole in it. The 
 
 * All the pieces of apparatus described in these pages were 
 prepared by the author and placed on exhibition at the World's 
 Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. The State of New York 
 purchased from him the entire set, and it is now installed in the 
 Educational Museum, State Capitol, Albany, N. Y. The numbers 
 used in the description of apparatus throughout this book corre- 
 spond to those which are used to designate the models in that 
 exhibit.
 
 Chemical Apparatus. 
 
 delivery tube is T \ inch glass tubing and is bent accord- 
 ing to the directions given on page 5. 
 
 A comparison of the expense of this apparatus with 
 that of apparatus much in vogue is given herewith : 
 
 COST. 
 
 The Conventional Apparatus. 
 Cheapest Kind. 
 
 A copper retort .$ 2.30 
 
 A gas holder 15.00 
 
 A bell-jar 50 
 
 A pneumatic trough. . . . 1.50 
 
 A retort-stand 65 
 
 Rubber tubing for con- 
 nection and delivery 
 tubes .20 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 A test-tube, 6Xi in $0.03 
 
 None needed oo 
 
 A bottle,8oz., wide mouth .05 
 A basin, block tin, 6 in... .05 
 
 None needed oo 
 
 Rubber stopper No. i 04 
 
 Delivery tube. , 01 
 
 $20.15 $0.18 
 
 The same apparatus is used in generating hydrogen, 
 nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen sulphide, carbon di- 
 oxide, etc. To generate chlorine, substitute the small 
 flask from apparatus No. 18 in place of the test-tube, on 
 account of the frothing produced by that gas. 
 
 No 8. Gas Generator. This apparatus is specially 
 adapted as a hydrogen-sulphide generator. 
 The bottle is an eight-ounce, wide-mouth 
 bottle, with a common cork, through which 
 a hole is cut with a pen-knife, large enough 
 to receive a test-tube. The test-tube fits the 
 hole loosely enough to be easily raised and 
 lowered, but not so as to fall of its own 
 weight. The test-tube has a rubber stop- 
 per, through the hole of which a delivery- 
 tube passes. There is a small hole not more FIG. 17. 
 than an eighth of an inch in diameter in the bottom of 
 the test-tube, made as follows :
 
 14 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 The test-tube is held so that the bottom touches the 
 side of a flame, and when the glass at a single point be- 
 comes softened, the mouth of the operator is closed over 
 the open end of the tube and the hole 
 is blown while the tube is still held 
 in the flame. The edges of the hole 
 are soon melted back and made 
 smooth by the flame. The bottle is 
 
 "Fir* tfi 
 
 about half filled with dilute sulphuric 
 acid, and a few small lumps of iron sulphide are placed 
 in the test-tube. When the test-tube is pushed down, 
 the acid passes through the small hole in the bottom and 
 comes in contact with the iron sulphide. Hydrogen 
 sulphide then flows through the delivery-tube. When 
 the test-tube is drawn up as represented in figure 17, the 
 acid flows out through the small hole and the generation 
 of hydrogen sulphide ceases. Thus we have a gas gen- 
 erator always ready for use. It may be used for any of 
 the gases which are generated by acids without the appli- 
 cation of heat. 
 
 Cost. Bottle from apparatus No. 7. 
 
 Test-tube, 6 Xf in Scents 
 
 Rubber stopper from apparatus No. 7. 
 
 Cork and delivery tube , . . .. 7 cents 
 
 No. 9. Gas Generator. This apparatus is convenient 
 when only a small quantity of gas is 
 needed. It consists of a one-ounce 
 wide-mouth bottle and a small glass 
 dish. To generate a bottleful of car- 
 bon dioxide, a small lump of chalk or FlG *
 
 Chemical Apparatus. 
 
 limestone is put into the bottle, and the bottle is filled 
 with dilute acid. The bottle is then covered with the 
 glass dish, and inverted. No delivery-tube and no 
 pneumatic trough are needed. 
 
 Cost. Glass dish 5 cents 
 
 Bottle, i oz., wide mouth 2 cents 
 
 7 cents 
 
 No. 10. Gas Generator. This apparatus is specially 
 adapted to the generating of small quantities of gases 
 with a high degree of heat ; e.g., 
 the making of oxygen from mer- 
 curic oxide. The bottle and glass 
 dish are those used in apparatus 9. 
 Five inches of small glass tubing 
 closed at one end, and bent, as 
 indicated in figure 20, serves as retort and delivery-tube. 
 
 No. ii. Gas Generator with a Condensing Cham- 
 ber. This apparatus has an important use in experi- 
 ments in destructive distillation ; e.g., if we put paper, 
 
 FIG. 20. 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 wood, or soft coal in the test-tube and heat it we shall 
 get liquid products in the small bottle and gaseous 
 products in the large bottle.
 
 1 6 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 Cost Test-tube, "] 
 
 Rubber stopper No. i, I FrQm tus No ?> 
 
 Tin basin, 
 
 8-oz. wide-mouthed bottle, J 
 
 i-oz. wide-mouthed bottle from apparatus No. g. 
 
 Rubber stopper No. 3 with two holes 7 cents 
 
 Delivery tubes 2 cents 
 
 9 cents 
 
 Nc. 12. Apparatus for Showing that a Portion of 
 the Air is Consumed in Combustion. A strip of tin is 
 bent at a right angle at the lower end so as to support a 
 small piece of a taper. The upper end is also 
 bent at a right angle and is tacked to the under 
 surface of the rubber stopper, which it protects 
 from the flame. Lime-water is used in the 
 tumbler beneath the chimney to absorb the 
 products of combustion. The candle attached 
 to the stopper is taken out, lighted, and re- 
 placed. Thus a portion of the air is not lost 
 from the chimney by expansion, as is usually 
 IG. 22. t j je - case w j ien a ]3 O tji e [ s inverted over a 
 
 lighted candle in a dish of water. 
 
 Cost. Lamp-chimney 5 cents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. 7 20 cents 
 
 Tumbler 5 cents 
 
 30 cents 
 
 No. 13. Apparatus for Determining the Proportion of 
 Oxygen in the Air. A small piece of clean phosphorus 
 is placed upon the wire-shelf and the test-tube is in- 
 verted over it, with its mouth dipping into the water 
 beneath. After standing thus for a day or two the 
 water will be found to have risen so as to occupy about
 
 Chemical Apparatus. 
 
 one fifth of the volume of the test-tube. Measurements 
 
 carefully made were found to be, as shown in the figure, 
 
 Vol. of oxygen 
 
 to 
 
 1.2 
 
 5-7 
 
 21 per cent. 
 
 yol. of air 
 
 At the close of the experiment the flame of a 
 lamp may be directed toward the upper end of the 
 test-tube until the phosphorus melts and runs down the 
 wire without burning or producing the white fumes 
 
 FIG. 23. FIG. 24. 
 
 which would appear if oxygen were present. The test- 
 tube may now be lifted, while the phosphorus is thus 
 heated above its kindling temperature, and it will im- 
 mediately spring into a flame. 
 
 The wire support for the phosphorus is made of No. 
 1 8 copper wire, which is easily bent with the fingers in 
 the form represented by figure. 24. 
 
 Cost. Test-tube from apparatus No. 7. 
 
 Small tumbler 5 cents 
 
 No. 14. The Miner's Safety Lamp wire gauze, 
 such as is used for milk-strainers or fine sieves (30 or 40 
 meshes to the inch), six inches square, is rolled into a
 
 i8 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 cylinder about an inch in diameter and tied with wire, 
 common- corks are fitted nicely into the 
 ends, a very small taper is fastened to the 
 lower cork by a drop of its own melted 
 wax. Coal-gas, or a little ether, is put into 
 the large bottle, which in this case repre- 
 sents a coal m ; ne in which a combustible 
 gas has collected ; the candle is lighted and 
 !U^ put into the wire-gauze cylinder and lowered 
 FIG. 25. into the bottle without setting fire to the 
 
 gas, but if the uncovered flame is brought to the mouth 
 
 of the bottle a flash occurs. 
 
 A little lime-water is then put into the bottle, showing 
 
 the presence of carbon dioxide, which has been formed 
 
 by the combustion. 
 
 Cost. Wire gauze, cork, and taper. ... 15 cents 
 32-oz. wide-mouth bottle 17 cents 
 
 32 cents 
 
 No. 15. Test-tube Rack The rack is made of thin 
 strips of wood, two inches wide ; the uprights four and 
 
 FIG. 26. 
 
 a half inches high and the horizontal strips twelve and 
 thirteen inches respectively. In the upper strip, six holes 
 are bored with a seven-eighth-inch bit. In the lower
 
 Chemical Apparatus. 19 
 
 strip, underneath each of these holes, a cup is made with 
 a countersink to receive the lower end of the test-tube. 
 
 No. 16. Test-tube Tongs. The test-tube tongs are 
 made of two strips of wood each about nine inches long and 
 half an inch thick, cut as represented in figure 27. They 
 are held together by stout rubber bands no hinge is 
 needed which are represented in the figure as placed so 
 as to cause the tongs to 
 close. They are opened by g!&^^:^|ggg:-d[[i^Z 
 a slight pressure of the 
 hand upon the large end. 
 
 If, however, one prefers tongs which ordinarily remain 
 open and require a slight pressure of the hand to close 
 them, the rubber bands may be moved somewhat nearer 
 the large end and the tongs will so operate. 
 No. 17. Blow-pipe The blow-pipe is made of two 
 pieces of glass tubing, each about four 
 inches long, one of which is nearly 
 closed at one end, as described on page 
 7. The two pieces of glass tubing are 
 connected by a piece of soft rubber 
 * tubing. This enables one to direct the 
 FIG. 28. stream of air from the blow-pipe as he 
 
 chooses. 
 
 Cost. Rubber tubing from apparatus No. 8. 
 
 Glass tubing I cent 
 
 No. 18. Distilling Apparatus. This is used in mak- 
 ing nitric acid, hydrochloric-acid solution, ammonia solu- 
 tion, and bromine, as well as separating alcohol from 
 water and obtaining from solution distilled water in 
 small quantities.
 
 20 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 A test-tube is sometimes used in place of the flask. 
 The latter, however, is preferred 
 when frothing is liable to occur. 
 The delivery-tube is made of such 
 a length as to reach within about 
 one inch of the bottom of the test- 
 tube in which the vapors are con- 
 FIG. 29. densed. The distillate which is 
 
 collected in the test-tube is never allowed to cover the 
 end of this delivery-tube the amount needed for each 
 pupil is very small. 
 
 To make hydrochloric acid or ammonia solution, a 
 little water is put into the test-tube, not quite up to the 
 end of the delivery tube. This water absorbs the gas as 
 fast as it is generated. 
 
 Cost. 8-oz. wide-mouth bottle, ) 
 
 Test-tube, > From apparatus No. 7. 
 
 Rubber stopper, No. i, ) 
 
 2-oz. flask ii cents 
 
 Delivery tube i cent 
 
 CO I 
 
 HzO 
 
 No. 19. Apparatus to Show that Water may be 
 Produced by Passing Hydrogen over Hot Copper Oxide. 
 The hydrogen is allowed 
 to flow through the tube for 
 a time to show that moisture 
 is not deposited from the gas, 
 and hence no drying tubes 
 are needed. A flame is then 
 placed under the end of the 
 tube containing the copper 
 oxide and water is produced. 
 
 FIG. 30.
 
 Chemical Apparatus. 2 1 
 
 Cost. 8-oz. narrow-mouthed bottle 5 cents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. o, with one hole 3 cents 
 
 Delivery tube i cent 
 
 9 cents 
 
 No. 20. Apparatus to Show that Hydrogen may be 
 Produced by Passing Steam over Hot Iron Filings. 
 
 In using the apparatus one hand holds the tin basin 
 and steadies the bottle and the other hand holds the 
 lamp under the end of the test-tube. It is preferable 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 
 not to lock the apparatus in a support stand, but to have 
 it entirely in hand. If the rubber stopper is pressed 
 firmly into the mouth of the flask, there is no danger 
 of the flask falling without a support. 
 
 Hydrogen sulphide may be collected in the bottle by 
 generating hydrogen in the flask and heating sulphur in 
 the test-tube. In this case the melted sulphur should be 
 kept in the end of the test-tube remote from the rubber 
 stopper by tilting the apparatus slightly.
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 Cost. 8-oz. wide-mouth bottle, 1 
 
 Tin-basin, I From apparatus 
 
 Test-tube, f No. 7. 
 
 Rubber stopper No. i with one hole, J 
 2 oz. flask from apparatus No. 18. 
 
 Rubber stopper No. I with two holes 4 cents 
 
 Delivery-tubes 2 cents 
 
 Extra lamp 45 cents 
 
 51 cents 
 
 No. 21. Apparatus to Show that Oxygen or Chlorine 
 will Burn in Hydrogen. Hydrogen is collected in the 
 
 eight-ounce bottle by using 
 apparatus No. 7. The ma- 
 terial to generate oxygen or 
 chlorine is put into the flask 
 and heated. The hydrogen 
 is lighted at the mouth of 
 the bottle and the delivery- 
 tube slowly thrust up into 
 it, when a flame will be seen 
 burning at the end of the 
 delivery - tube. The upper 
 end of the bottle is held in 
 one hand, while the neck of 
 the flask is held in the other. 
 The apparatus is tilted to 
 prevent the burning of the hands by the flame. 
 
 To burn hydrogen in oxygen or chlorine, we have 
 merely to substitute the delivery-tube from the apparatus 
 represented in figure 29, collect oxygen or chlorine in the 
 eight-ounce bottle by using apparatus No 7, and gen- 
 erate hydrogen in the flask. The hydrogen must be 
 
 FIG. 32.
 
 Chemical Apparatus. 23 
 
 allowed to flow rapidly for a few minutes to remove air 
 from the flask, in order that there may be no explosion. 
 We fill the flask one- quarter full and add about one-third 
 as much sulphuric acid. Drop in granulated zinc while 
 the mixture is warm, and the hydrogen will flow rapidly. 
 The hydrogen flame burning in the bottle produces a 
 musical sound. 
 
 Cost. 8 oz. wide-mouthed bottle, ) r- XT 
 
 Rubber stopper No. i, \ From a PP ara 'us No 7. 
 
 2-oz. flask, from apparatus No. 18. 
 
 Delivery-tube i cent.
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 PART III. PHYSICAL APPARATUS. 
 
 No. 22. Apparatus to Show that Air Occupies Space 
 to the Exclusion of Other Things. The funnel is made 
 of paper. The opening in the lower end is about one- 
 eighth of an inch. Dip the funnel in water and 
 fit it air-tight in the neck of the bottle. The 
 funnel may be filled with water, and after about 
 a tablespoonful has passed into the bottle 
 it will cease to flow, unless a bubble of air 
 comes out, when only the same amount of 
 water will pass in. Put water on the top of the 
 bottle, outside of the funnel. (If the funnel 
 was sufficiently wet this will collect there of its 
 own accord.) Now press the side of the fun- 
 nel in a little, so that you may see a little air bubble out 
 through the water. Notice that at the same time a small 
 amount of water flows from the funnel into the bottle. 
 
 No. 23. Apparatus to Show that Invisible Substances 
 May Have Weight. Make a paper box five inches long, 
 three inches wide, and two and one-half inches deep, 
 from a sheet of writing- 
 paper, letter size, or 8X 10. 
 Place this upon one end of 
 a foot rule, laid across a 
 three - cornered piece of 
 wood, the thickness of- 
 which should be not more 
 than one-quarter of an inch. While it is impossible to 
 
 FIG. 33.
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 balance the ruler across this piece of wood, it may be so 
 nearly balanced as to tip either way with the addition of 
 an exceedingly small weight. Put a few drops of ether 
 into a tumbler, and let it stand a few minutes until they 
 evaporate and the tumbler is filled with ether vapor, then 
 hold the tumbler as if in the act of pouring something 
 from it into the box. Soon the box will press its end of 
 the ruler down, and if a lighted match is brought to its 
 mouth a flash occurs, showing that the ether vapor was 
 poured into it. 
 
 No. 24. Receiver for Experiments in Rarefied and 
 Condensed Air. Figure 35 represents a 32-ounce wide- 
 mouthed bottle, E. & A. style. In its mouth is a No. 10 
 rubber stopper, one hole of which is 
 plugged with a short piece of glass rod, 
 while the other carries a bent glass tube, 
 over which is drawn a piece of heavy 
 rubber tubing, called " pressure tubing," 
 about eighteen inches long. This an- 
 swers all the purposes of a receiver. For 
 very many experiments it is sufficient to 
 apply one's mouth to the rubber tube and 
 exhaust or compress the air in the bottle 
 by the use of the lungs. With practice, 
 the average person may thus reduce the 
 tension of the air to seven or eight pounds per square 
 inch, or increase it to seventeen or eighteen pounds per 
 square inch. When a greater degree of exhaustion or 
 compression of air is needed, the rubber tube is attached 
 to one or the other nipple of a combination of air- 
 
 FIG. .35.
 
 26 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 pump and condenser, sold by the Franklin Educational 
 Company, of Boston, for $3. 
 
 Cost. 32-oz. wide-mouth bottle, E. & A. style, from 
 apparatus No. 14. 
 
 Rubber stopper No. 10 39 cents 
 
 Rubber " pressure " tubing, 18 inches 24 cents 
 
 63 cents 
 
 Nos. 25, 26, and 27. Apparatus to Show that the 
 Volume of Air Varies as the Pressure upon it Increases 
 or Decreases. No. 25 consists of a one-ounce wide- 
 mouth bottle, over the mouth of which rubber cloth is 
 tied air-tight. The bottle is then placed in the receiver, 
 No. 24, and when the air in the receiver is rarefied the 
 rubber cloth bulges outward, and when air is condensed 
 in the receiver the rubber cloth sags into the neck of 
 the small bottle. 
 
 No. 26 consists of a one-ounce narrow-mouth bottle 
 (figure 36), into the mouth of which a glass tube, three 
 or four inches long, is fitted by the method 
 described on p. for inserting a glass tube 
 
 into a hole in a bottle. This tube is nearly 
 closed at the upper end. Water is put into the 
 bottle and the lower end of the tube dips into it. 
 When this apparatus is placed in the receiver 
 and the air rarefied water spurts out of the small 
 bottle as a fountain. When air is allowed to 
 ~ ~ rush into the receiver again, it is seen to enter 
 also the small bottle by bubbles which pass 
 through the water. When air is condensed into the 
 receiver, it is seen to enter the small bottle and, when 
 the compressed air is allowed to flow out of the receiver,
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 27 
 
 FIG. 37- 
 
 water again spurts from the small bottle. In figure 37 the 
 
 glass tube is inverted, so that the con- 
 stricted end is inside the bottle, and a 
 
 iittle water is put into the receiver so as 
 
 to seal the outer end of the tube. A 
 
 fountain will play into the small bottle 
 
 when air is compressed into the receiver, 
 
 and air will pass out from the small 
 
 bottle when it is allowed to flow out of 
 
 the receiver. It continues to pass out 
 
 of the small bottle as we exhaust it from 
 
 the receiver, but the fountain plays 
 
 again in the small bottle when the air 
 
 is allowed to enter the receiver. 
 
 No. 27 consists of a one-ounce narrow-mouthed bottle, 
 
 into the mouth of which a bent glass tube is fitted 
 by the method referred to above. 
 Water is put into the small bottle and 
 the glass tube dips into it. When this 
 apparatus is placed in the receiver, 
 (figure 38), the outer end of the tube is 
 covered with water, and when the air in 
 the receiver is rarefied water is forced 
 out of the small bottle by the tension 
 of the air contained in it. When air is 
 allowed to rush into the receiver again 
 water flows into the small bottle. If air 
 is compressed into the receiver, water 
 
 flows into the small bottle, and, when the compressed 
 
 air is released, water passes out from the small 
 
 bottle. 
 
 FIG. 38.
 
 28 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 Cost. i-oz. narrow-mouthed bottle 2 cents 
 
 Tubing 2 cents 
 
 Rubber cloth 2 cents 
 
 Receiver from App. No. 14 and i-oz. 
 wide-mouthed bottle from App. No. 9. 
 
 6 cents 
 
 No. 28. Apparatus to Demonstrate that the Volume 
 of a Gas Varies Inversely as the Pressure upon it. 
 A glass tube, whose inside diameter is one-quarter of an 
 inch, and whose length is about fifty-two inches, is 
 closed at the end a '(figure 39), and is bent so that ab is 
 3 inches, be is 2 inches, cd is 34 inches, de is 2 inches, 
 and ef\s> about n inches long. The end /is left open. 
 
 FIG. 39. 
 
 The tube is fastened to a strip of board to protect it 
 from injury. Mercury is put into the tube so that the 
 column when horizontal extends from g to h. In hand-
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 29 
 
 ling mercury we use a dropper-tube such as is illustrated 
 in figure 6, p. 7. 
 
 To find volumes corresponding to pressure greater 
 than an atmosphere the end h of the apparatus is raised 
 to various positions and the vertical height above the 
 table of the mercury column in each arm is measured. 
 
 To find volumes corresponding to pressure less than 
 an atmosphere, the end g is raised and measurements 
 taken as above. 
 
 Cost. Glass tubing 18 cents 
 
 Mercury 35 cents 
 
 53 cents 
 
 No. 29. Apparatus to Show a Fountain Caused by 
 Atmospheric Pressure and a Fountain Caused by Com- 
 pressed Air. It consists of a id-ounce narrow-mouthed 
 
 FIG. 40.
 
 30 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 bottle, a No. i rubber stopper, a piece of glass tubing 
 nine inches long, nearly closed at one end, a short piece 
 of rubber tubing, and a tumbler. Either the lungs of the 
 operator or the air-pump mentioned on p. 25 may be used 
 to rarefy or condense the air in the bottle, and thumb and 
 finger applied to the rubber tubing serve as a stop-cock. 
 Problems as to what this apparatus would do if taken 
 up in a balloon or down in a coal mine are of interest, 
 also its relation to air-guns, spurting oil-wells, " soda- 
 water fountains," " syphon " bottles, etc. 
 
 Cost. Rubber stopper No. i from apparatus No 7. 
 Rubber tubing from apparatus No. 8. 
 Tumbler from apparatus No. 12. 
 
 i6-oz. narrow-mouthed bottle 5 cents 
 
 Glass tube . i cent 
 
 6 cents 
 
 No. 30. Barometer. A glass tube, having an 
 inside diameter about three-sixteenths of an inch 
 and a length about forty-three inches, is closed at 
 one end in the flame, and bent so that the long arm 
 is about thirty-five inches and the short arm about 
 six inches. The end of the short arm is left open. 
 Mercury is introduced by a dropper tube, three or 
 four inches at a time, and boiled by passing the 
 barometer tube back and forth through a flame 
 each time a charge of mercury is added. The 
 tube is fastened to a board-back for protection, 
 IG ' 41 ' and a scale is attached by which one may readily 
 read the length of the long and short arms of the mercury 
 columns, measured from a small shelf at the bottom of 
 the board. The length of the short arm subtracted from
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 3 1 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 in o 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 LoiIg*iSrm 33.00 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 ^.ShorbArrriv_ 2.55 
 
 O 
 
 1 : 
 
 
 
 pifffeEeApe^,. 30.45 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 r >"e^5Hape5JReport 30.42 
 
 -i 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 Stete.Ql Weathec Clear 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 Long^rm^^,,.-- 33.02 
 
 
 t| 
 
 
 / 
 
 Shqr^A-^n-^, 2.95 
 
 o 
 
 ii - 
 
 
 / 
 
 . plff erejfce 30.07 
 
 IS 
 
 *& 
 
 7 
 
 
 'Newspaper "R eport 30.08 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 i;^: 
 
 
 State of Weather Cloudy 
 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 
 .Long.Arm 32.70 
 
 
 r k< _^ 
 
 
 
 Short Arm... - 3.65 
 
 o 
 
 g| x x 
 
 
 
 IMfference 211.115 
 
 
 S 1 * V 
 
 
 
 N'ewspaper Report.--.29.00 
 
 Co 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 State of Weather Rainy" 
 
 
 's 
 
 
 
 Long,4:rm..^ ..as.OO i 
 
 
 *s ; 
 
 
 
 Short^rm .3.00 
 
 o 
 
 [i 
 
 s 
 S, 
 
 
 Difference 30.00 
 
 5. 
 
 * 8. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Newspaper Report'.. 30.03 
 
 fc 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 State of Weather Cloudy 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Long Arm .33.09 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 
 Short Arm 2.85 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 Difference 30.24 
 
 ii 
 
 I s :::: 
 
 
 
 -^Newspaper Report 30.30 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 _j 
 
 State of Weather Clear 
 
 
 bi 
 
 
 / 
 
 Loug Arm. .32.98 
 
 
 to 8 
 
 ^7 
 
 
 Short Arm . 2.99 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 
 Difference. - . , , 29.99 
 
 r- 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Newspaper Report. ...29.94 
 
 00 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 State of Weather Clear 
 
 
 
 
 
 Long Arm 32.92 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Short Arm . 3.00 
 
 o 
 
 8 S 
 <S 
 
 
 
 Difference . 29.92 
 
 fi 
 
 i : 
 
 
 
 Newspaper Report 29.86 
 
 <B 
 
 
 
 
 State of Weather Cloudy 
 
 
 
 
 
 Long Arm ^ -- .32.86 
 
 
 hr 
 
 
 
 Short Arm . 3.06 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Difference 29.80 
 
 R- 
 
 Us- 
 
 _j 
 
 
 Newspaper Report 29.77 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 State of Weather Clear 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 Long Arm. .. -.33.89 
 
 
 || 
 
 
 
 Short Arm ..3.05 
 
 o 
 
 e Sf 
 
 
 
 Difference 29.84 
 
 r* 
 
 e 5" 
 
 
 
 Newspaper Report 29.84 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 State of Weather Clear 

 
 32 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 the length of the long arm gives the height of the mer- 
 cury column, which is balanced by atmospheric pressure. 
 
 Cost. Glass tubing 7 cents 
 
 Mercury 25 cents 
 
 32 cents 
 
 The records given herewith, on page 31, are samples of 
 such as were kept upon this barometer by a primary class 
 of the third grade (third year in school). The teacher 
 instructed one pupil how to take the observations and 
 record them, and the next day this pupil, at the appointed 
 time (close of the session), instructed a second pupil to 
 do the same, who, in turn, upon the following day, in- 
 structed a third pupil, and so on. The teacher obtained 
 from the evening paper a report for the same hour, and 
 recorded it the next morning. 
 
 No. 31. Apparatus to Show that Liquid Pressure 
 Increases with the Depth. Three holes are bored in 
 the side of a 32-ounce wide-mouthed bottle. Short tubes 
 nearly closed at their ends are fitted into these holes, and 
 caps are provided for these tubes according to the 
 method described on p. n. To keep the water in this 
 bottle at a constant level during the experiment, a 16- 
 ounce narrow-mouthed bottle, whose neck has been cut 
 off (p. 9), is filled with water and inverted over it. 
 
 Cost. 32-oz. wide-mouthed bottle 17 cents 
 
 i6-oz. narrow-mouthed bottle 5 cents 
 
 Tubing 3 cents 
 
 25 cents 
 
 No. 32. Apparatus to Show that the Increase of 
 Liquid Pressure is Proportional to the Depth A
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 33 
 
 FIG. 42. 
 
 glass tube about twenty-two inches long is bent so that 
 the long arm is about sixteen and the 
 short arm about four inches long. Both 
 ends are left open. The tube is fastened 
 to a board-back, and a scale for measure- 
 ment is placed alongside of each arm. 
 The whole is attached to a board base 
 sufficiently broad to make it stand firmly. 
 The base has an elevated margin, so as to 
 form a tray to catch the mercury which c 
 may be spilled by accident. FlG 43-
 
 34 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 A little mercury is put in the tube first and afterwards 
 water, alcohol, ether, or other liquid is added to the long 
 arm. The liquid presses down the mercury in the long 
 arm and forces it up in the short arm. Three readings 
 are taken each time a charge of the liquid is added ; one 
 giving the height above the base of the mercury in the 
 short arm; one giving the height above the base of the 
 mercury column in the long arm, and one giving the 
 height above the base of the liquid column in the long 
 arm. The second reading subtracted from the third gives 
 the length of the column of water, or other liquid used, 
 and the second reading subtracted from the first gives 
 the length of the mercury column required to balance it. 
 A column of mercury one inch high represents a pressure 
 of about half a pound per square inch. It requires a 
 column of water about 13.7 inches high, and a column of 
 alcohol about 17 inches high to give the same pressure. 
 From such measurements the specific gravity of mercury 
 and alcohol or other liquids is obtained. 
 
 The water-column is extended and enlarged by putting 
 a rubber stopper into the small end of a common lamp- 
 chimney and thrusting the end of the long arm of the 
 glass tube through the hole in the stopper. Water is 
 then poured into the chimney. In spite of the fact that 
 the volume of water is so greatly increased, the pressure, 
 measured as before, is found to be proportional to the 
 depth alone. 
 
 By means of rubber tubing this pressure gauge may 
 be connected with the spout of the bottle described on 
 p. ii. After all the air is dislodged from the tubes, the 
 bottle may be raised and lowered to various positions,
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 35 
 
 and measurements taken to show that the pressure of a 
 liquid is proportional to the depth measured vertically, 
 no matter what is the size or shape of the vessel contain- 
 ing the liquid. 
 
 By means of rubber tubing this pressure gauge is con- 
 nected with gas-pipe, steam-pipe, water-pipe, or the lungs, 
 and the pressure in terms of pounds per square inch de- 
 termined. 
 
 By means of rubber tubing a glass tube is connected 
 with this pressure gauge, and the glass tube is dipped to 
 various depths in various liquids to determine the buoy- 
 ant force or upward pressure in liquids. By the same ex- 
 periments we calculate the specific gravity also of 
 various liquids. 
 
 Cost. Glass, wood, and mercury 10 cents. 
 
 No. 33. Apparatus to Show that at Any Given 
 Depth in a Liquid, the Pressure is the Same in All 
 Directions Rubber cloth is tied water- 
 tight over the bottom of a lamp chimney. 
 Three glass tubes pass through the rubber 
 stopper, each open at both ends. The lower 
 ends of all are on the same level ; one points 
 downward, another sidewise, and the third 
 upward. When a finger presses upon the 
 rubber cloth the water rises to the same 
 height in all the tubes. The tubes act as 
 pressure gauges, and the height of the water- FIG. 44. 
 column may be translated readily into pounds pressure 
 per square inch.
 
 36 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 Cost. Glass tubing 4 cents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. 7, with three holes.. . . 20 cents 
 
 Rubber cloth , : . . . 5 cents 
 
 Lamp chimney from Apparatus No. 12. 
 
 29 cents 
 
 No. 34. Apparatus for Illustrating Buoyancy and 
 the Transmission of Pressure Through Liquids. A 
 small pill bottle about half full of water and half full of 
 air is inverted in water in a lamp chimney. 
 There is no cork in the vial. The propor- 
 tion of air to water in the vial is so carefully 
 adjusted that the slightest change of pressure 
 or temperature will cause it to sink or float. 
 When a little pressure is exerted upon the 
 rubber cloth or the rubber stopper of the 
 chimney, the pressure is transmitted through 
 the liquid to the air in the small vial, caus- 
 ing it to contract, as is seen by the rising of 
 the water in the small bottle. The air, now 
 displacing less water, no longer buoys up the small 
 bottle and it sinks. When the pressure is removed the 
 air recovers again its original volume, demonstrating its 
 elasticity. The weight of the water now displaced by 
 the air and the glass of the small bottle being equal to 
 or greater than the weight of the small bottle,, it is 
 again buoyed up. If the small bottle sinks at night 
 when the room is cold it will rise during the day when 
 the room is warm. 
 
 Lamp chimney and rubber stopper from apparatus No. 12. 
 
 No. 35. Apparatus to Show the Transmission of 
 Water Pressure by an Air Column The lower bottle
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 37 
 
 may be placed upon the table or floor and the 
 bottles held, one in each hand. 
 If the bottle A, from which 
 the fountain flows, is raised or 
 lowered there is no change in 
 the force of the fountain, be- 
 cause no change in the water 
 pressure which produces it, but 
 if the bottle B which is held 
 in the other hand is raised or 
 lowered it changes the height 
 of the fountain. This piece 
 of apparatus is calculated to 
 dispel some of the fallacious 
 notions to which the mystical 
 apparatus called " Hero's Foun- 
 tain " has given rise. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 i6-oz. narrow-mouthed bot- 
 tle from apparatus No. 29. 
 
 2 - 16 oz. narrow-mouthed 
 
 bottles 10 cents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. I with 
 two holes 4 cents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. i from 
 apparatus No. 20. 
 
 Glass tubing 2 feet 4 cents 
 
 Rubber-tubing from appa- 
 ratus No. 95. 
 
 other 
 
 1 8 cents. 
 
 FIG. 46. 
 
 No. 37a. Apparatus to Il- 
 lustrate the Total Fluid Pressure in a Closed Vessel. 
 A tin lard pail cover whose sides are straight has a 
 rubber cloth tied over it so as to make an air-tight space
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 inside. A short piece of glass tubing is fitted into its side 
 by the method described on page 1 1, and a piece of rubber 
 tubing about four feet long is attached to this. A book 
 
 is laid across over the 
 rubber cloth and weights 
 laid upon it. The mouth 
 may be used upon the 
 end of the rubber tube 
 47- and a weight of many 
 
 pounds lifted by the force of the breath. The rubber 
 tube may be connected with the bottle of water de- 
 scribed on page u, and a weight of many pounds upon 
 the book be lifted by the pressure of the column of water. 
 
 Cost. Rubber cloth 10 cents 
 
 Rubber tubing from apparatus No. 95. 
 
 No. 38. Apparatus to Illustrate the Reaction ol a 
 Jet of Water Four holes are | 
 
 bored in a i6-ounce narrow-mouthed 
 bottle (figure 48) by the method de- 
 scribed on page 10, and short bent 
 tubes whose outer ends are nearly 
 closed (p. 7) are fitted into these 
 holes water-tight by the method 
 described on page n. The bottle 
 is filled with water and suspended 
 by a string. The four jets of 
 water cause the bottle to revolve. 
 
 Cost. i6-oz. narrow-mouthed 
 
 bottle Scents. 
 
 Tubing 2 cents. 
 
 7 cents. 
 
 FIG. 48.
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 39 
 
 No. 39- Student's Lamp. In figure 42, page 33, the 
 inverted bottle of water used for the purpose of keeping 
 the liquid at a constant level suggests a piece of apparatus 
 for explaining the student's lamp. The bottom is cut from 
 a i6-ounce narrow-mouthed bottle (p. 9), and a bent glass 
 tube is put through the hole of the rubber 
 stopper (figure 49). An 8-ounce bottle 
 of water is inverted in this bottle. Its 
 mouth has no stopper. The water stands 
 in the bent tube on a level with the 
 mouth of the smaller bottle. Take water 
 from the outer end of the bent tube with 
 a dropper tube and bubbles of air will be FlGt 49- 
 seen to rise into the smaller bottle and just enough water 
 will pass out to restore the level. 
 
 Cost. Glass tubing i cent 
 
 16-02. narrow-mouthed bottle 5 cents 
 
 8-oz. narrow-mouthed bottle from apparatus No. 19. 
 No. i rubber stopper from apparatus No. 7. 
 
 6 cents 
 
 No. 40. Fountain Sponge Cup Two cups are made 
 by cutting the bottom portion from two 8-oz. wide- 
 mouthed bottles. Holes are bored in 
 these, and they are connected by a 
 short piece of glass tubing (p. n). 
 In one of these cups an 8-oz. wide- 
 mouthed bottle ot water is inverted. 
 The water flows through the short 
 tube into the other cup, in which a 
 sponge is kept. A constant level of 
 the liquid is thus maintained, and the 
 
 FIG. 50.
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 sponge is kept moist. Ink-wells are constructed upon 
 the same principle. 
 
 Cost. 2 8-oz. wide-mouthed bottles, 
 i ditto from apparatus No. 7. 
 
 12 cents 
 
 No. 41. Lifting Pump. A No. 9 rubber stopper fits 
 into the bottom of a small-sized Argand lamp-chimney, 
 figure 51. One hole is plugged, and into the 
 other is thrust a short piece of glass tubing, 
 with a piece of rubber-tubing to lead down 
 into the cistern. About one inch and a half is 
 cut from the top of the chimney (p. 9). Below 
 that the chimney is found to be of nearly 
 uniform diameter. A No. 5 rubber stopper 
 is used for the piston and is wound with 
 soft cotton cord to make it fit nicely. Small 
 pieces of rubber cloth are used as valves. A 
 glass rod is used to move the piston. Knobs 
 are made upon the ends of it by softening 
 them in a flame and pressing them while they 
 FIG. 51. are soft against a hard surface. Waxed thread 
 is wound tightly around the rod, just above the piston, 
 to prevent its slipping downward. A No. 6 rubber stop- 
 per is put in the top of the chimney, and a bent glass 
 tube passing through one of its holes serves as a spout. 
 
 Cost. Argand lamp chimney 10 cents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. 9 with two holes. ... 31 cents 
 
 " " 5 " "",... 10 cents 
 
 " " 6 " "".... 14 cents 
 
 Sundry items 3 cents 
 
 68 cents
 
 Physical Apparatus 
 
 No. 42. Force-Pump. To make a force-pump the 
 plug is removed from the lower 
 stopper of apparatus No. 41 and 
 thrust into the hole of the piston 
 under the valve. An air-chamber 
 is made from a i-oz. wide-mouthed 
 bottle, figure 52. Through one hole 
 of its stopper a bent glass tube 
 passes, having the outer end nearly 
 closed, for throwing jets of water. 
 
 A valve like that used in apparatus No. 41 covers the 
 other hole of the stopper upon the inside of the bottle, 
 and from this hole a bent glass tube passes and connects 
 this air-chamber with the lamp-chimney pump. 
 
 Cost. i-oz. wide-mouthed bottle from apparatus No. 9. 
 Rubber stopper No. 3 from apparatus No. n. 
 Glass tubing i cent 
 
 No. 43. Apparatus to Illustrate the Moment of a 
 Force. A strip of wood thirteen inches long, quarter of 
 an inch thick, and three-eighths of an inch wide, is piv- 
 oted in the middle upon 
 & & 6 6 a common pin, figure 53. 
 g Hooks made of pins are 
 
 inserted along the lower 
 edge, at distances one 
 inch apart. Coarse cop- 
 
 per wire, No. 12, is cut 
 
 ~ into lengths exactly three 
 inches long. These are 
 
 bent in the form of the letter S. Two of these weights 
 hung upon the first pin at the left balance one weight
 
 42 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 hung upon the second pin at the right. Three weights 
 upon the first pin at the left balance one weight upon 
 the third pin at the right. Four weights upon the first 
 pin at the left balance one weight upon the fourth pin at 
 the right. Five weights upon the first pin at the left 
 balance one weight upon the fifth pin at the right. Six 
 weights upon the first pin at the left balance one weight 
 upon the sixth pin at the right. Two weights upon the 
 third pin at the left balance three weights upon the 
 second pin at the right, etc. 
 
 No. 44. Apparatus Illustrating the Second Law of 
 Motion. To a thin strip of wood eight inches long, one 
 inch wide, and three-eighths of an inch thick, figure 54, 
 is fastened a small block two and a half inches long and 
 one inch square at the end, with a quarter-inch hole 
 
 FIG. 54. 
 
 made through it lengthwise. Through this a quarter- 
 inch dowel-rod eight inches long passes.. There are two 
 blocks of wood, each a cubic inch in size, through one of 
 which a quarter-inch hole is bored, so that it may be sus- 
 pended upon the dowel-rod. By means of rubber bands 
 the dowel-rod is made to act as a spring-gun. It sets
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 43 
 
 both blocks free to fall at exactly the same instant, but 
 at the same time projects one of them horizontally. Both 
 blocks, however, reach the floor at exactly the same 
 instant. 
 
 No. 45. Centre-of -Gravity Disk. In a flat cork saw 
 on one side a gash and 
 fill it with a piece of 
 sheet-lead, figure 55. 
 
 No. 46. Apparatus 
 to Show the Specific 
 Gravity of Liquids 
 when Measured by 
 their Buoyant Force. 
 
 A o -j FlG - 55- 
 
 An 8-ounce wide- 
 mouthed bottle contains the liquid whose specific gravity 
 is to be found. A test-tube containing 
 shot, to make it keep the upright position, 
 floats in the liquid. With it very accurate 
 results have been obtained by high-school 
 pupils. By putting more or less shot into 
 the test-tube it is made to serve for liquids 
 of all densities. By reason of the fact 
 that the glass is not attacked by acids and 
 FIG. 56. is easily kept clean, it proves to be a very 
 convenient form of apparatus. 
 
 No. 47. Apparatus to Show the Specific Gravity of 
 Liquids when Balanced Agaiast Atmospheric Press- 
 ure- A glass T-tube is bent as shown in figure 57, and 
 by means of rubber tubes it is connected with two glass 
 tubes, each about one foot long. These dip down into 
 two test-tubes. The glass T-tube is wired securely to a
 
 44 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 board back supported upon a board base. A scale is 
 fastened to the back between the glass 
 tubes. The rubber-tube connections 
 permit the lower end of the glass tubes 
 to be swung outward, so that the test- 
 tubes may be changed at pleasure. 
 These contain the liquids to be com- 
 pared. A short glass at the upper end 
 serves as mouth-piece (each pupil has 
 his own individual mouth-piece) and a 
 short piece of rubber tubing connects 
 this with the T-tube. The air is 
 drawn out with the mouth, and this 
 rubber tube is pinched with thumb 
 and finger while the height of the 
 liquid columns is measured. 
 
 Cost. T-tube 15 cents 
 
 Glass tubing 4 cents 
 
 Rubber tubing 5 cents 
 
 
 Test-tubes ; 6 cents 
 
 FIG. 57. 
 
 No. 49. Apparatus to Illustrate Os- 
 mose. A gold-beater's-skin bag is tied 
 over the end of a glass tube, figure 58, and 
 this by means of a short piece of rubber 
 tubing is connected with a bent glass tube 
 which passes through a stopper in an 8- 
 ounce wide-mouthed bottle. The other 
 hole of the stopper is left open. By 
 means of a dropper-tube, the end of which 
 is drawn out into a long, slender tube, a 
 thick sugar syrup is introduced into the 
 
 30 cents 
 
 FIG. 58.
 
 Physical Apparatus. 45 
 
 bag through the short glass tube. The connection with 
 the larger tube is then made again, and it is allowed to 
 hang in the bottle for a time to insure that there is no 
 leaking through the bag. Then water is poured into the 
 bottle to cover the bag. Immediately the liquid begins 
 to rise in the glass tube and after a time flows over the 
 top, although the tube may be very long and very large. 
 An argand-lamp chimney is frequently used for the tube 
 with the same result. If the end of the glass tube is 
 sealed up, the bag will swell and burst. If the sugar 
 syrup is put into the bottle outside of the bag and water 
 is put inside the bag, it will shrink and become very 
 small. The same phenomenon is. to be noticed when 
 prunes or berries are put into water or sugar syrup. 
 
 Cost. Gold-beater's skin bag 15 cents 
 
 Tubing Scents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. 7 with two holes 20 cents 
 
 8-oz. wide-mouthed bottle from apparatus No. 7. 
 Small tumbler from apparatus No. 13. 
 
 40 cents 
 
 No. 51. Apparatus for Illustrating the Formation 
 of Ice Crystal in a Snowstorm. An 8-ounce flask 
 is filled to the neck with a concentrated 
 hot solution of ammonium chloride in water. 
 Upon cooling, crystals rapidly form and fall 
 through the solution like snowflakes. They 
 grow larger as they fall. The round flask 
 magnifies them, so that they may be seen when 
 very minute. The flask is closed with a rubber 
 stopper to prevent evaporation, and the solu- 
 tion may be kept any length of time. Whenever it is 
 desired to repeat the experiment the crystals are readily
 
 46 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 dissolved again by passing the flask back and forth 
 through the flame of an alcohol-lamp or Bunsen-burner. 
 
 Cost. 8-oz. flask 15 cents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. 5 without holes 10 cents 
 
 25 cents 
 
 No. 53. Apparatus to Illustrate the Unequal Expan- 
 sion of Different Metals when 
 Heated. A piece of wood is 
 cut as represented in figure 60, 
 and strips of tin (sheet iron) 
 and brass are screwed fast to 
 it. When it is held so that the 
 flame plays upon these strips 
 of metal they curve, indicating 
 FIG. 60. t j iat tne y g row i on g er w hen 
 
 heated, but the strip of brass always curves more than 
 the other. 
 
 No. 54. Apparatus to Illustrate the Expansion of Li- 
 quids by Heat Thermometer. The glass tube, 
 figure 61, has an inside diameter of about one- 
 eighth of an inch. Its length is not less than a foot. 
 The flask has a capacity of two ounces and is 
 filled with water. When the rubber stopper carry- 
 ing the tube is inserted and pushed firmly into the 
 neck all the air is driven out and the water is 
 driven a little way up the tube. If the flask is 
 now held in a flame the water rises slowly up the JL 
 tube, showing expansion in its volume. By using ^H? 
 a tube of smaller diameter and a flask of larger FlG - 6l 
 size, the thermometer becomes more sensitive, i.e., its
 
 Physical Apparatus. 47 
 
 rise and fall can be noted for smaller changes of tem- 
 perature. 
 
 Cost. Glass tube .................................. 2 cents 
 
 Rubber stopper No. i from apparatus No. 7. 
 Glass flask, 2-ounce, from apparatus No. 18. 
 
 Nos. 55 and ssa. Apparatus to Illustrate the Ex- 
 pansion of Air by Heat Air Thermometer. Appara- 
 tus No. 55 is an 8-oz glass flask, with rubber cloth tied 
 air-tight over its mouth. When the air is heated the 
 rubber cloth swells upward, indicating the ex- ^^ 
 pansion of the air. When the flask is plunged 
 into cold water the rubber cloth sags inward, 
 indicating the contraction of the air. 
 
 Apparatus No. 550 is the same flask and tube 
 as that described under No. 54. It is inverted, 
 and the glass tube passes through an ordinary 
 cork and dips into water in an ink-bottle, figure 
 62. A flame brought near the flask causes the 
 air in it to expand, and bubbles pass out through 
 the water. When the air cools water rises in 
 the tube. A strip of paper is attached to the FIG 62- 
 tube by mucilage, and on it is marked the height to 
 which the water rises when the temperature, as indicated 
 by an ordinary thermometer, corresponds to fifty, sixty, 
 seventy, eighty, and ninety degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Nos. 56 and 57. Apparatus to Show How Air Cur- 
 rents Are Produced by Heat.* Apparatus No. 56 con- 
 sists of a pasteboard box-cover in which two holes are 
 cut, and over each of these a lamp-chimney stands, figure 
 
 * Borrowed from the author's "Simple Experiments."
 
 4 8 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 63. A lighted candle is under chimney a. When smoke 
 from burning paper is brought to the top of chimney b 
 there is found to be a strong downward current in it. 
 The smoke is carried along under the box-cover and up 
 chimney a. 
 
 Cost. 2 Argand lamp-chimneys 20 cents. 
 
 Apparatus No. 57 consists of a common lamp-chimney 
 placed over a lighted candle, figure 64. A strip of tin or 
 
 FIG. 63. 
 
 FIG. 64. 
 
 cardboard divides the chimney into two compartments. 
 When the candle is arranged as represented in the figure, 
 a current of air, as indicated by paper-smoke, passes down 
 one side of the partition and up the other. The tin par- 
 tition is sometimes suspended from a wire which extends 
 across the top of the chimney.
 
 Physical Apparatus. 49 
 
 No. 58. Apparatus to Show that Water and Air Are 
 Poor Conductors of Heat. This consists of a 
 test-tube with a small thermometer in it. A 
 thimbleful of ether may be poured upon the top 
 of the water and set on fire ; or, by holding the 
 upper end of the tube against a flame, the water 
 in the upper end may be boiled. In either case 
 the thermometer indicates that the water in the 
 lower part of the tube has not been heated so 
 much as a single degree. 
 
 With air in the tube the upper end may be 
 melted in the flame without affecting the ther- 
 mometer in the lower part. 
 
 It is well to hold a piece of cardboard so as ^ IG - 6 5- 
 to shut off the radiation of heat from the flame to the 
 lower end of the tube. 
 
 Cost of thermometer 10 cents. 
 
 No. 59. Funnel for Hot Filtration The stem of a 
 small glass funnel, by means of a short 
 piece of rubber tubing, is made to fit water- 
 tight inside of a " marbleized " iron funnel, 
 figure 66. 
 
 Hot water is put in the space between 
 the two funnels, and a small flame is di- 
 rected against the side of the outer funnel 
 
 FIG. 66. to keep the water hot. 
 
 Cost. Glass funnel, 2^ inches in diameter. ... 12 cents 
 Iron funnel 25 cents 
 
 37 cents
 
 50 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 No. 60. Illustration of Bunsen-Burner. A short piece 
 of small glass tubing is thrust into the end of 
 the rubber gas-tubing of the laboratory, figure 
 67. Over the upper end of this glass tube a 
 piece of paper is pasted, through which a 
 number of pin-pricks are made to permit the 
 gas to flow in several minute streams, the 
 number of which depends upon several con- 
 ditions, and must be determined by experi- 
 ment. Over the upper end of this small glass 
 tube a large glass tube, about four or five 
 inches long and half an inch inside diameter, 
 is held. Both of its ends are open normally, 
 but the lower end may be closed by bringing 
 it down upon a piece of cardboard, which fits 
 upon the small glass tube. 
 
 The adjustment may be made so that an Argand lamp- 
 chimney may be used for the outer tube. 
 
 Cost of glass tubing 5 cents. 
 
 No. 61. Illustration of Blastlamp, Blowpipe, etc. 
 
 Two small glass tubes are bent at 
 right angles and bound together by a 
 short piece of rubber tubing, figure 68. 
 Over the upper end of these a piece of 
 glass tubing, four or five inches long and 
 half an inch inside diameter, is held. 
 The upper end is open, but the lower 
 one is closed by bringing it down upon 
 a piece of cardboard, which fits over the 
 ends of the two small tubes. One of the small tubes
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 may be connected with one of the rubber gas-tubes in 
 the laboratory, the other with the air-bellows. 
 
 Cost 8 cents. 
 
 No. 62. "Fish-tail" Burner. A glass tube is bent 
 at right angles in two places so as to lie in two planes at 
 right angles to one another. One end 
 is connected with the rubber gas-pipe, 
 and the other end has an ordinary 
 gas-tip attached to it by means of a 
 short piece of rubber tubing, which is 
 drawn-over the end of the glass tube, 
 and then the glass tube is thrust inside of the brass 
 pillar. 
 
 It is very convenient for bending glass tubing. 
 
 Cost. Brass pillar 2 cents 
 
 Lava tip 2 cents 
 
 Tubing 3 cents 
 
 FIG. 69. 
 
 7 cents 
 
 No. 63. Tumbler Battery. A large-sized electric- 
 light carbon, half an inch in diameter by twelve inches 
 long, is broken in two. One of these pieces is laid aside 
 for another battery. A hole 
 three-quarters of an inch deep 
 is bored in the end of the other 
 piece and the clean end of a 
 copper wire is fastened in this 
 hole by pouring around it 
 melted lead or solder, 
 rod, such as is used 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 
 A zinc 
 in the 
 
 ordinary Leclanche cell, is bound to the carbon rod by
 
 52 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 two rubber bands, and at the same time prevented from 
 coming in contact with it by two rubber bands. These 
 bands are cut from the end of a stout rubber hose. 
 
 Any one of the ordinary battery solutions is used 
 (preferably one ounce of sodium bichromate, two ounces 
 by volume of sulphuric acid, and seven ounces of water), 
 and this is held in a tumbler which sets upon an ordinary 
 porcelain plate. When the cell is not in use the zinc 
 and carbon are lifted out of the solution, rinsed off, and 
 laid upon the plate. 
 
 This single cell will furnish sufficient electricity to 
 perform very many experiments. 
 
 Cost. Zinc 8 cents 
 
 Carbon 4 cents 
 
 Tumbler from apparatus No. 12. 
 
 Annunciator-wire, 3 ft 3 cents 
 
 15 cents 
 No. 65. Plunge-Battery, The plunge-battery is 
 
 ^gsssjss$^s$ss$sss^gs^$$s;i;s&^ 
 FIG. 71. 
 
 made by uniting from three to six of these cells and 
 attaching the zincs and carbons to a strip of wood, so that
 
 Physical Apparatus. 53 
 
 all can be raised and lowered together conveniently, 
 figure 71. 
 
 Three cells will decompose water rapidly, and will 
 do all the work of such batteries as cost in the market 
 $25.00. 
 
 Cost (about) 75 cents 
 
 No. 66. Telegraph Sounder. --Small iron wire is 
 clipped into lengths of about three inches and tied with 
 fine thread into a small bundle about one-quarter of an 
 inch thick. Single-cotton-covered copper wire, No. 24, 
 is carefully wound around this bundle in five layers. 
 Liquid glue is used to prevent the wire 
 from slipping off the ends of the bundle. 
 The ends of the copper wire are attached 
 to screws. One of these screws is in con- 
 tact with a strip of ordinary tin (sheet iron 
 coated with tin), which acts as armature and is its own 
 spring. The strip of tin is three and one-half inches 
 long and one inch wide. A cut about two-thirds the 
 way across the strip is made at a, figure 73. The lower 
 edge of the strip is folded upward along the first and 
 second dotted line and flattened out with 
 the hammer. The upper portion of the 
 strip, now three times its original thickness, 
 FIG. 73. j s b ent ou t warc i a t right angles to the 
 plane of the paper, so that only the edge of it is seen in 
 figure 72, while the small square of tin in the corner re- 
 mains in the plane of the paper and is to be tacked to 
 the board back of the apparatus. The electro-magnet 
 is fastened to the board with glue and with wire loops. 
 One wire from the battery is attached to one of the
 
 54 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 screws, and the circuit is made and broken by repeatedly 
 touching the other battery-wire to the other screw. When 
 the current passes, the tin is drawn against the end of the 
 bundle; and when the current ceases to pass, the tin flies 
 back against a nail which is driven into the back-board. 
 Cost 10 cents 
 
 No. 68. Apparatus for Decomposing Liquids by an 
 Electric Current An 8-ounce wide-mouthed bottle is 
 cut in two (page 9), and the neck 
 portion is fitted into a block of 
 wood, figure 74. A No. 7 rubber 
 stopper with two holes fits in 
 the neck. Two pieces of plat- 
 inum wire (No. 24), each about 
 * wo mc ^es long, and connected to 
 the ends of copper wire (No. 24), 
 FIG. 74. are f use( j m t o t ne en d s of two 
 
 short pieces of glass tubing, see figure 75. The glass 
 tubes are thrust through the holes in the rubber stopper. 
 Over the ends of the platinum wires two test-tubes 
 are inverted and are held in place by wire 
 clamps, not shown in the figure. The copper 
 wires are joined to binding-screws, with which the 
 battery-wires are connected when the apparatus 
 is in use. The bottle is so firmly fastened in the FlG - 75- 
 block that it cannot drop out and break the connecting 
 wires when the apparatus is washed. 
 
 Cost. 8-oz. wide-mouthed bottle .' 6 cents 
 
 4-in. platinum wire, No. 24 40 cents 
 
 2 wood binding-screws 24 cents 
 
 2 test-tubes from apparatus No. 48. 
 
 Rubber stopper No. 7 from apparatus No. 49. 70 cents
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 55 
 
 No. 69. Electric Motor. This consists of two rings, 
 one larger than the other, figure 76, made of a number 
 of turns of small iron wire. These rings are wound five 
 layers deep with No. 24 single-cotton-coated copper wire, 
 so that they may be magnetized by the electric current. 
 
 FIG. 76. 
 
 A few turns only of the copper wire are shown in the 
 figure, in order that it may be possible to trace the path 
 of the current. The outer ring is fastened to a board 
 base and the inner one is fastened to a thin board disk, 
 on the face of which are tacked triangular-shaped pieces
 
 56 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 of thin sheet-brass. Two strips of spring-brass are 
 fastened to the binding-posts A and B, and are curved 
 so that their ends only rub upon the triangular pieces of 
 brass as the inner disk revolves. The axis of the revolv- 
 ing disk is a small wire nail, the lower end of which 
 runs in a metallic socket in the base, while the upper end 
 passes through a strip of brass, not represented in the 
 figure, arched over the rings and fastened at both ends 
 upon the board base. 
 
 Suppose the wire which is joined to the carbon of the 
 battery to be connected with binding-post A and the 
 other battery-wire to be connected with binding-post B. 
 At A the current divides and half of it follows the copper 
 wire which encircles the outer ring (from C to D the 
 wire passes underneath the revolving disk along the sur- 
 face of the board base), and returns to the battery by 
 way of binding-post B. The other half of the current 
 follows the brass strip from binding-post A to one of the 
 triangular pieces of brass. Here this half of the current 
 divides into two quarters, One quarter passing half-way 
 around the inner ring to the left and the other quarter 
 passing half-way around the inner ring to the right. 
 These two portions of the current unite in the triangular 
 piece of brass on the opposite side of the disk from where 
 they separated, and pass along the second strip of brass 
 to binding-post B and thence to the battery. 
 
 Cost 30 cents. 
 
 No. 70. Annunciator and Electric Bell. Three small 
 electro-magnets, C, D, and , made as described on page 
 53, are fastened to a board, figure 77. Strips of tin, bent as
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 57 
 
 described on page 53, are pivoted to the board, one near 
 the end of each magnet. The free end of each of these 
 strips of tin rests upon another cut in the shape of a long, 
 slim triangle, and pivoted near its base to the board. 
 
 FIG. 77. 
 
 The broad end of each of these triangular-shaped pieces 
 of tin is bent outward at right angles from the plane of 
 the board. It is on this projection that each of the three 
 strips first mentioned rests. The arrangement is such 
 that when one of the triangular strips is pointing upward 
 the weight of the other strip in contact with it will hold 
 it in that position, but when once the triangular strip has 
 fallen to the horizontal position the weight of its com- 
 panion will not raise it again. 
 
 It will be readily seen by referring to the figure and 
 supposing that the battery wires are in contact with the 
 binding-screws A and B, that if we make connection 
 between the two screws at P with a strip of metal repre- 
 senting a push-button, the current will pass around the 
 magnet E and through the bell F and the lower pointer 
 will fall and point toward No. i, as represented in the 
 figure ; or, if we make connection at /", the current
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 will pass around the magnet D and through the bell F, 
 and then the middle pointer will fall and point toward 
 No. 2 ; or, if we make connection at P", the current will 
 pass around the magnet C and through the bell F, and 
 then the upper pointer will fall and point toward No. 3. 
 No. 71. Burglar-Alarm A crayon-box with sliding 
 cover is taken to represent a window. 
 A strip of metal, a, b, figure 78, is 
 tacked upon the cover. The ends of 
 two copper wires, one coming directly 
 from the battery and the other com- 
 ing from an electric bell, which is in 
 the circuit, are attached to the box, 
 so that when the cover is raised the 
 FIG. 78. metal strip completes the circuit. 
 
 No. 72. Primary and Secondary Coils. Small iron 
 wire is tied into a bundle four and one-half inches long 
 and half an inch thick, A, figure 79. A 
 tube, four inches long and five-eighths of an 
 inch in inside diameter, is made of several 
 thicknesses of stout paper. Around this is 
 wound four layers of annunciator wire, No. 
 1 8. The two ends project above, and are 
 to be connected with the wires of the bat- 
 tery. This coil, which is called the primary 
 coil, is designated by B in figure 79. An- 
 other paper tube, large enough to cover the 
 primary coil, is made of stout paper, and 
 around this is wound ten layers of single- 
 cotton-covered copper wire, No. 30. Paper 
 is wrapped around the coil between each layer. This
 
 Physical Apparatus. 
 
 59 
 
 coil, which is called the secondary coil, is designated by 
 the letter C in the figure. It is fastened to a board base, 
 and the two ends of the small copper wire are fastened 
 to binding-posts which are screwed into the base. 
 
 The primary current from the single tumbler-cell (No. 
 63) induces a current in the secondary coil of sufficient 
 intensity to give vigorous shocks. 
 
 Cost. Wire 40 cents. 
 
 No. 73. Telephone. A telephone-magnet is mounted 
 as shown in figure 80, 
 upon one end of 
 which are fastened 
 two wooden button 
 moulds about half 
 an inch apart, and 
 the space between 
 them is wound full of 
 single- cotton-covered FIG. 80. 
 
 copper wire, No. 36. The mouthpiece is made from wood 
 three inches square, and a tintype two and a half inches 
 square slides intoits position in grooves. 
 
 Cost 50 cents. 
 
 No. 75. Electroscope An 8-ounce glass flask with a 
 rubber stopper, through which passes a copper wire curved 
 into a loop at the upper end and having two strips of tis- 
 sue-paper at the lower end, serves well for an electroscope. 
 
 No. 76. Electrophorus A large-sized jelly-cake tin 
 with half a pound of sealing-wax melted in it so as to 
 form a layer of uniform thickness is the electrophorus, 
 and a smaller sized jelly-cake tin suspended by silk 
 
 Li , 
 
 1 
 
 . mm 
 
 : 
 1 
 
 ffl_j"JL^-i ' ... - ,",4 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 j ^\m 
 
 " : 
 
 *1 
 
 jag! 
 b a 
 
 \ 
 
 : 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 jf^r-^-^ ,* 
 
 31 * '-^ 
 
 OP VIEW 
 
 1 
 
 SIDE VIEW
 
 60 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 threads serves to convey the charge from it to the Leyden 
 Jar, No. 77. 
 
 Cost. 2 jelly-cake tins 6 cents 
 
 ^ Ib. sealing-wax 10 cents 
 
 16 cents 
 
 No. 77. Leyden Jar. A tall beaker is coated both 
 inside and outside with tin-foil stuck on by mucilage. 
 The coats cover the bottom and extend no 
 more than two thirds the way up the side. A 
 flat cork fills the mouth of the beaker, and a 
 wire, running through the cork, terminates 
 in a loop above and a small brass chain 
 below, which insures good contact with the 
 inner coat. This jar when charged with about 
 twenty sparks from the electrophorus fur- 
 nishes a shock which may be felt by a large 
 class joining hands. A beaker is used instead of a 
 tumbler because its glass is a better insulator. 
 
 Cost, Beaker (lo-oz.) 22 cents 
 
 No. 79. Apparatus to Illustrate that Air or Some 
 Medium is Necessary to Transmit Sound. A glass rod 
 is passed through one hole of the stopper of the receiver, 
 apparatus No. 14, page 17. A small bell is attached to 
 the lower end of this rod. The air is exhausted with the 
 Franklin air-pump. 
 
 The bottle is sometimes filled with illuminating gas, 
 hydrogen, or ether vapor, and their power to transmit 
 sound noted. 
 
 Nos. 80 to 91. Apparatus to Illustrate the Subject 
 of Light. Described fully in the author's " First Course 
 in Science." 
 
 Cost of apparatus $r.5o.
 
 Physiological Apparatus. 
 
 61 
 
 PART IV. PHYSIOLOGICAL APPARATUS. 
 
 No. 92. Apparatus to Illustrate the Action of 
 Muscles. Two pieces of wood about half an inch thick, 
 one inch wide, and nine and four inches long, respectively, 
 are pivoted together by strips of tin on opposite sides, so 
 as to represent a hinge-joint. Elastic bands are used 
 to represent muscles. In figure 82, the 
 apparatus represents the foot and leg, and 
 the elastic band a represents the muscle in 
 the calf of the leg. If we let the lower end 
 of c rest upon the table, and press with the 
 finger upon the upper end of d, we notice 
 what a strong pull on the part of the elastic 
 band is required to overcome a slight 
 downward pressure by the finger. This 
 suggests why the " tendon of Achilles " and 
 the muscle in the calf of the leg need to be so powerful. 
 The principle of the lever is suggested by this apparatus. 
 It may be used to represent any hinge-joint in the body. 
 A rubber band is attached to the opposite side of this 
 joint to show how the muscles are arranged in pairs op- 
 posing each other. By adjusting the tension of these 
 elastic bands so as hold the pieces of wood quite firmly 
 in a straight line, we may show how the body is made 
 rigid by contracting all the muscles which have anything 
 to do with moving the joints. 
 
 The action of the biceps muscle is illustrated by 
 attaching a piece of wood, to represent the shoulder, 
 
 FIG. 82.
 
 62 
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 FIG. 83. 
 
 figure 83. The rubber band b, which represents the 
 biceps muscle, is attached below the elbow-joint and 
 above the shoulder-joint. Two 
 other rubber bands, a and <?, are 
 so adjusted that when all are hooked 
 on the pieces of wood c and d, which 
 represent the arm, hang down 
 straight. If the rubber band a, 
 which works in opposition to the 
 biceps at the elbow-joint, is un- 
 hooked, the forearm c is raised as 
 represented in figure 83. If this 
 rubber band is hooked in place again 
 and the rubber band e, which works in opposition to the 
 biceps at the shoulder, is unhooked, the whole arm is 
 raised, but remains straight. If both a and e are un- 
 hooked the arm is raised and bent over the shoulder. 
 
 The apparatus is used, then, to illustrate the following 
 six points: 
 
 1. How muscles work in opposition to each other over 
 joints. 
 
 2. How a joint is made rigid by the contraction of 
 muscles. 
 
 3. How we rise on the toe. 
 
 4. How we bend the forearm. 
 
 5. How we raise the arm when extended. 
 
 6. How we bend the arm over the shoulder. 
 
 No. 93. Apparatus to Show the Action of the In- 
 tercostal Muscles to Enlarge the Chest-Cavity. Five 
 slender sticks are pinned together as represented in figure 
 84. The cross pieces represent ribs. Rubber bands, cd
 
 Physiological Apparatus. 
 
 and <?/, are attached diagonally between two of 
 these strips of wood, as the intercostal muscles are at- 
 tached to the ribs. A strip of cloth, stiffened with starch, 
 is tied across between the lower ends of the two upright 
 pieces of wood. This represents a section through the 
 diaphragm. If we unhook the elastic band <?/, the 
 other, cd, contracts and raises the apparatus so that it 
 takes the position represented in figure 84 B. If, on the 
 
 f IG. 84. 
 
 other hand, we unhook cd, the other elastic band, </, con- 
 tracts and gives the position represented in figure 84 A. 
 The space enclosed within these sticks is evidently 
 larger in figure B than in figure A. In the body, the 
 diaphragm is a muscle, and, by relaxing and contracting, 
 it moves more than the strip of cloth does in this 
 apparatus. 
 
 No. 94. Apparatus to Show How Inhalation and 
 Exhalation Result from the Expansion and Contrac- 
 tion of the Chest Cavity. A common lamp-chimney 
 is used to represent the chest-cavity. Rubber cloth is
 
 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 FIG. 85. 
 
 tied over the bottom to represent the diaphragm. A 
 rubber stopper with one hole fits the top of the chimney, 
 and through the hole a short piece of glass tubing 
 passes, upon the lower end of 
 which is tied a gold-beater's- 
 skin bag (sometimes a rubber 
 balloon is used instead) to 
 represent the lungs. We may 
 contract and enlarge the space 
 inclosed within the lamp-chim- 
 ney by pushing upward the 
 rubber cloth or drawing it 
 downward, when the bag which 
 represents the lungs will col- 
 lapse and inflate, as represented in figures 85 A and B. 
 
 This apparatus has many uses, as the following will 
 show: We may with a finger close the hole in the stop- 
 per, and then, when we try to move the rubber cloth up 
 and down we appreciate how great is atmospheric press- 
 ure, somewhat as it is illustrated by Magdeburg hemi- 
 spheres ; but while we are doing this the bag inside of 
 the chimney moves slightly, showing the relation of at- 
 mospheric tension to atmospheric pressure, as was illus- 
 trated in apparatus No. 25. 
 
 It may be used to introduce the study of the pump. 
 Figure 86 illustrates the modification of the apparatus 
 for this purpose. We enlarge the space in the chimney 
 by pulling upward the rubber cloth, just as we enlarge 
 the space in the c)dinder of a pump by pulling up the 
 piston, and the tension of the air in the chimney is now 
 reduced, so that it no longer balances the atmospheric
 
 Physiological Apparatus. 65 
 
 pressure. Atmospheric pressure then forces the water 
 up the tube and into the chimney. If this tube is nearly 
 closed at the upper end we have the fountain, caused by 
 atmospheric pressure, as described under appara- 
 tus No. 29. If, now, we invert this apparatus 
 and reverse the tube in the stopper, so that the 
 large end of it may dip into water inside of the 
 chimney, we may push upward the rubber cloth 
 and have a fountain, caused by compressed air, 
 as described under apparatus No. 29. This lamp- 
 chimney is used in apparatus No. 33 and appa- 
 ratus No. 34. It is frequently used for appara- 
 tus No. 37<z by holding the chimney as shown 
 in figure 86 and laying a book, with other 
 weights, upon the top, then connecting a long 
 rubber tube with a short piece of glass tubing, which 
 passes through the stopper. 
 
 To illustrate how oxygen diffuses through the lungs 
 into the blood, and how carbon dioxide passes out from 
 the blood, carbon dioxide is passed into the chimney, 
 either from apparatus No. 8 or directly from one's lungs, 
 and then the gold-beater's-skin bag, which is an animal 
 membrane like the lungs, is put back in place, as shown 
 in figure 85. The short tube which carries the bag is 
 made to extend only half-way up through the hole in the 
 stopper, and another glass tube is thrust down into the 
 same hole to meet the short piece of tubing. We then 
 pull down the rubber cloth and draw air into the pseudo 
 lungs. Osmose goes on between the gases in the chim- 
 ney and those in the bag, as is shown by making the 
 glass tube which leads out from the chimney dip into
 
 66 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 lime-water, pushing up the diaphragm and making this 
 chimney exhale. 
 
 Cost. Lamp-chimney and rubber cloth from apparatus No. 33. 
 Rubber stopper No. 7 with one hole (one hole plugged) 
 
 from apparatus No. 49. 
 Gold-beater's-skin bag from apparatus No. 49. 
 
 No. 95. Apparatus to Illustrate the Circulation of 
 the Blood and the Lymph. A piece of rattan, figure 
 87, a, about one foot long is used to represent the capil- 
 laries of the human body. A syringe, d, represents the 
 heart. A rubber tube, b, represents an artery, and an- 
 other rubber tube, c, represents a vein. A short piece of 
 rubber tubing, e, represents the thoracic duct. The 
 tubes e and c are connected with the syringe by means of 
 a glass Y-tube. 
 
 Water is used to represent the blood and the lymph. 
 Every time the syringe-bulb is compressed, forcing more 
 water into the rubber tube b, which represents an artery, 
 a pulse may be felt by pressing the tube between the 
 thumb and finger. If a cut is made in this tube the water 
 spurts from it every time the bulb is pressed, -illustrating 
 how we bleed from an artery. The pores of the rattan 
 offer considerable resistance to the flow of the liquid, and 
 cause the artery to get somewhat distended, the elastic 
 walls of which keep up a continual flow through the rat- 
 tan (capillaries) between the heart-beats (compressions 
 of the syringe-bulb), and hence there is a constant flow 
 without pulse, through the rubber tube c, which repre- 
 sents a vein, and if it is cut, the flow of liquid is by a con- 
 stant dripping. Some liquid under the pressure oozes 
 out through the walls of the rattan, as it does through the
 
 Physiological Apparatus. 67 
 
 blood capillaries in the body. This represents lymph, 
 and the branch tube e, which enters the vein near the 
 heart, when there is no outward but rather an inward 
 pressure, carries into o circulation an amount of liquid 
 equal to that lost through the walls of the rattan. 
 
 Various kinds of syringes may be used in the apparatus 
 described above, but the one represented in figure 87 is 
 made as follows : A short piece of rubber tubing, about 
 one and one-half inches long, is drawn over a tapering 
 wooden penholder, and with a sharp knife a short slit is 
 
 FIG. 87. 
 
 cut in one side of the tubing. One end of the tube is 
 plugged with a short piece of glass rod, or even an end 
 of the wooden penholder, about one-quarter of an inch 
 long. This makes a very perfect valve. Liquids or gases 
 forced into the tube will find exit through the slit, but 
 cannot pass in through the slit since its sides shut together 
 perfectly tight. One end of the Y-tube in the apparatus 
 passes through a No. o rubber stopper, and one of
 
 68 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 these valves is then drawn over it. A piece of glass 
 tubing, five-eighths of an inch inside diameter and three 
 and one-half inches long, incloses this valve. In the 
 other end of the glass tubing is another rubber stopper, 
 No. o, through which passes one end of a T-tube. 
 The side branch of the T-tube enters a syringe-bulb and 
 the remaining end passes through another rubber stopper 
 into another piece of the large glass tubing, and another 
 of the valves is drawn over it. A No. o rubber 
 stopper fills the other end of this large glass tube, 
 and through it passes a short piece of glass tubing con- 
 necting with the artery. The stoppers are tied in when 
 much pressure is to be exerted upon the bulb. This is a 
 powerful condenser, and is frequently used in connection 
 with such pieces of apparatus as No. 29. 
 
 A convenient stop-cock is sometimes put into the 
 rubber tube representing the artery. A piece of small 
 glass tubing about three inches long has a small hole 
 made in one side of it by the method described on page 
 14. The artery is cut and this glass tube inserted. The 
 stop-cock is opened and closed by sliding the rubber 
 tubing upon the glass tubing so as to cover or uncover 
 the hole. 
 
 Cost. Rattan 5 cents 
 
 Rubber tubes b and c, four feet and two feet. . 60 cents 
 
 4 rubber stoppers, No. o 12 cents 
 
 T-tube 15 cents 
 
 Y-tube 15 cents 
 
 Rubber bulb 30 cents 
 
 Rubber tubing for valves 3 cents 
 
 $1.40
 
 Physiological Apparatus. 69 
 
 No. 96. Apparatus to Show how Muscular Action 
 Assists the Circulation of the Blood in the Veins 
 and the Flow of the Lymph in the Lymphatics. 
 
 The rubber tube c which represented a vein in the last 
 piece of apparatus is used in this to connect the two 
 chambers of the syringe-pump which contain the valves, 
 
 FIG. 
 
 figure 88. A short piece of glass tubing, nearly closed 
 at the outer end, is inserted in stopper h, and a short 
 piece of rubber tubing at the other extremity of the 
 apparatus dips into a tumbler containing water. 
 
 Water may be pumped through the apparatus by 
 alternately pinching and releasing the rubber tube e. If 
 both hands are used, water spurts ten or fifteen feet 
 each time the tube c is compressed. 
 
 Thus the veins and lymphatics, which are intertwined 
 among the muscles, are alternately pinched and released 
 when the muscles contract and relax in exercise. 
 
 No. 97. Apparatus to Illustrate how the Tension 
 of the Air in the Interior of the Ear is Adjusted to 
 Changes of ^ Atmospheric Pressure. A i-ounce 
 wide-mouth bottle has a very small hole made in it by 
 filing across the edge where the bottom and side meet. 
 Over the top of the bottle is tied rubber cloth. When 
 this bottle is put in the receiver, apparatus No. 24,
 
 70 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 and the air is exhausted or condensed, the rubber cloth 
 is unaffected ; but where the hole in the small bottle is 
 stopped with a little wax, the rubber cloth moves out 
 and in as the air in the receiver is rarefied or condensed. 
 The rubber cloth represents the tympanic membrane of 
 the ear, and the small hole illustrates what is accomplished 
 by the eustachian tube. 
 
 Cost , 3 cents
 
 List of Material. 7 i 
 
 LIST OF MATERIAL. 
 
 (The numbers in brackets refer to the catalogue of 
 Messrs. Eimer & Amend, 205-211 Third Ave., New York 
 City.) 
 
 1 Ib. of glass tubing, to -$ inch inside diameter (6540). 
 \ Ib. " " f inch inside diameter (6540). 
 
 Ib. " " rod, T 3g- inch diameter (8004). 
 
 2 alcohol lamps, 4 oz. (66910), or 2 Bunsen burners 
 
 (5809). 
 i quart of alcohol, or 5^ feet of rubber gas tubing, inch 
 
 (8013). 
 
 i triangular file, 4 in. (6282). 
 i rubber bulb, 40 to 50 cc. (5767). 
 i dropper bulb, 
 i round file, 5 in. (6281). 
 
 6 test-tubes, 6xf in. (8270). 
 Rubber stoppers (8010): 
 
 5 number o with one hole. 
 
 1 number i without holes. 
 
 2 number i with two holes, 
 i number 3 with two holes, 
 i number 5 without holes. 
 
 number 5 with two holes, 
 number 6 with two holes, 
 number 7 without holes, 
 number 7 with two holes, 
 number 7 with three holes, 
 number 9 with two holes, 
 number 10 with two holes. 
 
 7 ft. rubber tubing, ^ inch inside diameter (8016). 
 
 i ft. rubber " pressure " tubing, -fa inch inside diameter 
 
 (8014). 
 Glass bottles, round, wide-mouthed (5676): 
 
 i one-ounce.
 
 72 Home-made Apparatus. 
 
 4 eight-ounce (W. T. & Co. style). 
 2 thirty-two-ounce (E. & A. style). 
 
 Glass bottles, round, narrow-mouthed (5675): 
 i one-ounce, 
 i eight-ounce. 
 
 5 sixteen-ounce. 
 4 tumblers, large. 
 
 i tumbler, small. 
 
 i lamp-chimney, common. 
 
 3 lamp-chimneys, argand, small sized. 
 
 1 flask, 2 oz. (6342). 
 flask, 8 oz. (6342). 
 small glass dish. 
 
 6-inch square of wire gauze, 40 meshes to inch (8442). 
 ounce rubber cloth (8008). 
 Ib. of mercury, 
 beaker, ten-ounce (5561). 
 
 2 T-tubes, inch (83580). 
 
 1 Y-tube, inch (8358^). 
 goldbeater's skin bag. 
 small thermometer. 
 
 glass funnel, 2|-inch (6388). 
 
 iron funnel. 
 
 brass pillar and lava gas-tip. 
 
 4 zinc rods for Leclanche battery cell. 
 
 2 electric-light carbons. 
 
 6 yards annunciator wire. 
 
 \ Ib. copper wire, single cotton-coated, No. 24. 
 
 \ Ib. copper wire, single cotton-coated, No. 30. 
 
 \ Ib. copper wire, single cotton-coated, No. 36. 
 
 Small spool of iron wire, No. 16. 
 
 4 inches of platinum wire, No. 24. 
 
 1 telephone magnet, round. 
 
 2 binding posts, wood screw. 
 
 1 ft. of rattan, \ inch in diameter. 
 
 2 jelly-caketins, about eight and nine inches in diameter, 
 i tin basin, about six inches in diameter.
 
 SE?rr.> ALT, OTjr^rs TO 
 
 52 E, L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 
 
 Woodball's Simple Experiments for the 
 
 ScHooL-Rooji. By Prof. Jorrx F. WOODHULL, Prof, of 
 Natural Science iu the College for the Training of Teachers, 
 New York City, author of "Manual of Home-Made Appa- 
 ratus." Cloth, 16mo. Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; 
 by mail, 5 cents extra. 
 
 This book contains a series of simple, easily-made experiments, 
 to perform which will aid the comprehension of every-day phe- 
 nomena. They are really the very lessons given by the author in 
 the Primary and Grammar Departments of the Model School in 
 the College for the Training of Teachers, New York City. 
 
 The apparatus needed for the experiments consists, for the most 
 part, of such things as every teacher will find at hand in a school- 
 room or kitchen. The experiments are so connected in logical 
 order as to form a continuous exhibition of the phenomena of 
 combustion. This book is not a science catechism. Its aim is to 
 train the child's miud in habits of reasoning by experimental 
 methods. 
 
 These experiments should be made in every school of our 
 country, and thus bring in a scientific method of dealing with 
 nature. The present method of cramming children's minds with 
 isolated f;vctsof which they can have no adequate comprehension 
 is a ruinous and unprofitable one. This book points out the 
 method employed by the best teachsrs in the best scJiools. 
 
 WHAT IT CONTAINS. 
 
 I. Experiments with Paper. 
 H. " " Wood. 
 
 III. " a Candle. 
 
 IV. " Kerosene. 
 V. Kindling Temperature. 
 
 VI. Air as an Agent in Combustion. 
 VII. Products of Complete " 
 VIII. Currents of Air, etc. Ventila- 
 
 IX. Oxygen of the Air. [tion. 
 
 X. Chemical Changes. 
 
 In all there are 91 experiments described, illustrated by 35 
 engravings. 
 
 Jas. H. CanfieM, Univ. of Kans., Lawrence, says: " I desire to say morf 
 emphatically that, the method pursued is the only true one in all schoo! 
 work. Its spirit is admirable. Ws need and must have far more of this 
 instruction " 
 
 J. C. Packard, Univ. of f> \va, Iowa City, says: " For many years shut up 
 to the simplest forms of illustrative apparatus, I learned that the necessity 
 was a blessing, since so much. ci-uhl bo accomplished by home-made ap- 
 paratus Inexpensive ami effective." 
 
 Henry B. Russell, v-.Y.o.ibury, N. J., Supt. of the Friends School: "Ad- 
 irable litt.lo hook. It is ji^t the kind of book we need." 
 
 mi 
 
 S, T. Button, Supt ScV-Ms. N^w Hr.ven, Ct. " Contains just the kind ot 
 help teachera noed in a<i-i;>ti:;-j; neural science to common schools."
 
 The Best Educational Periodicals, 
 
 THE SCHOOL JOURNAL 
 
 is published weekly at $2.50 a year and is in its 23rd year. 
 It is the oldest, best known and widest circulated educational 
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 surely advance the teachers' conception of education . The bec-t 
 brain work on the work of professional teaching is found in it 
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 It is the ideal paper for primary teachers, being devoted almost 
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 entirely new features this year of great value. 
 
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 spirit and from the same standpoint as THE JOURNAL, and has 
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 This is not a paper, but a series of small monthly volumes 
 that bear on Professional Teaching. It is useful for those who 
 want to study the foundations of education ; for Normal Schools, 
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 If you desire to teach professionally you will want it. Hand- 
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 Augsburg s Easy Things to Draw. 
 
 By D. It. AUGSBURG, Snpt. Drawing at Salt Lake City, Utah. 
 Quarto, durable and elegant cardboard cover, 80 pp., with 
 31 pages of plates, containing over 200 different figures. 
 Price, 30 cents; to teachers, 24 cents; by mail, 4 cents extra. 
 
 This book is not designed to present a system of drawing. It 
 is a collection of drawings made in the simplest possible way, and 
 so constructed that any one may reproduce them. Its design is 
 to furnish a hand-book containing drawings as would be needed 
 for the school-room for object lessons, drawing lessons, busy 
 work. This collection may be used in connection with any sys- 
 tem of drawing, as it contains examples suitable for practice. It 
 may also be used alone, as a means of learning the art of draw- 
 ing. As will be seen from the above the idea of this book is new 
 and novel. Those who have seen it are delighted with it as it so 
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 Our list of Blackboard Stencils is in the same line. 
 
 Augsburg's Easy Drawings for the Gea- 
 
 CLASS. By D. E. AUGSBUEG, B. P., author of "Easy 
 Things to Draw. " Contains 40 large plates, each containing 
 from 4 to 60 separate drawings. 96 pp., quarto cardboard 
 cover. Price 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents ; by mail 5 cents 
 extra. 
 
 In this volume is the same excellent work that was noted in Mr. 
 Augsburg's "Easy Things to Draw." He does not here seek to 
 present a system of drawing, but to give a collection 'of drawings 
 made in the simplest possible way, and so constructed teat any 
 one may reproduce them. Leading educators believe that draw- 
 ing has not occupied the position in the school course hereto 
 fore that it ought to have occupied: that it is the most effectual 
 means of presenting facts, especially in the sciences. The author 
 has used it in this book to illustrate geography, giving draw- 
 ings of plants, animals, and natural features, and calling at- 
 tention to steps in drawing. The idea is a novel one, and it is 
 believed that the practical manner in which the subject is treated 
 vrill make the book a popular one in the school-room Each 
 plate is placed opposite a lesson that maybe used in connection. 
 An index brings the plates instantly to the eye.
 
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